Chapter 2

Fundamentals of
Reservoir Oil Flow
Analysis

2.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with the basic equations for flow of liquid through
porous media along with solutions of interest for various boundary conditions
and reservoir geometry. These solutions are required in the design and inter-
pretation of flow and pressure tests. The applicable equations for liquid flow
are presented in this section, including pressure transient behavior with dimen-
sionless pressure solutions for the specific conditions. Some important dimen-
sionless functions are presented and references to others are provided. The
dimensionless pressure approach provides a way to calculate pressure response
and to develop techniques for analyzing transient tests in a variety of systems.

2.2 Basic Fluid Flow Equations in Oil Reservoir

This section describes steady-state, pseudo-steady-state, and unsteady-
state flow equations including oil radial diffusivity equation, basic oil flow
equations, and various dimensional flow geometry.

Steady-State Flow Equations and Their Practical

Applications
In steady-state flow, there is no change anywhere with time, i.e., the right-
hand sides of all the continuity and diffusivity equations are zero. Solutions
for steady state are, however, useful for certain unsteady-state problems. The
steady-state flow equations can be derived from integrating and evaluating
the integration constants from the boundary conditions. The steady-state
flow equation and Darcy's equations accounting for specific geometry are
presented here. The steady-state flow equations are based on the following
assumptions:
1. Thickness is uniform, and permeability is constant.
2. Fluid is incompressible.
3. Flow across any circumference is a constant.

Ideal Steady-State Flow Equation - Radial Flow

Let pw be the pressure at the wellbore when the well is flowing q reservoir
barrels per day and a pressure pe is maintained at the external radius or
drainage radius re. Let the pressure at any radius r be/?. Then, at this radius r:

where position q0 is in the positive r-direction. Separating variables and

integrating between any two radii, r\ and r^ where the pressures are p\
and p2, respectively,

(2-1)

The minus sign is usually dispensed with; for where p2 > Pi, the flow is
known to be negative, i.e., in the negative r-direction, or toward the well-
bore. Also it is customary to express q in surface units rather than reservoir
units. Then, Eq. 2-1 becomes

(2-2)

Frequently, the two radii of interest are the wellbore radius rw and the
external or drainage radius re. Then, Eq. 2-1 becomes

(2-3)

where
q0 = oil flow rate, stb/day
k = undamaged permeability, mD
 h = thickness, ft
pe = external pressure, psi
re = external radius, ft, and is calculated from well spacing
rw = wellbore radius, ft
\i0 = viscosity of oil, cP
/S0 = oil formation volume factor, rb/stb
In terms of the average pressure (i.e., p = p at r = re)\

(2-4)

For linear geometry:

(2-5)

For hemispherical geometry:

(2-6)

For 5-spot waterflood:

(2-7)

For 7-spot waterflood:

(2-8)

To calculate undamaged permeability around the wellbore, pressure drop

(Ap)skin (negative), due to damage or improvement could be incorporated
into the above equations as

(2-9)

Practical Applications

Steady-state equations may be used without any significant error to

analyze near the wellbore reservoir conditions, even in an unsteady-state
system.
Example 2-1 Calculating Improved Permeability from Steady-State Flow
Equation
A well is producing oil at a rate of 800bbl/day with a bottom-hole
pressure of 850 psi from a reservoir with very strong water drive (assume
steady state). What is the improved permeability if a pressure drawdown
analysis indicates that Apskin at this rate is 150 psi? Other data are: well
spacing = 40 acres; rw = 6.5 in.; /xo = 2.OcP; /3O = 1.255 rb/stb; h = 45 ft; and
pe = 1350 psi.

Solution

Using Eq. 2-8, we can calculate the improved permeability, kimpr:

Example 2-2 Calculating Flow Rate and Pressure Drop Due to Skin from
Steady-State Flow Equation in a Water-Drive Reservoir
In a water-drive reservoir, the following data are known: boundary
pressure = 2200 psia; flowing pressure = 950 psia; oil flow rate = 100 rb/
day; well radius, rw = 0.39 ft; effective drainage radius, reff = 750 ft;
A = 15 ft; /x0 = 0.95 cP; flow rate, q0 = 75rb/day; and P0 = 1.240 rb/stb.
Calculate (1) what is (Ap)skin, (2) if (Ap)skin = 0, find the oil flow rate, and
(3) find (Ap)skin, if rw = 5.5 ft.

Solution
(1) Using Eq. 2-9, (Ap)skin is
 (2) If the (Ap)skin is reduced to zero, the production rate would be (using
Eq. 2-3)

(3) For rw = 5.5 ft. Substituting this into Eq. 2-3, we get

Pseudo-Steady-State Flow Equations

When a reservoir is produced at a constant rate for a long enough period
of time so that the entire drainage area of the reservoir is affected by the
pressure disturbance, q constant change in pressure with time at all radii
takes place. This constant pressure change results in parallel pressure dis-
tributions and corresponding constant rate distributions. This situation is
called pseudo-steady-state flow. Many reservoirs spend most of their history
in a pseudo-steady-state flow regime than in any other flow regime. This type
of flow is also called depletion state or semi-steady state. Pseudo-steady-state
flow problem can be solved using the following set of equations:

(2-10)

where Vb is equal to pore volume of reservoir in cubic ft and is equal to nr^h or

(2-11)

Example 2-3 Calculating Porosity-Thickness, Permeability-Thickness from

Pseudo-Steady-State Equation
Reservoir and well data are: /?5 = 2800ps; /?e = 3350psi; ct = 10~6psia~1;
re = 2000 ft; rw = 0.5 ft; ct = lO^psi" 1 ; /x0 = 0.65 cP; pw = 3.050psi; q0 =
900stb/day; /30 = 1.150 rb/stb. The pw/ is declining at a constant rate of
2.2 psi/day. Determine the following:
(1) Porosity-thickness
(2) Permeability-thickness
 (3) Permeability-thickness. Assuming there is water drive (steady-state
flow) and bottom hole pressure remains constant.

Solution
(1) Using Eq. 2-11, porosity-thickness is

(2) Using Eq. 2-13, permeability-thickness kh is

(3) Using Eq. 2-9, permeability-thickness in steady-state system is

Flow Equations for Different Flow Regimes

Flow equations for pseudo-steady state for wells located centrally in the
areal drainage plane are given below. It is important to note that the
equations are based either on drainage boundary pressure pe or average
reservoir pressure p. In general, reservoir pressure is estimated by using a
DST test, a pressure bomb test, or a buildup test. These methods estimate
average reservoir pressure p. Eq. 2-12 can be applied to flow when other
pressures and radii are evolved.

(2-12)

Eq. 2-13 is a pseudo-steady-state equation written in terms of p = pe at

r = re.

(2-13)
 Eq. 2-13a is written in terms of the average reservoir pressure for a
circular drainage area:

(2-13a)

As an alternative, the skin factor can be accounted for in the flow

equations by changing the wellbore radius, e.g., including the skin
factor

in which

(a) Damaged well, s > 0

(b) Stimulated well, s < 0.

Time to Reach Pseudo-Steady State

The time periods required to reach the pseudo-steady-state for different
vertical well locations in the drainage plane and for various configurations of
drainage areas are listed in Table B-I. Dimensionless time //>, which is used
to define various flow regimes, is given as

(2-13b)

and area-based dimensionless time is defined as

(2-13c)

Thus

(2-13d)

where
k = permeability, mD
t = time, hr
 (j) = porosity in fraction
IJL0 = oil viscosity, cP
c r/ = initial total compressibility, psi" 1
A = area, ft2
rw wellbore radius, ft
As shown in Table B-I, for a vertical well located at the center of a drainage
circle or a square to reach pseudo-steady-state requires IDA = 0 . 1 . Substitut-
ing this in Eq. 2-13d, we obtain

(2-13e)

(2-13f)

where tpss is the time to reach pseudo-steady state. Generally, oil wells are
developed on 40-acres spacing and gas wells are developed on 160-acres
spacing.
40 acres = 43,560 x 40 = 1.7424 x 106 ft2
160 acres = 43,560 x 160 = 6.9696 x 106ft2
Eqs. 2-13e and 2-13f show that transient time depends on the basic
reservoir properties such as k, <f>, and cti. Time to reach pseudo-steady
state does not depend on well stimulation. In the case of oil wells, time
to reach pseudo-steady state normally is on the order of a few days to
months. In contrast, for gas wells in low-permeability reservoirs, time
to reach pseudo-steady state could be very long; in some cases as long
as a few years.

Example 2-4 Determining the Time to Reach Pseudo-Steady-State

For an oil well drilled at 40-acre spacing, calculate the time to reach
pseudo-steady state. Given: /x = 3.75 cP; k = 45 mD; cti = 5.5 x 10" 5 PSi" 1 ;
(f) = 12.5%; A = 40 acres.

Solution Using Eq. 2-13f, time to reach pseudo-steady state is calculated as

Example 2-5 Calculating the Time to Reach Pseudo-Steady State (20- and
160-Acre Spacing)
Calculate the time required to reach pseudo-steady state for an oil
well drilled at either 20- or 160-acre spacing in a reservoir with an
initial pressure of 1550 psi. The following reservoir properties are
given: 0 = 0.125fraction; /xo = 3.75cP; cti = 55 x 10"5PSi"1; A: = 45mD

Solution

For 20 acres, tpss = 0.00683 x 20 x 43,560 hr = 5946 hr = 248 days =

0.68 years
For 160 acres, tpss = 0.00683 x 160 x 43,560 = 47,602 hr = 1983 days =
5.43 years

Unsteady-State (Transient) Flow Equations

Unsteady-state flow is a flow that occurs while the pressures and/or rate
changes with time. Reservoir conditions that are not described by the steady-
state flow above are described by unsteady-state flow. The greater the
compressibility of the fluid, the more pronounced the unsteady-state effect
of the reservoir fluid. The engineers use the diffusivity equation for studying
the unsteady-state flow of fluid in porous media. The equations used to
describe unsteady-state flow are derived from hydraulic diffusivity equation
and presented in the next section.

Radial Diffusivity Equation

The basic differential equation will be derived in radial form thus simu-
lating the flow of fluids in the vicinity of a well. Analytical solutions of the
equation can then be obtained under various boundary and initial condi-
tions for use in the description of well testing and well inflow, which have
considerable practical application in reservoir engineering. The radial cell
geometry is shown in Figure 2-1 and the following assumptions will be made
to develop diffusivity equation:
1. Homogeneous and isotropic porous media of uniform thickness;
2. Rock and fluid properties are pressure-independent;
3. Pressure gradients are small;
4. Flow is radial;
5. Darcy's law is applicable;
6. Gravity forces are negligible;
7. The flow is along a radial path toward the wellbore;
Figure 2-1. Radial flow of a single-phase fluid in the vicinity of a producing well.

8. The fluid flow is single phase and fluid saturation in the system is
constant;
9. The porosity and permeability are constant in space and time; and
10. Viscosity and compressibility of the fluid are constant.
Consider theflowthrough a volume element of thickness, dr, situated at a
distance r from the center of the radial cell. Then applying the principle of
mass conservation, Massflowrate massflowrate = rate of change of mass
in volume element

Input = Output

where l^rhcj) is the volume of the small element of thickness dr. The left-hand
side of the equation can be expressed as