Exam # 1 Metals smelted Most metals occur in ores

Friday, 24 February What types of Matter were ancient - Ores are more
people aware of? like earths (dull,
brittle) than like
Individual Classrooms Seven Metals of the Ancients metals
Early Ideas About Matter Gold Silver Copper Iron
Motion Matter Mercury Lead Tin Alloys
Gravity Metal (shiny, malleable) Combination of metals
universal property of all Gold
matter Better properties
Silver Lower melting point
strength of attraction is
function of mass, Copper Stronger, less brittle
regardless of material
Iron Example: Bronze
Fundamental property to
Mercury Alloy of copper and tin
distinguish different types of
matter Lead Stone Age
-- ? -- Tin ~ stone tool manufacture, no use of
Structure & nature of matter changes Where do metals come from? metals
when:
A few metals occur naturally in Copper Age (4500 BC)
Wood burned metallic form - Gold and silver
~ first metal smelted
deposits were found in ancient
Foods cooked
times
Clays fired to make bricks and
pottery
Bronze Age (3500 BC) Pottery Stone (hard, brittle)

~ tin/copper alloy Fired clay Limestone

~ copper & tin deposits only in certain from 6500 BC? Marble
areas
Certain clays used Sandstone
~ strong easily worked
at certain temperature Shale
Iron Age (1500 BC on)
for certain times Granite
~ found all over
Patterned, pigmented Soapstone
~ can be sharpened; hard and tough
Glass
~ difficult to work
Melted sand Woods
~ required hot furnace & special
techniques Certain sands used Oak

High temperatures Maple

Earths (not shiny, brittle) Blown, molded Cedar

Clay Earths, metals added Mahogany

Mud color, strength Ebony

Yew
Sand

Silt
Ivory, bone, and horn
Loam

Ash
Fibers Engineers and artisans had Another Classification Scheme for Matter
developed many material
Grass MATTER
technologies
Cotton These technologies were applied
to specific materials for specific Pure Substances Mixtures
Flax
purposes
Straw
Unification Elements Compounds Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Mixtures Mixtures
Bulrushes
Huge diversity
Hair Everything is Made of Atoms
Fundamental principles exist?
Papyrus
Which properties important?
Other crafts practiced since early times
Categorization
Pigments
One Classification of Matter: Phases
Dyes
Bottle A:
Perfumes Atoms Combine to Form Molecules
GAS
Fermenting drinks Most materials are made of more
Bottle B: than one type of atom
Tanning
LIQUID Chemical formula gives atomic
Cooking
Bottle C: makeup
Early Chemical Technology Water is H2O
SOLID
Ancient peoples distinguished
Ammonia is NH3
many different materials
Glucose is C6H12O6
Each Element Has a Different Number of
Protons
What Determines Chemical Properties of
Each Element?
Usually, # of protons = # of
electrons
Electrons tend to fill shells
surrounding nucleus
Outer shell stability
Chemical Reactions Rearrange Atoms
Number of atoms does not
change
Reactants have same
atoms as products
Only arrangement of atoms
change
Different molecules after
reaction
Methane + oxygen gas carbon
dioxide + water
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
One carbon, two oxygen,
four hydrogen
(before & after)
What is the true nature of a substance?
Does one basic material exist?
Thales
(640 546 B.C.)
Basic element is water
In greatest quantities
Found as solid, liquid, and gas
Nature of matter: One basic substance
Anaximander
All matter from one boundless
something that contained all qualities
(wet/dry; hot/cold)
Anaximenes
(570 BC)
- Air is the one basic substance
- All space above Earth is air.
- Compress air to form denser
water and earth
Hericlitus
(540 475 B.C.)
If change characterized the Earth .
..
Basic element must be changeable
That element must be fire
Empedocles (490 430 BC) elemental components of the One element to another element
Earth
Change qualities

= change 1 element into another

element

Elements themselves were

interchangeable:
Each different kind of matter is a
combination of two or more elements in Water air when it evaporates
particular proportions, for example
(wet-cold wet-hot)
Individual Elements
Wood reveals its composition when it
Air water when it rains
burns: Matter 4 elements
(wet-hot wet-cold)
fire issues from it Form specific combination
of elements
water oozes from it/hisses
Statue Four elements and alchemy
air (smoke) is produced from it
Matter marble Aristotles four element theory
earth (ashes) remain behind
was to exert a considerable
Form shape influence on the practice of
Four Elements / Four Qualities
of the Ancient Greeks alchemy and the idea of
transmutation
Elements had four qualities:

Dry vs. Moist & Hot vs. Cold

Qualities combined in various

pairs to form the different
Transmutations Aristotle wins atomist idea died ~ Old-age Youth
out
Alter proportions of elements = ~ Earthly Supernatural Existence
Alexander the Great (356 323 B.C.)
change one type or matter into
another. Early Laboratory Chemistry = Alchemy
The Alchemical Tradition
Idea carries over into alchemy: Sorcerer's Apprentice
Origins:
Transmute a cheap metal into gold by Beginnings of Alchemy
~ Greece (Hellenistic)
adjusting proportions of the four Emphasis on degrees of
elements purity/nobility ~ China

Greek Atoms ~ Gold most pure and noble ~ India

Question of divisibility of matter ~ Maturation of minerals in ground Further developed by Arabs

Break a stone and it is still a stone Incorporated Aristotles four Inherited by medieval Europeans
elements Part practical chemistry, part
Leucippus (c. 450 B.C.) eventually
no further division Greek Philosophy Egyptian spiritual quest
craftsman
Democritus (470 380 B.C.)
Transmutation as goal of Alchemy Hellenistic Alchemy
Atomos indivisible move in
(wealth longevity immortality)
empty space (void) Transmutation of base metals to
Chemical gold
One fundamental material
~ transform base metals Spiritual Purification
Many different sizes and shapes
silver / gold
gave different properties to
elements Physiological

~ Sickness Health
Eastern/Chinese Alchemy
Independent of (and prior to?)
Western alchemy
Gold is eternal and healing, led to
medical alchemy:
Search for the Elixir of Life,
Soluble potable gold (400 BC) a
potion for eternal life
Indian Alchemy
Mineral remedies for specific
diseases
Promote long life (not
immortality)
Arab/Islamic Alchemy
Arabic alchemists add mercury
and sulfur
Used al-iksurs (colored seed
catalysts) in transmutation
attempts.
Arabic alchemists philosophers
stone to stimulate transmutation
Combustible principle = phlogiston
theory
Importance of Medicine
Problems: crowded, unsanitary,
infested homes; contaminated
food/water; low life expectancy.
Physicians in medieval Europe
- Most followed ideas of
Hippocrates (460-
370 BC) and Galen (129-200 AD).
- Disease = imbalance in 4
body humours.
Inorganic substances and alcohol
could fight infection, but not
favored by Galenists.
Ibn-Sina/Avicenna ( 980-1037)
Greatest physician of his time
Believed in Four Elements but not
transmutation.
Contributions:
~ dosage effect of drugs
~ Had idea that chemicals
maintain identity even when combined
Paracelsus (1493 1541)
At odds with the dominant
medical establishment
Disease spread between persons
(external cause?) contrary to
Galens ideas
Founded Iatrochemistry (Alchemy
for medicinal purposes)
Iatrochemists legacy legitimacy
of chemistry
Paracelsus idea of elements and
principles
Three Elements (Fire, Air, Water)
and Three Principles of Earth
(sulfur, mercury, and salt)
Wood burning: That which burns
is sulfur, that which vaporizes is
mercury, and that which turns to
ashes is salt.
Gold
Elixirs

Immortality

Superior Medicines

Accomplishments of Alchemy

Laboratory apparatus

Practical chemical knowledge,

techniques, and reactions despite
incorrect theories

Quantitative methods

New substances
Monomers, polymers, and Carbon linkages
macromolecules
Single chains
There are 4 categories of macromolecules:
Rings
Carbohydrates
The 4 types of biomolecules often consist
Proteins, of large carbon chains To OH groups in sugars

Lipids, To NH2 groups in amino acids

and Nucleic acids To H2PO4 groups of nucleotides of

DNA, RNA, and ATP
Carbon is the central element

All biomolecules contain a Carbon

chain or ring

Carbon has 4 outer shell electrons

(valence = 4)

Therefore its bonding capacity is

great

It forms covalent bonds hence,

has strong bonds
Carbon binds to more than just OH, NH2, PO4 are called functional
Once bound to other elements (or hydrogen!! groups!
to other Carbons), it is very stable
Isomers have the same molecular Monomers and polymers Polysaccharides
formulas but different structures
Monomers are made into Starch structure vs Glycogen structure
Structural isomer = difference in polymers via dehydration
the C skeleton structure reactions

Stereoisomer = difference in Polymers are broken down into Proteins

location of functional groups monomers via hydrolysis reactions Composed of chains of amino
Enantiomers are special types of Simple sugars (monosaccharides) acids
stereoisomers 20 amino acids exist
Only one 3-C, 5-C, 6-C chain or ring
Enantiomers are mirror images of each involved Amino acids contain
other
Carbohydrates (sugars) Central Carbon
One such enantiomer contains C bound to
4 different molecules and is called a chiral Double sugars (disaccharides) Amine group
molecule Two 6-C chains or rings bonded Carboxyl group
Chiral molecules rotate polarized light to together
R group
the right (D form) or to the left (L form) Complex carbos (polysaccharides)
molecules The 20 Amino Acids
Starch
Examples: amino acids (L form) All differ with respect to their R group
Cellulose
sugars (D form) Peptide bonds occur between amino
Glycogen acids
Chitin The COOH group of 1 amino acid
binds to the NH2 group of another
Glycogen to glucose in animals
amino acid

Forms a peptide bond!

There are four levels of protein structure
Primary = sequence of aas
Secondary = forms pleated sheet,
helix, or coil
Tertiary = entire length of aas
folded into a shape
Quaternary = several aa
sequences linked together
Nucleic acids: DNA and RNA
DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid
DNA is a double polymer (chain)
Each chain is made of nucleotides
The 2 chains bond together to
form a helix
DNA nucleotides
Each nucleotide in DNA contains:
5-C sugar
(deoxyribose)
Phosphate
Nitrogen base
-adenine (A)
-guanine (G)
-cytosine (C)
-thymine (T)
One polymer of nucleotides on one
backbone of nucleic acid
Lipids: Hydrophobic molecules
Central core of glycerol
Bound to up to 3 fatty acid chains
They exhibit a high number of C-H
bonds therefore much energy
and non-polar
When placed in water, lipids
spontaneously cluster together
They help organize the interior
content of cells
phospholipids
Glycerol and fatty acid chains
What specific bonds form between
glycerol and each fatty acid chain?
Would you think this to be an hydrolysis or
a dehydration synthesis rxn?
Saturated and unsaturated fats
The difference resides in the number of
Hs attached to Cs in the fatty acid chains;
the amount of saturation on the Cs
Saturated vs unsaturated fats and diet
Saturated fats raise LDL-
cholesterol levels in the blood
(animal fats, dairy, coconut oil,
cocoa butter)
Polyunsaturated fats leave LDL-
cholesterol unchanged; but lower
HDL-cholesterol (safflower and
corn oil)
Monounsaturated fats leave LDL
and HDL levels unchanged (olive
oil, canola, peanut oil, avocados)
One variety of polyunsaturated fat
(Omega-3 fatty acids) guards
against blood clot formation and
reduce fat levels in the blood
(certain fish, walnuts, almonds,
and tofu)
Phospholipids and cell membranes

P-lipids make up the majority of

cell membranes including:

The plasma membrane

Nuclear envelope

Endoplasmic reticulum
(ER)

Golgi apparatus

Membrane-bound vesicles

Structure of single P-lipid

The 3 Cs of glycerol are bound to:

2 fatty acid chains

Phosphate

Cell environment organizes P-lipid bilayer

to proper orientation

Hydrophilic (polar) heads of P-lipid

oriented to the exterior; hydrophobic
(non-polar) tails oriented to the interior