EDXE2103 - EBME4103 Electrical Technology

Faculty of Science and Technology
EDXE2103/EBME4103
Electrical Technology
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

EDXE2103/EBME4103
ELECTRICAL
TECHNOLOGY
Wan Nor Liza Mahadi

Project Directors: Prof Dato Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Norlia T. Goolamally
Open University Malaysia
Module Writer: Dr Wan Nor Liza Mahadi

Universiti Malaya
Moderators: Prof Ir Zainal Aripin Zakariah

Wei Wen Shyang
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, September 2005

Second Edition, April 2011
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM), April 2011, EDXE2103/EBME4103

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide ix-xiv
Topic 1: Fundamentals of Electricity 1

1.1 Electrical Units and Scientific Notation 1
1.2 Electrical Charge 3
1.3 Electrical Current 4
1.4 Potential Difference and Electromotive Force (E.M.F) 6
1.5 Resistors and Resistance 7
1.6 The Ohms Law 8
1.7 Energy and Power 10
1.8 Conductors and Insulators 12
Summary 13
Key Terms 13
Topic 2: Fundamentals of Direct Currents Circuits 14

2.1 Series Circuits 14
2.2 Voltage Sources in Series 16
2.3 The Concept of Voltage Division 19
2.4 Open and Short Circuit in Series Circuits 20
2.5 Parallel Circuits 20
2.6 Total Resistance in Parallel Circuits 21
2.7 The Concept of Conductance 26
2.8 Voltage Sources in Parallel 26
2.9 Open and Short Circuit in Parallel Circuit 27
2.10 Concept of Current Division 27
2.11 Combination of Series and Parallel Circuits 30
Summary 32
Key Terms 32
Topic 3: Network Theorems 33

3.1 Nodes and Loops in Electrical Networks 33
3.2 Kirchhoffs First Law 34
3.2 Kirchhoffs Second Law 37
3.4 Superposition Theorem 39
3.5 Thevenins Theorem 45

iv X TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.6 Nortons Theorem 50

3.7 Circuit Transformation 53
3.8 Maximum Power Transfer 56
Summary 58
Key Terms 58
Topic 4: Magnetic Circuits 59

4.1 The Magnetic Circuit 60
4.2 Magnetomotive Force and Magnetic Field Strength 62
4.3 Permeability of Free Space 63
4.4 Relative Permeability 64
4.5 Reluctance 66
4.6 Comparison of Electric and Magnetic Circuits 68
Summary 70
Key Terms 70
Topic 5: Inductance 71
5.1 Inductive and Non-Inductive Circuits 71
5.2 Unit of Inductance 72
5.3 Factors Determining the Inductance of a Coil 73
5.4 Energy Stored in an Inductor 76
5.5 Mutual and Self Inductance 78
5.5.1 Mutual Inductance 78
5.5.2 Self Inductance 81
5.6 Types of Inductor and Inductance 82
Summary 84
Key Terms 84
Topic 6: Introduction to Alternating Voltage and Current 85

6.1 The Sine Wave 86
6.2 Alternating System 86
6.3 Generation of an Alternating e.m.f 87
6.4 Waveform Terms and Definitions 90
6.5 Relationship between Frequency, Speed and
Number of Pole Pairs 92
6.6 Average and r.m.s Values of Sinusoidal Currents
and Voltages 92
Summary 97
Key Terms 97

TABLE OF CONTENTS W v
Topic 7: Single Phase Series and Parallel Circuits 98

7.1 Basic A.C. Circuits 98
7.2 A.C. Voltage and Current in a Resistive, Inductive
and Capacitive Circuits 100
7.3 A.C. Voltage and Current in a Capacitive Circuit 102
7.4 Phasor Concept in A.C. Analysis 103
7.5 A.C. Circuit with Resistor and Inductor in Series 104
7.6 Impedance and Admittance 106
7.7 A.C. in Series RLC Circuit 107
7.8 Parallel A.C. Network 108
Summary 111
Key Terms 111
Topic 8: Three Phase Systems 112

8.1 Generation of Three Phase Voltages 113
8.2 Star Connection for Three Phase Systems 115
8.3 Delta Connection for Three Phase Systems 115
8.4 Voltage and Current for Star Connection 115
8.5 Voltage and Current for Delta Connection 117
8.6 Power in a Balanced Three Phase System 119
Summary 120
Key Terms 120
Topic 9: Transformer 121

9.1 Basic Transformer Action 122
9.2 Circuit Model of an Ideal Transformer 124
9.3 Circuit Model of a Non Ideal Transformer 127
9.4 Transformer Power Rating 128
9.5 Transformer Efficiency 128
Summary 129
Key Terms 129
Topic 10: Introduction to Machine Theory 130

10.1 The Role of Electrical Machines 130
10.2 Conversion Process in a Machine 131
10.3 Magnetic Field Energy 134
10.4 Energy Balance 135
10.5 Energy and Power Conversion 137
Summary 139
Key Terms 139
Worked Examples 140

COURSE GUIDE

x X PANDUAN KURSUS

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION
You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through the
course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
EDXE2103/EBME4103 Electrical Technology is one of the courses offered by
the Faculty of Science and Technology at Open University Malaysia (OUM). Like
all the other course offered by the Faculty of Science and Technology, this course
is a 3 credit hours course
This course has been designed to fulfil a major specialisation in the engineering
education course. This course is to be completed in 15 weeks. The list of relevant
textbooks is indicated in the Reading Material section.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to the learners who are undertaking the Bachelor of
Education (Mechanical) with Honours programme.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please confirm the course material,
the course requirements and how the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

x COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Allocation of Study Hours
Study Activities Study Hours

Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial
3
discussion
Study the module 60
Attend three to five tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120
COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Familiarise the SI unit for electrical measurement, understand voltage,
current, power and energy equation.
2. Understand and apply ohms law.
3. Understand and analyse the interconnection of the resistors in the series,
parallel and series-parallel connection, do simple calculation using current
and voltage divider rule.
4. Understand the Kirchoffs current and voltage law, the superposition
theorem, Thevenins theorem and Nortons theorem to simplify the circuit
for analysis.
5. Understand the principles of electromagnetic circuits.
6. Describe the basic structure and characteristics of an inductor and
distinguish the self and mutual inductance.
7. Define a sinusoidal waveform and measure its characteristics, the average
and rms value of current and voltage.
8. Analysing ac circuits containing resistance, inductive reactance and
capacitive reactance.
9. Understand the generation of three-phase emf and be familiar with delta and
star connection.

COURSE GUIDE xi
10. Familiar with the principles of operation of the transformer and understand
the transformer equivalent circuit.
11. Understand the role of electromagnetism in an electrical machine and the
conversion process in a machine.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. Following give the brief introduction to each
topic.
Topic 1 covers the fundamental concepts of electricity which are essential in

many areas of application. The basics of scientific notation and metric prefixes as
well as the quantities and units commonly used in electrical engineering are
introduced. This topic also emphasises on the fundamental laws of electricity
upon which the various areas of electrical engineering are based on.
Topic 2 will introduce two basic forms of resistive circuits, series and parallel
circuits as well as the combination of the two. Ohms law can be used in these
complex arrangements to find current, voltage or total resistance in the circuits.
Topic 3 introduces the concepts of electrical networks and the use of various
circuit theorems to solve network problems.
Topic 4 focuses on magnetic circuit. Magnetic circuit is used to concentrate the

magnetic effect of a current within a particular region in space. In simple terms,
the circuit directs the magnetic flux to where it is needed. A magnetic circuit
maybe constructed from a variety of sections with different lengths and cross-
sections and even different magnetic properties. The magnetising characteristics
of the materials will be non-linear and design solutions need to be taken into
account. A typical design problem would be the determination of the current
required in a coil to produce a given flux density in the airgap of a small actuator,
relay or electromagnet.
Topic 5 explains about the inductor and its characteristics. The basic construction
and electrical properties are discussed. The operation of inductor in dc and ac will
be analysed. The inductor, which is a coil of wire, is based on the principle of
electromagnetic induction. The inductor is sometime being known as coil, or in
certain applications a choke.

xii COURSE GUIDE
Topic 6 introduces the method of generating an alternating e.m.f and waveforms.

Most waveforms are basically sinusoidal. Variation in waveforms makes it
difficult to describe the equivalent value. This topic also discusses the root mean
square value, which indicates the average heating value of a current.
Topic 7 investigates the steady state response of a circuit due to alternating

current source. All passive elements such as resistor, inductor and capacitor will
be discussed and their behavior either individually or in combination, will be
analysed. The concept of phasors will be introduced as this will ease the analysis
of single phase circuits.
Topic 8 introduces a more sophisticated and invariably more complex circuit

known as polyphase circuit. It is the solution for heavy power utilisation of
electrical energy. The most common system used currently is the three phase
circuit which employs voltage sources consisting of 3 voltages substantially equal
in magnitude and displaced by phase angles of 120.
Topic 9 emphasise on use of transformer in electrical engineering. A transformer

in electrical engineering is a magnetic device which consists of two or more
multi-turn coils wound on a common core. Its major use is in the supply and
distribution of alternating current (a.c.) electrical power. Transformers are capable
of stepping up or down a.c. voltages and current. For the purpose of transmitting
electrical power over long distances such as in the national grid, power utilities
use step up transformers to raise the voltage from 10 kV at the power stations
to 200 kV or more. At the receiving end, voltage is then stepped down by
transformers to 415 volt or 250 volt for industrial or domestic customers.
Topic 10 introduces the energy conversion process whereby electrical energy is

converted to mechanical energy and vice versa by means of an electromagnetic
system. This is the basis of the electrical motor by which mechanical force is
produced. The reluctance motor is considered to develop an understanding of how
rotational torque is produced as a rotor tries to align with stator poles.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement should help you to organise
your study of this course to be more objective and more effective. Generally, the
text arrangement for each topic is as follows:

COURSE GUIDE xiii
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
had completely gone through a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer your reading back to these given learning outcomes. By doing
this, you can continuously gauge your progress of digesting the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It is inserted after you had gone through one sub-section
or sometimes a few sub-sections. It usually comes in a form of a question that
may require you to stop your reading and start thinking. When you come across
this component, try to reflect what you had already gone through. When you
attempt to answer the question prompted, you should be able to gauge whether
you had understand what you had read clearly, vaguely or worse you might find
out that you had not comprehended or retained the sub-section(s) that you had just
gone through. Most of the time, the answer to the question can be found directly
from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, activities are also placed at various locations or

junctures throughout the module. Compared to Self-Check, Activity can appear in
various forms such as questions, short case studies or it may even ask you to
conduct an observation or research. Activity may also ask your opinion and
evaluation on a given scenario. When you come across an Activity, you should try
to widen what you had gathered from the module and introduce it to real
situations. You should engage yourself in higher order thinking where you might
be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate instead of just having to recall and
define.
Summary: You can find this component at the end of each topic. This component
assists you to recap the whole topic. By going through summary, you should be
able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points inside the
summary that you do not fully understand; it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details from the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should
go through this component so as to remind yourself on important terms or jargons
used throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms from the module.
References: References is where a list of relevant and usually useful textbooks,

journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. This list can appear
in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at References section), at the end
of every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read and refer

xiv COURSE GUIDE
to the suggested sources to elicit the additional information needed as well as to

enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
Students following this course requires basic knowledge in mathematics but is not
expected to have any details knowledge on engineering.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to the myINSPIRE.
REFERENCE
Richard, C. D. (2000). Introduction to electric circuits (5th ed.). Wiley Text
Books.
McKenzie-Smith, I., & Hughes, E. (1996). Electrical technology. Longman
Higher Education Division.
Theraja, B. L. (1989). Electrical technology. Longman.
Thompson, F. G. (1983). Electrical installation, Vol. 3, (2nd ed.). Longman.

Topic X Fundamentals
ofElectricity
1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Use the SI unit for electrical measurement;
2. Describe the terms of voltage and current term;
3. Apply the equation of power and energy;
4. Carry out basic calculation of voltage, current, power and energy;
5. Describe the basic electronic components such as resistor; and
6. Apply ohms law.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic covers the fundamental concepts of electricity which are essential in
many areas of application. The basics of scientific notation and metric prefixes as
well as the quantities and units commonly used in electrical engineering are
introduced. This topic also emphasises on the fundamental laws of electricity
upon which the various areas of electrical engineering are based on.
1.1 ELECTRICAL UNITS AND SCIENTIFIC

NOTATION
A unit of a physical quantity is a standard measurement regarded as an undivided
entity. In electrical engineering work, we must deal with a significant number of
measurable physical quantities. For example, we must know the voltage at a
certain test point or the current flowing through a load or the power consumed by
a certain device.
2 X TOPIC 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY
Table 1.1 shows a list of units and symbols of the electrical quantities used in this
field. Symbols are used to represent both quantities and their units. For example,
Q is the symbol for charge while its unit is Coulomb which is given the symbol C.
The definition of each quantity is given as it is discussed in the following sections.
Table 1.1: Unit and Symbol for Electrical Quantities

UNIT FOR
QUANTITY SYMBOL SYMBOL
QUANTITY
Capacitance C farad F
Charge Q coulomb C
Conductance G siemen S
Current i ampere A
Energy W joule J
Frequency f hertz Hz
Impedance Z ohm
Inductance L henry H
Power P watt W
Reactance X ohm
Resistance R ohm
Time t second s
Voltage V volt V
SELF-CHECK 1.1
What is the unit of magnetic flux?
In electrical engineering, which also involves telecommunications and very large

scale integration (VLSI) of components, we often work with very high (or ultra
high frequencies) or very small numbers (such as micrometers). Scientific
notation uses powers of ten to make it easier to express these very large or very
small numbers and to calculate using these numbers. Table 1.2 shows a list of
powers of ten and the term used to express them.

TOPIC 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY W 3
Table 1.2: Scientific Notations

Power of ten Term Symbol Power of ten Term Symbol
1 1
10 deci d 10 deka da
2 2
10 centi c 10 hekto h
3 3
10 milli m 10 kilo k
6 6
10 micro 10 mega M
9 9
10 nano n 10 giga G
12 12
10 pico p 10 tera T
15 15
10 femto f 10 exa E
18 18
10 atto a 10 peta P
Visit http://janus.astro.umd.edu/astro/scinote/ and use the program there to

practice converting between scientific notation and normal numbers.
1.2 ELECTRICAL CHARGE

Electrical charge consists of negative and positive charges. The electron which is
the smallest particle in an atom possesses negative electrical charges while proton
is positively charged. When there is an excess of electrons in a material the net
electrical charge is negative while a deficiency of electron in a material causes the
net electrical charge to become positive.
Figure 1.1 illustrates the formation of negative and positive ions in an atom which
contributes negative and positive charges. A neutral atom which has the same
number of electrons and protons has no net charge.
Figure 1.1: Atom and formation of ions

Materials with opposite charges attract each other while those possessing charges
of the same polarity experience the force of repulsion.
A Coulomb is the total charge possessed by 6.25 1018 electrons and a single
electron therefore carries a charge of 1.6 1019 C
Electrical charges are useful to us in many ways.

Visit http://www.dontpanicrevision.com/resources/sc4_notes_static.pdf#search
='Electrical%20charge' to learn how electrical charges plays an important role in a
photocopier.
1.3 ELECTRICAL CURRENT
SELF-CHECK 1.2
Who was the first person to observe current flow?
When charges move in certain direction, an electrical current is said to flow in the
opposite direction. Therefore electric current is defined as the rate of change of
charge passing through a specified area. Since current has a symbol of i, it can be
mathematically expressed as:
dQ
i= (1.1)
dt
One ampere is the amount of current when a number of electrons having a

charge of one Coulomb move past a given point in one second.

The unit for current is Ampere (A).
SELF-CHECK 1.3
What instrument is used to measure the amount of electric current?
Free electrons in a conducting material drift randomly in all directions. The ability
to move the electrons to produce electrical current is due to the difference in
electrical potential between the various points in an electrical circuit. As
illustrated in Figure 1.2, if one end of the material becomes negative and the other
positive, the electrons tend to be attracted by the positive force on the right and
repelled by the negative force on the left, thus producing a net movement to the
right.
Figure 1.2: Electrons flow from negative to positive ends

of material to produce electrical current
Example 1.1
A constant current that flows in a conductor is 12 mA. Calculate the number of
charges that cross the conductor in 10 seconds.
Solution
Q
i=
t
Q = it
Q = 12 mA 10 s
Q = 0.12 C
SELF-CHECK 1.4
Calculate the current for 4 1016 electrons that move across one point
in 4.5 seconds.

1.4 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE AND

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E.M.F)
Since there is a force of attraction between opposite charges, a certain amount of
work (energy) is required to move them apart. Similarly for those with similar
charges, work is also needed to get them closer together. Each charge has its own
potential energy due to its separation from the other charges and the difference in
this potential energy of the charges is called the potential difference. In electrical
terms, this difference in potential is commonly called voltage and is defined as
energy per unit charge. Since voltage has a symbol of V and energy W, potential
difference or voltage can be expressed mathematically as:
W
V = (1.2)
Q
One volt is the potential difference (voltage) between two points when one joule
of energy is used to remove one coulomb of charge from one point to the other.
The unit of voltage is Volt, symbolised as V.
The source of voltage in an electrical circuit can be a battery, a generator, a solar

cell or an electronic power supply. These sources convert energy from other forms
such as chemical or mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Figure 1.3 shows a battery or voltaic cell as a source of electrical energy with the
electrodes storing negative and positive charges.
Figure 1.3: A battery symbol
The potential difference across a battery or any other generator on open circuit is
called its electromotive force.

e.m.f. (E) can be defined as the total energy per coulomb it delivers round a
circuit.
If a device of e.m.f. (E) passes a steady current, I for a time, t then the charge
circulated is:
Q = It (1.3)
From the equation of (1.2), the total electrical energy is
W = QE = IEt (1.4)
Then the total electrical power generated,
P = W / t EI (1.5)
Therefore, E = P/I (1.6)
ACTIVITY 1.1
The writer mention that The potential difference across a battery or
any other generator on open circuit is called its electromotive force
However, the author of an article at
http://ej.iop.org/links/q56/OEAyWLJw,V3YH1O,2LdjlA/pev20i6p272.
pdf explains that there is a distinction between potential difference and
electromotive force. Read this article and discuss among your peers
whether you agree with the articles explanation.
1.5 RESISTORS AND RESISTANCE

The property of a material which opposes electrical current is known as resistance
with a symbol of R, and components which are specifically designed to have
resistance are called resistors. Its main applications are to limit current flow,
divide voltages and to generate heat if the resistance is sufficiently high. The
resistance, R is expressed in the unit of Ohms with a symbol of .

One Ohm (1 ) is the resistance of a material if voltage of 1 V across it

produces a current of one ampere (1 A).
The circuit symbol of a resistor is shown in Figure 1.4. Resistors come in various
values, shapes and sizes, and can be fixed or variable. Fixed resistors with value
tolerances of 5%, 10% or 20% are colour coded with four bands to indicate their
values and tolerances.
The website at http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/resistor/ will show

you how resistors are colour coded based on the values for the resistors.
As its name implies, variable resistors have values which may be easily changed
manually or automatically. They are used to limit either voltage (potentiometer) or
current (rheostat) passing through them.
Figure 1.4: Circuit symbol of a resistor and a colour coded carbon resistor
Complete the interactive tutorial at

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/filamentresistance/index.html
to enhance your understanding on resistance at the molecular level.
1.6 THE OHMS LAW

Ohms Law shows the relationship between current, voltage and resistance and
provides a formula that can be used to determine any one of the quantities when
the other two are known. George Simon Ohm first showed that the flow of current
in a circuit consisting of a battery and conductor of uniform cross sectional area is
given as:
Av
i= , where
l

A cross sectional area of conductor

resistivity of conductor
l length of conductor
v voltage across conductor
The constant R is defined as:
l
R= , is the resistance of the conductor in Ohms.
A
The Ohms law which relates the voltage and current in the conductor is derived
as:
v v
i= or v = iR or R =
R i
The simple circuit in Figure 1.5 illustrates the use of Ohms law in determining
the current flowing in the circuit.
Figure 1.5: Use of Ohms Law in calculating current in a circuit
To find the current I in the circuit above, use Ohms Law:
V 10
l= = = 0.05 = 50 mA
R 200

Example 1.2
A 12 V battery is used to supply voltage to a resistive circuit. Calculate the
resistance value if the current flows through the resistor is 5 mA.
Solution
V 12
R= = = 2.4 k
I 5 103
SELF-CHECK 1.5
The.value of the resistor R is 3 k and the voltage across the resistor is

9 V. Calculate the circuit current and the power absorbed by the resistor.
Visit http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/ohmslaw/ and complete the

interactive tutorial on Ohms law.
1.7 ENERGY AND POWER

Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. On the other hand, power is the rate
at which work is done and energy is transformed. We can now discuss the
relationship between the energy delivered to a load or device and the effects of
voltage and current flowing through it.
Consider Figure 1.6 which shows a battery delivering energy to a load RL. The
current flowing through the load is I and the potential difference across the load is
V. From Equation 1.2, potential difference or voltage is defined as energy per unit
charge, therefore the total energy delivered to the load is given by:
W = VQ Coulomb-volt or Joules (1.7)

Moreover, from (1.3), Q = It Coulomb;
thus energy can be given as:
W = Vlt Watt-s or Joules (1.8)
One Joule represent the amount of energy delivered to a load with potential
difference of 1 volt when a current of 1 A flows through the load for one
second.
The unit for energy is Joules (J).
Power is defined as the rate of doing work, symbolically:
W
P= Joules/s or Watts (1.9)
t
One Watt is the amount of power when one Joule of energy is consumed in
one second.
The unit for power is Watts.
Substituting for W, power can then be expressed in terms of V and I as:
P = Vl Watts (1.10)
Using Ohms law, the alternative formulae for power are given as:
P = l 2 R Watts (1.11)
V2
And P = Watts (1.12)
R
Previously we have used Joules as the unit for energy. It can also be expressed by
another unit called watt second (Ws), watt hour (Wh) and kilowatt hour (kWh).
Power companies normally use kilowatt hour when charging the electric bill. If

we use the equivalent of 1000 W of power for a duration of 1 hour, then the
energy consumed is one kilowatt hour.
Example 1.3
A 9 V battery is connected to a circuit. If the current flow in the circuit is 20 mA,
find the power supplied to the circuit.
Solution
P = vi = (9 V)(20 103 A) = 0.18 W
Example 1.4
Voltage across an element is 240 V. Calculate the total power used if current
through the element is 10 A. If the element operates for 3 hours, find the total
electrical energy used in joule and kilowatt-hour.
Solution
P = vi = (240 V)(10 A) = 2.4 kW
W = Pt = (2400 W)(3 hour) = 7.2 kJ
W = Pt = (2400 W)(3 60 min 60 sec) = 25.92 MJ
How do solar cells convert light energy into electrical energy? Visit
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/solarcell/index.html for your answer.
SELF-CHECK 1.6
A family uses electrical appliances that consume 700 W for 8 hours

every day. Find the total electrical energy in kilowatt-hour used by the
family in a month. Calculate the usage cost of the appliances in a month
if the tariff is 20 cents for one kilowatt-hour. Assume 30 days per month.
1.8 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

There are materials which can conduct electrical current and those which are
completely resistant to it. The first is called conductors and the latter is known as
insulators.

Conductors have large number of free electrons and are characterised by one, two
or three valence electrons in their atomic structures. It therefore has a very low
resistance and when connected to a voltage source in a closed circuit, it readily
conducts electrical current. Most metals are good conductors, silver and copper
being the best conductors but copper is normally used for electrical wiring as it is
less expensive.
Insulators have very few free electrons causing it to have very high resistance. It
is mainly used to prevent current flow and is extremely useful to insulate current
especially high current from dangerous contact with human and the surrounding.
Good insulating materials include PVC, rubber, plastic and glass.
The six basic international unit, namely length, weight, time, current,
thermodynamic temperature and intensity formed the basic unit for the derived
units.
The voltage, current, energy and power are the fundamental quantities to
determine the value of the circuit.
Resistor is used to resist or limit the current and divide the voltage. In general,
there are three types of resistor, namely fixed resistor, variable resistor and
potentiometer. The resistance is indicated by the colour lines of the resistor.
Ohms law is defined as the voltage proportional to current and inversely
proportional to the resistance. The unit is in ohm (). The inverse of
resistance is known as conductance (G), unit in siemens.
Electrical current Unit

Resistance Voltage
Resistor

Topic X Fundamentals
ofDirect
2 Currents
Circuits
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Analyse the interconnection of the resistors in the series, parallel and
series-parallel connection; and
2. Carry out simple calculation using current and voltage divider rule.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic will introduce two basic forms of resistive circuits, series and parallel
circuits as well as the combination of the two. Ohms law can be used in these
complex arrangements to find current, voltage or overall resistance in the circuits.
2.1 SERIES CIRCUITS

When connected in series, the components, (either resistors, batteries or other
types of components which are to be discussed later) are linked in a row such that
the same current passes through each component.

TOPIC 2 FUNDAMENTALS OF DIRECT CURRENTS CIRCUITS W 15
Figure 2.1 shows several ways in which series connection of resistors can be
realised. The serial connection may not be apparent, but as long as there is only
one current path between two points, the resistors between those two points are in
series.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.1: Resistors connected in series
SELF-CHECK 2.1
Give an example of anything that uses a series circuit to function.
Equivalent value of series resistors can be found by summing up all the resistors.
Then Ohms Law can be used to calculate the value of the current flowing in the
resistors if the voltage across the resistor is known.
To find the current in Figure 2.1(a), the voltage is divided by the sum of all the
resistances, RT where:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
= (10 + 12 + 20 + 8 )
= 50
I = V / RT
= 10 / 50
= 0.2 A

16 X TOPIC 2 FUNDAMENTALS OF DIRECT CURRENTS CIRCUITS
When a current flows through a resistor, there is a voltage drop across it. The
direction of this voltage drop or its polarity is opposite to that of the current as
illustrated in Figure 2.1(b). In a series circuit, the sum of voltage drops in all the
series resistors must equal the supply voltage or VT (refer to Figure 2.1(b)
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 = I ( R1 + R2 + R3 ) (2.1)
Visit http://cipco.apogee.net/foe/fcsps.asp to gather more information on series

circuits.
2.2 VOLTAGE SOURCES IN SERIES

When batteries are placed in a flashlight, they are arranged in series where their
voltages add up to produce a larger voltage.
VT = VB1 + VB2 + VB3 (2.2)
Figure 2.2: Cells in a flashlight and schematic diagram
The above equation is true if the polarities of the batteries are all in the same
direction, but if any one of the batteries is in the opposite direction, its voltage is
subtracted. As shown in Figure 2.3, the total voltage is:
VT = VB1 VB2 VB3 (2.3)
Figure 2.3: Voltage sources with opposite polarities

SELF-CHECK 2.2
Will the total voltage be the same if the batteries in Figure 2.2 are
connected parallel to each other?
Example 2.1
Referring to the circuit in Figure 2.4, calculate
(a) total resistance in the circuit
(b) the current flowing in the circuit
(c) the voltage across each resistor
(d) the power dissipated by each resistor
(e) the power supplied by the source
Figure 2.4
Solution
(a) Total resistance of the circuit
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 3 + 5 + 2 = 10
(b) Current flowing inside the circuit
Vs 20 V
I = = =2A
RT 10

(c) Voltage across each resistor
VR1 = IR1 = 2(3) = 6 V

VR2 = IR2 = 2(5) = 10 V
VR3 = IR3 = 2(2) = 4 V
(d) Power dissipated by each resistor
PR1 = IVR1 = 2(6) = 12 W

PR2 = IVR2 = 2(10) = 20 W
PR3 = IVR3 = 2(4) = 8 W
(e) Power supplied by the source
PT = PR1 + PR2 + PR3 = 12 + 20 + 8 = 40 W or

PT = IVs = 2(20) = 40 W
SELF-CHECK 2.3
The circuit supply of 50 V dc is connected to the three series resistors.

Find voltage Va and current I.
EXERCISE 2.1

2.3 THE CONCEPT OF VOLTAGE DIVISION

In a series circuit, the total voltage drop proportionally among the series resistors.
This is due to the same current flowing in the resistors, and since the relation
between voltage and current is directly proportional, the voltage drops are
proportional to the values of the resistors.
Figure 2.5: The concept of voltage division
The voltage drop across any resistor in Figure 2.5 can be found using the Ohms
Law by first finding the current.
For example:
Vs 15
I = = = 0.5 A
RT 5 + 10 + 15
The voltage drop is
V2 = 10 0.5 = 5 V
It is easier to find V2 by using the voltage divider formula given by:
10
V2 = 15 = 5 V
30
The general formula for voltage Vx across a resistor Rx in a series circuit with
voltage supply or total voltage Vs and a total resistance of RT is given as:
Rx
Vx = Vs (2.4)
RT

For more information on voltage division, please visit

http://web.tampabay.rr.com/usfpower/307ecm18.pdf#search='Concept%2
0of%20Voltage%20Division'.
2.4 OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUIT IN SERIES

CIRCUITS
(a) (b)
Figure 2.6: Open circuit and short circuit concepts in series circuit
Consider an open circuit occurring between point c and d in the circuit of

Figure 2.6(a) above. This may be caused by a component such as a filament being
burnt out. Since it is a series circuit, no current can flow whenever there is an
open circuit and the voltage drop across each resistance is zero. Therefore, the
voltage across the open circuit equals the supply voltage.
On the other hand if there is a short circuit at any point of the circuit such as
between points a and c in Figure 2.6(b), current of higher value will flow in the
circuit since the resistances involved are bypassed thus reducing the total
resistance.
2.5 PARALLEL CIRCUITS

A parallel circuit has two or more components connected across the same voltage
source. Since more than one branch is formed by the components, the current in
each component may not be the same. This is illustrated in Figure 2.7 where
several ways of parallel connection of resistors can be realised.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.7: Resistors in Parallel Circuits
The current in any branch of a parallel circuit can be found using Ohms law by
dividing the common voltage source with the resistor in that particular branch.
From Figure 2.7(a):
Vs V V
I1 = , I 2 = s , I3 = s
R1 R2 R3
2.6 TOTAL RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL

CIRCUITS
The total current in the circuit, IT equals the sum of these currents:
IT = I1 + I 2 + I 3 (2.5)
The total resistor in a parallel circuit is found by using a formula. Unlike in a

series circuit this value is not the sum of all the resistors but found from the
following derivation:
Figure 2.8: Parallel circuit with n resistors

Consider a parallel circuit with n resistors as shown in Figure 2.8.
IT = I1 + I 2 + ........ + I n (2.6)
Since the voltage across each resistor is common, which is Vs, the currents can be
expressed in terms of Vs using Ohms law:
Vs V V V
IT = , I1 = s , I 2 = s , ..... I n = s (2.7)
RT R1 R2 Rn
Putting equation (2.7) into (2.6),
Vs V V V
= s + s + ..... + s (2.8)
RT R1 R2 Rn
As Vs in equation (2.8) can be cancelled out, the equation is now left with purely
resistance terms:
1 1 1 1
= + + ...... + (2.9)
RT R1 R2 Rn
1
RT = (2.10)
1 1 1
+ + ..... +
R1 R2 Rn
For the simple case of two resistors in parallel, the total resistance can simply be
given by:
R1 R2
RT = (2.11)
R1 + R2
We can see that if the two resistors are of the same value, i.e. R2 = R1, then
R
RT = 1 .
2

This leads to a special case of several resistors having the same value connected in
parallel. The method of calculating the total resistance in this case is by dividing
the value of the resistance by the number of resistors, i.e.;
R
RT = (2.12)
n
where RT is the total resistance, R is the value of resistance connected in parallel,

and n is the number of resistance connected in parallel.
Example 2.2
Calculate the total resistance in the parallel circuit shown in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.9
Solution
1 1 1 1
= + +
RT 10 10 20
= 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.05
= 0.25
1
RT = =4
0.25
Example 2.3
Referring to the circuit in Figure 2.10, calculate
(a) total resistance in the circuit
(b) the current at each node
(c) total current inside the circuit
(d) the power dissipated by each resistor
(e) power supplied by the source

Figure 2.10
Solution
(a) Total resistance of the circuit
1 1 1 R1 + R2
= + =
RT R1 R2 R1 R2
R1 R2 (4)(5)
RT = = = 2.22
R1 + R2 4 + 5
(b) Current at each node
Vs = VR1 = VR2 = 20 V
VR1 20 V
I R1 = = =5 A
R1 4
VR2 20 V
I R2 = = =4 A
R2 5
(c) Total current inside the circuit
IT = I R1 + I R2 = 5 A + 4 A = 9 A or
20
IT = =9 A
2.22

(d) Power dissipated by each resistor
PR1 = I R1 V = 4(20) = 80 W
PR2 = I R2 V = 5(20) = 100 W
(e) Power supplied by the source
PT = PR1 = I R2 = 100 W + 80 W = 180 W or
PT = IT V = 9(20) = 180 W
You can enhance your understanding on the total resistance in parallel circuits by
visiting http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_5/3.html.
SELF-CHECK 2.4
The supply of 24 V dc is connected to the four parallel resistors. Find the

total resistance of the circuit.
EXERCISE 2.2

2.7 THE CONCEPT OF CONDUCTANCE

Equation (2.8) is useful in parallel circuits as we always have to deal with
reciprocal of resistance or other elements. The reciprocal of resistance is called
conductance with a symbol of G and the unit of this quantity is Siemens, S.
Therefore
GT = G1 + G2 + + Gn (2.13)
1
and RT = (2.14)
GT
2.8 VOLTAGE SOURCES IN PARALLEL

Voltage sources may be connected in parallel to provide a higher overall current
than could be obtained from an individual supply. This is illustrated in
Figure 2.11.
Figure 2.11: Batteries connected in parallel
Example
This problem will calculate the currents flowing in two identical bulbs which are
first connected in series and then in parallel
(a) When the bulbs are connected in series, current flowing in each lamp is
V
I= :
2R

V
(b) When they are in parallel, the value of current is I = :
R
2.9 OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUIT IN PARALLEL

CIRCUIT
Figure 2.12: Open and short circuits in parallel circuit
When an open circuit occurs at any branch of a parallel circuit current will not
flow in that branch while other branches are not affected. On the other hand if a
short circuit occurs at any of the branches, all branches will be shorted as current
will only flow through the short circuit and equivalent resistance becomes zero.
The current will be excessive and a fuse is normally inserted to prevent the
excessive current from damaging the source or other components
2.10 CONCEPT OF CURRENT DIVISION

In a parallel circuit as shown in Figure 2.13, total current IT is divided into branch
currents and the branch current is inversely proportional to the value of the
resistance in that particular branch.
Figure 2.13: Current divisions for two resistance parallel circuit

To find the current in the branches, determine the total resistance in the parallel
circuit, then the total current IT and the voltage across the branches. Ohm law is
then used to find the branch current.
R1 R2
Total resistance RT =
R1 + R2
Vs
Total current IT =
RT
Voltage across parallel circuit, Vs = IT RT
Therefore current in first branch is given by:
Vs
I1 =
R1
R2
I1 = IT (2.15)
R1 + R2
Similarly using the same derivation;
R1
I2 = IT (2.16)
R1 + R2
Using conductance G
i1 = vG1 , i2 = vG2
i = i1 + i2
= v ( G1 + G2 )
i iG1 iG2
v = or i1 = and i2 = (2.17)
( G1 + G2 ) ( G1 + G2 ) ( G1 + G2 )

Example 2.4
Refer to the circuit in the Figure 2.14, determine VR1 , VR2 and VR3 using voltage-
divider method
Figure 2.14
Solution
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 = 3 + 5 + 2 = 10
R1 3
VR1 = Vs = (20) = 6 V
RT 10
R2 5
VR2 = Vs = (20) = 10 V
RT 10
R3 2
VR3 = Vs = (20) = 4 V
RT 10

2.11 COMBINATION OF SERIES AND

PARALLEL CIRCUITS
We have learned various circuit connections. In the implementation of electrical
circuits using a single voltage source, resistors may be connected in series for the
same current or in parallel for the same voltage. However, in many real
applications, a circuit may also consist of the combination of both.
Figure 2.15: Circuit consisting of series and parallel connections
Example 2.5
Referring to the circuit of Figure 2.16, calculate the equivalent resistance.
Figure 2.16
Solution
The solution begins from the end of the circuit, opposite to the source.

Ra = 3 // (5 + 6) = 2.36
Rb = 1 // (4 + Ra) = 1 // (4 + 2.36) = 0.864

Requivalent = 2 + Rb = 2 + 0.864 = 2.864
Figure 2.17

SELF-CHECK 2.5
Referring to the circuit in the following Figure, calculate the equivalent

resistance and current inside the circuit.
Total resistance of series resistors is RT = R1 + R 2 + R 3 + .......... + Rn.

Total resistance of parallel resistors is
1 1 1 1
= + + ..... + .
RT R1 R2 Rn
The current divider rule is used to determine the branches current.

The voltage divider rule is used to find the voltage drop across the resistors,
which is connected in series.
Current divider rule Series circuit

Parallel resistor Voltage divider rule
Resistance Voltage division
Resistor

Topic X Network
Theorems
3
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the Kirchoffs current and voltage law;
2. Apply the superposition theorem for circuit analysis;
3. Apply Thevenins theorem to simplify the circuit for analysis;
4. Apply Nortons theorem to simplify the circuit for analysis; and
5. Explain maximum power transfer and perform circuit conversion.
X INTRODUCTION
Even though Ohms law as discussed in previous topic can be used to solve circuit
problems such as finding the current or voltage, it is only useful for simple
circuits. However an electrical network may be made up of a lot of components
connected in complex manner. This topic will introduce the concepts of electrical
networks and the use of various circuit theorems to solve network problems.
3.1 NODES AND LOOPS IN ELECTRICAL

NETWORKS
A node is defined as a point at which three or more branches converge. The
network in Figure 3.1 contains six nodes, a, b, c, d, e and f. A closed circuit
formed by three or more consecutive branches is known as a loop. There are four
loops as indicated by the numbers in Figure 3.1.

34 X TOPIC 3 NETWORK THEOREMS
Figure 3.1
When solving for currents in various branches or voltages across the resistors in
such complex circuit, Ohms Law is no longer adequate. The first one that we will
discuss is Kirchoffs Laws. It is the most common and powerful tool for circuit
analysis introduced by Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (18241887) and consists of pair
of laws.
3.2 KIRCHHOFFS FIRST LAW
Kirchhoffs First Law states that the sum of all currents into a node in a
circuit is equal to the sum of all currents flowing out of this node.
Therefore if one Ampere of current enters a node, the same amount must leave the
node either in a single or multiple paths. In other words, current may not
accumulate at any node in a circuit. This law is sometimes known as Kirchhoffs
Current Law.

TOPIC 3 NETWORK THEOREMS W 35
Figure 3.2: Analysis of a node using Kirchhoffs first law
I1 + I2 = I3 + I4 + I5 (3.1)
Equation 3.1 can be stated in an alternative way by considering currents entering

the node to be positive and those leaving it to be negative. Then the algebraic sum
of the currents is zero,
I1 + I2 I3 I4 I5 = 0
Example 3.1
Calculate the current value of I1, I2 and I3 at nodes X, Y and Z in Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3: Current at nodes X, Y and Z

Solution
According to Kirchhoffs Current Law,
I entering a node = I leaving a node
Node X: 5 A = I1 + 1 A + 1 A
I1 = 5 A 2 A = 3 A
Node Y: 1 + I2 + 1 A = 3 A + 2 A
I2 = 5 A 2 A = 3 A
Node Z: I3 + 2 A = 3 A
I3 = 3 A 2 A = 1 A
Example 3.2
Use Kirchhoffs first law to find voltage across R4. Given I1 = 5 A and I2 = 1.5 A.
Figure 3.4
Solution
At node a: I1 = I2 + I3 I3 = I1 I2 = 5 1.5 = 3.5 A
At node b: I3 = I4 + I5
Since resistors R4 and R5 are the same, then I4 = I5 = I3 /2 = 1.75 A
Voltage across R4 = I4 R4 = 1.75 1 = 1.75 V

3.3 KIRCHHOFFS SECOND LAW
Kirchhoffs Second Law states that the sum of all individual voltage drops
(i.e. the product of current and voltage) in a closed circuit is equal to the
algebraic sum of the voltage sources.
This law is related to the distribution of voltage drop in a closed circuit or loop.
If the voltage source in a circuit is 100 Volt, the same amount must be dropped
across the resistors in the circuit. By assuming clockwise currents to be positive
and anticlockwise currents to be negative, the equation for the circuit in Figure 3.5
is:
Figure 3.5: Analysis of electrical loop using Kirchhoffs second law
E1 E2 = I1R1 I2R2 I3R3 + I4R4
Alternatively it may be stated that the algebraic sum of the voltages on the various
branches of a loop is always equal to zero;
VAB + VBC + VCD + VDA = 0

Example 3.3
Referring to the Figure 3.6, calculate Va.
Figure 3.6
Solution
120 V = 30 V + 50 V + Va + 10 V
Va = 120 V 90 V = 30 V

SELF-CHECK 3.1
Using Kirchhoffs current and voltage laws, calculate all values of

current and voltage which is assigned to the circuit.
Visit http://www.pa.msu.edu/courses/1997spring/PHY232/lectures/kirchoff/
examples.html for more examples on how to solve problems related to
Kirchhoffs current and voltage laws.
3.4 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
SELF-CHECK 3.2
When do we consider superposition theorem for circuit analysis?
This theorem is very useful when two or more energy sources are present in a
network. It states that in a linear circuit consisting of several independent sources,
the resultant or overall response equals the sum of the response of each source
acting separately. In an electrical network, the source may be voltage or current
source while the response may be current or voltage at any point in the circuit.
In order to use the theorem, it is important to take note of the following points:
(a) To obtain the response due to one particular source, all other voltage sources
must be short circuited (ideal) or replaced by its internal resistance (real),
while all other current sources must be replaced by an open circuit.

(b) The sum of the individual currents or voltages is taken as the algebraic sum
for which the polarities of the individual quantities are taken into account.
Example 3.4
Find the voltage across resistor 5 .
Figure 3.7
Solution
(a) Using the 40 V source while current sources are open circuited;
40 5
V5 = = 20 V
10

(b) Using 5 A current sources, while 40 V is short circuited and 2 A is open

circuit.
53
V 5 = 5 i2 = 5 = 7.5 V
10
(c) Using 2 A current source, 40 V is shorted and 5 A opened;
V5 = 5 V
Using superposition theorem, the resultant voltage across the 5 resistor is the
sum of the above taking into account the polarity;
V5 = V5 V5 V5 = 20 7.5 + 5 = 17.5 V

Example 3.5
Referring to the Figure 3.8, determine the branches current using superposition
theorem.
Figure 3.8
Solution
The application of the superposition theorem is shown in Figure 3.8, where it is
used to calculate the branch current. We begin by calculating the branch current
caused by the voltage source of 120 V. By substituting the ideal current with open
circuit, we deactivate the current source, as shown in Figure 3.9.
Figure 3.9

Step 1: Find node voltage for v1

To calculate the branch current, the node voltage across the 3 resistor must be
known. Therefore
v1 120 v1 v
+ + 1 =0 (3.2)
6 3 2+4
where v1 = 30 V
Step 2: Find equations for current (all branches)

The equations for the current in each branch,
120 30
i1 = = 15 A
6
30
i2 = = 10 A
3
30
i3 = i4 = =5 A
6
Step 3: Deactivate ideal voltage source

In order to calculate the current cause by the current source, we deactivate the
ideal voltage source with a short circuit, as shown in Figure 3.10.
Figure 3.10

Step 4: Find node voltages for all nodes

To determine the branch current, solve the node voltages across the 3 and 4
resistors as shown in Figure 3.11.
Figure 3.11
The two node voltages are
v3 v3 v3 v4
+ + =0
3 6 2
v4 v3 v4
+ + 12 = 0
2 4
By solving these equations, we obtain
v3 = 12 V
v4 = 24 V
Step 5: Find current for all branches

Now we can find the branches current,
v3 12
i1 = = =2 A
6 6
v 12
i2 = 3 = = 4 A
3 3
v v 12 + 24
i3 = 3 4 = =6 A
2 2
v 14
i4 = 4 = = 6 A
4 4

To find the actual current of the circuit, add the currents due to both the current
and voltage source,
i1 = i1 + i1 = 15 + 2 = 17 A
i2 = i2 + i2 = 10 4 = 16 A
i3 = i3 + i3 = 5 + 6 = 11 A
i4 = i4 + i4 = 5 6 = 1 A
SELF-CHECK 3.3
Calculate the value of the current in the 8 resistor by using

Superposition Theorem
3.5 THEVENINS THEOREM
SELF-CHECK 3.4
How is Thevenins theorem different from superposition?
The objective of the theorem is to replace part of a circuit (i.e. the part between
two open terminals) with a circuit model or equivalent circuit consisting of a
single voltage source, VTh in series with a single resistor, RTh. The circuit model
can then be connected back to the opened terminal which connects it to the rest of
the circuit part in order to solve for current or voltage. It is based on the

equivalence concept where a circuit which is equivalent to another, will display

the same characteristics at the terminals. This is illustrated by the circuit in
Figure 3.12.
Figure 3.12: Replacing a network by its Thevenins Equivalent circuit
To find VTh and RTh, refer to Figure 3.12 where the whole circuit is divided into
networks A and B. The first, network A on the left of terminal AB consists of a
linear circuit with resistive elements and voltage or current sources. The second,
network B, on the right consists of the load where the current or voltage is to be
found.
Step 1: Find VTh

First the load or network B needs to be removed from the circuit by opening the
terminal AB. The voltage at this open circuit equals to VTh. Then,
VTh = open circuit voltage at terminal AB
Step 2: Find RTh

To find RTh, remove all voltage and current sources. As we did in the previous part
this is done by replacing voltage sources by a short circuit and current sources by
an open circuit. Having done this, find the equivalent resistance at terminal AB.
Then,
RT = equivalent resistance at terminal AB with all sources removed from

the network.

Example 3.6
Find the current flowing in resistor R3 using Thevenins Theorem.
Figure 3.13
Solution
First rearrange the circuit such that the load is on the right. Then remove the load
from the rest of the circuit.
Step 1: Find VTh
VTh = V2 + I R2
64 2
But I= = = 0.057 A
20 + 15 35
VTh = 4 + 0.057 15 = 4.857 V
Step 2: Find RTh

Short circuit both voltage sources and find the equivalent resistance from AB
20 15
RTh = = 8.57
20 + 15

The equivalent Thevenins circuit is:
Step 3: Find Current in Resistor

Putting back the load R3, the current in the resistor is:
4.855
I = = 0.261 A
8.57 + 10
Example 3.7
Referring to the Figure 3.14, find the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
Figure 3.14
Solution
Step 1: Find VTh

In order to find the Thevenin equivalent circuit as shown in Figure 3.14, calculate
the open circuit voltage, Vab. Note that when a, b terminals are open, there is no
current flow to the 4 resistor. Therefore, the voltage Vab is the same as the
voltage across the 3 A current source, labeled v1.

To find the voltage v1, solve the equations for the singular node voltage. By
choosing the bottom right node as the reference node,
v1 25 v1
+ 3 = 0
5 20
By solving the equation, v1 = 32 V. Therefore, the Thevenin voltage VTh for the
circuit is 32 V.
Step 2: Find RTh

The next step is to short-circuited the terminals and find the short circuit current
for the circuit shown in Figure 3.15. Note that the current is in the same direction
as the falling voltage at the terminal.
Figure 3.15
Current isc can be found if v2 is known. By using the bottom right node as the
reference node, the equation for v2 becomes
v2 25 v2 v
+ 3+ 2 = 0
5 20 4
By solving the above equation, v2 = 16 V. Therefore, the short circuit current isc is
16
isc = =4 A
4
The Thevenin resistance RTh is
VTh 32
RTh = = =8
isc 4
Figure 4.8 shows the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the Figure 3.16.
Figure 3.16
SELF-CHECK 3.5
Calculate the value of the current in the 8 resistor by using Thevenin

Theorem.
3.6 NORTONS THEOREM
SELF-CHECK 3.6
What is the name of the person who published this theorem?
This theorem is similar to Thevenins theorem. Its application enables us to

replace any complex network between terminals AB with an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source IN, parallel with a resistance RN. Figure 3.17 shows
the transformation of the network on the left of terminals AB into its Norton
equivalent. The value of IN can be found by first opening the terminal AB, then
finding the current through the short circuit at AB. Then,
IN = Short circuit current through AB = Isc
To find RN, again find the equivalent resistance at terminals AB with all sources
removed which really means that RN and RTh are similar.
Figure 3.17: Nortons equivalent circuit
Example 3.9
Derive the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits of Figure 3.18.
Figure 3.18

Solution
Step 1: Source transformation (The 25 V voltage source is converted to a 5 A

current source).
Step 2: Combination of parallel source and parallel resistance
Step 3: Source transformation (combined serial resistance to produce the

Thevenin equivalent circuit.)

Step 4: Source transformation (To produce the Norton equivalent circuit. The
current source is 4 A (I = V/R = 32 V/8 ))
Figure 3.19: Steps in deriving Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits
SELF-CHECK 3.7
Calculate the value of the current in the 8 resistor by using Norton

Theorem.
Visit http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_10/8.html to enhance your

understanding on Nortons theorem.
3.7 CIRCUIT TRANSFORMATION

The configuration of circuit connection can be changed to make the calculation
easier. There are TWO type of transformations which are Delta () to star
connection (Y) and vice versa.

Figure 3.20: Delta and Star Circuit Connection
Delta () to star (Y) transformation:
R1 R2
Ra =
R1 + R2 + R3
R2 R3
Rb =
R1 + R2 + R3
R1 R3
Rc =
R1 + R2 + R3
Star (Y) to Delta () transformation:
Ra Rb + Rb Rc + Rc Ra
R1 =
Rb
R2 =
Rc
R3 =
Ra

Example 3.10
Referring to Figure 3.21, find Requivalent between terminal a and b.
Figure 3.21
Solution
Delta to star transformation:
Requivalent = 3 + 8 + 1.33 + [(1.6 + 3 ) // (2 + 7 )]

= 15.37

SELF-CHECK 3.8
Find the equivalent circuit between terminal A and B.
3.8 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

Maximum power transfer can be illustrated by Figure 3.22. Assume that a
resistance network contains independent and dependent sources, and terminals a
and b to which the resistance RL is connected. Then determine the value of RL that
allows the delivery of maximum power to the load resistor.
Figure 3.22

The resistance network can be substituted with the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
Redraw the above circuit into Figure 3.23.
Figure 3.23
The power that is dissipated by RL is given by:

2
VTh
p = i RL =
2
RL (3.3)
RTh + RL
Power is maximised when its first order derivative (dp/dRL) is equal to zero.
dp ( R + RL )2 RL .2 ( RTh + RL )
= VTh 2 Th (3.4)
( RTh + RL )
4
dRL
dp
When = 0,
dR L
( RTh + RL ) = 2 RL ( RTh + RL )
2
(3.5)
By solving above equation, we obtain
RL = RTh (3.6)
Therefore, maximum power transfer happens when the load resistance RL is equal
to the Thevenin equivalent resistance, RTh. To find the maximum power delivered
to RL,
VTh 2 RL VTh 2
pmax = = (3.7)
( 2 RL )
2
4 RL

SELF-CHECK 3.9
1. State the maximum power transfer theorem.

2. A circuit has an internal resistance of 50 . What will be the
value of the load to which the maximum power is delivered?
Network theorem is used to simplify and analyse the circuit.

Kirchhoffs current law states that the net current entering and leaving the
node is the same.
Kirchhoffs voltage law states that the algebraic sum of all the voltages in the
closed loop is equal to zero.
There are three (3) commonly used network theorem, namely Superposition,
Thevenins and Nortons theorem.
Circuit conversion allows the circuit to be transformed from delta to star or
vice-versa.
Kirchhoffs current law Superposition

Network theorem Thevenins theorem
Nortons theorem

Topic X Magnetic
Circuits
4
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the principles of magnetic circuits;
2. Explain the function of relative permeability; and
3. Distinguish the electric and magnetic circuit.
X INTRODUCTION
Magnetic circuit is used to concentrate the magnetic effect of a current within a
particular region in space. In simple terms, the circuit directs the magnetic flux to
where it is needed. A magnetic circuit maybe constructed from a variety of
sections with different lengths and cross-sections and even different magnetic
properties. The magnetising characteristics of the materials will be non-linear
and design solutions need to be taken into account. A typical design problem
would be the determination of the current required in a coil to produce a given
flux density in the airgap of a small actuator, relay or electromagnet.

60 X TOPIC 4 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
4.1 THE MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

The easiest circuit to begin with is the iron ring with airgap, illustrated in
Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Iron ring with airgap
The magnetic flux produced by the current, I in the coil of N turns is assumed to
follow the circular path shown in Figure 4.1. The flux leaves the iron pole pieces
and flows across the airgap without any lateral displacement so that the flux
density in the airgap is the same as the flux density in the iron. Let the lengths of
the flux paths in the iron and in the airgap ben li and lg respectively and assumed
the permeability of iron and air are 1 and 0 respectively.
Now apply the circuital law to the dotted path and obtain:
H .ds = NI (4.1)
But H is not constant. The flux density in air and iron is assumed to be the same
so that
H i = B / I and H g = B / 0
Determine the integral as follows:
s =li s = li + lg
v Hds = H i ds + H g ds (4.2)
s =0 s =li

TOPIC 4 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS W 61
Hi and Hg are each constant when the current in the coil has the steady final
value, so that
v H .ds = H l + H l
i i g g
Therefore:
NI = H i li + H g lg (4.3)
Or
NI = B ( li / i + lg / 0 ) (4.4)
Or
NI = ( li / i A + lg / 0 A ) (4.5)
Given the flux or the flux density needed in the gap, the geometry of the ring and
the permeability of the iron we can calculate NI.
There are two assumptions which need to be examined more closely. They are:
All the flux follows the path shown in Figure 4.1.
The flux density in the airgap is the same as the flux density in the iron.
In practice a magnetic field will always be established in the medium about the
iron core. This is referred to as the leakage field and there is the leakage flux
associated with it. The effect is illustrated in Figure 4.2 and the flux produced by
the coil, , will be greater than the useful flux in the airgap, g .

ACTIVITY 4.1
What happens if all the flux flows anti-clockwise instead of clockwise as

shown in Figure 4.2?
Figure 4.2: Effect of fringing in the airgap
Figure 4.2 also illustrates the effect of fringing in the airgap. Across the center of
the airgap the flux g is spread over an area, which is greater than the cross
section of the iron. Thus the mean flux density in the gap is less than the flux
density in the iron. Provided that lg is small compared with the linear dimensions
of the pole piece, then we can assume that fringing is negligible.
4.2 MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE AND

MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH
In an electric circuit, the current is due to the existence of an electromotive force.
By analogy, we may say that in a magnetic circuit the magnetic flux is due to the
existence of a magnetomotive force (m.m.f) caused by a current flowing through
one or more turns. The value of the m.m.f is proportional to the current and to the
number of turns, and the unit of magnetomotive force is the ampere.

If a current of I amperes flows through a coil of N turns, the magnetomotive

force F is the total current linked with the magnetic circuit, namely NI amperes.
If the magnetic circuit is homogeneous and of uniform cross-sectional area, the
magnetomotive force per meter length of the magnetic circuit is termed the
magnetic field strength and is represented by the symbol H. Thus is the mean
length of the magnetic circuit is meters,
H = IN/ amperes per meter (4.6)
4.3 PERMEABILITY OF FREE SPACE

Consider a cross section of a long straight conductor, situated in a vacuum and
carrying a current of 1 A towards the paper, as shown in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3: Magnetic fields at 1 m radius due to current in a long straight conductor
Assuming the effect of return current on the magnetic field in the vicinity of A
can be neglected. The lines of magnetic flux surrounding A will, by symmetry, be
in the form of concentric circles. The dotted circle D represents the path of one of
these lines of flux at a radius of 1 meter, and the magnetomotive force acting on
path D is 1 A. Since the length of this line of flux is 2 meters, the magnetic
field strength, H, at a radius of 1 m is 1/(2 ) amperes per meter.
Assume the flux density in the region of line D is B Teslas. Therefore force per
meter length on a conductor C which is parallel to A, carrying 1 A at right angles
to this flux is given by:
Force per meter length = B[T] 1[m] 1[A] = B newtons.
The definition of ampere shows that this force is 2 107 newton per meter of
length. Therefore flux density at 1 m radius from conductor carrying 1 A is:
B = 2 107 T

Hence
B 2 10 [T ]
7
Flux density at C
= =
1
Magnetic field strength at C H [ A/m ]
2
= 4 107 H/m (4.7)
The ratio of B/H is termed the permeability of free space and is represented by
the symbol 0. Thus
B
0 = (4.8)
H
Where 0 = 4 107 H/m
The value of this is almost exactly the same whether the conductor A is placed in
free space, in air or in any other non-magnetic material such as water, oil, wood,
copper, etc.
The unit of permeability is Henry per meter, H/m.
4.4 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY

The magnetic flux inside the coil is intensified when a steel core is inserted. It
follows that if the non-magnetic core of a toroid is replace by a steel core, the
flux produced by a given m.m.f. is greatly increased. The ratio of the flux density
produced in a material to the flux density produced in a vacuum (or in non-
magnetic core) by the same magnetic field strength is termed the relative
permeability and is denoted by the symbol r.
The value of the relative permeability of a ferromagnetic material is not constant.

Instead it varies considerably for different values of the magnetic field strength
and it is convenient to represent the relationship between the flux density and
the magnetic field strength graphically, as shown in Figure 4.4 The curves
in Figures 4.5 and 4.6 represent the corresponding values of the relative
permeability plotted against the magnetic field strength and the flux density
respectively.

Figure 4.4: Magnetisation characteristics of soft-magnetic materials
Figure 4.5: r / H characteristics for soft-magnetic materials

Figure 4.6: r / B characteristics for soft-magnetic materials
4.5 RELUCTANCE
Consider a ferromagnetic ring having a cross-sectional area of A square meters
and a mean circumference of I meters as shown in Figure 4.7, wound with N
turns carrying a current I amperes. This gives us:
Total flux () = flux density (B) area (A)
Figure 4.7: A toroid
= BA (4.9)

m.m.f. (F) = magnetic field strength (H) length (l)
F = Hl (4.10)
BA A
= = r 0
F HI l
= F / [l / r 0 ] (4.11)
F
Where = l / r 0 A = S (4.12)

S is the reluctance of the magnetic circuit where
F = S
and S = l / r 0 A
Since the m.m.f. is equal to the total number of amperes acting on the magnetic
circuit,
m.m.f
magnetic flux =
reluctance
F IN
and = =
S S
The unit of reluctance is the ampere per weber, A/Wb.

4.6 COMPARISON OF ELECTRIC AND

MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
Table 2.1: shows the various electric and magnetic quantities and their relationships
Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit

Quantity Unit Quantity Unit
EMF volt MMF ampere
Magnetic field strength Ampere per meter
Current ampere Magnetic flux weber
Current density Ampere per square meter Magnetic flux density tesla
Resistance Reluctance
[ = .l / A] ohm
[ = 1/ r 0 A] Ampere per weber
Current = e.m.f./resistance Flux = m.m.f./reluctance
Example 4.1
An iron ring of mean length 50 cm has an air-gap of 1 mm and a winding of
200 turns. If the permeability of the iron is 400 when a current of 1.25 amperes
flows through the coil, find the flux density.
Solution
Let the flux density through the iron ring as well as air-gap be B Wb/m2.
B
AT (ampere-turn, NI) required for iron ring, ATi = H i =
0 r
= 0.5 B / 400 0
= 5 B 103 / 4 0
3
AT required for air-gap, ATg = Hg = B 10 / 0
9 B
Total AT required = ATi + ATg = 103
4 0

No. of AT required = 200 1.25 = 250
9 B
103 = 250
4 0
B = 0.134 Wb/m 2
Example 4.2
A ring has the mean diameter of 21 cm and cross-sectional area of 10 cm2. The
ring is made up of semi-circular section of cast iron and cast steel, with each joint
having a reluctance equal to an air-gap of 0.2 mm. Find the ampere turn required
to produce a flux of 8 104 Wb. The relative permeability of cast steel and cast
iron are 800 and 166 respectively.
Solution
Air-gap
H = B / 0 = 0.8 / 4 107 = 6.37 105 AT/m
Total air-gap length = 2 0.2 = 0.4 mm

= 4 104 m
AT required H = 6.37 105 4 104 = 255

Cast Steel Path
H = B / 0 r = 0.8 / 4 107 800 = 796 AT/m

Path = D / 2 = 21 / 2 = 33 cm = 0.33 m
AT required = H = 796 0.33 = 263
Cast Iron Path
H = 0.8 / 4 107 166 = 3835 AT/m

Path = 0.33 m
AT required = H = 3835 0.33 = 1265
Total AT required = 255 + 263 + 1265 = 1783
An electromagnet is a coil of wire around a magnetic core.

Electromagnetic field is a formation of a group of magnetic lines of force
surrounding a conductor created by electrical current in the conductor.
Permeability is used to measure the ease with which a magnetic field can be
established in the material.
Reluctance is opposite to the establishment of magnetic field in a material.
Electromagnet Permeability
Magnetic circuit Reluctance

Topic X Inductance
5
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the basic structure and characteristics of an inductor;
2. Identify various types of inductors; and
3. Distinguish the self and mutual inductance.
X INTRODUCTION
In this topic, you will learn about the inductor and its characteristics. The basic
construction and electrical properties are discussed. The operation of inductor in
dc and ac will be analysed. The inductor, which is a coil of wire, is based on the
principle of electromagnetic induction. The inductor is sometime being known as
coil, or in certain applications a choke.
5.1 INDUCTIVE AND NON-INDUCTIVE

CIRCUITS
SELF-CHECK 5.1
What is the difference between inductive and non-inductive circuits?

72 X TOPIC 5 INDUCTANCE
Any circuit which a change of current is accompanied by a change of flux, and

therefore by an induced e.m.f., is said to be inductive or to possess self-inductance
or merely inductance. It is impossible to have a perfectly non-inductive circuit, i.e
a circuit in which no flux is set up by a current, but for most purposes a circuit
which is not in the form of a coil may be regarded as being practically non-
inductive.
5.2 UNIT OF INDUCTANCE

Unit of inductance is termed Henry (H). A circuit has an inductance of 1 Henry if
an e.m.f. of 1 volt is induced in the circuit when the current varies uniformly at
the rate of 1 ampere per second. If the inductance or the rate of change of current
is doubled, the induced e.m.f. is doubled. Hence, if a circuit has an inductance of
L Henrys and if the current increases from i1 to i2 amperes in t seconds, the
average rate of change of current is:
i2 i1
amperes per second (5.1)
t
and average induced e.m.f. is:
i2 i1
L rate of change of current = L volts (5.2)
t
Considering instantaneous values, if di = increase of current, in amperes, in time

dt seconds, rate of change of current is:
di
amperes per second
dt
and e.m.f. induced in the circuit is:
di
e = L. volts (5.3)
dt
In the case of a series circuit containing resistance and inductance then
di
V = Ri + L (5.4)
dt

TOPIC 5 INDUCTANCE W 73
5.3 FACTORS DETERMINING THE

INDUCTANCE OF A COIL
SELF-CHECK 5.2
In your opinion, is it true that greater coil area results in greater

inductance? Why? Is it also true that the longer the coil length is, the
greater the inductance will become?
Suppose a current of I amperes flow through a coil of N turns to produce a flux of

webers, and the reluctance of the magnetic circuit to remain constant so that
the flux is proportional to the current. Then when the current is increased from
LI
zero to I amperes in t seconds, the average e.m.f. induced in coil is volts.
t
The value of e.m.f. in volts, induced in a coil is equal to the rate of change of flux
linkages per second. Hence when the flux increases from zero to webers in t
seconds,

Average rate of change of flux = webbers per second
t
and average e.m.f. induced in coil is:
N
volts
t
LI N
Equating both equations, we have = (5.5)
t t
N
L= Henrys = flux linkage per ampere (5.6)
I

Considering instantaneous values, if d is the increase of flux, in webers, due to

an increase of di amperes in dt seconds,
d change of flux linkages

L = N. = (5.7)
dt change of current
For a coil having a magnetic circuit of constant reluctance, the flux is proportional
to the current, consequently, d /dt is equal to the flux per ampere, so that
L = flux-linkages per ampere
N
L= Henrys (5.8)
I
Now let us consider a coil uniformly wound on a non-magnetic ring of a uniform

section. Let l be the length of the magnetic circuit in meters and A is cross-
sectional area in square meters, then for a coil of N turns with a current I amperes:
IN
Magnetic field strength = (5.9)
I
and total flux = = BA = 0 HA (5.10)

IN
= 4 107 A
l
Substituting in (5.8) equation we have
AN 2
Inductance, L = 4 107 Henrys (5.11)
l
Hence the inductance is proportional to the square of the number of turns and to
the cross sectional area, and is inversely proportional to the length of the magnetic
circuit.

If the coil is wound on a closed ferromagnetic core, such as a ring, the variation of
flux is no longer proportional to the variation of current. Consider the relationship
between the magnetic flux and the magnetising current shown in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1: Variation of magnetic flux with magnetising

current for a closed ferromagnetic circuit
If the core has initially no residual magnetism, an increase of current from zero to
OA causes the flux to increase from zero to AC, but when the current is
subsequently reduced to zero, the decrease of flux is only DE. If the current is
then increased to OC in the reverse direction, the change of flux is EJ.
Consequently we have an infinite number of inductance values, depending upon
the particular variation of current we consider.
Since we are concerned with the effect of inductance in an a.c. circuit, where the
current varies from a maximum in one direction to the maximum in the reverse
direction, it is convenient to consider the value of the inductance as being the ratio
of the change of flux linkages to the change of current when the latter is reversed.
Thus, for the case shown in Figure 5.1:
DJ
Inductance of coil = number of turns
AG
This value of inductance is the same as if the flux varied linearly along the dotted
line COH in Figure 5.1.

If r represents the value of the relative permeability corresponding to the

maximum value AC of the flux, then the inductance of a ferromagnetic-cored coil
is:
AN 2
L = 4 107 r Henrys (5.12)
l
The variation of relative permeability of magnetic field strength for various

qualities of steel is shown in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2: Inductance of a ferromagnetic-cored coil
5.4 ENERGY STORED IN AN INDUCTOR

If the current in a coil having a constant inductance of L Henrys grows at a
uniform rate from zero to I amperes in t seconds, the average value of the current
is I/2 and the e.m.f. induced in the coils is (L I/t) volts. The product of the
current and the component of the applied voltage to neutralise the induced e.m.f.,
represents the power absorbed by the magnetic field associated with the coil.
Hence average power absorbed by the magnetic field is:
1 LI
I watts (5.13)
2 t

And total energy absorbed by the magnetic field is:
1 LI
Average power time = I t
2 t
LI 2
Wf = joules (5.14)
2
Consider the general case of a current increasing at a uniform or non-uniform rate

in a coil having a constant inductance L Henrys. If the current increases by di
amperes in dt seconds then
di
Induced e.m.f. = L. volts (5.15)
dt
And if I is the value of the current at that instant, energy absorbed by the magnetic
field during time dt second is:
di
iL. = .dt = Li.di joules (5.16)
dt
Hence the total energy absorbed by the magnetic field when the current increases
from zero to I amperes is:
I
1
L i.di = L i 2
I
(5.17)
0
2 0
1 2
= LI joules
2
SELF-CHECK 5.3
The energy we get back from the inductor will be less than the total
energy that we obtained from the formula above. Why is this so?
Hint: You may visit http://www.techlib.com/craig/switching.htm to

help you find the answer.

A
Since L = N 2
L
for a homogeneous magnetic circuit of uniform cross-sectional area. Therefore

energy per cubic meter w f is
1 2 2 1
I N 2 = H 2
2 l 2
1 1 B2
wf = HB = . joules (5.18)
2 2 0 r
5.5 MUTUAL AND SELF INDUCTANCE

The e.m.f in an electric circuit invariably includes a component which is
proportional to the rate of change of current in the circuit with time. The constant
of proportionality is defined as the self inductance. The effect is however just
another aspect of Faradays law, and inductance is better defined in terms of
electromagnetic induction. Mutual inductance can also be defined either in terms
of circuit theory or field theory.
5.5.1 Mutual Inductance

The arrangement is shown in Figure 5.3, part of the flux produced by the current
I1 in loop 1 passes across the surface bounded by loop 2. We denote this flux 12
and if the flux is time varying then an e.m.f. V2 is induced in coil 2 with a
magnitude
d 12
V2 =
dt
If the second coil has N2 turns then
d 12
V2 = N 2
dt

Figure 5.3
Now the flux density at each and every point on the surface area of the coil 2 is
directly proportional to I1, provided that the intervening medium has a linear
magnetisation characteristic. This follows from the Biot-Savart law. Therefore
N 2 12 I1
Or
N 2 12 = M 12 I1 (5.19)
Where M12 is a constant known as the mutual inductance of circuit 2 with

circuit 1.
d 12 dI
V2 = N 2 = M 12 1 (5.20)
dt dt
The product N212 is referred to as the flux linkages of circuit 2 due to the current
I1. If we use the symbol for flux linkages, we can write
12
M 12 = (5.21)
I1
The units of mutual inductance are the same as the units of self inductance. Let
the mean circumference of the steel ring in Figure 5.4 be l, the cross sectional area
be A and let the windings 1 and 2 carry currents I1 and I2 through turns N1 and N2
respectively. Assume that the steel is being worked on a linear potion of its
magnetisation characteristic at a point where the relative permeability is r.

Figure 5.4
Assume a steady current I1 in coil 1. This establishes a magnetic field strength H

in the core which is determined by the circuital law as:
N1 I1
H=
l
The flux in the core due to I1 is then
AN1 I1
1 = 0 r (5.22)
l
If there is no leakage, then
12 = 1
Therefore
N1 N 2 I1
12 = 0 r
l
and
AN1 N 2
M 12 = 0 r (5.23)
l
The mutual inductance of circuit 1 with circuit 2 is given by:
AN1 N 2
M 21 = 0 r
l

Therefore
M 12 = M 21
If two electric circuits can be coupled by a mutual flux then the mutual inductance
of one with respect to the other is the same as the mutual inductance of the other
with respect to the one.
5.5.2 Self Inductance

Let us allow the current in Figure 5.3 to vary with time. We can see from equation
(5.22) that the flux in the core is proportional to I1 and the flux linkages of coil 1
caused by the current I1 can be written as:
1 = N11 I1
We define the constant proportionality as the self inductance of coil 1, L1 so that
1 = N11 = L1 I1 (5.24)
There is an e.m.f. V1 induced around the turns of coil 1 by the changing flux
linkage, and
d 1 d dI
V1 = N1 = = L1 1 (5.25)
dt dt dt
To find L1 for Figure 5.4, assume a current I1 in coil 1. The flux through coil is
given by equation (5.22), and the flux linkages 1 are therefore
AN 21
1 = 0 1 I1
l
and
AN 21
L1 = 0 1
l
Following the same procedure, an expression for the self inductance L2 of coil 2
can be obtained.

If we multiply L1 by L2 and take the square root we can show that:
M = L1 L2
This is a special case because the flux produced by the coil 1 passes through coil
2. In the more general case only a fraction of the flux produced by loop 1 passes
through loop 2 and the relationship between the mutual and self inductances is
given by:
M = k L1 L2
Where the constant k is known as the coefficient of coupling.
5.6 TYPES OF INDUCTOR AND INDUCTANCE

Inductors are devices which promote inductance, ie they are designed to have a
great ability to hold magnetic energy. Inductors are generally made to have a fixed
value of inductance, but some are variable. The symbols for fixed and variable
capacitors are shown in Figure 5.5.
Figure 5.5: Circuit symbols for inductors
Inductors, unlike resistors and capacitors, cannot be considered as pure elements.

Most resistors can be considered to be purely resistive and likewise most
capacitors can be considered to be purely capacitive. Inductors always introduce
inductance but also resistance into a circuit.
Inductance is the ratio of flux linkages to current, i.e the flux linking the turns
through which it appears to pass. Any circuit must comprise at least a single turn,
and therefore the current in the circuit sets up a flux, which links the circuit itself.
It follows that any circuit has inductance. However the inductance can be
negligible unless the circuit includes a coil so that the number of turns ensures

high flux linkage or the circuit is large enough to permit high flux-linkage. The
latter infers a transmission line, which is effectively long.
Example 5.1
The fields winding of a dc electromagnet is wound with 960 turns and has
resistance of 50 . When the exciting voltage is 230 V, the magnetic flux linking
the coil is 0.005 Wb. Determine the self-inductance of the coil and the energy
stored in the magnetic fields.
Solution
Current through coil = 230/50 = 4.6 A
= 0.005 Wb, N = 960

N 960 0.005
L= = = 1.04 H
I 4.6
1 2 1
Energy Stored = LI = 1.04 4.62 = 11.84 J
2 2
Example 5.2
A circuit has 1000 turns enclosing a magnetic circuit 20 cm2 of cross-sectional.
With 4 A, the flux density is 1.0 Wb/m2 and with 9 A, it is 1.4 Wb/m2. Find the
mean value of the inductance between these current limits and the induced emf if
the current falls from 9 A to 4 A in 0.05 seconds.
Solution
d d dB
L=N = N ( BA) = NA
dI dI dI
4
= 1000 20 10 (1.4 1) /(9 4)
= 0.16 H
dI
Since EL = L dI = (9 4) = 5, dt = 0.05 s
dt
dI 5
EL = L = 0.16 = 16 V
dt 0.05

Download the PowerPoint slide from

http://www.nadn.navy.mil/EE/ee301/Slides/14_Inductors.ppt to enhance your
understanding on this topic.
dI
The unit of inductance is Henry. The emf induced in the circuit is e = L .
dt
Inductance is defined as flux linkage per ampere.
Inductor can store an energy. The formulae use to compute the energy stored
1
is EL = LI 2 .
2
Self inductance arises when an emf is induced due to change of flux linkage
created by its associated current.
When the magnetic field of one coil links with a second coil, the coils are sald
to be mutually linked and they have mutual inductance.
Coil Inductor
Inductance

Topic X Introduction
toAlternating
6 Voltageand
Current
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define sinusoidal waveform and measure its characteristics;
2. Calculate the average and rms value of current and voltage; and
3. Explain the generation of an alternating emf.
X INTRODUCTION
In order to understand alternating current systems, we first need to be familiar
with the terms and methods of analysis relating to alternating systems. In this
chapter we shall be introduced to method of generating an alternating e.m.f and
waveforms. Most waveforms are basically sinusoidal. Variation in waveforms
makes it difficult to describe the equivalent value. In this topic we shall also be
introduced to the root mean square value, which indicates the average heating
value of a current.

86 X TOPIC 6 INTRODUCTION TO ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
6.1 THE SINE WAVE

The sine wave is the fundamental type of alternating current (a.c.) and alternating
voltage. It is also referred to as a sinusoidal wave or, simply, sinusoid. The
electrical service provided by the power company is in the form of sinusoidal
voltage and current. In addition, other types repetitive waveforms are composites
of many individual sine waves called harmonics.
Sine waves, or sinusoids, are produced by two types of sources: rotating electrical
machines (ac generator) or electronic oscillator circuits, which are used in
instruments commonly known as electronic signal generators.
ACTIVITY 6.1
What differentiates the cosine wave from the sine wave?
6.2 ALTERNATING SYSTEM

In alternating system, the magnitudes of the voltage and of the current vary in a
repetitive manner. Examples of such repetitive currents are shown in Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1: Alternating current waveforms
A current which varies as suggested in Figure 6.1 is known as an alternating

current. It flows in one direction and then in the other. Alternating current can be
abbreviated to a.c., hence a system with such an alternating current is known as an
a.c. system. The curves relating current to time are known as waveforms. The
sinusoidal waveform is the most important, because almost all electrical power
supplies involve sinusoidal alternating current, which is derived from sinusoidal
alternating voltages.

TOPIC 6 INTRODUCTION TO ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT W 87
6.3 GENERATION OF AN ALTERNATING E.M.F

Figure 6.2 shows a loop AB carried by a spindle DD rotated at a constant speed in
an anticlockwise direction in a uniform magnetic field due to poles NS.
Figure 6.2: Generation of an alternating e.m.f
The ends of the loop are brought out to two slip rings C1 and C2, attached to but
insulated from DD. Bearing on these rings are carbon brushes E1 and E2, which
are connected to an external resistor R. When the plane of the loop is horizontal,
the two sides A and B are moving parallel to the direction of the magnetic flux.
Therefore, no flux is being cut and no e.m.f is being generated in the loop.
In Figure 6.3(a), the vertical dotted lines represent lines of magnetic flux and loop
AB is shown after it has rotated through an angle from the horizontal position,
namely the position of zero e.m.f. Suppose the peripheral velocity of each side
of the loop to be meters per second, then this peripheral velocity can be
represented by the length of a line AL drawn at right angles to the plane of the
loop as shown in Figure 6.3. We can resolve AL into two components AM and AN,
perpendicular and parallel respectively to the direction of the magnetic flux, as
shown in Figure 6.3(b).
Since MLA = 90 MAL = MAO =
Therefore AM = AL sin = v sin

Figure 6.3: Instantaneous values of generated e.m.f
The e.m.f generated in A is due entirely to the component of the velocity

perpendicular to the magnetic field. Hence, if B is the flux density in Teslas and l
is the length in meters of each of the parallel sides A and B of the loop, then
e.m.f generated in conductor = d/dt volts and

e.m.f generated in one side of loop = B/v sin volts and
Total e.m.f generated in loop = 2B/v sin volts (6.1)
i.e: the generated e.m.f is proportional to sin . When = 90, the plane of the
loop is vertical and both sides of the loop are cutting the magnetic flux at the
maximum rate, so that the generated e.m.f is then at its maximum value Em. From
the above expression, it follows that when = 90, Em = 2B/v volts.
If b = breadth of the loop in meters

n = speed of rotation in revolutions/second,
Then v = bn meters/second
and Em = 2Bl bn volts

= 2 BAn volts
where A = lb = area of loop in square meters.

If the loop is replaced by a coil of N turns in series, each turn having an area of A
square meters, maximum value of e.m.f generated in coil;
Em = 2 BanN volts (6.2)
And instantaneous value of e.m.f generated in coil
Em sin = 2 BAnN sin volts (6.3)
This e.m.f can be represented by a sine wave as depicted in Figure 6.4, where Em
represents the maximum value of the e.m.f and Em sin is the value after the loop
has rotated through an angle from the position of zero e.m.f.
Figure 6.4: Sine wave of e.m.f
When the loop has rotated through 180 or radians, the e.m.f is again zero.
When is varying between 180 and 360 ( and 2 radians) , side A of the loop
is moving towards the right in Figure 6.2 and is therefore cutting the magnetic
flux in the opposite direction to that during the first half revolution.
Hence, we regard the e.m.f as positive while is varying between 0 and 180. It
is negative while is varying between 180 and 270 whereby the value of the
e.m.f increases from zero to Em. It then decreases to zero as varies between
270 and 360. Subsequent revolutions of the loop merely produce a repetition of
the e.m.f wave.
Each repetition of a variable quantity, recurring at equal intervals, is termed a

cycle, and the duration of one cycle is termed period (or periodic time). The
number of such cycles that occur in one second is termed as the frequency of that
quantity. The unit of frequency is hertz (Hz).

6.4 WAVEFORM TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

In consideration of alternating systems, it will be helpful to consider the
commonly use terms.
Waveform
The variation of a quantity such as voltage or current shown on a graph to a base
of time or rotation is a waveform.
Cycle
Each repetition of a variable quantity, recurring at equal intervals, is termed a
cycle.
Figure 6.5: Cycles and periods
Period
The duration of one cycle is termed its period. Figure 6.5 illustrates a variety of
situations.
Instantaneous Value
Instantaneous value is the magnitude of a waveform at any instant in time (or
position of rotation). Instantaneous values are denoted by lower case symbols
such as e, v and i.
Peak Value
The maximum instantaneous value measured from its zero value is known as its
peak value.
Peak to Peak Value

The maximum variation between the maximum positive instantaneous value and
the maximum negative instantaneous value is the peak to peak value. For a
sinusoidal waveform, this is twice the peak value. The peak to peak value is Epp or
Vpp or Ipp.

Peak Amplitude
The maximum instantaneous value measured from the mean value of a waveform
is the peak amplitude. The peak amplitude is Em or Vm or Im. The peak amplitude
is generally described as the maximum value. Hence the maximum voltage has
the symbol Vm.
The relationships between peak value, peak to peak value and peak amplitude
(maximum value) are illustrated in Figure 6.6.
Figure 6.6: Peak values
Frequency
The number of cycles that occur in 1 second is termed the frequency of that
quantity. Frequency is measured in Hertz. The frequency f is related to the period
T by the relation
1
f = (6.4)
T
Where f is the frequency in hertz and T is the period in seconds. Assuming each
graph to be drawn to the same scale of time, the effect of increasing the frequency
is shown in Figure 6.7. The diagrams assume frequencies of 1 kHz, 2 kHz and
2.5 kHz.
T
Figure 6.7: Effect on waveforms by varying frequency
6.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FREQUENCY,

SPEED AND NUMBER OF POLE PAIRS
The waveform of the e.m.f generated in an ac generator undergoes one complete
cycle of variation when the conductors move past a north (N) and a south (S)
pole; and the shape of the wave over the negative half is exactly the same as that
over the positive half. This symmetry of the positive and negative half cycles does
not necessarily hold for waveforms of voltage and current in circuits incorporating
rectifiers or transistors.
If an ac generator has p pairs or poles and if its speed is n revolutions per second,
then
Frequency = f = no. of cycles per second

= no. of cycles per revolution no. of revolution
per second.
f = pn hertz (6.5)
Thus if a two-pole machine is to generate an e.m.f having a frequency of 50 Hz,

then from expression (6.5),
50 = 1 n
Speed = 50 revolutions per second
= 50 60 = 3000 r/min
6.6 AVERAGE AND R.M.S VALUES OF

SINUSOIDAL CURRENTS AND VOLTAGES
If Im is the maximum value of a current which varies sinusoidally as shown in
Figure 6.8, the instantaneous value I is represented by
I = I m sin

where is the angle in radians from instant of zero current.
Figure 6.8: Average and r.m.s values of a sinusoidal current
For a very small interval d radians, the area of the shaded strip is i.d Ampere-
radians. The use of the unit ampere radian avoid converting the scale on the
horizontal axis from radians to seconds, therefore total area enclosed by the
current wave over half cycle is:

= I m sin .d = I m [ cos ]0

i.d
0 0
= I m [ 1 1]
= 2 I m ampere-radians
Average value of current over a half cycle is:
Area enclosed over half cycle 2 I ( amperes radian )

= m
Length of base over half cycle (radians)
i.e. I av = 0.637 I m amperes (6.6)

If the current is passed through the resistor having resistance R ohms,

instantaneous heating effect = i2R watts.
The variation of i2R during a complete cycle is shown in Figure 6.8(b). During
interval d radians, heat generated is i2R. d watts-radians and is represented by
the area of the shaded strip. Hence heat generated during the first half cycle is area
enclosed by the i2R curve and is
i R.d = I m R sin .d
2 2 2
0 0
2
I
R (1 cos 2 ) d
2 0
= m

I m2 1
= R sin 2
2 2 0

= I m2 R watt-radians
2
Average heating effect over half cycle
area enclosed by i 2 R curve over half cycle

=
length of base
( / 2 ) I m2 R ( watt-radians ) 1 I 2 R watts
= = m (6.7)
( radians ) 2
If I is the value of direct current through the same resistance to produce the same
heating effect;
1 2
I 2R = I m R watts
2
Im
Therefore I = = 0.707 I m (6.8)
2

Since the voltage across the resistor is directly proportional to the current, it
follows that the relationships derived for current also apply to voltage.
Hence in general, average value of a sinusoidal current or voltage is:
0.637 maximum value
Therefore I av = 0.637 I m (6.9)
r.m.s. value of a sinusoidal current or voltage is

0.707 maximum value
I = 0.707Im (6.10)
From expressions (6.9) and (6.10), form factor of a sine wave is:
0.707 maximum value

0.637 maximum value
k f = 1.11 (6.11)
And peak or crest value factor of a sine wave is:
Maximum value
0.707 maximum value
k p = 1.414 (6.12)
Example 6.1
An alternating current of frequency 50 Hz has a maximum value of 100 A. Find
the expression of the instantaneous value. Hence, determine the
1
(a) Instantaneous current at time t = s.
30
(b) The time taken when the current increase to 96 A for the 1st time.

Solution
Since i = I m sin t
= 100 sin ( 2 ft )
= 100 sin ( 2 50 ) t
= 100 sin (100 ) t
1
(a) Given t = s,
30
1
i = 100 sin 100
30
= 86.8 A
(b) i = 100 sin (100 )t

96 = 100 sin (100 )t
96
(100 )t = sin 1 = 1.287
120
1.287
t = = 4.097 ms
100
EXERCISE 6.1
An alternating voltage of sinusoidal waveform has the instantaneous

voltage of v = 141.4 sin 377t. Determine the value of
(a) Rms voltage
(b) Frequency
(c) The instantaneous value when t = 3 ms?

The sine wave is the alternating periodic waveform.

One cycle consists of positive and negative quantity.
Power dissipated in the capacitor and inductor is equal to zero.
The power dissipated as heat when current floe through the resistor is known
as active power.
E.m.f Sinusoidal waveform

Frequency Waveform

Topic X SinglePhase
Seriesand
7 Parallel
Circuits
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Analyse ac circuits containing resistance (inductive reactance or
capacitive reactance);
2. Identify circuit containing any form of series impedance;
3. Explain the simple networks containing impedances in parallel; and
4. explain the admittance of an ac circuit.
X INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we are investigating the steady state response of a circuit due to
alternating current source. All passive elements such as resistor, inductor
and capacitor will be discussed and their behaviour either individually or in
combination, will be analysed. The concept of phasors will be introduced as this
will ease the analysis of single phase circuits.
7.1 BASIC A.C. CIRCUITS

The source voltage in an alternating current (a.c.) may be represented as:
v = Vm sin t (7.1)

TOPIC 7 SINGLE PHASE SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS W 99
and the current as:
i = I m sin t (7.2)
The amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage and current are Vm and Im respectively
while the frequency is in rad/sec. The sinusoidal voltage and current above are
said to be in phase as there is no difference between the two and this can be seen
from Figure 7.1 which shows both waveforms coincide horizontally even though
having different amplitudes.
Figure 7.1: A.C voltage and current in phase with each other
However, if the a.c. voltage across an element is given by (7.1) and the current
flowing in the element is given by:
I = I m sin ( t + ) (7.3)
Then the current is said to lead the voltage by radians, or the voltage and
current in the element are out of phase by radians. This is illustrated in
Figure 7.2, where we can see that the current reaches its peak value earlier than
the voltage. Thus a point i(t) is reached in time ahead of the corresponding point
of v(t). Note that the frequency of both signals is the same i.e .
Figure 7.2: Voltage and current out of phase by radians

100 X TOPIC 7 SINGLE PHASE SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
7.2 A.C. VOLTAGE AND CURRENT IN A

RESISTIVE, INDUCTIVE AND CAPACITIVE
CIRCUITS
If the only element in an a.c. circuit is a resistor, the voltage across it is in phase
with the current flowing through it. The phase difference between voltage and
current across a resistor is zero as shown in Figure 7.3.
Figure 7.3: Voltage and current across a resistor
The voltage across a resistor is given by Ohms Law as: Vr = iR
if Vr = Vm sin t
Vm
then ir = sin t (7.4)
R
Vm
where = = Im
R
SELF-CHECK 7.1
Will there be a phase difference if the resistor is replaced with an

inductor?
In a purely inductive circuit, the relation between the voltage across it and its
current is given by:
di (t )
Vl (t ) = L (7.5)
dt

The expression for current can be found by integrating equation (7.5)

i (t ) t
1

i (0)
dil (t ) =
L 0
Vl (t )dt
t
1
il (t ) i (0) = Vl (t ).d (t )
L0
If Vl (t ) = Vm sin t , then;
1 Vm
il (t ) i (0) = cos t
L
By assuming that coefficients are zero, then;
Vm
il (t ) = cos t
(t )
Vm
= sin ( t 90)
(t )
From the above relationship, there is a phase difference of 90 between the current
and voltages or the voltage leads the current by 90. This is illustrated by the
waveform in Figure 7.4.
Figure 7.4: Voltage and current across an inductor

ACTIVITY 7.1
It has been mentioned above that for a purely inductive circuit, the
voltage leads the current by 90. Is this the same for a purely capacitive
circuit?
7.3 A.C. VOLTAGE AND CURRENT IN A

CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT
The current and voltage across a capacitor is given by the following relation:
dv(t )
I c (t ) = C (7.7)
dt
If v(t ) = Vm sin t
d (Vm sin t )
I c (t ) = C
dt
= C Vm cos t
= C Vm sin ( t + 90)
Vm
= sin ( t + 90) (7.8)
(1/ C )
Observe that there is also a phase difference of 90 but this time the current leads
the voltage or the voltage lags the current by 90. This is illustrated in Figure 7.5.
Figure 7.5: Voltage and current in a capacitive circuit

7.4 PHASOR CONCEPT IN A.C. ANALYSIS

We have seen how the a.c. voltage and current can be represented in its graphical
form as well as written in the time domain form as follows:
V (t ) = Vm cos t
(7.9)
= I m cos ( t + )
There is another method of expressing equation (7.9) in complex form using the
Euler identity, where,
e j ( t + ) = cos ( t + ) + j sin ( t + )
Therefore (7.9) may be written as:
V (t ) = Re Vm e jt
i (t ) = Re I m e j (t + )
where Re stands for Real part of. We can then omit the expression Re
V (t ) = Vm e jt
i (t ) = I m e j (7.10)
Equation (7.10) may be written as:
V = Vm 0
I = Im (7.11)
Equation (7.11) is in phasor notation which describes the value of magnitude and
phase angle of a complex quantity. v(t) and i(t) are in time domain form while
V and I are phasors in frequency domain form. We can also represent the phasor
V and I graphically as shown in Figure 7.6 which is also known as phasor
diagram.

Figure 7.6: Phasor diagram of V and I of equation (7.11)
7.5 A.C. CIRCUIT WITH RESISTOR AND

INDUCTOR IN SERIES
Consider the RL circuit shown in Figure 7.7. We will use phasors to write the
steady state current I when the voltage source is vs = vm cos t.
Figure 7.7
Using Kirchoffs voltage loop equation:
di
vs = vL + vr = L + Ri (7.12)
dt
Since vs = vm cos t
{
= Re Vm e jt } (7.13)
and I is assumed to have phase angle of
I = I m cos ( t + )
= Re { I m e j (t + ) } (7.14)

Putting (7.14) and (7.13) into (7.12), omitting Re
Vm e jt = ( Lj I m + RI m ) e j (t + )
Again omitting e jt
Vm e j 0 = ( Lj I m + RI m ) e j
We recognise Vm e j 0 and I m e j are phasors, therefore
V = ( j L + R ) I and
V
I=
( j L + R )
The phasor diagram for Vr, V1 and Vs is shown in Figure 7.8. In general, Vs may
not be assumed as having zero phase angles.
Figure 7.8: Phasors diagram for Vr, V1 and Vs
Table 7.1: Time Domain and Phasor Relationships for R, L and C
Element Time Domain Frequency Domain

Resistor V = Ri V = RI
Inductor di V = j LI
V =L
dt
Capacitor dv I = j CV or
I =C or
dt 1
V= I
1 j C
C
V= idt

7.6 IMPEDANCE AND ADMITTANCE

The impedance of an element is the ratio of the phasor voltage to the phasor
current and denoted by the symbol Z, therefore,
V
Z= (7.15)
I
The above is also called Ohms Law in phasor notation.
Since Z is complex number, it may be written in several forms as follows:
Z = Z
= Ze j
= R + jX
Where R is the real part and X is the imaginary part of the complex number Z. R is
also known as the resistive part of the impedance while X is the reactive part or
reactance. Note that Z, R and X are all measured in ohms. For an inductor, the
reactance is given as:
1
XL = L while for a capacitor the reactance is X c =
j C
The magnitude and phase angle of the impedance Z can be found as:
Z= {R 2
+ X 2}
X
= tan 1
R
Figure 7.9: Graphical representation of impedance

The reciprocal of impedance is called the admittance and is denoted by the

symbol Y.
1
Y
Z
It is analogous to conductance in resistive circuits therefore the unit is also

Siemens, abbreviated as S.
Since Z = R + jX
1
Y =
R + jX
R jX
=
R2 + X 2
G + jB
7.7 A.C. IN SERIES RLC CIRCUIT
Figure 7.10: A series RLC circuit
A series RLC circuit shown in Figure 7.10 contains a resistor, an inductor and a
capacitor connected in series. Since Ohms Law, Kirchoffs Law and other circuit
theorem can be applied in alternating current circuit, we can write Kirchoffs
Voltage Law around the loop to obtain:
RI + X L I + X C I = Vs
( R + X L + X C ) I = Vs

Since XL and XC are imaginary, the magnitude of impedance Z for the circuit is:
Z = R2 + ( X L + X C )
2
= R 2 + ( L 1/ C )
2
and the phase angle is: = tan 1

[ L 1/ C ]
R
Visit http://www.electronics.vispa.com/data/itemsmr/rcl_ac.htm to understand

further the general formulas used to solve problems related to RLC A.C. circuits.
7.8 PARALLEL A.C. NETWORK
Figure 7.11: Admittances in parallel
Consider a set of parallel admittances shown in Figure 7.11. The equivalent

admittance YT is given by:
YT = Y1 + Y2 + ..........Yn
In the case of two parallel admittances, we can write:
YT = Y1 + Y2
and ZT = 1/ YT = 1/ (Y1 + Y2 ) = Z1Z 2 / Z1 + Z 2
where ZT is the equivalent impedance.
Similarly, the concepts of voltage division and current division hold for
alternating current phasors.

Example 7.1
Find the steady state voltage Vs for the circuit of Figure 7.12, given is = 10 cos
1000t, R = 10 , L = 10 mH and C = 100 F.
I s = 10 0
Figure 7.12
Solution
Writing the Kirchoffs current law at node A using phasor notation: The source
current is represented by the phasor current:
But I s = 10 0
Y1 = 1/ Z1 = 1/10
Y2 = 1/ Z 2 = I / ( R + j L ) = 1/ (10 + j10 )
Y3 = 1/ Z 3 = j C j /10
Substituting the values into Is = YV
10 = 1/10 + 1/ (10 + j /10 ) + j /10 V
10 = ( 0.15 + j 0.05 ) V
10 0
V =
0.158 18.4
= 63.3 18.4
In time domain form, V can be written as:
V (t ) = 63.3 cos (1000t 18.4 ) V

Example 7.2
Find the current and the voltage drop for each circuit element. Given the
sinusoidal voltage is V(t) = 100 cos (1000t + 20).
Solution
Since V(t) = 100 cos (1000t + 20) V, rewrite in the phasor form 100 20 V.
The total voltage across 50 resistor, 40 mH inductor and 10 F capacitor are the
same as the source of 100 20 V. The current flow through all these three
elements I = V/Z.
The impedance of the circuit is:
Z = 50 + j (1000 )( 40 mH ) j / (1000 10 F ) = 50 + j 40 j100
Thus the impedance, Z = 50 j 60 = 78.1 50.19
I = V / Z = (100 20 ) / ( 78.1 50.19 )

I = 1.28 70.19 A
V50 = IR = 64.02 70.19 V

V40 mH = IZ = 51.2 160.19 V
V10 F = IZ = 128 20.19 V

A.C. system analysis can be simplified using complex number in polar form.
Current and voltage waveform are said to be in phase when ac source is
apply to the resistive circuit.
The current is said to lead voltage by 90 degree when ac source is connected
to the capacitive circuit.
The voltage is said to lead current by 90 degree when ac source is connected
to the inductive circuits.
A.C. circuit Kirchoffs voltage loop equation

Euler identity RLC circuit

Topic X ThreePhase
Systems
8
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the generation of three-phase e.m.f;
2. Describe the delta and star connection of three phase;
3. Calculate the voltage and currents in the delta and star connection; and
4. Calculate the power in a three phase system.
X INTRODUCTION
In the heavy usage of electrical energy for industrial and domestic consumption, a
simple single circuit is no longer adequate. A more sophisticated and invariably
more complex circuit known as polyphase circuit is the solution for heavy power
utilisation of electrical energy.
The most common system used currently is the three phase circuit which employs
voltage sources consisting of 3 voltages substantially equal in magnitude and
displaced by phase angles of 120. The three individual voltages of the three
phase source may each be connected to its own independent circuit. It results in
three separate single phase systems. However, symmetrical electrical connections
may be made among the three voltages and associated elements to form a three
phase systems to be discussed in this topic.

TOPIC 8 THREE PHASE SYSTEMS W 113
8.1 GENERATION OF THREE PHASE VOLTAGES

An elementary three phase, a two pole generator is shown in Figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1: Elementary three phase, two pole generator
The armature consists of three pairs of coils, aa, bb and cc whose axes are
displaced 120 in space from each other. These pairs of winding are shown
schematically in two different ways in Figure 8.2.
Figure 8.2: Schematic representations of three pairs of windings
The rotor carries field winding which is excited by direct current through slip
rings. When this field is excited and rotated, voltages will be generated in the
three windings in accordance to Faradays Law.
Since the filed structure is designed such that the flux is distributed sinusoidally
over the poles, the flux linking any phase will then vary sinusoidally with time,

114 X TOPIC 8 THREE PHASE SYSTEMS
hence sinusoidal voltages are induced in the three phases. The voltages are
displaced 120 in time as shown in Figure 8.3.
Figure 8.3: Voltages generated in the three windings
The phasor diagram of the voltage is shown in Figure 8.4.
Figure 8.4: Phasor diagram of generated voltages
The three phase voltages of Figure 8.3 are equal in magnitude and frequency but
with the phases displaced by 120 electrical degrees. This characteristic defines a
balanced three phase system. An unbalanced system may deviate from these
characteristics and not treated on this module. Most practical applications are
concerned with balanced systems.
ACTIVITY 8.1
Do three phase systems use a neutral wire?

8.2 STAR CONNECTION FOR THREE PHASE

SYSTEMS
To utilise the three phase voltages, the six terminals a, a, b, b, c and c of the
windings may be interconnected to supply a three phase system. There are two
possible ways which has been adopted universally, the first is known as the star or
Y or wye connection as shown in Figure 8.5(a).
With this type of connection, terminals a, b and c are joined to form the
neutral o and the three terminals are taken from a, b and c. If the neutral
conductor is brought out as dotted line shown in Figure 8.5(a), the system is
known as a 4-wire 3-phase system, otherwise it is a 3-wire 3-phase system.
(a) (b)
Figure 8.5: Three phase connection (a) star (b) delta
8.3 DELTA CONNECTION FOR THREE PHASE

SYSTEMS
The other connection is the delta connection where terminals a and b, b and
c, c and a are joined individually as shown in Figure 8.5(b). In this type of
connection, no neutral wire exists and only a 3-wire 3-phase system is formed.
8.4 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT FOR STAR

CONNECTION
Figure 8.6 shows the phasor diagrams of voltages in a star connected three phase
system. The phase sequence or order of voltages is abc, which means that phase a
voltage reaches its maximum 120 before phase b voltage which in turn reaches its
maximum 120 before that of phase c. The use of double subscripts such as in Eab
indicate the direction of voltage is from b to a, the first subscript is where the

arrow points to. The three voltages Eab, Ebc and Eca are the line voltages or line-to-
line voltages; while the phase voltages are Eoa, Eob, and Eoc, also called line to
neutral voltages.
Figure 8.6: Phasor diagram for voltages in star connected systems
Applying Kirchoffs voltage law in the star connected circuit of Figure 8.5(a), the
line voltage Eab is given by:
Eab = Eao + Eob = Eoa + Eob
= 3 Eob 30 (8.1)
This is proven by the phasor diagram of Figure 8.6.
With the similar proof, it can be shown that:
Ebc = 3 Eoc 30 and (8.2)
Eca = 3 Eoa 30 (8.3)
The equation states that in a star connected three phase system, the line voltage is
3 times the corresponding phase voltage.

It is quite obvious from the circuit of Figure 8.5(a) that for star connected systems,
the line currents and phase currents are equal. The corresponding current phasors
are shown in Figure 8.7.
Figure 8.7: Current phasor diagram of star connected systems
8.5 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT FOR DELTA

CONNECTION
When the three phase system is delta connected as shown in Figure 8.5(b), it is
obvious that the line voltages and phase voltages are equal. The phasor diagram is
simply that of Figure 8.8.
Figure 8.8: Voltage phasor diagram of delta connected systems

The corresponding current phasor diagram is shown in Figure 8.9, where the
phase currents are Iab, Ibc and Ica. Again the order of subscripts indicates current
directions.
Figure 8.9: Current phasor dagram for delta connected systems
Using Kirchhoffs Current Law on node a in Figure 8.5(b),
I oA = I ba + I ca = I ab = I ca
= 3 I ca 30 (8.4)
and similarly:
I bB = 3 I ab 30 (8.5)
and
I aC = 3 I bc 30 (8.6)
The equation above state that for delta connected system, the line current is 3
times the phase currents.

8.6 POWER IN A BALANCED THREE PHASE

SYSTEM
Consider again the generated three phase voltages of Figure 8.3. Writing the
equations for the instantaneous voltages described by the curves:
Phase a voltage = eaa = 2 E p cos t (8.7)
Phase b voltage = ebb = 2 E p cos (t 120) (8.8)
Phase c voltage = ecc = 2 E p cos (t 240) (8.9)
where Ep is the rms value of the phase voltages. Assuming the corresponding
currents have a phase difference of with the phase voltages, we can write the
equations for the instantaneous currents as:
Phase a current = I a = 2 I p cos (t + ) (8.10)
Phase b current = I b = 2 I p cos (t 120) (8.11)
Phase c current = I c = 2 I p cos (t 240) (8.12)
where Ip is the rms value of phase current.
The instantaneous power in each phase can then be written as follows:
pa = eaa ia = E p I p cos [(2 t + ) + cos ] (8.13)
pb = ebbib = E p I p cos [(2 t + 240) + cos ] (8.14)
pc = ecc ic = E p I p cos [(2 t + 480) + cos ] (8.15)
The total instantaneous power for all three phases is summed up as:
P = pa + pb + pc = 3E p I p cos

Since the sum of the cosine terms which involve time (the first terms in square
bracket) is zero. Therefore it can be stated that the total instantaneous power for a
balanced three phase system is independent of time and is therefore constant. Its
magnitude equal to 3 times the average power per phase. The situation is clearly
shown in Figure 8.10.
Figure 8.10: Total instantaneous power in three phase systems
A simple three-phase generator consists of three conductive loop separated by

120.
Three advantages of three phases over single phase are a smaller copper cross
section for the same power delivered to the load, constant power delivered to
the load and a constant rotating magnetic field.
A balanced load is one in which all the impedances are equal.
Delta connection Three-phase generator

Star connection

Topic X Transformer
9
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the principles of operation of the transformer;
2. Describe the transformer equivalent circuit;
3. Explain the e.m.f equation of the transformer;
4. Calculate the efficiency of the transformer; and
5. Explain the concept of leakage flux.
X INTRODUCTION
A transformer in electrical engineering is a magnetic device which consists of two
or more multi-turn coils wound on a common core. Its major use is in the supply
and distribution of alternating current (a.c.) electrical power.
Transformers are capable of stepping up or down a.c. voltages and current. For
the purpose of transmitting electrical power over long distances such as in the
national grid, power utilities use step up transformers to raise the voltage from
10 kV at the power stations to 200 kV or more. At the receiving end, voltage is
then stepped down by transformers to 415 volt or 250 volt for industrial or
domestic customers.
Almost all power supplies for electrical appliances or circuits which operate on
lower voltages must have step down transformers. Another use of transformers is
in the isolation of one part of circuits to another.

122 X TOPIC 9 TRANSFORMER
9.1 BASIC TRANSFORMER ACTION

The emf E induced in a multi-turn coil due to current i is directly proportional to
the rate of change of current.
E = L(di / dt ) (9.1)
L is the self inductance of the coil. If the coil has N number of turns, the magnetic
flux produced is related to the current i through the equation:
= Li / N (9.2)
Therefore E becomes:
E = N ( d / dt ) (9.3)
Now consider two magnetically coupled coils as shown in Figure 9.1.
Figure 9.1: Voltage induction in a transformer
The flux produced by the first coil due to current i cuts through the second coil
inducing an emf E2. If the direction of winding of the second coil is the same as
for the first one, the induced voltage at the second terminal has a positive sign.
When there is no load connected to the second terminal the induced voltage is:
E2 = N 2 ( d / dt ) where N2 is the number of turns of the second coil.

TOPIC 9 TRANSFORMER W 123
Since = L1i / N1 we can write
E2 = ( L1 N 2 / N1 )(di / dt ) (9.4)
= M (di / dt ) (9.5)
where M is called the mutual inductance.
The above principle is used in transformers where the first coil is known as the
primary winding and the second one is called the secondary winding as they are
both wound around a core. In standard operation, the supply voltage is typically
applied to the primary and a load is connected to the secondary terminals. The
core functions are to provide both a physical structure for the windings as well as
a magnetic path so that the magnetic flux lines are concentrated in the vicinity of
the.....
The circuit symbol for a transformer is shown in Figure 9.2.
Figure 9.2: Circuit symbol for a transformer
M represents the mutual inductance of the coils, L1 and L2 are self inductances of
first and second coils respectively. The dot is used as a convention to determine
the polarity of the induced voltages in terms of the inducing current. The induced
voltage E2 is positive at the dot on the second coil if the inducing current i enters
the dot on the first coil.
A transformer in which the secondary voltage is greater than the primary voltage
is called a step up transformer. Similarly a step down transformer has a secondary
voltage which is less than the primary voltage. The amount of voltage which is
stepped up or down depends on the ratio of the number of secondary turns to the
number of primary turns which is known as turn ratio. Indeed in a transformer, the
ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is equal to the turn ratio, i.e.:
E2 / E1 = N 2 / N1 = n (9.6)
where n is the turn ratio.

Visit http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/transformer/ and try out the

interactive java tutorial on transformers. Notice what happens when you adjust the
number of windings of the coils.
9.2 CIRCUIT MODEL OF AN IDEAL

TRANSFORMER
An ideal transformer refers to a transformer model with a coupling coefficient
equal to unity, and specifically to the case where the primary and secondary
reactance are very large compared to the impedances connected to the transformer
terminals. This model represent specially designed iron core transformers for a
range of frequencies and is shown schematically in Figure 9.3 with a primary
winding of N1 turns and secondary winding of N2 turns.
Figure 9.3: Ideal transformers and load
For an ideal transformer, it can be shown that the ratio of self inductance L2 of
primary winding and that of the primary winding, L1 equals the1squares of the
turns ratio, thus:
L2 / L1 = ( N 2 / N1 ) 2 = n 2 (9.7)
We now define two important relations for an ideal transformer relating the
voltages and currents of the two windings. When a time varying voltage V1 is
applied on the primary terminals, a flux is established in the core such that the
counter emf E1 equals the applied voltage (winding resistance is assumed
negligible). Thus:
V1 = E1 = N1 (d / dt ) (9.8)

The core flux also links the secondary coils and produces an induced emf E2 and
an equal secondary terminal voltage V2 given by:
V2 = E2 = N 2 (d / dt ) (9.9)
From the ratio of equation (9.9) and (9.8):
V2 / V1 = N 2 / N1 = n (9.10)
Therefore an ideal transformer changes voltages in the direct ratio of the turns in
the two windings. A step up transformer would need more number of turns in the
secondary winding compared to that in the primary winding while the reverse is
true for a step down transformer.
When a load Z2 is connected to the secondary terminals as shown in the

transformers equivalent circuit of Figure 9.4, a current I2 and a magneto motive
flux (mmf) N2I2 are present in the secondary.
Figure 9.4: Equivalent circuit of an ideal transformer
This secondary mmf has to be counteracted in the primary to maintain balance of

voltages in the primary winding. A compensating primary mmf and current I1
must then exist such that:
N1 I1 = N 2 I 2 (9.11)
Therefore
I1 / I 2 = N 2 / N1 = n (9.12)

Thus the ideal transformer changes currents in inverse proportion to the turns
ratio.
From equations (9.10) and (9.12):
V2 = nV1 and I1 = nI 2
Therefore
V1 / I1 = ( I / n) 2 V2 / I 2 (9.13)
In terms of impedances:
Z1 Z 2 / n 2 (9.14)
Consequently as far as its effect is concerned when viewed from terminal AB in

Figure 9.4, the impedance Z2 in the secondary circuit may be replaced by
equivalent impedance Z1 in the primary circuit with the value given by equation
(9.14). The equivalent circuit of Figure 9.4 is then equivalent to the one shown in
Figure 9.5 below where Z2 has been transferred to the primary side of the
transformer and given the new value.
Figure 9.5: Equivalent Circuit of Transformer with Z2 referred to Primary
This concept is known as having the impedance Z2 referred to the primary side. In
the same fashion, voltages and currents in the transformer may also be referred to
one side or the other using equations (9.12) and (9.13).

ACTIVITY 9.1
After reading this sub-topic on ideal transformer, in your opinion, how
different would a non ideal transformer be? Share your opinions in
class.
9.3 CIRCUIT MODEL OF A NON IDEAL

TRANSFORMER
The above discussions apply for transformers which are assumed ideal and the
approach is used to learn the basic concepts of its operations. However an actual
transformer does not behave exactly like that as there are various effects which
have been neglected for ideal transformers. A detailed performance analysis of the
non ideal transformer is not included in this module, but the factors which have
been assumed negligible will be presented and how they affect transformer
performance.
(a) Winding Resistance

The ideal transformer assumes that winding resistance in both primary and
secondary winding is zero. In reality, these are taken into account and
depicted in the model as a resistance r1 and r2 in series with each winding.
Winding resistance in a transformer has the effect of reducing the voltage

across a secondary load. This is the reason for representing a voltage drop
across the winding resistance in the model.
(b) Leakage Reactance

In the ideal transformer the flux is assumed to be totally confined to the
core and entirely links both core. This is not true in practical situation as
there is always a certain amount of flux leakage from the core and
subsequently not all the flux links both winding. This is taken into account
as an inductance having a reactance xl1 and xl2 in series with the windings
and winding resistances. Magnetic leakage results in less voltage produced
as less flux is linked to the secondary.
(c) Exciting Current

As the permeability of the iron core is assumed very high in the ideal
transformer, it neglects the exciting current required to establish the flux. In
the non ideal case, it must be taken into account as an additional primary

current, Ie required to produce the resultant mutual flux. It is represented in

the model as having two components, one to represent eddy current losses in
the core due to the resultant flux, and the other a lossless susceptance which
is a function of the saturation of the iron core.
The resulting model for the non-ideal transformer is shown in Figure 9.6.
Figure 9.6: Model of a non-ideal transformer
9.4 TRANSFORMER POWER RATING

It is typical to rate a transformer in terms of the following parameters:
Apparent power rating in volt-amperes (VA)
Primary/secondary voltage in volt
Operating frequency in Hz
For example, a transformer may be rated as 2 kVA, 500/50, 50 Hz
9.5 TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY

In an ideal transformer power transferred to the load always equals the power in
the primary. In this case the efficiency of transformer equals 1 or 100%. This is
true regardless of the turn ratio. But when losses and voltage drops are considered
as in the non-ideal case, power in the secondary is always less than that in the
primary.
The efficiency of a transformer is a measure of the percentage of the input

power that is delivered to the output.
= ( Pout / Pin ) 100%
Most transformer using laminated iron core to reduce loss have efficiencies in
excess of 95%.
Transformer effect changes of voltage with virtually no loss of power. The

input is primary and the output is termed secondary.
The primary and secondary systems are connected by magnetic flux linkage.
Losses occur in a transformer due to the I2R losses in the winding. The losses
usually are sufficiently small under full-load condition that the efficiency is in
excess of 98%.
Ideal transformer Transformer

Non ideal transformer

Topic X Introduction
toMachine
10 Theory
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the role of electromagnetism in an electrical machine;
2. Describe the conversion process in a machine; and
3. Explain the energy and power conversion.
X INTRODUCTION
This topic introduces the energy conversion process whereby electrical energy is
converted to mechanical energy and vice versa by means of an electromagnetic
system. This is the basis of the electrical motor by which mechanical force is
produced. The reluctance motor is considered to develop an understanding of how
rotational torque is produced as a rotor tries to align with stator poles.
10.1 THE ROLE OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES

The transmission of electrical power by means of three-phase circuits and the use
of transformer have been introduced in the previous topics. Much electrical
energy is used to provide simple heat such as for cooking. Some heat conversion
is used to produce light as in the common light bulb. But much of electrical
energy is used to drive machines.
The simple electrical machine involves linear movement; these include the relay
and the contactor. Simply made rotating machines have few applications,
including the clock and stepper motors.

TOPIC 10 INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE THEORY W 131
10.2 CONVERSION PROCESS IN A MACHINE
SELF-CHECK 10.1
What is the difference between a motor and a generator?
An electromagnetic machine is one that links an electrical energy system to

another energy system by providing a reversible means of energy flow in its
magnetic field. Usually the energy system coupled to the electrical energy system
is a mechanical one; the function of a motor is to transfer electrical energy into
mechanical energy, while a generator converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
An electromagnetic system can develop a mechanical force in two ways:

(a) By alignment
(b) By interaction
The force of alignment can be illustrated by the arrangements as shown in

Figure 10.1.
Figure 10.1: Force of alignment (a) Force of attraction (b) Lateral force of alignment
In Figure 10.1(a), two poles are situated opposite one another, each is made of a
ferromagnetic material and a flux passes from the one to the other. It will try to
bring the poles together since this decrease the reluctance of the airgap in the
magnetic circuit and hence will increase the flux and consequently the stored
energy.

132 X TOPIC 10 INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE THEORY
In Figure 10.1(b), the poles are not situated opposite one another. The resultant
force tries to achieve greater stored magnetic energy by two component actions:
(a) By attraction of the poles towards one another as before
(b) By aligning the poles laterally.
If the poles move laterally, the cross sectional area of the airgap is increased and
the reluctance is reduced with consequence increase in the stored magnetic energy
as before. Both actions attempt to align the poles to the point of maximum stored
energy.
Many devices demonstrate the principle of the force of alignment.

Electromagnetic devices such as the relay shown in Figure 10.2 demonstrate the
force of alignment giving rise to linear motion.
Figure 10.2: Electromagnetic relay
When the coil is energised, a flux is set-up in the relay core and the airgap. The
surfaces adjacent to the airgap become magnetised and are attracted, and hence
pulling the armature plate in the direction indicated. The relays function is to
operate switches and it is used extensively in telephone exchanges.
The force of alignment can also be used to produce rotary motion, as in the
reluctance motor shown in Figure 10.3. The rotating piece, termed the rotor,
experiences radial forces in opposite directions, thereby canceling each other out.
The rotor also experiences a torque due to the magnetised rotor and pole surfaces
attempting to align themselves.

Figure 10.3: Reluctance motor
There are many applications involving the force of interactions to give rise to
rotary motion. These include the synchronous and induction machines as well as
the commutator machines.
A simple machine illustrating the principle involved is shown in Figure 10.4. By

passing a current through the coil, it experiences a force on each of the coil sides
resulting in a torque about the axis rotation. A practical machine requires many
conductors in order to develop a sufficient torque.
Figure 10.4: Rotary machine illustrating force of interaction
ACTIVITY 10.1
Compare the force of alignment to the force of interaction. In your

opinion, which force is better used to produce rotary motion?

10.3 MAGNETIC FIELD ENERGY

If the current in a coil having a constant inductance of L Henry grows at a uniform
1
rate from zero to i amperes in t seconds, the average value of the current is I
2
and the emf induced in the coil is ( L i / t ) volts. The product of the current and
the component of the applied voltage to neutralise the induce emf represents the
power absorbed by the magnetic field associated with the coil.
Hence average power absorbed by the magnetic field is:
1
Li / t watts
2
and total field absorbed by the magnetic field is:
1
Average power time = I Li / t t
2
1 2
W f = Li Joules
2
There are number of ways in which the inductance can be expressed.
L = N / i = / i = N 2 / S = N 2 0 r A / l
These expressions can be substituted in the energy relation to give
1 1 1
Wf = i = F = S 2
2 2 2
Sometimes the energy density can be of greater importance. In the proof of the
relationship of hysteresis loss in a magnetic core, it was shown that the energy
stored was proportional to the shaded area due to the B/H curve as shown in
Figure 10.5.

Figure 10.5: Stored energy diagram
In the case of an air gap, the B/H characteristic is straight and the energy stored is
given by
1
Wf = BH volume of air gap
2
If the air gap has a cross sectional area A and length l,
1
Wf = BH Al
2
1
= F
2
The stored energy density is thus given by
1
Wf = BH
2
= 0 H 2 / 2
W f = B 2 / 2 0
10.4 ENERGY BALANCE
Consider the electrical and mechanical systems. Because the conversion process
can take place in either direction, let both electrical and mechanical energies be
input energies to the system. It follows that output energy is mathematically a
negative input energy. The electrical and mechanical energies are WE and WM.

Then there is the internal system comprising the stored magnetic field energy Wf,
the stored mechanical energy Ws and the non-useful thermal energy (due to
i2R loss, friction etc) which is a loss W1. The arrangement is demonstrated in
Figure 10.6.
Figure 10.6: Energy balance diagram
Between any two states of the system, the energy balance may be expressed as
WE + WM = W f + WS + W1
Alternatively the energy rates of flow may be expressed as
pE + pM = dW f / dt + dWS / dt + dW1 / dt
In this topic, the basic machine will be idealised to a limited extent by separating
some of the losses as indicated in Figure 10.7.
Figure 10.7: Idealised energy balance diagram
It follows that the ideal and essential energy balance may be expressed as
dWE + dWM = dW f

Hence the power balance may be expressed as
pE = pM = dW f / dt
Finally, there are actions and reactions to consider. These are indicated in
Figure 10.8.
Figure 10.8: Actions and reactions in practical conversion system
On the electrical side the applied voltage is v and this is opposed by the reaction in
the form of the back e.m.f, e. The electrical power is
pE = vi
The rate of electrical energy conversion is ei. These two terms are only equal
when the i2R loss is either neglected or considered external to the conversion
process as in the idealised system of Figure 10.7.
On the mechanical side, the mechanical input force fM acts towards the conversion
system and moves in a similar directions, say with the velocity u. The reaction to
this is the magnetically developed force fE. These two forces are equal and
opposite only when the mechanical system is at rest or moves with uniform
velocity. The difference would otherwise give rise to acceleration and hence there
could not be steady-state conditions.
10.5 ENERGY AND POWER CONVERSION

There are several methods of demonstrating the division of energy and power of
which the following case is sufficient. Consider the attracted-armature relay
shown in Figure 10.9. It is assumed that the relay is to be energised with the result
that the relay closes.

Figure 10.9: Attracted-armature relay operation
The movement of the armature is in the direction x. Because the lengths of the
air gaps are decreasing, the inductance of the system increases; it can also be
noted that the velocity is:
U = dx / dt
Having noted these points, consider the general solution of the power balance. At
any instant
E = d / dt
= d ( Li ) / dt
= L. di / dt + i. dL / dt
pE = ei
= Li. di / dt + i 2 . dL / dt
1 2
and Wf = Li
2
1 2
dW f / dt = Li. di / dt + i . dL / dt
2
and pE + pM = dW f / dt

1 1
hence pM = i 2 . dL / dt = i 2 . dL / dx. dx / dt
2 2
1 1
= i 2 . dL / dx.(u ) = i 2 . dL / dx. u
2 2
= fEu
1
f E = i 2 . dL / dx
2
The above relation is an expression for the force of reaction developed by the
magnetic field and not for the mechanical force.
The expression for the rate of mechanical energy conversion pm is negative, ie the
machine acts as a motor and pM is an output. This requires that the mechanical
force acts away from the machine and is negative
Magnetic system optimises the stored energy by distorting the magnetic core
either by closing air-gaps or by aligning poles.
Rotating machines are based on the force of alignment principle.
The reluctance motors are the simplest which are singly-excited systems
Electromagnetic system Reluctance motors

Magnetic system

WORKED EXAMPLE FOR TOPIC 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY
Question
Description
Number
Objectives
To enhance the learners understanding on scientific
notations, the fundamental concepts of electric circuit and
its components, units used, their parameters and typical
symbols used for voltage, current, resistance etc.
You are given a basic electric components to be connected

form a complete electric circuit as follows:
Direct Current (dc) voltage from a battery with an
electromotive force () of 20 Volt (V)
A resistance of 10 ohm ()
A switch to control the circuit
Copper conductor cable to connect all the components to
form a complete electric circuit as mentioned above
Question 1 You are required to:

(a) Draw the electric circuit with all the components
connected as mentioned above.
(b) What should you do to energise the circuit?
(c) Calculate the current flowing in the circuit.
Solution
(a) The complete electric circuit with all the components

attached is as shown below:

WORKED EXAMPLE W 141
Figure 1.1
(b) By referring to the electric circuit drawn above, it will

only be energised if the control switch, S is closed thus
allowing the current, I to flow in a close circuit from the
positive polarity of the voltage source, V and back to
the negative polarity after passing through the circuit
(c) By using the Ohms Law,

Current, I = Voltage (V) Resistance (R)
Voltage Source, V = 20 V (Volt, V is the unit for
Voltage)
Resistance, R = 10 ohm () (Ohm () is the unit for
resistance)
V 20
Current, I = = =2 A
R 10

142 X WORKED EXAMPLE
Note
2 Ampere (A) is the amount of current when a number
of electrons having a charge of two Coulombs move
past a given point in one second (1 Coulomb =
6.25 1018 electrons)
1 Volt (V) is the potential difference (voltage) between
two points when one Joule of energy is used to move one
Coulomb of charge from one point to the other.
One ohm () is the resistance of a material if a voltage of

1 Volt (V) across if produces a current of one Ampere (A)
Question 2 Calculate the power dissipated (consumed by the resistor, R in

the same circuit.
Solution
The power dissipated in the resistor can be calculated by using
any of the following formulae.
V2
Power, P = V I = I 2 R =
R
P = V I = 20 2 = 40 W (Watt (W) is the unit for power)
Note: One Watt (W) is the amount of power consumed when

one Joule of energy is consumed in one second

Question 3 Calculate the energy consumed by the resistor in the same

circuit if the current is allowed to flow in the circuit for one
hour.
Solution
One hour = 60 60 = 3600 seconds
Energy consumed, W = P t = 40 3600 = 144, 000 J
= 144 103 = 144 kJ = 0.144 MJ
Note: One Joule (J) represents the amount of energy delivered

to a load with potential of 1 Volt when a current of 1 Ampere
flows through the load for one second (s)
Question 4 By referring to the same circuit above, if the values of and

current are changed to 30 V and 4 A respectively, calculate the
followings:
(i) The value of resistor to be connected the circuit
(ii) The power dissipated in the resistor
(iii) The energy delivered to the resistor if the current flows
for 2 hours continuously in the circuit
Solution
V 30
Resistance, R = = = 7.5
I 4
Power dissipated, P = I 2 R = 42 7.5 = 120 W
Energy delivered, W = P t = 120 2 60 60
= 864 103 J
= 864 kJ = 0.864 MJ

Question 5 A dry cell (battery) has an internal resistance of 0.02 and an

e.m.f of 2.0 V. Calculate its terminal potential difference (pd)
if it delivers the following currents:
(a) 5 A
(b) 50 A
Figure 1.2
Solution
(a) Terminal p.d, V = E ( I r ) where E = e.m.f of the
cell, I = current flowing and r = internal resistance of
the cell
E = 2 V, I = 5 A and r = 0.02
Hence, V = 2 (5 0.02) = 1.9 V
(b) When the current is 50 A, terminal potential difference

(pd), V is given by,
V = E I r = 2.0 (50 0.02) = 1.0 V

Question 6
Fill in all the blank spaces in the table below with the required parameters
pertaining to units, symbols, terms etc for the related electrical quantities in
SI Units. The first quantity on capacitance is shown as an example.
Power of Unit for

Quantity Values Symbol Term
ten Symbol
Capacitance 0.000050 C Micro 106 Farad (F)
Charge 20
Conductance 0.09
Current 0.015
Energy 2,000,000
Frequency 6,000
Impedance 1,500
Inductance 0.010
Resistance 100
Time 0.001
Voltage 132,000
Power 1,500,000
Reactance 0.25
Length 2,500
Solution
Power of Unit for

Quantity Values Symbol Term
ten Symbol
Capacitance 0.000050 C micro () 50 106 Farad (F)
Charge 20 Q Kilo (K) 20 103 Coulomb
Conductance 0.09 G milli (m) 90 103 Siemen (S)
Current 0.015 I milli (m) 15 10-3 Ampere (A)
Energy 2,000,000 W Mega (M) 2 103 Joule (J)
Frequency 6,000 f Kilo (K) 6 103 Hertz (Hz)
Impedance 1,500 Z Kilo (K) 1.5 103 Ohm ()
Inductance 0.010 L milli (m) 10 103 Henry (H)
Resistance 100 R Kilo (K) 10 103 Ohm ()
Time 0.001 t milli (m) 10 103 Second (s)
Voltage 132,000 V Kilo (K) 132 103 Volt (V)
Power 1,500,000 P Mega (M) 1.5 103 Watt (W)
Reactance 0.25 X milli (m) 250 103 Ohm ()
Length 2,500 L Kilo (K) 2.5 103 Meter (m)


FUNDAMENTALS OF DIRECT CURRENT
CIRCUITS
Question
Description
Number
Objectives
To enhance the learners understanding on the fundamental
concepts and types of direct current circuits and their
components, their parameters and exposure of various
concepts of solving for various parameters in complicated dc
circuits.
Hints
Electric current can only flows in a closed dc circuit
having various electrical components e.g voltage sources,
current sources and resistances interconnected by
conductors which allow current to flow in the circuit
In a series circuit, the current that flows through each
individual components connected in the circuit is the same
In a series circuit, The e.m.f of the voltage source is equal
to the sum of all the voltage drops in the whole circuit
Total e.m.f for voltage sources connected in series is equal
to the sum of all the individual voltage source
Total voltage for the same value voltage sources connected
in parallel is equal to the value of the individual voltage
source
In a parallel circuit, the voltage drop across each parallel
component is the same
In a parallel circuit, the total current that flows in the
circuit is equal to the sum of individual current in
individual branch circuit
Current Divider Rule is used to determine individual
currents in a parallel circuit from a given current source

a voltage source must to be converted to an equivalent

current source prior to its application
Voltage Divider Rule is used to determine the voltage drop
in individual resistances connected in series with a given
voltage source a current source must be converted to an
equivalent voltage prior to its application
Question 1 Figure 2.1 below represents a combination of series and

parallel connection of resistors in a typical dc circuit. The
values of resistors in the given as follows:
R1 = 1 R6 = 6
R2 = 2 R7 = 7
R3 = 3 R8 = 8
R4 = 4 R9 = 9 , and
R5 = 5 R10 = 10
Determine the total resistance, RT of the circuit.
Solution
We solve the problem by taking the resistances in each
individual section at a time as follows based on the given
Figure 2.1 below:
Figure 2.1

At Zone A,
RT 236 = R2 + R3 + R6 = 2 + 3 + 6 = 11
At Zone B,
R8 R9 8 9 72
RT 89 = = = 4.24
R8 + R 9 8 + 9 17
At Zone C,
R4 R5 4 5 20
RT 45 = = = 2.22
R4 + R 5 4 + 5 9
Thus the resultant circuit is as shown Figure 2.1.1 below,
Figure 2.1.1
By further reducing the circuit,
For Zone 1,
RT 45 RT 236 2.22 11
RT 1 = RT 45 // RT 236 = = = 2.64
R T 45 + RT 236 2.22 + 11

Likewise for Zone 2,

R7 RT 89 7 4.24
RT 2 = = = 2.64
RT 7 + RT 89 7 + 4.24
Thus, the resultant circuit is further reduced as shown in

Figure 2.1.2 below,
Figure 2.1.2
Total resistance, RT of the circuit can be determined by

calculating the total resistance for Zone D,
RT = R1 + RTA + RTB + R10 = 1 + 1.85 + 2.64 + 10 = 15.49
Question 2 A typical dc electric circuit consists of the following

component connected in series with each other as given below:
(i) Two dc voltage sources of with negligible internal
resistances of 20 V and 10 V
(ii) Four resistances of 5 , 7 , 15 and 12 connected
in series with each other
You are required to determine the followings:

(a) Draw the resultant circuit by having all the components
above

(b) The total voltage of the circuit

(c) Total resistance of the circuit
(d) The total current that flows in the circuit
(e) The voltage drop in each of the resistor in the circuit
(f) The power dissipated in each of the resistor in the
circuit
(g) The total power dissipated in the circuit
Solution
(a) The resultant circuit is as shown in Figure 2.2 below,
Figure 2.2
(b) The voltage in the circuit is the sum of the two e.m.f
since they are connected in series,
Total voltage, VT = V1 + V2 = 20 + 10 = 30 V
(c) Total resistance in the circuit is the sum of all the

resistances connected in series with each other,
Total Resistance,
4
RT = Rn = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 = 5 + 7 + 15 + 12 = 39
1

(d) The total current that flows in the circuit, IT

VT 30
IT = = = 0.77 A
RT 39
(e) In a series circuit, the current that flows through the

components in the circuit is the same i.e IT = 0.77 A
By using the Ohms Law,
Voltage drop in each of the resistor, Vd = Current, IT
resistance of each individual resistor, R i.e Vd = IT RN
Voltage drop in 5 resistor, Vd1 = 0.77 5 = 3.85 V
You can see that the sum of all the voltage drops above
is equal to the sum of the total e.m.fs of the circuit i.e
30 V
(f) The power dissipated in the resistor can be calculated

by using any of the following formulae:
V2
R
Power dissipated in 5 resistor,

P1 = I 2 R1 = 0.77 2 5 = 2.96 W

P2 = I 2 R2 = 0.77 2 7 = 4.15 W

P3 = I 2 R3 = 0.77 2 15 = 8.89 W


P4 = I 2 R4 = 0.77 2 12 = 7.12 W
(g) The total power on the circuit can be obtained from

the sum of the individual power dissipated in each
individual resistor as calculated above i.e
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4
= 2.96 + 4.15 + 8.89 + 7.12
= 23.12 W
Or from PT = IT2 RT = 0.77 2 39 = 23.12 W

component connected in parallel with each other as given
below:
(i) Two identical dc voltage sources with negligible
internal resistance of 30 V each
in parallel with each other

above
(b) The total voltage of the circuit
(c) Total resistance of the circuit
(d) The total current that flows in the circuit
(e) The current that flows in each of the resistor in the
circuit
(f) The power dissipated in each of the resistor in the
circuit
(g) The total power dissipated in the circuit

Solution
Figure 2.3
(b) The resultant voltage in the circuit is the same of the a

single e.m.f of any of the connected e.m.f since they are
connected in parallel,
Total voltage, VT = V1 = V2 = 30 V
(c) The total resistance, RT of the circuit is given by,

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + = + + + =
RT R1 R2 R3 R4 5 7 12 15 0.493
Therefore, Total resistance, RT = 2.03
(d) The total current that flows in the circuit, IT

VT 30
IT = = = 14.78 A
RT 2.03
(e) In a parallel circuit, the voltage across all the resistors is

the same as the source e.m.f i.e
V = V1 = V2 =V3 =V4 = 30 V

Current that flows in each of the resistor, I is given by,

V
I= where n = 1, 2, 3 or 4
RN
V 30
Current in resistance R1, I1 = = =6 A
R1 5
V 30
Current in resistance R2, I 2 = = = 4.29 A
R2 7
V 30
R3 12
V 30
Current in resistance R4, I 4 = = =2 A
R4 15
Check: Total current in the circuit is equal to the sum

of currents in the individual branch i.e
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 = 14.78 A
(f) The power dissipated in the resistor can be calculated

V2
R

P1 = I 2 R1 = 62 5 = 180 W

P2 = I 2 R2 = 4.292 7 = 128.83 W


P3 = I 2 R3 = 2.52 12 = 75 W

P4 = I 2 R4 = 22 15 = 60 W
(g) The total power on the circuit can be obtained from

the sum of the individual power dissipated in each
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4
= 180 + 128.83 + 75 + 60
= 433.83 W
V2
Check: Total power consumed, PT = = 433.83 W
RT

component connected in parallel with each other as given
below:
(i) A voltage source with e.m.f of 30 V with internal
resistance 0.5 each
in parallel with each other

above
(b) The total resistance of the circuit
(c) The total current that flows in the circuit
(d) Voltage drop due to the internal resistance of the
voltage source

(e) The effective voltage being supplied to the circuit

(f) The current that flows in each of the resistor in the
parallel circuit
(g) The power dissipated in each of the resistor in the
circuit
(h) The total power dissipated in the circuit
Solution
Figure 2.4
(b) Total resistance of the circuit, RTotal = Rs + RT
By referring to Worked Example on Question 3 above,

RT = 2.03
Total resistance of the circuit,

RTotal = 0.5 + 2.03 = 2.53
(c) The total current that flows in the circuit, IT is given by,
V 30
IT = = = 11.86 A
RTotal 2.53

(d) Voltage drop due to internal resistance of the sources

e.m.f, Vds can be calculated as follows:
Vds = IT Rs = 11.86 0.5 = 5.93 V
(e) The effective voltage being supplied to the parallel

circuit, V is given by
V = Ve.m.f Vds = 30 5.93 = 24.07 V
Where,
Ve.m.f = 30 V (given)
Vds = Voltage drop due to internal resistance of 0.5
of the voltage source
(f) In a parallel circuit, the voltage across all the resistors is

the same as the effective voltage source of the circuit i.e
V = V1 = V2 = V3 = V4 = 24.07 V
Current that flows in each of the resistor, I is given by,

V
I= where n = 1, 2, 3 or 4
RN
V 24.07
Current in resistance R1, I1 = = = 4.81 A
R1 5
V 24.07
R2 7
V 24.07
R3 12
V 24.07
R4 15

Check: Total current in the circuit is equal to the sum

of currents in the individual branch i.e
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 = 11.86 A
(g) The power dissipated in the resistor can be calculated

V2
R
Power dissipated in the internal resistance of 0.5 Ps is

given by, Ps = I 2 R = 11.862 0.5 = 70.33 W

P1 = I12 R1 = 4.812 5 = 115.68 W

P2 = I 22 R2 = 3.442 7 = 82.84 W

P3 = I 32 R3 = 2.012 12 = 48.48 W

P4 = I 42 R4 = 1.612 15 = 38.88 W
(h) The total power on the circuit can be obtained from the
sum of the individual power dissipated in each
PT = Ps + P1 + P2 + P3 + P4
= 70.33 + 115.68 + 82.84 + 48.48 + 38.88
= 356.21 W

Question 5 (5i) By referring to Figure 2.5 below, calculate the

followings:
(a) Convert the voltage source, Vs into a current source, Is.
(b) The current flowing through individual resistance in the
circuit
(c) The voltage drop across the individual resistance
(d) The power consumed by the individual resistance
Figure 2.5
Solution
(a) Converting the voltage source, Vs into a current source,
Is with the use of Ohms Law,
Vs 10
Is = = = 20 A
Rs 0.5

Draw the circuit by replacing the voltage source, Vs by a

Current source, Is as shown by Figure 2.5.1 below.
Figure 2.5.1
By using the Current Divider Rule,
Current flowing through resistor, R1 is given by

R2
I1 = Is
R1 + R2
0.5
I1 = 20 = 1.818 A
0.5 + 5
Current flowing through resistor, R2 is given by

R1
I2 = Is
R1 + R2
0.5
I2 = 20 = 18.18 A
0.5 + 5
Check: Total current, Is = I1 + I2 = 1.818 + 18.18 = 20 A

(b) Voltage drop across resistance R1 is given by

V1 = I1 R1 = 1.818 0.5 = 9.909 V
Voltage drop across resistance R2 is given by
V2 = Vs V1 = 10 0.909 = 9.091 W
Check: Vs = V1 + V2 = 0.909 + 9.091 = 10 V

(c) Power consumed by resistor R1 is given by
P1 = V1I1 = 0.909 1.818 = 1.653 W
(d) Power consumed by resistor R2 is given by
P2 = V2I2 = 9.09 1.818 = 16.53 W
(5ii) By applying the Voltage Divider Rule to Figure 2.5.2
below, determine the voltage drop due to each
individual resistor connected in series with the voltage
source and resistance values as follows:
Voltage source, Vs = 20 V
Resistor, R1 = 1
Resistor, R2 = 2
Resistor, R3 = 3
Resistor, R4 = 4 , and
Resistor, R5 = 5
Figure 2.5.2

Solution
Total resistance in the circuit,
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5
RT = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15
Voltage drop across resistor, R1 is given by,

R1 1
V1 = Vs = 20 = 1.33 V
RT 15

R2 2
V2 = Vs = 20 = 2.67 V
RT 15

R3 3
V3 = Vs = 20 = 4.0 V
RT 15

R4 4
V4 = Vs = 20 = 5.33 V
RT 15

R5 5
V5 = Vs = 20 = 6.67 V
RT 15
Check: Total Voltage drop in all the resistors should be equal

to the voltage source, Vs = 20 V
Total voltage drop, VdT = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + V5
VdT = 1.33 + 2.67 + 4 + 5.33 + 6.67 = 20 V

WORKED EXAMPLE FOR TOPIC 3 NETWORK

THEOREMS
Question
Description
Number
Objectives
To enhance the learners understanding on the application of
Ohms Law on in solving problems related to more complex
dc electric circuits. This cab be done by the use relevant
network fundamental laws and theorems such as Kirchhoffs
Current and Voltage Laws (also known as Kirchhoffs First
and Second Laws), Nodal Analysis, Superposition, Thevenins
and Nortons Theorems. Learners are also been exposed to
ideas on electric circuits transformation methods covering
transformation on voltage source to current source and star-
delta circuit transformation and vice-versa.
Hints
Kirchhoffs Current Law states that the sum of currents
entering a node is equal sum of current leaving the same
node
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law states that the sum of all
individual voltage drops in a closed circuit is equal to the
algebraic sum of the voltage sources in the circuit
Voltage source can be transformed into an equivalent
current source with the use of Ohms Law and vice versa
Star-Delta or Delta-Star transformation Method helps in
reducing the complexity of electric circuit for solving
electric circuit problems with the use equivalent circuit of
Delta/Star transformation

In applying the concept of Superposition Theorem, all the

voltage and current sources are taken one at a time in
solving the electric circuit problems through the method
known as Nodal AnalysisThevenins Theorem is applied
by reducing a complex electric circuit to the equivalent
Thevenin voltages, Vth and equivalent Thevenins
resistance, RTH before being connected to the load
resistance, RL
Nortons Theorem is applied by reducing a complex
electric circuit to the equivalent Thevenins Current, Ith and
equivalent Thevenins resistance, RTH before being
connected to the load resistance, RL
Current Divider Rule is used to determine individual
currents in a parallel circuit from a given current source a
voltage source must to be converted to an equivalent
current source prior to its application
Voltage Divider Rule is used to determine the voltage drop
in individual resistances connected in series with a given
voltage source a current source must be converted an
equivalent voltage prior to its application
Question 1 1. Determine the equivalent resistance, Req for the circuit

as shown in Figure 3.1 below with the use of Delta-Star
Transformation Method.
Figure 3.1

Solution
Figure 3.1.1
Rearranging Delta-connected resistances in Zone A to Star-

connection with the use of Delta-Star Transformation Method,
46
RA = = 1.6
4+5+6
45
RB = = 1.33
15
56
RC = =2
15

The resultant circuit is as shown in Figure 3.1.2 below,
Figure 3.1.2
With further reduction as shown in Figure 3.1.3,

78
R78 = R7 // R8 = = 3.73
7+8
Figure 3.1.3

With further reduction as shown in Figure 3.1.4 below,
Figure 3.14

12 8.66
R12 // R8.66 = = 5.03
12 + 8.66
Figure 3.1.5

Figure 3.1.6
The resultant equivalent resistance, Req is given by,

Req = 1 + 5.03 + 10 = 16.03
Question 2 (2a) Convert the given voltage source, Vs as shown in the 3.2
below into an equivalent current source, Is.
Figure 3.2
Solution
Converting the voltage source, Vs into an equivalent current
source, Is by the use of Ohms Law as shown below,
Vs 10
Is = = =5 A
Rs 2

The resultant equivalent circuit of the current source is as

shown in Figure 3.2.1
Figure 3.2.1
(2b) Convert the current source, Is as shown in Figure 3.2.2

an equivalent voltage source, Vs
Figure 3.2.2
Solution
Converting the current source, Is into an equivalent voltage
source, Vs by the use of Ohms Law as shown below,
Vs = Is Rs = 10 2 = 20 V

The resultant equivalent circuit of the voltage source is as

shown in Figure 3.2.3
Figure 3.2.3
Question 3 By the use of Superposition Theorem, determine the

followings for the electric circuit of Figure 3.3 below:
(i) The current flowing through the 5 resistor
(ii) The power dissipated in the 5 resistor
Figure 3.3
Solution
Redrawing the circuit of Figure 3.3 above,

Figure 3.3.1
Hint: In applying the Superposition Theorem, the voltage

sources are taken one at a time and by short-circuiting the
other voltage source (open-circuiting if it is a current source)
By considering the voltage source V1 and short-circuiting

the voltage source V2, the resultant circuit is as shown in
Figure 3.3.2 below,
Figure 3.3.2
At Node A,
VA 10 VA VB VA
+ + =0
2 6 5
39VA 900 + 10VA 10VB + 12VA = 0 (1)
61VA 10VB = 900

At Node B,
10 4
R10 // R4 = = 2.86
10 + 4
VB VA VB
+ =0
6 2.86
2.86VA 2.86VB + 6VB = 0
2.86VA 3.14VB = 0 (2)
Solving the equations 1 and 2,

VA = 17.65 V
VB = 17.67 V
Current, I flowing through the 5 resistance is given by,

17.65
I = = 3.53 A
5
By considering the voltage source V2 and short-circuiting

the voltage source V1, the resultant circuit is as shown in
Figure 3.3.3 below,
Figure 3.3.3

At Node A,
25
R2 // R3 = = 1.43
2+5
VA VA VB
+ =0
1.43 6
7.43VA + 1.43VA = 0 (3)
At Node B,
VB VA VB VB 15
+ + =0
6 10 4
24VA 84VB = 900 (4)
Solving the above equations 3 and 4,

VA = 2.18 V
VB = 11.34 V
Current, I flowing through the 5 resistance is given by,

2.18
I = = 0.44 A
5
Therefore,
Total current passing through the 5 resistor,
I = I + I = 3.53 0.44 = 3.09 A

P = I2 R = 3.092 5 = 47.74 W

Question 4 By the use of Thevenins Theorem, determine the followings

for the electric circuit of Figure 3.4 below:
The current flowing through the 5 resistor
The power dissipated in the 5 resistor
Figure 3.4
Solution
By removing the 5 resistor from the circuit, the resultant
circuit is as shown in Figure 3.4.1 below,
Figure 3.4.1
To calculate the Thevenins voltage, VTH and Thevenins

equivalent resistance, RTH,

Change voltage sources, V1 and V2 to a current sources I1 and

I2 respectively,
V1 10
I1 = = =5 A
2 2
V2 15
I2 = = = 3.75 A
4 4
Figure 3.4.2
Combining the two current sources I1 and I2,

IT = I1 + I2 = 5 + 3.75 = 8.75 A
10 4
R10 // R4 = = 2.86
10 + 4
The resultant circuit is as shown in Figure 3.4.3 below,
Figure 3.4.3

Figure 3.4.3a
Figure 3.4.3b
Converting the total current source, IT back into voltage

source, VT,
VT = IT R = 8.75 2 = 17.5 V

The resultant electric circuit is as shown in Figure 3.4.4 below,
Figure 3.4.4
To determine Thevenins voltage, VTH,

VT 17.5
VTH = VT + 8.86 = 17.5 + 8.86 = 31.78 V
10.86 10.86
To determine RTH, short circuit both the voltage sources V1 and

V2 ,
2 8.86
RTH = = 1.63
2 + 8.86
By reconnecting the 5 resistor back to the circuit as shown

in Figure 3.4.4 below,
Figure 3.4.4a

Figure 3.4.4b
31.78
Current through the 5 resistor, I = = 4.79 A
1.63 + 5
Power dissipated in the 5 resistor,

P = I2 R = 4.792 5 = 114.72 W
Question 5 By the use of Nortons Theorem, determine the followings for

the electric circuit of Figure 3.5 below:
(i) The current flowing through the 5 resistor
(ii) The power dissipated in the 5 resistor
Figure 3.5

Solution
By removing the 5 resistor, the resultant circuit diagram is
as shown in Figure 3.5.1 below,
Figure 3.5.1
To calculate the Nortons current, IN and Nortons equivalent

resistance, RN,
Change voltage sources, V1 and V2 to a current sources I1 and

I2 respectively,
V1 10
I1 = = =5 A
2 2
V2 15
I2 = = = 3.75 A
4 4
Combining the two current sources I1 and I2,

IT = I1 + I2 = 5 + 3.75 = 8.75 A
10 4
R10 // R4 = = 2.86
10 + 4
I N = IT = 8.75 A
2 5 4 10
RN = +6+ = 10.29
2+5 4 + 10

The resultant Nortons equivalent circuit is as shown in

Figure 3.5.2 below,
Figure 3.5.2
By reconnecting the 5 resistor back to the equivalent circuit,

resultant circuit is as shown in Figure 3.5.3 below,
Figure 3.5.3
Current through the 5 resistor,

10.29
IL = 8.75 = 5.89 A
10.29 + 5
Power dissipated in the 5 resistor,

P = I L2 R = 5.892 5 = 173.46 W

Question 6 By using the Thevenins Theorem to Figure 3.6, determine the

followings:
(i) Value of load resistance, RL required for maximum
power transfer
(ii) Maximum power that can be delivered by the load
resistance, RL
Figure 3.6
Solution
By using the Thevenins Theorem,
By removing RL from the circuit, Equivalent circuit is as

shown in Figure 3.6.1 below,
Figure 3.6.1

Figure 3.6.1a
10
VTH = 10 + = 11.43 V
7
25
RTH = = 1.43
2+5
By reconnecting RL to the equivalent Thevenins circuit as

shown in Figure 3.62 below,
Figure 3.6.2

For maximum power transfer, RTH = RL = 1.43
Current, IL that flows in the circuit is given by,

VTH 11.43
IL = = =4 A
RTH + RL 1.43 + 1.43
Maximum power transfer, Pmax = I2R = 42 5 = 22.9 W

2
VTH 11.432
Or Pmax = = = 22.84 W
4 RL 4 1.43

WORKED EXAMPLE FOR TOPIC 4 MAGNETIC

CIRCUITS
Question
Description
Number
Objectives
To enhance the learners understanding on scientific notations,
the fundamental concepts and basic of magnetic circuit and its
components, units used, their parameters and typical symbols
used for magnetmotive force (mmf), flux, flux density,
reluctance, field strength etc. Learners will also be exposed to
the relationship between electric circuit and magnetic circuit
and formulae linking the two entities.
Question 1 Describe the similarities and differences between an electric

circuit and a magnetic circuit
Solution
Similarity between an electric and magnetic circuits:
(a) Both require source of e.m.f (for electric circuit) in Volt
and a source of mmf (for magnetic circuit) in AT
(b) Resistance to a flow of current in electric circuit is
called resistance and in a magnetic circuit is called
reluctance
(c) In the electric circuit, current will flow in a closed
circuit and in a magnetic circuit it is a flow of magnetic
flux in the circuit
(d) In electric circuit, current density is a flow of current
over the cross-sectional area of the conductor which is
called current density in A per m2 and in a magnetic
circuit it is a flow of magnetic flux the cross-sectional
area of the core called magnetic flux density in Tesla
(T) the magnetic core which is called magnetic flux
density in Tesla

(e) Electric current and magnetic flux can only flow in a

magnetic material i.e conductor
Differences between an electric and magnetic circuits:

(a) A closed circuit is required for a current to flow in an
electric circuit but a magnetic flux can still be
maintained in a open-circuited magnetic core by having
an air gap
(b) The flow of current in an electric circuit will
immediately stop when the source of e.m.f is removed
but a magnetic circuit the flux in a magnetic core
maintain over a certain period of time after the source of
mmf is removed
(c) Magnetic flux can be stored in a magnetic core over a
period of time but electric energy cannot be stored in an
electrical circuit
Question 2 Figure 4.2 below depicts a typical magnetic core made up of

magnetic material of cast steel with a relative permeability of
800. A voltage source is connect to a coil having 200 turns is
wound over one of the legs of the core. It is given that the
depth of the core is 10 mm and the flux remains constant at
1 mWb, determine the followings:
(a) The mean length of the flux path in the core
(b) The mmf produced by the connected voltage source
(c) The magnetic field strength produced by the core
(d) The magnetic flux density produced by the core
(e) The magnetic flux created within the core
(f) The reluctance produced by the core

Figure 4.2
Solution
(a) Mean magnetic flux path,
Ic = 2[(150 15) + (100 15)] = 440 mm = 0.44 m
(b) mmf, F = NI = 200 10 = 2000 AT
(c) Magnetic field strength, H is given by

F = NI = HI c
F 2000
H = = = 4545.5 = 4.5455 kAT
Lc 0.44 m
(d) Magnetic flux density, B is given by

B = 0 r H = 4 107 800 4.5455 103 = 4.57 T

(e) Magnetic flux, created is given by

B =
A
= B A
= 4.57 15 103 10 103
= 0.001 Wb
= 1.0 mWb
(f) Reluctance, S is given by,

Ic
S =
0 r A
0.44
=
4 10 800 150 106
7
= 2.92 106 A = 2.92 MA

Wb Wb
Question 3 Two air gaps of each 0.1 mm are cut equally on each the
longer section of the core of Figure 4.2 above. Determine the
followings:
(a) The resultant mean length of flux path the each core
made by the air gaps
(b) Magnetic flux densities in each core and air gap
(c) Magnetic field strengths in each core and air gap
(d) The reluctances in each core and air gap
(e) The total resultant mmf of the magnetic circuit

Figure 4.3
Solution
(a) Since the air gaps equally divide the magnetic core,
mean length of each core, Ic is given by,
440 2 438
Ic = = = 219 mm = 0.219 m = 219 103 m
2 2
The total length of flux path for the core = 0.219 2 =

0.238 m
(b) Assuming that there are no leakage and fringing effects

in the air gaps, Ac = Ag and Bc = Bg
1 103
Bc = Bg = = = 6.67 T
A 150 106

(c) Magnetic field strength in both cores, Hc are given by,

Bc 6.67
Hc = = = 6.63 kA
0 r 4 107 800 m
Magnetic field strength in both air gaps, Hg is given by,

Bg 6.67
Hg = = = 5.31 MA
0 r 4 107 1 m
(d) Reluctances in the core, Sc is given by,

Ic
Sc =
0 r A
0.38
=
4 10 800 150 106
7
= 3.18 MA
Wb
Reluctances in the gaps, Sg is given by,

Ig
Sg =
0 r A
0.02
=
4 10 150 10 6
7
= 10.61 MA
Wb
(e) Total resultant mmf, F in the circuit is given by,

F = H c Ic + H g I g
= ( 6.63 103 338 103 ) + ( 5.31 106 2 103 )
= 12.86 kAT

Question 4 If one section of the existing core material is replaced with

cast iron whose relative permeability is 166 and flux of
1 mWb flows in the circuit as shown in Figure 4.4 below,
determine the followings:
(a) The resultant mean length of flux path the each core
made by the air gaps
(b) Magnetic flux densities in each core and air gap
(c) Magnetic field strengths in each core and air gap
(d) The reluctances in each core and air gap
(e) The total resultant mmf of the magnetic circuit
Solution
Figure 4.4
(a) Since the air gaps equally divide the magnetic core,
mean length of each core, I c1 and I c2 is given by,

Let the top section to be core of no. 1 made of cast steel

with r = 800 and bottom section to be core no. 2 made
of cast iron with r = 166
440 2 438
I c1 = I c2 = = = 219 mm = 0.219 m = 219 103 m
2 2

in the air gaps,
Ac1 = Ac2 = Ag and Bc1 = Bc 2 = Bg
1 103
Bc1 = Bc2 = B g = = = 6.67 T
A 150 106
(c) Magnetic field strength in both cores, Hc are given by,

Bc 6.67
H c1 = = = 6.63 kA
0 r1 4 107 800 m
Bc 6.67
Hc2 = = = 31.98 kA
0 r 2 4 107 166 m
Magnetic field strength in both air gaps, Hg is given by,
Relative permeability for air gap, r = 1.0

Bg 6.67
Hg = = = 5.31 MA
0 r 4 107 1 m
(d) Reluctances in the core, Sc1 is given by,
I c1
Sc 1 =
0 r1 A
0.38
=
4 10 800 150 106
7
= 3.18 MA
Wb

Reluctances in the core, Sc 2 is given by,
Ic2
Sc2 =
0 r 2 A
0.38
=
4 10 166 150 10 6
7
= 12.14 MA
Wb
Reluctances in the air gaps, Sg is given by,

Ig
Sg =
0 r A
0.02
=
4 10 1 150 10 6
7
= 10.61 MA
Wb
(e) Total resultant mmf, F in the circuit is given by,

F = H c1 I c1 + H c2 I c2 + H g I g
= ( 6.63 103 169 103 ) + ( 31.98 103 169 103 ) +
( 5.31 10 6
2 103 )
= 17.15 AT
Question 5 A coil of 600 turns is wound on a mild steel ring which has a
mean circumference of 40 cm and a cross sectional area of
5 cm2. The ring has a 1 mm air gap and the flux density in the
gap is to be 1 T. At this value of flux density the relative
permeability of the steel is 1.3 103. Determine:
(a) Draw the simple magnetic circuit
(b) The total flux in the core

(c) Magnetic field strength in the core and gaps

(d) The m.m.f across the air gap
(e) The m.m.f across the flux path in the steel; and
(f) The current required in the coil
Solution
(a) Magnetic circuit is as shown in Figure 4.5 below:
Figure 4.5

in the magnetic circuit
Cross-sectional area of magnetic core,

A = Ac = A = 5 cm2 = 5 104 m2
The magnetic flux density, B in the core and gaps are

equal i.e
B = Bc = Bg = 1 T
Total flux in the core,

= B A = 1 5 104 = 0.5 mWb

(c) Magnetic field strength, H in the core and gaps are

given by,
For the core,

Bc 1
Hc = = = 612.13 AT
0 r 4 10 1.3 103
7 m
For the air gap,

Bg 1
Hg = = = 795.78 kAT
0 r 4 107 1 m
(d) mmf in the air gap, Fg is given by,

Fg = HgIg = 795.78 103 1 103 = 795.78 AT
(e) The mean flux path = mean circumference = 40 cm =

40 102 m mmf in the steel core, Fc is given by,
Fc = HcIc = 612.13 40 102 = 244.85 AT
(f) Total mmf of the circuit,

FT = Fc + Fg = 244.85 + 795.78
= 1040.63 AT
The required current, I in the coil is given by,

FT = N I
FT 1040.63
I= = = 1.734 A
N 600

Question 6 Figure 4.6 below shows a ferromagnetic core. Three sides of

the core are of uniform width, while the fourth side is
somewhat thinner. The depth of the core is 10 cm. There is a
200-turn coil wrapped around the left side of the core. Given
that the relative permeability of the core is 2500, how much
flux will be produced by a 1 A input current source.
Figure 4.6
Solution
Given
Current, I = 1 A
No. of turns = 200 turns
Relative permeability, r = 2500
mmf, F = H Ic = N I = 200 1 = 200 AT
I c = 2 ( 30 + 15 + 30 + 12.5 ) = 175 cm
F 200
H = = = 114.29 AT
I c 175 102 m

Magnetic filed density,

B= = 0 r H = 4 107 2500 114.29 = 0.359 T
A
Cross-sectional area, A = 15 102 10 102 = 150 104 m 2
Magnetic flux, = B A = 0.359 150 104 = 5.385 mWb


INDUCTANCES
Question Description
Number
Objectives
To enhance the learners understanding on basic construction
and characteristics an inductor when applied to ac and dc
operations and applications. Learners will be able to
distinguish between a self and mutual inductance and various
types of inductors that being used in the various electrical
applications and their usage and calculation on the energy
stored in an inductor.
Hints
Electromagnetic induction is produces when a closed
circuit conductor is moves across a magnetic field so as to
cut through the lines of force or flux and as a result an
e.m.f is produced in the conductor.
If the conductor moves at an angle to the magnetic field,
then the induced e.m.f, E = Blv sin Volt where B =
magnetic field, l = length of conductor and v = speed of
movement of conductor
d
E.m.f induced in a coil of N turns, E = N Volt where
dt
d
= rate of change of flux
dt
dl dl
E.m.f induced in a coil, E = L Volts where = rate
dt dt
of change of current.

Question 1 Determine the e.m.f induced in a coil as shown in Figure 5.1

below with the following conditions:
(a) A coil of 200 turns when there is a change of flux of
25 mWb within a time period of 50 ms
(b) A flux of 400 Wb through a 150-turn coil is reversed
in 40 ms
(c) A coil of 12 H by a current changing at a rate of 4 A/s
Solution
(a) Induced e.m.f,
d 25 103
E = N = ( 200 ) 3
= 100 V
dt 50 10
(b) Induced e.m.f,

d 800 106
E = N = (150 ) 3
= 3 V
dt 40 10
(c) Induced e.m.f,

dl
E = L = 12 4 = 48 V
dt
Figure 5.1

Question 2 An e.m.f of 1.5 kV is induced in a coil when a current of 4 A

collapses uniformly to zero in 8 ms as shown in Figure 5.2
below. Determine the inductance of the coil.
Figure 5.2
Solution
Change in current, dl = (4 0) = 4 A
Change in time, dt = 8 ms = 8 103 s
dl 4
= = 500 A/s Given that e = 1.5 kV = 1500 V
dt 8 103
dl
E=L
dt
E 1500
L= = =3 H
dk 500

dt
Note: E = magnitude of E which disregards the minus sign
Question 3 A flux of 25 mWb links a 1500 turn coil when a current of 3 A

passes through the coil as shown in Figure 5.3 below. Caculate
the followings:
(a) The inductance of the coil
(b) The energy stored in the magnetic field, and
(c) The average e.m.f induced if the current falls to zero in
150 ms

Figure 5.3
Solution
N 1500 25 103
(a) Inductance, L = = = 12.5 H
I 3
1 2 1
(b) Energy stored, W = LI = 12.5 32 = 56.25 J
2 2
dl 30
(c) Induced e.m.f, E = L = 12.5 = 250 V
dt 150 103
Question 4 A 750 turn coil of inductance 3 H carries a current of 2 A.

calculate the followings:
(a) The flux linking the coil, and
(b) The e.m.f induced in the coil when the current collapses
to zero in 20 ms
Figure 5.4

Solution
N 3 2
(a) Coil inductance, L = = = 8 mWb
I 750
dl 20
(b) Induced e.m.f, E = L = 3 = 300 V
dt 20 103
Question 5 Two coils have a mutual inductance of 0.2 H. If the current in

one coil is changed from 10 A to 4 A in 10 ms, calculate:
(a) The average induced e.m.f in the second coil, and
(b) The change in the flux linked with the second coil if it
is wound with 500 turns
Figure 5.5
Solution
dl1 10 4
(a) Induced e.m.f, E = M = 0.2 = 120 V
dt 10 103
d
(b) Induced e.m.f, E = N Hence
dt
E dt 120 10 103
d = = = 2.4 mWb
N 500


INTRODUCTION TO ALTERNATING VOLTAGE
AND CURRENT
Question
Description
Number
Objectives
To enhance the learners understanding on basic knowledge of
alternating current (ac) covering various electrical parameters
such voltage, current, power factor, frequency, real power,
apparent power, reactive power etc. You will be able to
distinguish between various electrical parameters e.g rms,
peak-to-peak, average values of currents and voltages etc.
and how to analyse various electrical voltage and currents
waveforms and The phasor diagrams of the electrical
parameters.
Hints
Alternating current (ac) system is in a form of sine waves
or sinusoids, are produced by rotating electrical machines
(ac generator) or electronic oscillator circuits i.e V =
Vm sin (t + ) and I = Im sin (t + )
Dc current, Idc = 0.707 Imax
Average current, Iav = 0.636 Imax
Peak or Crest Value factor, kp = 1.414
Form Factor, kr = 1.11
Frequency, f = 1/T where T is the period i.e the time
required to complete one full cycle

Question 1 An ac voltage is given as V(t) = 141.4 sin 314t. Determine the

followings:
(a) The maximum voltage, Vmax
(b) The rms voltage, Vrms
(c) The frequency, f
(d) The period to complete one full cycle
(e) The phase shift
Solution
Given V(t) = 141.4 sin 314t
Comparing with V(t) = Vmax sin (t + )
(a) Maximum Voltage, Vmax = 141.4 V

141.4
(b) Rms voltage, Vrms = = 100 V
2
(c) = 314 rad/s = 2 f
314
Frequency, f = = 50 Hz

1 1
(d) Period, T = = = 0.02 s = 20 ms
f 50
(e) Phase shift, = 0

Question 2 (a) Determine the periodic time, T for frequencies of:

(i) 60 Hz
(ii) 20 kHz
Solution
1 1
Period, T = = = 0.017 s = 17 ms
f 60
1 1
Period, T = = = 0.00005s = 50 s
f 20 103
(b) Determine the frequency, f for periodic times of:

(i) 4 ms
(ii) 4 s
1 1
Frequency, f = = = 250 Hz
T 4 103
1 1
Frequency, f = = = 250 kHz
T 4 106
Question 3 A alternating current completes 5 cycles in 8 ms. What is the

frequency?
Solution
8
Time for 1 cycle = ms = 1.6 ms = periodic time, T
5
1 1
Frequency, f = = = 625 Hz
T 1.6 103

Question 4 From the periodic waveform of a triangular waveform of

Figure 6.4 below, determine the followings:
(a) Frequency
(b) Average value over half a cycle
(c) Rms value
(d) Form factor
(e) Peak Factor
Figure 6.4
Solution
(a) Time for complete cycle = 20 ms = Periodic time, T
1 1
Hence frequency, f = = = 50 Hz
T 20 103
1
(b) Under the wave form for half cycle = base height
2
1
= 10 103 200
2
= 1 Volt second

Area under the curve

Average value of waveform =
length of base
1
= = 100 V
10 103
1
(c) The first cycle is divided into 4 intervals.
4
v12 + v22 + v32 + v42
Thus rms value =
4
252 + 752 + 1252 + 1752

=
4
= 114.6 V
rms value 114.6

(d) Form Factor = = = 1.15
average value 100
maximum value 200

(e) Peak Factor = = = 1.75
rms value 114.6
Question 5 From the periodic waveform of a triangular waveform of

Figure 6.5 below, determine the followings:
(a) Frequency
(b) Average value over half a cycle
(c) Rms value
(d) Form factor
(e) Peak Factor

Figure 6.5
Solution
(a) Time for complete cycle = 16 ms = Periodic time, T
1 1
Hence frequency, f = = = 62.5 Hz
T 16 103
(b) Under the wave form for half cycle =

Area under the curve
Average value of waveform =
length of base
10 8 103
= = 10 V
8 103
1
(c) The first cycle is divided into 4 intervals.
4
i12 + i22 + ..... + vn2
Thus rms value = = 10 A
4
rms value 10
(d) Form Factor = = = 1.0
average value 10
maximum value 10
(e) Peak Factor = = = 1.0
rms value 10

WORKED EXAMPLE FOR TOPIC 7 SINGLE

PHASE SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Question
Description
Number
Objectives
To enhance the learners understanding analyse ac circuits
containing electrical components involving resistance,
reactance and capacitance and their characteristics either
individually or in combination. The learners will also be able
to visualise the concept of phasors in the analysis of single
phase ac circuits.
Hints
Voltage source is used as a reference phasor in drawing
the phasor diagram i.e V = Vm sin t where phase angle,
= 0
Impedance, Z = R + jX = R 2 + X 2 where R is the
resistance and X is the reactance in
Admittance, Y = 1/Z in Siemen
Inductive reactance, X L = j L = j 2 fL
1 1
Capacitive reactance, X C = =
j C j 2 fC
Total impedance in parallel, YT = Y1 + Y2 + ..... + YN

Question 1 A simple RLC circuit as shown in Figure 7.1 is connected

to a single phase ac supply given by V = 100 sin (2000t + 30)
and the corresponding circuit parameters are R = 100 ,
L = 10 mH and C = 100 F. Calculate the followings:
(a) The rms voltage
(b) The phase shift
(c) The current in the circuit
(d) The voltage across resistor, VR, the voltage across
capacitor, Vc and the voltage across inductor, VL
Figure 7.1
Solution
100
(a) Vrms = = 70.7 V
2
(b) Phase shift = 30
(c) The current in the circuit
Capacitive reactance,
1 1
XC = = =5
C 2000 100 106
Inductive reactance,
X L = L = 2000 10 103 = 20

Therefore, impedance, Z is given by,

Z = R + j ( XL XC )
Z = 100 + j(20 5)
Z = 100 + j15 = 101.12 8.53
V 70.7
Current, I = = = 0.7 8.53 A
Z 101.12 8.53
Voltage and phasor diagram,
(d) VR = I Z = 0.7 8.53 100 = 70.0 8.53 V
VL = I jX L = 0.7 8.53 20 90 = 14 81.47 V
VC = I Z = 0.7 8.53 5 90 = 3.5 98.53 V
Question 2 Compute the equivalent impedance Zeq and admittance Yeq for
the four-branch circuit in Figure 7.2 below:
Figure 7.2

Solution
Using admittances,
1
Y1 = = j 0.20 S
j5
1
Y2 = = 0.05 j 0.087 S
5 + j8.66
1
Y3 = = 0.067 S
15
1
Y4 = = j 0.10 S
j10
1
Yeq = = 4.53 58.0
Yeq
Question 3 Obtain the phasor voltage, VAB in the two-branch parallel

circuit of Figure 7.3 below.
Figure 7.3

Solution
By using the Kirchhoffs Current Law,
j8
I1 = 18 45 = 4.64 120.1 A
30 + j8
30
I2 = 18 45 = 17.4 30.1 A
30 + j8
VAB = VAX + VXB = I1 (20) I 2 ( j 6) = 11.6 59.9 V
Question 4 In the parallel circuit shown in Figure 7.4 below, VAB = 48.3
30 V. Find the applied voltage, V.
Figure 7.4

Solution
In the parallel
By applying Voltage Divider Rule in the two branches,

j4 1
VAX = V= V=
4 j4 1+ j
j8.66
BBX = V
5 + j8.66
1 j8.66 1
VAB = VAX VXB = V = V
1 + j 5 + j8.66 0.268 j1
V = ( 0.268 j1) VAB = (1.035 105 )( 48.3 30 )
= 50.0 135 V
Question 5 A two-element series circuit as shown in Figure 7.5 below has

a voltage V = 240 0 V and current, I = 50 60 A.
Determine the current which results when the resistance is
reduced to (a) 30% (b) 60%, of its former value.
Figure 7.5

Solution
V 240 0
Z = = = 2.4 + j 4.16
I 50 60
(a) At 30% of 2.4 = 0.72

Z1 = 0.72 + j 4.16 = 4.22 80.2
240 0
I1 = = 56.8 80.2 A
4.22 80.2
(b) At 60% of 2.4 = 1.44

Z 2 = 1.44 + j 4.16 = 4.40 70.9
240 0
I2 = = 54.5 70.9 A
4.40 70.9


THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
Question
Description
Number
Objectives
To enhance the learners understanding analyse three-phase ac
circuits containing complex electrical or polyphase circuit
components involving resistance, reactance and capacitance
and their characteristics either individually or in combination.
The learners will also be able to visualise the concept of
phasors in the analysis of three phase ac circuits containing
3 voltages and currents displace at different phase angles
connected either in star or delta and how to transform them
into single phase parameters to ease in problem solving.
Hints
Voltage source is used as a reference phasor in drawing
the phasor diagram i.e V = Vm sin t where phase angle,
= 0
Impedance, Z = R + jX = R2 + X 2 = R2 + X 2
X
tan 1 where R and X is the resistance and reactance
R
in respectively
Admittance, Y = 1/Z in Siemen
Inductive reactance, X L = j L = j 2 fL
1 1
Capacitive reactance, X C = =
j C j 2 fC

Total impedance in parallel, YT = Y1 + Y2 + ..... + YN

VL
In star-connected system, V p = and Ip = IL where
3
Vp = Phase Voltage, VL = Line Voltage, Ip = Phase current
and IL = Line Current
IL
In delta-connected system, L p = and Vp = VL
3
Question 1 Three identical loads, each of resistance 30 per phase, are

connected in star to a 415 V, three-phase supply system as
shown in Figure 8.1 below. Determine the followings:
(a) Phase voltages
(b) Phase currents
(c) Line currents
Figure 8.1
Solution
Line voltage, VL = 415 0 V
VL 415 0
(a) Phase voltage, VR = = = 240 0 V
3 3

Phase voltage,
VL 415 120
VY = = = 240 120 V
3 3
VL 415 120
Phase voltage, VB = = = 240 120 V
3 3
Vp 240 0
(b) Phase current, I R = = = 8 0 A
Rp 30 0
Vp 240 120
Phase current, IY = = = 8 120 A
Rp 30 0
Vp 240 120
Phase current, I B = = = 8 120 A
Rp 30 0
In a star-connected system, line current, IL = Ip = 8A
Therefore,
Line current, I R = 8 0 A
Line current, IY = 8 120 A
Line current, I B = 8 120 A
Question 2 Three identical loads, each of resistance 30 per phase, are

connected in delta to a 415 V, three-phase supply system as
shown in Figure 8.2 below. Determine the followings:
(a) Phase voltages
(b) Phase currents
(c) Line currents

Figure 8.2
Solution
In a delta-connected system,
Phase voltage, V p = VL = 415 V
Therefore,
(a) Phase voltage, VR = 415 0 V

Phase voltage, VY = 415 120 V
Phase voltage, VB = 415 120 V
Vp 415 0
(b) Phase current, I R = = = 13.83 0 A
Rp 30 0
Phase current,
Vp 415 120
IY = = = 13.83 120 A
Rp 30 0
Phase current,
Vp 415 120
IB = = = 13.83 120 A
Rp 30 0

In a star-connected system, line current, IL = Ip = 8 A
Therefore,
Line current,
I R = 3 I p = 3 3.83 0 = 23.95 0 A
Line current,
I R = 3 I p = 3 3.83 120 = 23.95 120 A
Line current,
I R = 3 I p = 3 3.83 120 = 23.95 120 A
Question 3 A balanced three-phase star-connected system, RYB is

illustrated in Figure 8.3 below. The effective line voltage is
200 V and has impedance of 3 + j4 per phase. Determine the
line currents and phase currents.
Figure 8.3

Solution
Taking the line voltage as a reference phasor i.e VL =
200 0 V
In a star-connected system,
VL 200
Phase voltage, V ph = = = 115.47 V
3 3
Phase current,
Vp 115.47 0 115.47 0
IR = = = = 23.09 53.13 A
Zp 3 + j4 5 53.13
Phase current,
Vp 115.47 120 115.47 120
IY = = = = 23.09 173.13 A
Zp 3 + j4 5 53.13
Phase current,
Vp 115.47 120 115.47 120
IB = = = = 23.09 66.87 A
Zp 3 + j4 5 53.13
We can see from the calculation above, in a star-connected

system:
Line current, IL = Phase Current, Ip
VL
Phase voltage, V p =
3
Question 4 A balanced three-phase delta-connected system, RYB is

illustrated in Figure 8.4 below. The effective line voltage is
200 V and has impedance of 3 + j4 per phase. Determine the
line currents and phase currents.

Figure 8.4
Solution
Taking the line voltage as a reference phasor i.e VL =
200 0 V
In a delta-connected system,
Phase voltage, Vph = VL = 200 0 V
Phase current,
Vp 200 0 200 0
IR = = = = 40 53.13 A
Zp 3 + j4 5 53.13
Phase current,
Vp 200 120 200 120
IY = = = = 40 173.13 A
Zp 3 + j4 5 53.13
Phase current,
Vp 200 120 200 120
IB = = = = 40 66.87 A
Zp 3 + j4 5 53.13

We can see from the calculation above, in a star-connected

system:
Line voltage, VL = Phase voltage, Vp
Phase current, Ip = Line current, IL
Question 5 A star-connected load consists of three identical loads of

resistance 30 per phase and inductance 127.3 mH per phase
as shown in Figure 8.5 below. If the line current is 5.08 A,
calculate the line voltages if the supply frequency is 50 Hz.
Figure 8.5
Solution
Inductive reactance,
X L = 2 fL = 2 50 127.3 103 = 40 90
Impedance, Z P = R + jX L = 30 + j 40 = 50 53.13
Vp
For star-connected system, Line current, I L = I p =
Zp

Phase voltage, V p = I p Z p = 5.08 50 = 254 V
Line voltage, VL = 3 V p = 3 254 = 440 V
In a RYB system,
Line voltage,
VR = 3 V p = 3 254 0 = 440 0 V
Line voltage,
VY = 3 V p = 3 254 120 = 440 120 V
Line voltage,
VB = 3 V p = 3 254 120 = 440 120 V
Question 6 Three 12 resistors are connected in star to a 415 V, three-

phase supply as shown in Figure 8.6 below. Determine the
total power dissipated by the resistors.
Figure 8.6

Solution
Power dissipated, P = 3VL I L cos = 3I p2 R p
Line voltage, VL = 415 V

415
Phase voltage, V p = = 140 V
3
Vp Vp 240
Phase current, I p = = = = 20 A
Zp Rp 12
For purely resistive load, power factor, cos = 1.0
Hence power dissipated,

P = 3VL I L cos = 3 415 20 1 = 14.4 103 W = 14.4 kW
or P = 3I p2 R p = 3 202 12 = 14.4 kW


TRANSFORMERS
Question
Description
Number
Objectives
To enhance the learners understanding on electrical
transformers fundamental concepts and principles of
operation and its components, units, its parameters and typical
symbols used. Learners will also be exposed to the relationship
between electric circuit and magnetic circuit and formulae
linking to the operation of an electrical transformer.
Hints
(a) The transformer capacity is quoted in Apparent Power,
S which is Volt-Ampere (VA) Real Power, P in
Watt = Apparent Power (S) Power Factor
(b) In an ideal transformer,
V1 I 2 E1 N1
= = =
V2 I1 E2 N 2
Efficiency is at 100% due to negligible losses
(c) Losses in a non-ideal transformer consists of constant

core loss (due to hysterisis and eddy current losses)
and variable copper losses (due to the primary and
secondary windings)
(d) The copper losses will vary with the transformer
loading the higher the loading, the higher is the
copper losses
(e) Induced e.m.f, E in a transformer on both sides of the
transformer is given by E = 4.44f max N
Where N = number of winding turns, f = frequency in
Hz and max = maximum flux in Weber (Wb)

(f) In an ideal transformer, the efficiency is at 100 % and

Induced voltage, E is equal to the supply voltage, V on
both sides of the transformer.
Question 1 A single phase 240 V/110 V, 500 VA, 0.85 power factor
(lagging) transformer operates at an efficiency of 0.95 at full
load. Given the following parameters:
Z1 = 2 + j6 , Z2 = 3 + j5 , Rm = 10 and XM = j25
Determine the followings:

(a) Draw the equivalent circuit of the transformer
(b) Rated primary and secondary currents
(c) Rated input and output power
(d) Rated power loss
Solution
Figure 9.1
(a) Apparent power, S = 500 VA

For an ideal transformer,
V1 I 2 E1 N1
= = =
V2 I1 E2 N 2
S = V1 I1 = V2 I 2 = 500
V1 = 240 V and V2 = 110 V

S 500
(b) Rated primary current, I1 = = = 2.08 A
V1 240
S 500
Rated secondary current, I 2 = = = 4.55 A
V2 110
(c) Rated output power, Poutput = S power factor =

500 0.85 = 425 W
Poutput
Rated Efficiency, = 0.95 =
Pinput
Poutput 425
Rated input power, Pinput = = = 447.4 W
0.95
(d) Rated power loss = Pinput Poutput = 447.4 425 =

22.4 W
Question 2 Figure 9.2 below shows an equivalent circuit of anon-ideal

transformer. The transformer equivalent circuit of a non-ideal
transformer is as shown in Figure 9.1 below. Given the
parameters of Z1 = 2 + j6 , Z2 = 3 + j5 , Rm = 10 and XM
= j25 , Calculate the followings:
(a) The primary impedance referred to the secondary
winding
(b) Draw the resultant equivalent circuit of (a) above
(c) The secondary impedance referred to the primary
winding
(d) Draw the resultant equivalent circuit of (b) above

Figure 9.2
Solution
(a) Primary impedance referred to the secondary winding is

given by,
Z1 2 + j 6
Z1 = = = 0.42 + j1.26
n2 4.76
(b) The resultant circuit is as shown in Figure 9.3 below
Figure 9.3
(c) Secondary impedance referred to the primary winding

is given by,
Z 2 = Z 2 n 2 = (3 + j 5) 4.76 = 14.28 + j 23.8

(d) The resultant circuit is as shown in Figure 9.4 below
Figure 9.4
Question 3 An ideal single phase transformer has 400 primary turns and
800 secondary turns. The net iron cross-sectional area of the
core is 40 cm2. If the primary winding is connected to a 50 Hz
supply at 600 V, calculate the followings:
(a) The maximum flux in the core, max
(b) The maximum value of core flux density, Bmax and
(c) The secondary induced voltage, E2
Solution
Figure 9.5

(a) Given that V1 = 600 V, N1 = 400, N2 = 800, f = 50

Considering an ideal transformer,
Induced Voltage, E = supply Voltage, V
Induced e.m.f in the primary,

E1 = 4.44 50 max 400 = 600
600
max = = 7 mWb
4.44 50 400
(b) The maximum value of flux density, Bmax is given by

max7 103
Bmax = = = 1.75 T
A 40 104
(c) Secondary induced Voltage,

E2 = 4.44 50 7 103 800 = 1.24 kV
Question 4 Determine the rated primary and secondary currents of a

20 kVA, 1200 V/120 V single phase transformer. If this
transformer delivers a load of 12 kW at power factor of 0.85
(lagging), determine the primary and secondary currents.
Solution
Figure 9.6

Given that V1 = 1200 V and V2 = 120 V

Apparent Power, S = I1V1 = I 2V2 = 20 103
S 20 103
Primary rated current, I1 = = = 16.67 A
V1 1200
S 20 103
Secondary rated current, I 2 = = = 166.67 A
V2 120
Power, P = 12 kW and power factor, pf = 0.85
S 12 103
Resultant Apparent Power, P = = = 14.12 kVA
pf 0.85
S 14.12 103
Primary current, I1 = = = 11.77 A
V1 1200
S 14.12 103
Secondary current, I 2 = = = 117.7 A
V2 120
Question 5 A single phase transformer has 180 and 45 turns respectively

on its primary and secondary windings. The corresponding
primary and secondary resistances are 0.242 and 0.076
respectively. Determine the followings:
(a) The primary resistance referred to the secondary
winding, and
(b) The secondary resistance referred to the primary
winding

Solution
Figure 9.7
N 2 45
Turn ratio, n = = = 0.25
N1 180
(a) Primary resistance referred to the to the secondary

winding,
2
45
R1 = (n) R1 =
2
0.242 = 0.0015
180
(b) Secondary resistance referred to the to the primary

winding,
2 2
1 180
R1 = R1 = 0.076 = 1.216
n 45
Question 6 A 5 kVA single-phase transformer has a turn ratio of 10:1 is

fed from a 2.5 kV supply as shown in Figure 9.8 below.
Neglecting losses, determine the followings:
(a) Full load secondary voltage
(b) The full-load secondary current
(c) The minimum load resistance which can be connected
across the secondary winding to give a full load kVA
(d) The primary current at full load kVA

Figure 9.8
Solution
(a) For a purely resistive load, power factor is unity
Given: V1 = 2.5 kV = 2500 V
N 2 10
Turn ratio, n = = = 10
N1 1
(b) Minimum value of load resistance,

V2 25 103
RL = = = 125 k
I2 0.2
Secondary voltage,
N2
V2 = V1 = 10 2500 = 25000 V = 25 kV
N1
(c) Rated kVA, S = 5000 VA = V1 I1 = V2 I 2
Full Load secondary current,

S 5 103
I2 = = = 0.2 A
V2 25 103
(d) Primary full load current,

S 5 103
I1 = = =2 A
V1 2.5 103

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Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi )
Tel No.: 03-27732578
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Module Writer: Dr Wan Nor Liza Mahadi

Moderators: Prof Ir Zainal Aripin Zakariah

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, September 2005

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM), April 2011, EDXE2103/EBME4103

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Topic 1: Fundamentals of Electricity 1

Topic 2: Fundamentals of Direct Currents Circuits 14

Topic 3: Network Theorems 33

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3.6 Nortons Theorem 50

Topic 4: Magnetic Circuits 59

Topic 6: Introduction to Alternating Voltage and Current 85

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Topic 7: Single Phase Series and Parallel Circuits 98

Topic 8: Three Phase Systems 112

Topic 9: Transformer 121

Topic 10: Introduction to Machine Theory 130

Worked Examples 140

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As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

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Table 1: Estimation of Time Allocation of Study Hours

Study Activities Study Hours

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Topic 1 covers the fundamental concepts of electricity which are essential in

Topic 4 focuses on magnetic circuit. Magnetic circuit is used to concentrate the

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Topic 6 introduces the method of generating an alternating e.m.f and waveforms.

Topic 7 investigates the steady state response of a circuit due to alternating

Topic 8 introduces a more sophisticated and invariably more complex circuit

Topic 9 emphasise on use of transformer in electrical engineering. A transformer

Topic 10 introduces the energy conversion process whereby electrical energy is

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

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Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, activities are also placed at various locations or

References: References is where a list of relevant and usually useful textbooks,

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to the suggested sources to elicit the additional information needed as well as to

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1.1 ELECTRICAL UNITS AND SCIENTIFIC

Table 1.1: Unit and Symbol for Electrical Quantities

What is the unit of magnetic flux?

In electrical engineering, which also involves telecommunications and very large

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Table 1.2: Scientific Notations

Visit http://janus.astro.umd.edu/astro/scinote/ and use the program there to

1.2 ELECTRICAL CHARGE

Figure 1.1: Atom and formation of ions

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Electrical charges are useful to us in many ways.

1.3 ELECTRICAL CURRENT

Who was the first person to observe current flow?

One ampere is the amount of current when a number of electrons having a

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The unit for current is Ampere (A).

What instrument is used to measure the amount of electric current?

Figure 1.2: Electrons flow from negative to positive ends