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COMBINED
generation is recovered as useful energy, avoiding the losses that would otherwise be
incurred from separate generation of heat and power. Recent advances in electricity-
efficient, cost-effective generation technologiesin particular, advanced combustion
turbines and reciprocating engineshave allowed for new configurations of systems
that combine heat and power production, expanding opportunities for these systems
This guide provides up-to-date application and operational information about prime
movers, heat recovery devices, and thermally activated technologies; technical and
economic guidance regarding CHP systems design, site screening, and assessment
guidance and tools; and installation, operation, and maintenance advice. As well as a
DESIGN GUIDE
glossary of terms, the book features extensive, detailed case studies on implementations
in university, industrial, and hotel settings. Information is presented in both Inch-Pound
(I-P) and International System (SI) units.
Also included with the book is access to the newly developed ASHRAE CHP Analysis
Tool, a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet (in I-P units only) for use in assessing sites for
CHP applicability.
Combined Heat and Power Design Guide is an essential resource for consulting
engineers, architects, building owners, and contractors who are involved in evaluating,
selecting, designing, installing, operating, and maintaining these systems.
ISBN 978-1-936504-87-9
CONTRIBUTORS
The following individuals significantly contributed or provided material
that was substantive with respect to the development of this publication.
PROJECT TEAM
Richard Sweetser Gearoid Foley Dr. James Freihaut
(Principal Investigator) Integrated CHP Systems Inc. The Pennsylvania State University
Exergy Partners Corp. Princeton, NJ Department of Architectural
Herndon, VA www.ichps.com Engineering
www.exergypartners.com University Park, PA
www.psu.edu
ADDITIONAL CONTRIBUTORS
Dr. Bruce Hedman
Institute for Industrial Productivity
Washington, DC
www.iipnetwork.org
COMBINED
HEAT AND POWER
DESIGN GUIDE
Atlanta
2015 ASHRAE
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1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 CHP Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 CHP Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 CHP Design Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.7 Energy Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
vi
vii
xi
xii
xiii
xiv
This publication is accompanied by the ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool, which can be
found at www.ashrae.org/CHPDG. These files take a unique approach to solving the
issue of obsolescence of equipment databases by allowing the user to input the parameters
for the CHP system characteristics independently of the technology selection and
providing reliable, transparent cost savings results from the application of CHP. If the
files or information at the link are not accessible, please contact the publisher.
xv
CHP FUNDAMENTALS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Historically, combined heat and power (CHP) design guides have focused on
design and development features of major system components, including reciprocating
engine internal structural and wearing surface design, combustion turbine aerodynamics,
microturbine recuperator flexural modulus, and heat exchanger design fouling factors.
Although these elements are critical to develop high-performing and reliable
components, they are not of particular interest to an engineering practitioner seeking to
understand and apply a CHP system to a specific application. This design guide provides
application and operational information about prime movers, heat recovery devices,
thermally activated technologies; technical and economic guidance regarding CHP
systems design, site screening and assessment guidance and tools; and installation,
operation, and maintenance advice.
It is the authors intention to furnish a design guide that provides a consistent and
reliable approach to assessing any sites potential to economically use commercially
available CHP systems.
This book is accompanied by a new ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool and a chapter on
an exergy approach to CHP, which can be found at www.ashrae.org/CHPDG. These
files may be used for assessing sites for CHP applicability. If the files or information at
the link are not accessible, please contact the publisher.
1.2 OVERVIEW
Combined heat and power (CHP), also known as cogeneration, is the sequential
generation of usable heat and power (usually electricity) in a single process. The
electricity is generated at or close to the end-use, allowing the capture and use of the
resulting waste heat for site applications. CHP systems generate electricity and useful
thermal energy in a single, integrated system. CHP is not a technology, but an approach
to applying technologies. Heat that is normally wasted in conventional power generation
is recovered as useful energy, avoiding the losses that would otherwise be incurred
from separate generation of heat and power.
Two powerful policy drivers will likely increase demand for CHP systems and
assessments over the next decade: the increased availability of cheap natural gas
supplies from shale deposits, and increased attention by energy users on the need to
reduce operating costs.
CHPs unique place between energy suppliers and consumers, its provision of two
types of useful energy, and its interaction with electricity networks mean that its
prospects necessarily remain tied to local regulation and the quality of public policies
that remove barriers and promote its uses.
1.3 HISTORY
Dating from the 1880s, when steam was still the primary source of motive power
in industry and electricity was just emerging as a product for both power and lighting,
industrial plants led in the application of CHP concepts. The use of such technology
became commonplace as engineers replaced steam-driven belt-and-pulley systems
with electric power and motors, moving from mechanically powered systems to
electrically powered systems. In the 1890s, before the development of the electric grid
and almost of necessity, industrial applications cogenerated. Power was used in motors
and steam for thermal purposes. There were no regulated utilities, and CHP was simply
a power technology. In the 1900s, most of the power used by industry was cogenerated.
With the evolution of the electric utility industry, purchased power costs dropped
while power reliability and quality increased. As technology developed, leading to
larger central plants and their resulting economies of scale, utilities were able to deliver
more capacity for each dollar invested. Moreover, the higher efficiencies achieved at
these plants resulted in lower fuel costs as natural gas demand decreased.
The development of the integrated grid provided several additional benefits to end
users. First, the grid resulted in increased reliability, as power was made available from
a number of sources and not just a single generating plant. Second, the average cost of
power dropped as the available capacity was operated on an economic dispatch basis.
That is, the lowest cost plant available to satisfy a requirement was loaded first, thus
lowering the average cost of power production. Third, low-cost oil and gas and increases
in coal productivity resulted in still lower generation costs.
In general, industrial users found that the most effective way to satisfy power
requirements was to purchase it from the local utility. The perception that electric
power generation was a natural monopoly requiring exclusive service areas and cost
regulation also gave some end users a sense that power was being made available at the
lowest price. Additionally, the low fuel costs caused industrial energy users to ignore
conservation opportunities, typically resulting in the installation of less costly and less
efficient boilers, because the incremental costs of high-efficiency boilers were not
judged to be cost effective. Ultimately, the typical energy end user chose to purchase
power, decreasing the amount of cogenerated power.
While the overall trend in the amount of cogenerated power was downward, there
were several cases, as in the oil and gas industry, refineries, chemical plants, or the
pulp and paper industry, where CHP was both technically and economically compatible
with process requirements; industrial sites continued to cogenerate, but at a much
lower capacity. At these sites, several factors, including the availability of process
by-products as fuel, the need for large quantities of steam at different pressures and
temperatures, long operating hours, and the availability of qualified maintenance and
operating personnel, facilitated the development and operation of CHP systems. In
general, these systems took two forms: larger systems that typically sold the
cogenerated power to the local utility or smaller systems (characteristically less than
5 MW) that used the power internally, reducing power purchases. These CHP systems
were primarily based on either a backpressure or an extraction steam turbine. In
addition, many electric utilities with power plants located in urban areas developed
steam district-heating systems, with the source of the steam being large CHP systems
at these central plants.
Utility rate and franchise regulation, which began in the early twentieth century
and which became increasingly pervasive, acted to further discourage nonutility
generators, as did the public utilities themselves, which sought to deter alternative
suppliers in their own service areas. In fact, state and federal regulations sometimes
resulted in CHP system financial structures that were unique partnerships of industrial
and utility parties. With an exclusive franchise for power sales in its service area,
electric utilities were sometimes able to impose restrictions that further reduced the
cost-effectiveness of CHP. The overall impact was that the amount of CHP power
produced in the US decreased steadily through the 1970s.
There was a short revival of interest in CHP in the late 1960s and early 1970s as
the natural gas industry attempted to expand its market, particularly nonseasonal use,
by encouraging on-site generating systems. Resistance from the electric utility industry,
which was frequently evidenced as a refusal to interconnect the utility grid to sites that
operated CHP systems or, if the site was interconnected, through high-cost supplemental
and standby service, resulted in these sites operating totally independent of the electric
utility grid. Referred to as total energy systems (TES), they consisted of on-site
engine generator sets that served all of the sites electrical requirements, with the end
users thermal requirements being satisfied with heat produced by a prime mover, a
supplemental boiler, or both. TES enjoyed some initial successes and began to enjoy
greater acceptance in the early 1970s; however, the gas shortages and price increases of
the 1970s and competitive marketing and rates from electric utilities resulted in a
failure to develop the market further.
The history of CHP in the United States has been marked by important federal
legislation. CHP received an important policy boost with the Public Utilities Regulatory
Policy Act (PURPA) of 1978, which gave certain CHP facilities a guaranteed market
for their power. This bill helped build a robust fleet of CHP systems across the country
and marked the first time that federal legislation actively sought to encourage distributed
generation and CHP. Figure 1-1 shows the significant increase in CHP installations in
operation as a result of PURPA, beginning in the early 1980s and ending in the early/
mid 2000s.
For the first time since the inception of the power industry, nonutility participation
was allowed in the U.S. power market, triggering the development of third-party CHP
Figure 1-1. Installed and Operating CHP Systems in the United States1
1
Source: ICF Combined Heat and Power Installation Database.
developers who had greater interest in electric markets than thermal markets. As a
result, the development of large CHP facilities (greater than 100 MW) paired with
industrial facilities increased dramatically; today almost 65% of existing U.S. CHP
capacity55,000 MWis concentrated in plants over 100 MW in size2.
By the turn of the century, natural gas deregulation was complete, and natural gas
commodity markets were affecting the price of natural gas. Figure 1-2 shows a period
of relatively stable natural gas prices in the late 1990s, followed by several periods of
large price spikes after 2000. During 2008, natural gas spot prices traded as high as
$13.32 per million cubic feet ($0.38 per million cubic metres) and as low as $5.63 per
million cubic feet ($0.16 per million cubic metres). The large price fluctuations in 2008
increased the focus on price volatility and its impacts on natural gas market participants.
Price volatility increased the uncertainty of natural gas pricing and dramatically
impacted CHP adoption for much of the decade.
On August 8, 2005, the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct 2005) was signed into
law. Section 1253(a) of EPAct 2005 added a new section 210(m) to the Public Utility
Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 (PURPA) that provided for termination of an electric
Figure 1-2. Henry Hub3 Spot Prices for Natural Gas 199620084
2
Advancing Near-Term Low Carbon Technologies, The International CHP/DHC Collaborative,
International Energy Agency. 2009.
3
The Henry Hub is a distribution hub on the natural gas pipeline system in Erath, Louisiana,
owned by Sabine Pipe Line LLC. Because of its importance, it lends its name to the pricing
point for natural gas futures contracts traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX).
4
Natural Gas Price Volatility. Randy Roesser, California Energy Commission. 2009.
utilitys obligation to purchase energy and capacity from qualifying CHP facilities and
qualifying small power production facilities (QFs), including CHP facilities, if the
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission finds that certain conditions are met. This act
removed federal feed-in tariffs for CHP plants and essentially put a significant drag on
the expansion of CHP systems nationwide.
Utilities interested in retaining their electric customer bases are generally not
incentivized to support greater CHP, because new CHP projects would reduce customer
demand. If they are to actively support the increased development of CHP in their
service territories, electric utilities will require some external incentive or mechanism
to recover the lost revenue associated with greater CHP deployment. Few utilities have
these incentives or mechanisms in place.
The North American shale gas revolution is entering a new phase of activity, with
gas production in the Big 7 U.S. shale gas plays (Antrim, Barnett, Devonian,
Fayetteville, Woodford, Haynesville, and Marcellus) now estimated to be on track to
rise to between 27 and 39 Bcf/d5 (0.76 and 1.1 Bcm/d6) over the next decade. The
Marcellus field is now the worlds second largest natural gas field. Although some
uncertainty exists with respect to the actual amount of economically recoverable shale
gas reserves, the impact of shale gas production over the next decade, according to the
EIA reference case, projects the Henry Hub spot market price remaining within $1.00
per million Btu ($0.29/MW) of its current price, $4.03 (May 2013). This new level of
stability is an important factor in assessing opportunities for CHP moving forward.
1.4.1 Policy
Energy policy today is a function of many issues, including assumptions about
energy supply and demand, corporate interest, economics, market interest or disinterest,
pollution fears, climate change, and politics. CHP is generally recognized as a positive
approach to energy policy moving forward.
At the end of the 1990s, policymakers began to explore the efficiency and emission
reduction benefits of thermally based CHP. They realized that a new generation of locally
deployed CHP systems could play a more important role in meeting future U.S. energy
needs in a less carbon-emissions-intensive manner. As a result, the federal government
and several states began to take actions to promote further deployment of CHP. CHP has
been specifically singled out for promotion by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)
and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
The DOE in 2001 established the first of eight regional Clean Energy Application
Centers to provide local technical assistance and educational support for CHP development.
In 2001, the EPA established the CHP Partnership to encourage cost-effective CHP
projects and expand CHP development in underutilized markets and applications.
5
Billion (109) cubic feet per day.
6
Billion (109) cubic metres per day.
Federal focus and support encompassed within this Executive Order targeting
increasing industrial CHP use will undoubtedly impact market adoption throughout the
Federal sector, and influence state policy as well as the private sector.
Individual states also began to realize that a variety of policy measures were needed
to remove the barriers to CHP development, and developed a series of policies and
incentives, including streamlining grid interconnection requirements, simplifying
environmental permitting procedures, and establishing rate-payer financed incentive
programs for CHP deployment. Moving CHP into the energy policy mainstream and
maximizing its potential benefits to society requires the continued development of
these kinds of policies at the state level.
U.S. GHG emissions associated with fossil fuel electricity generation can vary
from as low as 727 lb (330 kg) CO2eq/MWh of generated electricity to almost 2000 lb
(900 kg) of CO2eq/MWh. There is potential for significant GHG reductions with CHP,
depending on the installation location, yielding 314 lb (143 kg) of CO2eq/MWh from a
4.6 MW recuperative combustion turbine, 419 lb (191 kg) of CO2eq/MWh from a
2 MW lean-burn engine, and 649 lb (295 kg) of CO2eq/MWh from a 2 MW a simple
cycle combustion turbine and local GHG regulation policy. Future GHG regulations
could be a strong driver for increased efficiency, and technologies such as CHP will be
well positioned to meet the challenge.
1.4.2 Fuels
Historically, natural gas has proven to be the preferred fuel for CHP systems both
large and small (Figure 1-3), and this trend is expected to continue largely because of
the continuing development of shale gas in the United States.
Natural gas provides nearly one-fourth of the energy consumed in the United States
and is expected to increase in the future. About 85% of the natural gas consumed in the
United States is produced within U.S. borders; much of the rest comes from Canada,
which also has a large natural gas supply base. Domestic natural gas production is
expected to account for 80% or more of the total annual U.S. natural gas supply through
the year 2030. Gas supplies are frequently described in two different ways: proved
reserves, which are the estimated quantities of natural gas that current geologic and
engineering data demonstrate to be recoverable under existing economic and operating
conditions, and the total natural gas resource base, which is proved reserves plus
7
Combined Heat and Power Installation Database, http://www.eea-inc.com/chpdata/
undiscovered resources. The total U.S. natural gas resource base, including proved
reserves, is more than 1500 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) (42.5 1012 cubic metres), providing
a 75-year supply of natural gas at current production levels8. Natural gas pricing should
remain stable and relatively low for a significant period of time as proven reserves
increase. The important issue is the spark spread9 over the operating or economic life
of the CHP plant. Retiring central station power plants, tightening emissions regulations
(e.g. the Utility MACT10), grid congestion, Smart Grid and other transmission and
distribution upgrades all point to higher electricity costs. The one pressure on the natural
gas price would come from increased use of natural gas for vehicles (likely but limited
demand) and exporting liquid natural gas (LNG) from the United States.
Solid fuels, including refuse-derived fuel waste, also make up a significant share
of the market, although fuel- and ash-handling costs generally limit the use of solid
fuels to systems of 10 MW or more.
Reduced Operating Costs: The principle owners benefit from a CHP system
is economic. Simply put, the total operating cost of the CHP plant, including fuel,
maintenance and cost of capital, is less than the cost of purchased fuel and power,
and these savings are significant enough to invest the capital to build the plant.
Increased Power Reliability: Power reliability can directly impact the economic
evaluation of a CHP plant. EPRI estimated the national cost of power interruptions,
including power quality events, at $79 billion per year11 (Figure 1-4).
8
Potential Gas Agency of the Colorado School of Mines, http://potentialgas.org/about .
9
Spark spread is the relative difference between the price of fuel and the price of power. Spark
spread is highly dependent on the efficiency of conversion. For a CHP system, spark spread is
the difference between the cost of fuel for the CHP system to produce power and heat on site
and the offset cost of purchased grid power.
10
The emission standard for sources of air pollution requiring the maximum reduction of hazardous
emissions, taking cost and feasibility into account. Under the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990,
the MACT must not be less than the average emission level achieved by controls on the best
performing 12% of existing sources, by category of industrial and utility sources.
11
The cost of power disturbances to industrial and digital economy companies. Report TR-1006274
(Available through EPRI). Madison, Wisconsin. Primen. 2001.
Offset Capital Cost: CHP systems can offset capital costs that would otherwise
be needed to purchase and install certain facility components, such as boiler and
chiller systems in new construction. In addition, installing CHP systems with
backup capability can enable a local government to avoid having to purchase a
conventional backup electricity generator. Note that certain applications, such as
hospitals, cannot use natural gas in the United States as a backup fuel source.
Cost of Power Interruptions to Electricity Consumers in the United States (U.S.). Kristina
12
Hamachi LaCommare and Joseph H. Eto. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, U.S.
Department of Energy. 2006.
10
Figure 1-5. Emissions from CHP Plant versus the National Grid13
Energy Efficiency: Energy efficiency (Figure 1-6) can be both a societal and
an owner benefit. From an owners viewpoint, properly designed and applied
CHP systems save energy which means it should save energy cost. CHP makes
more efficient use of primary fuel for producing heat and power than separate
conventional methods, such as on-site boilers and power stations. Therefore, it
can deliver significant environmental benefits and cost savings, given the right
balance of technical and financial conditions.
Carbon Reduction Choices: Table 1-1 compares the annual energy and CO2
savings of a 10 MW natural-gas-fired CHP system, separate heat and power with
utility-scale renewable technologies, and natural gas combined cycle (NGCC)
systems producing power only. This shows that CHP can provide overall energy
and CO2 savings on par with comparably sized solar photovoltaics (PV), wind,
and NGCC, and at a capital cost lower than solar and wind and on par with NGCC.
Applying a Fuel and CO2 Emissions Savings Calculation Protocol to a Combined Heat and
13
11
Figure 1-6. Energy Savings of Typical Packaged CHP Compared to Conventional Sources of
Heat and Power Generation (Shown in Units of Energy)
Annual NOx savings, tons (Mg) 59.8 (54.2) 16.2 (14.7) 24.9 (22.6) 39.3 (35.7)
14
A Clean Energy Solution Combined Heat and Power. U.S. Department of Energy and U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. August 2012.
12
Assumptions:
Reduces Grid Congestion: Industrial sites and urban centers are often capacity
constrained. On-site CHP systems can deliver electric power, reducing peak power
requirements.
Avoids New Generation Costs: Each grid kilowatt saved generally saves the
need for 1.09 kW of power to be generated factoring in line losses. Nuclear plant
relicensing and increasing coal power plant emission regulations are already
impacting Americas generating base. Factoring in economic growth, CHP can
provide a significant source of new power generation for the future.
15
Estimating the cost of power quality. IEEE Spectrum. 30(6): 40-41.
13
The following CHP design basics outline provides key insights into a methodological
thought process to lead toward site analytics for successful CHP applications.
A second and equally important design goal is to reduce risk or conversely increase
the certainty of results. This can best be accomplished by a thorough understanding of
CHP system application considerations, which is the goal of this guide.
A CHP system with a gas turbine generates electricity by combusting a fuel (often
natural gas, oil or biogas) and using a heat recovery unit to capture the by-product heat.
Gas turbine configurations are most compatible with large industrial or commercial
CHP applications that require large quantities of heat and power, typically sized
between 4 and 50 MW in electric capacity.
A CHP system with a reciprocating engine generally recovers heat from the jacket
water cooling system and the engine exhaust, providing low pressure steam or hot
water under 250F (121C). Engine configurations are most compatible with industrial
or commercial CHP applications that require quantities of heat and power typically
sized between 100 kW and 5 MW in electric capacity.
Finally, organic Rankine cycle (ORC) systems, which use an organic working
fluid instead of water/steam, are being applied, especially where low-temperature waste
heat is available for recovery.
14
The most fundamental, and perhaps most difficult, element of a CHP application is
understanding a sites thermal and electric loads. In fact, most CHP design failures
occur because the systems were incorrectly sized to serve the sites thermal loads. The
first step in understanding electric and thermal load is to differentiate between which
loads are addressable and which are not. Multiple on-site electric meters generally
mean that only one meter set can be considered. This is generally because it is too
costly to rewire the facility to be served by a single meter, which would be necessary
for the CHP system to provide power to all the loads.
For facilities with rooftop air conditioners, space cooling and likely space heating
are not addressable thermal loads, because rooftop air conditioners (not rooftop air
handlers) use direct-expansion systems for cooling (versus water coils) and generally
use a furnace or heat pump cycle for heating. Even multiple rooftop air-handling units
with chilled- and hot-water coils are not likely candidates, because they require
extensive piping runs, which generally lead to costly retrofits. Fundamentally, high-
thermal-load-factor CHP systems are economical, and low-thermal-load-factor systems
are not economically viable. Generally, sizing the CHP system to the addressable
thermal load and using the electricity on-site16 is considered best practice.
15
1.6.8 Regulations
Electric grid interconnection is the most common regulation connected with CHP
systems. However, CHP installations must comply with a host of local zoning,
environmental, health, and safety requirements at the site. These include rules on air
and water quality, fire prevention, fuel storage, hazardous waste disposal, worker safety,
and building construction standards. This requires interaction with various local
agencies, including fire districts, air districts, water districts, and planning commissions,
many of which may have no previous experience with a CHP project and are unfamiliar
with the technologies and systems.
Turbine, microturbine, engine, and fuel cell manufacturers typically rate their
equipment using lower heating value (LHV), which accurately measures combustion
efficiency; however, LHV neglects the energy in water vapor formed by combustion of
hydrogen in the fuel. This water vapor typically represents about 10% of the energy
content. LHVs for natural gas are typically 900 to 950 Btu/ft3 (33.5 to 35.5 MJ/m3).
Higher heating value (HHV) for a fuel includes the full energy content as defined
by bringing all products of combustion to 77F (25C). Natural gas typically is delivered
16
by the local distribution company with values of 1000 to 1050 Btu/ft3 (37 to 39 MJ/m3)
on this HHV basis. Because the actual value may vary from month to month, some
gas companies convert to therms (1 therm = 100,000 Btu). These measures all
represent HHV. Consumers purchase natural gas in terms of its HHV; therefore,
performances of CHP systems as well as the electric grid for comparison are calculated
in HHV.
The net electric efficiency E of a generator can be defined by the first law of
thermodynamics as net electrical output WE divided by fuel consumed Qfuel in terms of
kilowatt-hours of thermal energy content:
E = WE/Qfuel 1-1
According to the second law of thermodynamics, the two different energy streams
have different relative values; heat and electricity are not interchangeable. The first law
describes the quantity of the two energy streams, whereas the second law describes
their quality or value (exergy). Electrical energy is generally of higher value because it
can do many types of work, and, in theory, 100% of it can be converted into thermal
energy. Thermal energy is more limited in use and is converted to work at rates usually
much lower than 100% conversion. The theoretical maximum efficiency at which
thermal energy can be converted to work is the Carnot efficiency, which is a function
of the quality, or temperature, of the thermal energy and is defined as
17
conventional means. This approach credits the systems fuel consumption to account
for the value of the thermal energy output, and measures how effective the CHP system
is at generating power (or mechanical energy) once the thermal needs of a site have
been met. This metric is most effective when used on a consistent and standardized
basis, meaning:
The EE metric measures a single point of performance (design point). The design
point for power generation is measured at ISO conditions (for combustion turbines,
microturbines, and fuel cells, 59 F (15 C), 60% RH, sea level, per ISO Standard 3977-2;
for reciprocating engines, 77 F (25 C), 30% RH, and 14.5 psia (100 kPa) per ISO
Standard 3046-1). The performance evaluates fuel input and CHP outputs at the design
point only. HHV is used because it measures the true value of performance in relation
to fuel use and fuel cost (HHV is more commonly used to compare energy systems, is
the basis of fuel purchases, and is the basis of emissions regulation).
Examples 1 to 5 demonstrate how to apply this metric. The basis for comparison is
a 25% HHV efficient electric power source. Performance values for larger combustion
turbines, reciprocating engines, and fuel cells vary significantly.
Conventional Boiler: 100 units of fuel are converted into 80 units of heat and 20
units of exhaust energy as shown in Figure 1-7.
Power-Only Generator: A 25% HHV efficient electric generator consumes 160 units
of fuel and produces 40 units of electricity and 120 units of exhaust energy (Figure 1-8).
Fuel
Natural gas boiler 0.80
Biomass boiler 0.65
Direct burner exhaust 1.0
18
The performance metrics for these separate approaches to energy supply are as
follows:
W 40 1-5
E = E = = 0.25
Qfuel 160
WE + QTH 40 + 80 1-6
O = = = 0 46
Qfuel 160 + 100
WE 40
EE = = = 0.25 1-7
QTH 80
Qfuel 260
0.80
19
WE 40
E = = = 0.25 1-8
Qfuel 160
WE + QTH 40 + 80 1-9
O = = = 0.75
Qfuel 160
WE 40
EE = = = 0.67 1-10
Q 80
Qfuel TH 160
0.80
Figure 1-9. Separate Power and Heating Energy Boundary Diagram for Example 1
20
Note that E for both systems (Example 1s separate generation and Example 2s
CHP) is the same, but the combined system uses less fuel to produce the same outputs,
as shown by the differences in overall efficiency (O = 75% for CHP versus O = 46%
for separate systems) (Figure 1-10). However, this metric does not adequately account
for the relative values of the thermal and electric outputs. The electric effectiveness
metric, on the other hand, nets out the thermal energy, leaving a EE of 67% for the CHP
system versus 25% for separate systems (Figure 1-11).
Figure 1-11. CHP Power and Heating Energy Boundary Diagram for Example 2
21
Performance parameters for this combined system are shown in Figure 1-12, and
system boundaries are shown in Figure 1-13.
WE 40 1-12
E = = = 0.25
Qfuel 160
WE + QTH 40 + 110
O = = = 0.94 1-13
Qfuel 160
WE 40
EE = = = 0.80
QTH 110 1-14
Qfuel 160
1.00
22
WE 40
E = = = 0.25 1-15
Qfuel 160
WE + QTH 40 + 69
O = = = 0.68 1-16
Qfuel 160
WE 40
EE = = = 0.54
QTH 69 1-17
Qfuel 160
0.80
Figure 1-13. CHP Power and Direct Heating Energy Boundary Diagram for Example 3
23
Figure 1-15. CHP Power and HRSG Heating Without Duct Burner Energy Boundary Diagram
for Example 4
24
Example 5. Combined Power and Thermal Generation (CT with Cofired Duct
Burner) (Figure 1-16). Note that, based on this system approach, cofiring has no effect
on E, because no fuel flows to the duct burner in power-only mode. However, EE
increases from 0.54 to 0.71 (Figure 1-17).
WE 40 1-18
E = = = 0.25
Qfuel 160
Figure 1-17. CHP Power and HRSG Heating with Duct Burner Energy Boundary Diagram
for Example 5
25
Example System E O EE
Example System E O EE
26
The implication is that greater use of the thermal energy results in a higher electric
effectiveness (Figure 1-18). All of the example systems, except a low electrically efficient
generator with separate boiler, are superior in electrical effectiveness as compared to the
delivered efficiency of the electric grid.
27
Fuel energy savings qsavings then reflects fuel savings associated with generating the
CHP system power and thermal output through CHP (Qfuel) compared to using separate
heating and electric power sources (FUELreference):
Separate Separate
electricity thermal heating
FUELreference = {}WE
+
QTH
HEAT
1-21
FUELreference Qfuel
SAVINGS =
FUELreference
Calculations using the system in Example 2 show a projected fuel savings of 29%,
based on operation at the system design point:
Thermal
Electricity heating
FUELreference = { } 40
0.32
+
80
0.80
1-22
225 160
SAVINGS = = 0.289
225
\Note the rated design point, to show the utility of the approach in comparing
equipment performance on a consistent basis (i.e., for program management and
performance metrics). The same methodology could be applied to different design
points (e.g., part load, different ambient temperatures) as long as system outputs and
fuel inputs are all determined on a consistent basis (e.g., power output, fuel input,
thermal output, and recovery all estimated based on 100F [38C] ambient temperature
and 1000 ft [300 m] altitude). Reference system performance should also be considered
on the same basis (e.g., it would not be fair to compare CHP electric effectiveness or
fuel savings as calculated on a 100F [38C] day to combined cycle efficiencies
calculated at ISO conditions). Similarly, the methodology could be applied to actual
application performance if system outputs and utilization are considered on a consistent
basis (e.g., evaluating actual system power output, fuel input, and thermal energy used
over some specified time period). Fuel savings from the same direct heating and power
CHP system as in Example 3 show a projected fuel savings of 32%, based on operation
at the system design point:
Thermal
Electricity heating
FUELreference = { } { } = 235
40
0.32
+
110
1.0
1-23
235 160
SAVINGS = = 0.32
235
28
Applying the same process for the 25% power generator CHP systems (Examples
1 to 5) and usingeach of the three referenced electric comparisons gives the results
presented in Table 1-6. Table 1-7 presents results obtained if a 33% generator is assumed.
Table 1-6. Summary of Fuel Energy Savings for 25% Power Generator
in Examples 1 to 5
Adv.
Simple Cycle
Example CHP System Grid Average Combined
Peaker17
Cycle
Separate boiler and
1 0.00 0.00 0.00
generator
Combined heat
3 0.38 0.32 0.17
(direct) and power
Table 1-7. Summary of Fuel Energy Savings for 33% Power Generator
in Examples 1 to 5 (SI)
Adv.
Simple Cycle
Example CHP System Grid Average Combined
Peaker
Cycle
Separate boiler and
1 0.00 0.00 0.00
generator
Combined heat
3 0.50 0.44 0.31
(direct) and power
17
Peaking power plants, also known as peaker plants, and occasionally just peakers, are power
plants that generally run only when there is a high demand (peak demand) for electricity.
29
CHP plants are typically sized to meet base loads, and generally have a constant
electric and thermal output, with limited variation. CHP systems that include duct
burners or are designed to provide variable electric output can provide higher variation
on thermal output but will still have a base load thermal output that should be used to
the fullest extent. On the other hand, facility loads can have wide variations throughout
the day as well as significant changes from season to season or from workday to
weekend day. Undoubtedly, a facility must have some level of consistency in loads as
well as concurrency in thermal and electric loads for it to be amenable to the application
of CHP. An accurate profile of each addressable load must still be developed to
understand the functioning and interaction of the facility and the CHP plant. Although
actual load data on an hourly, daily or weekly basis may not be available, some
estimation of how the loads vary must be made.
If the load information is properly tabulated, it can be used to run various CHP
configuration scenarios with little additional effort. Because this information will be
used to calculate the performance of perhaps multiple CHP configurations, the load
data should be presented in a way that it can easily be compared to various CHP outputs.
This is an essential step in developing the optimum configuration for the particular
facility and contrasts with the often-used approach of developing the CHP output
streams and comparing them to the available loads.
31
To achieve some ease of comparing load analysis results with potential CHP
configurations, the addressable loads should be categorized into groups that are
compatible with CHP output streams. These CHP output streams can be characterized
in a limited number of forms (Table 2-1).
Categorizing all the addressable loads into these forms enables consolidation of
similar load forms and easy comparison to multiple CHP configurations. Properly
defining the characteristics of each load form is also required to ensure that loads of
similar form can in fact be consolidated and met by the CHP system output. For
example, a hotel may have multiple hot-water loads, such as domestic hot water for
general use, domestic hot water for kitchen use, and hot water for laundry, pool heating,
and space heating. Typical temperatures for these loads are shown in Table 2-2.
In general, all loads can be consolidated if the CHP configuration has the ability to
supply heat at a temperature no less than the highest supply requirement plus the
temperature loss for any heat exchanger between the loads and the CHP system. Using
the temperatures outlined in Table 2-2 and using a heat exchanger on each loop with a
5F (2.8C) approach, a CHP system that generates 170F (77C) degree hot water will
not be able to supply the space heating requirements, whereas a CHP system that
generates 190F (88C) will be able to address all the loads, including space heating.
In the load analysis and profile development, all the hot-water loads can be consolidated
as long as the temperature requirement of not less than 185F (85C) is identified. If a
CHP system with a hot-water output of less than 185F (85C) is selected, then the
loads must be reassessed for addressability on the basis of temperature requirement.
Table 2-1. CHP Output Streams
Power Heat Cooling
Electric Steam Chilled Water
Mechanical Hot Fluid Refrigeration
Hot Exhaust Air Dehumidification
18
The supply and return temperatures considered here are those temperatures required by the heat
exchanger used to heat the pool water. Pool water temperature typically varies from 80 to 82F
(26.7 to 27.8C) for most recreational pools; however, the design of the pool heating system may
require significantly different temperatures, as illustrated here.
19
Space-heating supply and return temperatures for existing buildings are determined by the
requirements for the existing or new air-side devices, such as radiators, air handling units, etc.
Outdoor temperature reset may vary these requirements according to ambient conditions. The
assessment of such loads should recognize temperature requirements through all seasons and
particularly for peak heating load.
32
CHP systems by definition provide both thermal energy and electric or mechanical
power to serve a variety of loads at one or more facilities. Loads that can be served by
the CHP system are called addressable loads and must be properly defined before
consideration can be given to the size and type of CHP configuration that will meet the
needs of the owner or developer. Properly characterizing the various loads and
understanding their addressability relative to the output of the CHP system is of vital
importance to a CHP load assessment.
In many applications, a variety of thermal loads are available, whereas the available
electric loads in the United States are generally homogeneous at 60 Hz alternating
current (ac) at a specified voltage. The power factor and power quality at the point of
connection are only of concern when they are not in line with normal utility parameters
and can significantly impact a CHP systems ability to deliver power or even connect to
the facility grid. Correction measures may be required if these issues are present,
although, many utilities will now require facility power grids to meet certain power
factor and quality criteria to protect their own distribution grids. The local utility grids
fault protection system also must be considered when applying CHP, because some
distribution systems, particularly grid networks, may require additional protection
equipment to prevent widespread damage in the event of a fault on the grid. Note that
some applications, such as data centers, are beginning to consider use of direct current
(dc) in their applications, but this still remains a very small percentage of applications.
CHP systems can also be configured to provide thermal energy and mechanical power
rather than electric power. Mechanical loads are defined in terms of horsepower
(kilowatts) and shaft rotation speed, which can be matched to prime mover rotating-
shaft speeds using gearing mechanisms.
Thermal load types and forms can vary widely, from high-pressure steam to
refrigeration. Although the primary thermal output of a CHP plant is heateither hot
water (as in the case of a reciprocating engine jacket heat rejection loop) or hot exhaust
gasesthis output can be converted using thermal conversion technologies to produce
a variety of thermal outputs from the CHP system. As discussed in Chapter 1, exhaust
gases can be used (1) directly in some heating processes, (2) in a heat exchanger to heat
air or a fluid, or (3) in a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) to produce steam.
Furthermore, the exhaust, hot water, or steam can be used in thermally activated chillers
to convert this thermal energy to cooling or refrigeration or to remove moisture from
an airstream in desiccant dehumidifiers. Therefore, the thermal loads relevant to CHP
can include domestic hot water, steam heating for process or space conditioning, hot air
drying, space cooling, refrigeration, hot water heating, desiccant regeneration, process
cooling, steam drying, etc. The main consideration for a thermal load is its addressability
by the CHP plant; this incorporates both the physical nature of load access as well as
load characteristics.
To maintain a high load factor20 on the CHP system during all operating hours, it
may be necessary to address multiple thermal loads either at the same time or at
different times, as would be the case for a multifamily residential application where the
Load factor is a statement of the amount of energy consumed for useful purposes versus capacity
20
of the system or the amount of energy that could be produced by the system if it operated all hours
at its full capacity.
33
CHP system may address domestic hot water with space heating in winter and
domestic hot water with space cooling in summer. CHP prime movers define the
quality and forms of heat available and must be selected to meet the thermal needs of
the facility as much as the power needs of the facility. For example, in applications
where steam is the only addressable load, selection of a non-ebulliently (non-vapor-
phase) cooled reciprocating engine that provides approximately half its thermal output
in the form of hot water will potentially have a lower load factor than a combustion
turbine whose entire thermal output is hot exhaust that can be converted to steam.
Mitigating factors such as equipment availability and cost, design needs, and utility
tariff structure may result in selection of the lower-load-factor solution, although, the
higher-load-factor solution will generally provide better operating economics and
lower overall facility emissions.
In many applications that are electric load driven and designed to operate at an
85% or above electric load factor throughout the year, the thermal output is relatively
constant at 85% to 100% of rated output, whereas the thermal load is independent and
can vary considerably throughout various time periods such that all the CHP output
may not be consumed for useful purposes at all times.
34
For example, a 1 MW generator has the capacity to produce 8760 MWh of electric
energy in a year. If the system actually produces 6000 MWh of power in a specific year,
then the electric load factor for the system that year is 6000/8760 = 68.5%. Thermal
load factor is calculated in the same way, dividing useful Btu (kW) in a given period by
the thermal capacity of the system in Btu (kW). The thermal capacity should be
calculated after the CHP system operation has been adjusted for the actual electric load
factor. In this example, if the nominal thermal capacity of the 1 MW system is 4 million
Btu/h (1172 kW/h) at full output, then the nominal thermal capacity of the system is
4 million Btu/h 8760 hours = 35,040 million Btu (10.3 million kW). However, given
that the prime mover only runs at a 68.5% load factor, this means that the actual
thermal capacity of the system is the nominal capacity times the electric load factor,
or 35,040 million Btu 68.5% electric load factor = 24,000 million Btu (7 million kW)
for the specified year.
To further illustrate the meaning of load factor, consider the above example of a
1 MW engine with 4 million Btu/h (1172 kW) of thermal output. When applied to
a facility that has a 1 MW constant load 24 h/day, 7 days/week, and 3 million Btu/h
(879 kW) constant addressable thermal load, the annual electric load factor will be the
full engine output times the engine availability21, which is assumed to be 90%.
Therefore, the electric load factor will be 90% and the thermal capacity will be
4 million Btu/h 8760 h 90% = 31,536 million Btu (9.2 million kW). Thermal load
availability is 3 million Btu/h while the CHP system is running or 3 million Btu/h
8760 h x 90% = 23,652 million Btu (96.0 million kW). The calculated thermal load
factor for this system is the thermal energy used divided by the capacity of the system
as operated or 23,652/31,536 = 75%. In an effort to increase the thermal load factor,
apply an engine of 750 kW capacity with the same electric and thermal characteristics
such that the engine will have a thermal capacity of 3 million Btu/h (879 kW). In this
scenario, the electric load factor will remain the same at the full engine output times
the engine availability or 90%. However, because the thermal capacity of the system
has been reduced to match the addressable load, the thermal load factor will now be
the useful thermal energy of 3 million Btu/h (879 kW) 8760 h x 90% divided by the
thermal capacity of 3 million Btu/h (879 kW) 8760 x 90%, resulting in a thermal
load factor of 100%.
In many cases, the loads are not available 8760 h/yr, and CHP systems are run
during facility operating hours, which may be in line with a process, occupancy, or
other schedule. In such cases, the annual electric load factor should reflect the reduction
in operating hours as an indication of lower revenue generation. Using the above
example, if the facility only operates 5000 h/yr, then the electric load factor can only
be a maximum of the CHP systems useful electricity capacity times the operating
hours times the availability during operating hours. If the system is sized at or less than
the facilitys base load, as with a 750 kW generator, the maximum electric load factor
will be (750 kW 5000 h 95%)/(750 kW 8760 h) = 54.2%. Given sufficient
addressable thermal load as described above, this system will still have a thermal load
factor of 100%, because all the thermal energy that is produced when the system
operates is consumed for useful purposes.
Reciprocating engines require shutdowns for maintenance and service, which in this example
21
35
It is most useful to understand both the electric and thermal load factors
independently when applying CHP configurations to a particular application. In
addition, because the CHP system may address several different thermal loads in the
facility, an understanding of the individual thermal load factors will allow for easy
sizing of the system to get optimum performance. CHP systems must be sized and
configured to provide the maximum electric and thermal load factor through a 12-month
operating period.
Site utilization efficiency combines efficiency and operating hour load factor and
is based on the amount of energy produced by the CHP system that is actually used at
the site versus fuel input during a specified period, typically one year. Because site
utilization efficiency is an expression of the amount of generated output energy that is
actually used in an application, it is directly related to as used energy efficiency when
the system operates, and can be a critical factor for economic performance as well as a
threshold to obtain grant assistance and meet efficiency criteria. This is independent of
load factor and should be considered as a separate characteristic of the CHP system as
applied to a site.
As previously stated, most applications have varying loads throughout the year,
month, week, and day, while a CHP system typically has a constant output of electric
and thermal energy when it operates. The CHP systems outputs can be varied somewhat
according to load, but normal design goals target running the system at or close to full
capacity during all operating hours. If the load requirements vary significantly below
the CHP systems design output, system efficiency can be reduced and maintenance
costs per unit of output increased. In addition, capital cost recovery is slower when a
system runs at lower load factors such that the economic advantage offered by a CHP
plant is lessened. Other factors, including thermal output quality and thermal equipment
performance, may also be compromised.
The peak load represents the maximum instantaneous demand during the period
(typically one month) and can be of short duration but does require that the facility
infrastructure is capable of providing the required amount of power or thermal energy.
Electric peaks are often set in summer and are influenced by the need of electricity to
power air conditioners. Thermal peaks are often set in winter when low ambient
temperatures require additional process or space heating energy. Note that many
electric utility companies derive billing peak load from two consecutive peak readings,
so instantaneous peak as metered may not be the same as the peak load recorded for
billing purposes.
The average load is the total period load divided by the number of time intervals in
the period. Average load provides some indication of the size of the facility loads and,
when compared to the peak load, can also provide information on how the facility
operates as well as on facility electric and thermal load factors. Average loads by
themselves are useful to determine some characteristics of a facility but do not provide
any indication of how that facility operates and should only be used in the most
rudimentary assessments of facilities when considering the application of CHP.
36
The minimum load is the demand below which the facility load does not fall and
should be determined based only on the expected operating hours of a proposed CHP
plant. For example, the minimum load at a production facility during working hours
may be significantly higher than the minimum load on a holiday weekend so that if a
CHP plant were to be implemented it may only operate during production hours. In this
case, the minimum load would be the load as applied to the CHP plant and would not
include the holiday weekend minimum.
By sizing the CHP system to provide only enough energy to meet the minimum
loads, the system will attain the highest load factor possible. However, this also results
in the smallest CHP system for the application, and many application minimum loads
may vary considerably from month to month such that restricting the size to the annual
operating hour minimum load may disallow use of a larger, more efficient system with
better economies of scale. In many cases, the system may be sized between the
minimum load and average load such that it can attain a high load factor and still have
economies of scale to justify the less than 100% load factor. To provide a more practical
approach to sizing, a base load is calculated that reflects the minimum load for an
acceptable amount of operating hours. The base load is the minimum load adjusted to
reflect a target load factor such that, for example, at a target load factor of 85%, the
base load is considered to be the minimum load for 85% of the operating hours. In
other words, the base load is the highest minimum load during 85% of the operating
hours while the minimum load can be less than the base load for 15% of the time. If a
load demands 1250 kW for 10% of the CHP system operating hours, 1000 kW for 30%
of the operating hours, 750 kW for 30% of the operating hours and 500 kW for 30% of
the operating hours, then the base load at an 85% load factor is 833 kW. The CHP plant
operates at 100% for 40% of the operating hours, 90% for 30% of the hours and at 60%
for 30% of the operating hours. This leads to an overall operating hour load factor of
85% and allows use of an 833 kW plant in lieu of a 500 kW plant that would have been
determined using only the operating hour minimum load.
Peak, average and base loads are normally expressed as kilowatts per hour for
electricity, thousands or millions Btu per hour (kilowatts) for heating and tons
(kilowatts) for cooling. Though other mitigating circumstances may influence CHP
system size and configuration, it is necessary to recognize the importance of properly
understanding the peak, average and base loads of a facility when reviewing an
application and/or sizing a CHP system. Whereas peak loads generally exceed the CHP
system capacity with little consequence to the design of a CHP system, the base load
more often than not determines the CHP system design. In addition, whatever the size
and configuration of the selected CHP system, the economic and environmental
performance of the system will be directly subject to the addressable load profiles.
Figure 2-1 graphs the monthly load profile showing maximum (peak), average, and
minimum steam demand in pounds per hour (kilograms per second) for a facility that
uses steam for space heating in winter and for process loads and domestic hot-water
production year round. The space-heating component can be approximated by
subtracting the midsummer loads from each month assuming there is no other use for
steam. Note that there is a significant deviation in steam demand during the high-
demand winter period when space heating is the major load and a low deviation during
summer when process requirements are the major load. This is typical for applications
that have a large space conditioning component to their loads and needs to be taken into
37
consideration when sizing a CHP system. In this scenario, if a CHP system is sized at
the annual average load of approximately 4000 lb/h (0.504 kg/s), it will have a thermal
load factor of between 25% to 50% for six months of the year, resulting in poor
economic and emission reduction performance.
Figure 2-2 shows the monthly space cooling load profile for a facility that uses
chillers for space conditioning in summer and data center cooling all year round.
Assuming there is no other use for chilled water, the space conditioning load can be
approximated by subtracting the midwinter loads from the cooling month loads. As
with the steam load, there is a higher deviation in demand during the summer when
space conditioning has a major influence on load.
The thermal/electric (T/E) ratio, in its simplest form, is an expression of the ratio
of thermal energy to electric energy and can describe either the facility load profile or
a CHP system output profile. When considering the facility loads, the T/E ratio should
be restricted to the addressable loads. The T/E ratio is the inverse of the power heat ratio
often provided by engine manufacturers. By contrast to the power heat ratio, which is
expressed in Btu (J) of power output per Btu (J) of heat output, the T/E ratio, as used
38
for CHP design purposes, is expressed in terms of thousand Btu per hour per kilowatt
of electric or mechanical output (kWH/kW) or refrigeration tons22 per kilowatt (kWC/
kW) with an assumed operating period of one hour. This definition is more compatible
with site loads and allows for characterization of a CHP systems output in a way that
is compatible with a facilitys addressable power and thermal load characteristics.
Both the host site and the CHP system T/E ratios are very useful in providing a
common methodology for not only comparing addressable loads with CHP configurations
but also in comparing different CHP system configurations. Other factors and elements,
including a comprehensive economic evaluation, should ultimately determine the
optimal configuration, but the T/E ratio can provide an easy method to quickly assess the
suitability of a given CHP configuration for a particular facilitys addressable loads.
Table 2-3 provides typical heating and cooling T/E ratios for a number of common
CHP configurations at nominal rating conditions.
22
1 ton = 12,000 Btu/h
39
As can be seen from Table 2-3, by selecting different thermally activated chillers,
the cooling T/E ratio can be increased or decreased for the same prime mover. Once
the facility addressable base loads have been determined, the T/E ratios for the facility
in summer and winter can be calculated and compared to multiple CHP configurations.
Matching the T/E ratios of the CHP system to the facility will yield the highest
load factor.
A given host site or facility typically has a number of electric and thermal loads,
each of which should be characterized independently. It is important that not only the
size and frequency of the loads are identified, but also the characteristics of each load.
These characteristics include voltage for electric power, and supply temperature,
23
A hybrid absorber converts exhaust energy using a double-effect cycle and converts jacket heat
rejection using a single-effect cycle.
40
temperature range, pressure, etc. for thermal loads, and are important in first qualifying
and then quantifying the portion of a facility load that can be addressed or offset by a
CHP system.
Electric characteristics for the load being reviewed include the frequency or cycles
of the alternating current supply (60 cycles or hertz for the United States); the voltage
at the point of CHP system interconnection; the power factor; the maximum, average,
and minimum demands; and the power usage in kilowatt-hours. Demand and usage can
vary significantly throughout the day and week during any given billing period, and
seasonal conditions can also have significant impact on load characteristics; at least a
years data should be reviewed. Other characteristics, such as harmonics and phase
balance, may need to be reviewed if the facility exhibits poor power quality or has a
poor load factor. Facilities with low power factor can affect the performance of the
CHP systems prime mover, and voltage irregularities can prevent the generator from
connecting to the system.
Thermal loads can be defined by the flow, specific heat, and specific gravity of the
transfer media times the temperature differential across the load. Using this definition
as a guide, the characteristics required to describe a thermal load are transfer media,
mass transfer, and inlet and outlet temperature. The transfer media are generally water,
steam, thermal oil, or air. Mass transfer is the product of media volumetric flow times
the specific gravity of the media times the density of water. The total thermal energy
delivered to the load is the product of the mass transfer times the specific heat of the
media times the temperature differential between the inlet and outlet temperatures at
the point of measurement.
The point of measurement is normally taken at the energy generation device and
includes line losses as well as load requirements. For hot-water or thermal-oil heaters,
the calculation is be based on the inlet and outlet temperatures at the unit, whereas for
steam boilers the outlet temperature is the steam temperature and the inlet temperature
is the boiler feedwater temperature. In the case of steam boilers, the heat of vaporization
in converting the feedwater to steam must also be considered. For hot-air delivery
systems, the outlet temperature is the temperature of the air produced by the unit and
the inlet temperature is the feed air temperature to the unit, which can be made up of
return hot air as well as outdoor air at ambient conditions. For hot-air systems, the
quality of the air must also be considered if the CHP system is to supply exhaust
directly to the process.
The electric characteristics are defined by the electric generator coupled to the
prime mover and in almost all cases will provide alternating current at 60 Hz (for U.S.
applications) at a voltage selected to match the sites electric distribution system at the
point of interconnection. Generators are also rated at a specific power factor, which
typically varies from 1.0 to 0.8. If necessary, the loads power factor can often be
improved using various power factor correction techniques, including the application
of variable-speed drives or capacitors on large inductive loads. In addition, most prime
movers used in CHP systems are gas fueled, and loads generally must be applied in
increments (step loaded), because the engines will fail if large loads are placed on the
41
system too quickly. This is of particular concern when the CHP system is to be used as
a source of standby power in the event of a utility grid failure. Step loading appropriate
to the engine capability to accept load can be achieved by using switchgear that will
add cost to the system if not already available. The prime movers control system will
normally incorporate a voltage variance measurement and will not allow the plant to
connect to the grid if the variance exceeds set point. The allowable variance should be
checked against grid measurements if there are concerns regarding power quality at the
interconnection point.
Small CHP system generators for residential use may be configured to provide
208/230 V, but more typically, CHP system prime movers generate power at between
460/480 V and 13,200 V. Step-up or step-down transformers can be used to change the
output voltage to match the facility needs. CHP prime movers that generate alternating
current (ac) are restricted to speeds that allow the generator to match the frequency
of the load, whereas direct current (dc) generating systems using inverters to generate
60 Hz ac and mechanical drives may use variable speeds. As with an electric system, a
mechanical system must load the engine appropriate to its step-loading capacity.
Electric systems that generate alternating current must match the frequency requirements
of the load and therefore are normally fixed speed. Direct current generating systems
and mechanical systems may use variable speed engines if, in the case of electric
generators, the output is run through an inverter that allows shaft operation at variable
speeds while maintaining output at a fixed frequency.
Although the prime mover in a CHP system clearly defines the power characteristics
of the system, the prime mover also defines the thermal characteristics of the CHP
system. All the thermal energy delivered by the system is derived from heat recovered
from the prime mover. There are three forms of heat produced by a prime mover:
(1) exhaust heat, (2) cooling fluid loop heat rejection, and (3) radiant heat from the
engine itself. Exhaust heat is defined in terms of mass flow and temperature, and
though specific heat can vary slightly depending on the chemical composition of the
exhaust, it is generally taken as being the equivalent of dry air, which is 0.24 Btu/lbF
(1.005 kJ/kgK). If the exhaust energy is to be used directly in a process such as drying
or curing, the chemical composition should be reviewed for its potential impact on
product quality, because it does contain constituents that differ from furnace air.
Fluid-cooling loops are used to cool reciprocating engine jackets, lubricating oil, and
airflow through various components of the system. These loops can have significant
differences in fluid inlet and outlet temperatures and should be reviewed against load
requirements for compatibility. Radiant heat is rarely recovered but can be used to
preheat outdoor air by moving the air through the housing containing the engine
before it enters the building, assuming that building codes allow such applications.
Filtration is typically required before and after the engine enclosure to prevent dirt
from entering or leaving the enclosure.
When using reciprocating engines, the return temperature requirement to the prime
movers various fluid coolers is of primary importance. Though many cooling loops
may have an outlet temperature that appears compatible with load requirements, the
ability of the load to reduce the cooling fluid to the temperature required by the engine
may be an issue. The total energy volume of the load may be consistent with the output
of the CHP system, but a portion of the output may have to be dumped to meet the
return temperature requirement. A simple example is when a load designed for 180F
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(82C) inlet and 170F (77C) outlet temperature is matched to an engine that has a
jacket loop output temperature of 180F (82C) and a return temperature requirement
of 165F (74C). In this scenario, assuming that the jacket loop can be used directly to
meet the load, a continuous heat dump of 5F (2.8C) is required to maintain the engine
online. Although the load and heat recovery may appear to be compatible based on
supply temperature, in fact only 67% of the heat recovered can be used, and 33% must
be dumped, because the load is not able to reduce the loop temperature sufficiently to
meet the return temperature needs of the engine. This is particularly acute when facility
loads are less than design. Equally, the design must protect against reducing the engine
coolant temperature below the allowable limits. Loads such as boiler feedwater
preheating, freshwater heating or any load that operates below jacket water temperature
requirements have the potential to reduce the coolant temperature below jacket
requirements and cause the system to shut down or damage the engine. Controls must
be included to ensure that the return temperature to the engine jacket loop is not allowed
to fall below acceptable levels.
A second example, closer to real life conditions, provides a more dynamic illustration
of the issue. An engine jacket cooling loop with a total heat rejection of 1 million Btu/h
(293 kW) has an outlet temperature of 190F (88C) and a maximum return temperature
of 165F (74C) that is applied to a facility load of 2 million Btu/h (586 kW) with
constant flow, a supply temperature of 180F (82C) and a return temperature of 160F
(71C). The system includes a heat exchanger to separate the two loops with an approach
of 5F (2.8C). With the load at 100%, the engine output and load are properly matched,
and the thermal load factor is 100%. Figure 2-3 describes the temperature balance for
this scenario, which is based on peak design conditions.
However, as the load is reduced, the return temperature from the load increases and
can no longer reduce the engine jacket loop to the required temperature, and heat must
be dumped. At 75% load, the load return temperature increases to 165F (74C) and the
primary side leaving temperature of the heat exchanger increases to 170F (77C). Even
with a load 150% the size of the CHP system output, the thermal load factor is reduced
to 80%, and heat must be dumped. As the load drops, the hot-water loop temperature
increases, and more heat must be dumped, even though the load is apparently still larger
that the CHP system output. At 50% load, when the facility energy requirement equals
the CHP system output, 40% of the heat recovered must be dumped to meet engine
jacket return temperature requirements as depicted in Figure 2-4.
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Table 2-4 provides the system conditions for loads at 25% increments. Based on a
weighted analysis according to the percentage of time at each load increment, the
annual thermal load factor for this configuration is 68%.
Applying a higher temperature engine to the same load, the results are significantly
different. While the load conditions remain the same, the new engine has a supply
temperature of 210F (99C) and a maximum return temperature of 185F (85C). In
this scenario, the engine loop return temperature is sufficiently high to allow the load
return temperature to drift up without having to dump any heat until the load is actually
less than the CHP system output. Figure 2-5 shows the same facility at 50% load,
demonstrating that the higher-temperature engine can apply all the available heat
recovery to the load with zero energy being dumped.
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Table 2-5 provides the system conditions at various loads, which results in an
annual thermal load factor of 90%.
As stated previously, the prime mover determines the thermal characteristics of the
system, but the useful heat recovered is also defined by the load characteristics. Heat
recovered is a product of the transfer media flow, specific gravity, and specific heat
multiplied by the temperature differential between the inlet and outlet temperatures to
the heat recovery device. The inlet temperature to the heat recovery device is a function
of the prime mover, whereas the outlet temperature from the device is defined by the
load. In cases where the return temperature required by the prime mover is lower than
that returned by the load, heat will need to be dumped and the thermal load factor will
be reduced. Operating conditions should be assessed for all load scenarios, including
lower-than-design loads, which are generally more frequent than design conditions.
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As described previously, a CHP system can be configured to meet more than one
electric and thermal load. All addressable loads must be physically connected to the
CHP system and must be converted to a form that matches the CHP system output if
they are not already compatible with the output. For example, if a CHP plant is to
address steam space heating and domestic hot water (DHW), these two loads may both
be fed from a steam supply with a heat exchanger connecting the domestic hot-water
portion to the steam loop. The CHP system will feed steam from its heat recovery and
thermal conversion devices into the steam header that serves the heating load and
DHW heat exchanger. If this facility does not have a process heat need and therefore
would have a low thermal load factor in summer, a thermally activated chiller may be
added to the steam loop that would produce chilled water from the waste heat recovered
in summer. This chiller must be connected to the steam loop and the chilled-water loop
to fulfill this need. In this scenario, the space-heating, DHW, and space-cooling loads
are all merged and converted to steam and can all be addressed by the CHP plant. When
applying a reciprocating engine that has the potential to provide both steam from the
exhaust heat recovery system and hot water from the fluid cooling loops, the loads may
be brought to the CHP plant in more than one form. In this example, the space-heating
steam load can be addressed through the steam loop, while the DHW portion can be
addressed by the fluid cooling loop and does not need to be connected to the steam
loop. In summer, the exhaust energy can be used to boost the temperature of the engines
fluid cooling loop and used to both feed the DHW load and a hot-water-fired absorber
to meet the cooling load. The space heating load, when available, is addressable by the
exhaust heat recovery steam generator, and the DHW and cooling loads are merged and
converted to hot water that can be connected to the fluid cooling loop in winter and
fluid-cooling loop and exhaust heat recovery in summer.
A significant issue in trying to maintain high thermal load factor through all system
operating hours is the diurnal variations of some thermal loads. Assuming a CHP system
is matched to the base electric load, it will operate at or close to full load and will
provide a constant thermal output during all operating hours. Loads such as domestic
hot water in almost all applications, or space cooling in office building applications
where the chillers can be shut down during nonworking hours, will exhibit significant
variations in demand from hour to hour. Electric loads may likewise exhibit high diurnal
variations with relatively consistent high loads throughout the day and low loads at
night. Figure 2-6 depicts the projected typical summer day hourly electric demand for a
large, enclosed shopping mall based on a non-CHP design that used electric chillers for
space conditioning. The electric chillers are ramped up at 8 a.m. to bring the facility to
temperature by 10 a.m. opening time and then load follow through the day until midnight
when the chiller system is shut off. The electric chillers represent approximately one
third of the total electric load, which also follows the same operating pattern.
To facilitate the availability of power at the site, a CHP system was proposed, but
the operating pattern suggests providing a large system that only operates 16 h/day,
based on the usage profile. However, by adding thermal storage (in this case, chilled-
water storage), the load profiles can be shifted and the system peak requirements
reduced. In this way, the capital cost of the CHP system is less, while the operating
hours are increased, resulting in considerably improved return on investment. Much of
the cost of the chilled-water storage system can be offset by the reduction in power and
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chiller capacity requirements. Figure 2-7 shows the chiller production profile for August,
when a chilled-water storage system is incorporated into the project.
The CHP system is sized to drive electric chillers that charge the chilled-water
storage tank during non-operating hours, which is then used to supplement the
noncooling power requirements during operating hours. The chilled-water storage
system is fully charged before the main cooling load is applied and provides a large
portion of the facility cooling needs during the day. Thermally activated chillers use the
waste heat of the CHP plant to supplement the chilled-water storage system during
operating hours, and the electric chillers are available to meet peak needs when
necessary. By using chilled-water storage, the CHP system can operate 24 h/day, the
peak electric demand of the facility is significantly reduced ,and the electric chiller
capacity is significantly lower than that of the non-CHP design.
A more common use for thermal storage is found when applying CHP to a
domestic hot-water load. Although average DHW loads can be very consistent from
month to month, the daily variations can be extreme and, as noted previously, CHP
system output is typically consistent for all hours. For applications such as hotels,
there is high DHW demand in the mornings associated with showering and breakfast
preparation, low demand in late morning, medium demand through the afternoon and
early evening associated with meals and kitchen clean up, and low to no demand
through late evening and night. Hot-water storage allows the CHP system to store the
thermal output until it is needed and, as demonstrated in the cooling application above,
it also allows a system whose output is lower than peak demand requirements to
potentially serve the full load. As peak demand hits in the early morning, the thermal
storage system is at full capacity and works in conjunction with the continued output
from the CHP plant to meet the peak needs even though the continuous CHP output
may be less than half of the peak demand.
Thermal storage in the form of hot water or chilled water can require substantial
space to be effective. Increasing the temperature range of the storage media versus the
needs of the facility will increase the energy density per unit volume and minimize
storage space requirements. For example, when implementing a tank to store domestic
hot water that is delivered to the point of use at 120F (49C), the tank can simply be
added to the primary loop. The hot water is raised from a feedwater temperature of 60F
(15.5C) to the required temperature of 120F (49C) using a heat exchanger, and each
gallon of stored water holds 60F (15.5C) of temperature rise. However, if a second
heat exchanger is added between the storage tank and the delivery loop, we can raise the
temperature of the stored water close to the limits of the CHP plant hot-water temperature
and increase the energy density per unit volume. If the stored hot water is increased to
180F (82C), then the storage capacity per unit volume can be doubled by comparison
to the inline storage tank. This method also allows for multiple temperatures to be
provided from the same storage system. By the same methods, ice can be used to increase
the storage energy density per unit volume for cooling systems. Care must taken to
maintain temperatures within an acceptable range, and it should be noted that ice storage
systems typically require separate chillers designed for low evaporator temperatures.
New thermal storage media including sensible, latent, and thermochemical heat
storage that increase the energy density and, therefore, reduce space requirements are a
subject of continuing study with added impetus when considering the ability to store
solar thermal energy. Phase change materials offer some advantages over traditional
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sensible-heat storage methods and could offer higher energy density as well as high
temperature storage. Hot-water, chilled-water, and ice storage are commonly used in a
large variety of applications, with ice storage being a very cost-effective phase change
medium with characteristics suitable for space conditioning and turbine inlet air cooling.
Most electric utilities collect what is typically called interval data, which is a
measure of the demand at specific time intervals, typically 15 or 30 min. These interval
data can be requested from the utility and provide a resolution on electric load that is
sufficient to understand the majority of electric load applications. Where variations
fluctuate more rapidly than interval data can capture, there are often power quality
issues that must be addressed. Measurement of current and voltage in intervals of
1 min or less should not show significant differences against utility interval data unless
there is an issue with power factor or power quality. In applications where there are
concerns regarding power quality, measurement of voltage and current across each
phase should be taken at least every minute.
Thermal energy is more typically not measured in sufficient detail to provide the
resolution required for reasonable development of thermal load profiles. Where
feasible, thermal loads should be measured in 3 to 15 min intervals at the point of
interconnection with the CHP system. Thermal measurement should include flow,
pressure, and temperature. For steam systems, the output steam flow pressure and
temperature and the inlet feedwater temperature to the boiler should be measured. For
thermal loops, the flow and supply and return temperatures should be measured. The
media specific heat and density also should be identified for thermal loops. For hot-air
systems, the supply temperature and return temperature should be measured for systems
that return all or a portion of the hot air to the supply side. Thermal loops are normally
subject to ambient conditions, and measurement of the various parameters should
ideally be recorded over a 1-year period.
The selection and sizing of prime movers is an iterative procedure in which the
electric and thermal characteristics must be contrasted with load requirements. The
selection of prime mover not only defines the electric characteristics but also determines
the volume, type, and quality of thermal output available. Once the electric base load is
understood, the selection process can begin. Some of the more significant considerations
are as follows:
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available in a variety of sizes depending on the technology chosen and can be used in
multiples to address loads of 1 MW or higher.
Utility Costs: Gas costs generally vary little from region to region, whereas
electricity costs can vary widely from region to region. In regions with high electric
costs, CHP systems with high electric efficiency versus thermal efficiency generally
provide a greater advantage in operating cost.
The following narrative discusses some of the issues related to CHP system design
for a variety of applications. This is not intended to cover all issues but to highlight
those that should be taken into consideration when reviewing these applications.
2.10.1 Hospitals
Hospitals and residential health care facilities are regarded as prime applications
for CHP because they operate 24 h/day, 7 days/week, and have coincident electric and
thermal loads. Hospitals also are generally designed with central thermal distribution
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systems for heating and cooling as well as domestic hot water. In addition, health care
facilities can benefit from the increased reliability offered by CHP, which, in the event
of a utility power outage, can allow more of the facility to operate in grid isolated mode
than would be possible under existing backup power systems mandated by law.
Though relatively few hospitals have implemented CHP, this is generally regarded
as a hospital management and administration issue rather than a reflection of actual
technical or economic potential. As a measure for reducing operating cost in high-
spark-spread areas, increasing power reliability, and reducing emissions, CHP is
perhaps the single most efficient method to achieve these ends.
Because of the constant requirements for power and space conditioning as well as
domestic hot water, food service, and, in some cases, laundry, hospitals have a suitable
thermal/electric ratio for CHP. Space conditioning is regarded as a critical element of
many hospital tasks, with high-income process centers such as operating theaters and
magnetic resonance imaging requiring precise temperature control to stay online. Many
hospitals in todays environment not only require operation of the air-conditioning
system to maintain income, but also may require operation of the ventilation system to
prevent the spread of disease. Because of the diverse requirements for temperature and
humidity levels in different sections of the hospital, many hospitals cooling systems
are designed to meet the maximum humidity control requirements and then use reheat
to adjust temperature for each space. This method offers stable operation and precise
control of individual spaces but also uses significant amounts of energy. Though
cooling is required as part of a CHP plant in most circumstances, the reheat needs,
combined with domestic hot-water requirements, can provide substantial heating loads
all year round.
One of the major issues that may affect the design of a CHP plant in a hospital
application is the utility power supply and the facilitys electric grid infrastructure.
Hospitals are required to have two separate power feeds to the facility and may normally
operate with each feed powering separate load buses. In this scenario, the entire load
can typically be operated as a single bus from either of the utility feeds by closing and
opening various bus-ties. To obtain the maximum advantage from a CHP system, it
most likely will be desirable to operate the load as a single bus so that all of the power
loads can be addressed. Inverters can be used to allow a single CHP system to address
two load buses, but this does add to the CHP system expense and space requirements.
When considering food production facilities that require large amounts of food
storage, refrigeration is normally a significant load. Depending on temperature and the
design of the specific system, it may not be easy to integrate CHP refrigeration systems.
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Though domestic hot water for cleaning purposes can be a large load, it is often an
intermittent load with very high use for a few hours at the end of a production run and
little to no use during production. These loads should be carefully examined for needs
and duration, and the CHP plant will need to be designed to meet the rapid temperature
rise required for very large volumes. Hot-water storage is an option to facilitate the
application of CHP to such a load.
2.10.3 Supermarkets
Although supermarkets do have coincident electric and thermal loads and long
operating hours, much of the space cooling is provided by the refrigeration systems such
that there may be little space conditioning required, particularly for stores with a large
component of open refrigerated cases. Heat can also be recovered from the refrigeration
compressors to provide domestic hot water, reheat, or space heating in winter. Large and
continuous refrigeration loads do exist but can present a problem for the application of
CHP, because integration of the CHP output with the refrigeration system is difficult.
Typically, multiple banks of compressors are used to provide different temperature
conditions to various sections of the store. Refrigeration vapor subcooling can be
implemented to relieve compressor motor power use, but this requires integration of the
CHP chiller output with the refrigerant lines using heat exchangers because the
refrigerants are not compatible. This is costly when multiple refrigeration loops must be
addressed and the CHP unit is not close by; the impact of this on compressor system
operation should be studied carefully. In humid environments, the thermal output from
a CHP system can be used to regenerate a desiccant for an easier and less costly approach
that can provide substantial benefits with less risk to facility operation. Domestic hot
water needs are typically small and fed from desuperheater thermal recovery units.
Space heating is a valuable load in colder climate regions.
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Although the T/E ratios of the load and CHP system are well matched, there
remains a considerable issue of concern relating to power system fault protection as
well as issues relating to space availability and location of equipment. In addition, the
lack of publicly available performance data specifically for CHP at data centers has
hindered the industrys ability to understand the technologys risk profile. These issues
have generally prevented the wide adoption of CHP for data center applications,
because data center design engineers are very reluctant to compromise power system
integrity and need a high level of performance predictability before introducing new
technology. It is anticipated that the wider use of inverters will help mitigate fault
issues, and development of modular CHP systems as well as the continuing deployment
of CHP will address the predictability issue.
The evaluation of a CHP system for a new building faces several problems not
encountered in retrofit applications. The first of these is the uncertainty of the final
conventional system design. With the increasing use of fast-track techniques,
construction work is frequently started before finalization of the mechanical and HVAC
systems design. CHP system components have longer lead times than many more
conventional systems; therefore, a decision to develop a CHP system may be required
prior to ordering conventional equipment. Moreover, while the number and size of major
pieces of equipment may have been determined early in the fast-track process, there may
have been only limited modeling of energy requirements and costs. Because there may
be little information on projected conventional loads and costs, the CHP system analysis
may be required to also include the detailed analysis of conventional energy systems.
One useful source of information on energy loads in new buildings is data for
existing similar buildings; however, changing design practices and increased energy
and environmental concerns may introduce significant changes in the energy
requirements of new buildings. Technology and process changes, differing occupancy
patterns, and a number of other factors can also result in significant changes in loads.
One common technique for quantifying loads and evaluating the performance of
alternative building systems is a computer simulation. There are a number of commercially
available programs that have varying input requirements. Simpler techniques use nothing
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more than monthly data, whereas more comprehensive programs can accept building
design, use, occupancy, and weather data as a basis for computing projected hourly
energy requirements; these loads are then used as a basis for modeling the performance
and costs of alternative on-site systems. At one extreme, these programs are based on the
computation of loads for every hour of the year. Other, less comprehensive programs
model the performance of the building for a limited number of days per month or months
per year to approximate the results obtained by modeling all 8760 h in the year. The cost
of modeling is usually in direct proportion to the comprehensiveness of the model, and
the approach to modeling should be consistent with the level of decision making. Monthly
data and modeling may be more than adequate at initial stages of evaluation, while
detailed hour-by-hour modeling for 8760 h may be more appropriate for final design
choices and investment decisions.
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55
which case the actual kW demand can be derived by dividing the kWh value by the
ratio of the period to one hour. For example, if the data were provided as kWh readings
in 15-minute intervals, then the actual demand is the reading value divided by 0.25.
If the readings were in 30-minute intervals, then the actual demand is the reading
divided by 0.5.
Figure 3-1 shows an electric profile for an example production facility based on
utility-provided 30-minute interval demand data. Each interval demand value is
graphed against a time scale covering an entire year. This allows for a review of the
facility electric demand through all seasonal variations, providing an indication of the
impacts of ambient conditions on power demand. In this case, it can be determined
that the facility has a base load of approximately 600 kW with an increase of
approximately 200 kW during summer that is presumably related to space cooling. It
is also obvious from this view that there is a trend of high demand during working
days followed by low demand for weekends throughout the year. There are also some
anomalies where readings appear to go to zero for short periods five times during the
year and a single event when the demand increased to approximately double the
normal demand for a short period.
Figure 3-1. Annual Electric Load Profile for Example Production Facility
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Hourly detail (Figure 3-3) for Monday, January 11, provides a typical winter workday
demand profile, which demonstrates that demand begins to ramp up at 5 a.m., peaks at
around 8 a.m., continues high through 3 p.m., and then starts to diminish until it reaches
base load at around 6 p.m.. Peak load is approximately 25% higher than the base load of
600 kW. Figure 3-4 provides the demand profile for a typical summer workday, Tuesday,
July 28. In summer, load begins to build at 6 a.m. and follows a similar pattern to the
winter workday scenario. Summer workday peak is also approximately 25% higher than
the summer base load of 800 kW.
Figure 3-2. Two-Week Electric Demand Profile for Example Production Facility
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Figure 3-3. Winter Workday Electric Demand Profile for Example Production Facility
Figure 3-4. Summer Workday Electric Demand Profile for Example Production Facility
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As mentioned previously, there are also some anomalies that should be investigated.
The first anomaly was a zero reading that occurred on February 17, a Wednesday.
Figure 3-5 shows the daily demand profile for February 17, and it shows that the
anomaly is related to a single zero reading at 2:00 a.m. The readings before and after
this reading were typical for the period at approximately 550 kW. Generally, there are
three possibilities for such a short duration event: this was either (1) a grid failure, (2)
testing of standby generators, or (3) a meter malfunction. In all events, this does not
affect the design of the CHP system other than possibly enhancing the value of CHP as
a backup system if this and the other similar anomalies were in fact grid failures.
The high demand anomaly is shown in Figure 3-6 and occurred on Sunday,
November 1. For two interval readings at 1:30 a.m. and 2:00 a.m., the electric power
demand surged to almost twice the demand in the previous and subsequent intervals.
The demand recorded of 1386 kW was also significantly higher than the midsummer
peak demand reading of 1084 kW. It is highly unlikely that the facility actually required
this level of power to operate, especially at 1:30 a.m. on a Sunday, which normally is
the lowest load time. The causes for such a surge could either be (1) a fault in some of
the facility equipment causing an inrush of power or (2) a meter malfunction. In either
case, this should be investigated with facility personnel, and, if no fault is recorded, this
should be taken up with the local utility and an adjustment sought on demand charges
for the affected period.
Figure 3-5. Daily Electric Demand Profile for Example Production Facility
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Figure 3-6. Daily Electric Demand Profile for Example Production Facility
The interval data also provide the basis for a load duration curve that will
determine the electric load factor for a given CHP system size and typically establish
the starting point for equipment selection. Using the annual demand profile in Figure
3-1, the base load appears to be around 600 kW. Figure 3-7 provides a graphical
interpretation of the percentage of intervals that are greater than a defined value as
represented on the x-axis. From this graph, it can be determined that approximately
100% of the recorded demands are above 500 kW, approximately 98% are above
550 kW, approximately 85% are above 600 kW, and for loads greater than 600 kW,
the percentage of time that the facility demand exceeds these higher loads drops off
quickly. Only 63% of the intervals exceed 650 kW and only 46% exceed 700 kW. As
discussed previously, 85% is generally an acceptable load factor, and so, based on
load duration and an 85% load factor, 600 kW is the base load for the facility. Also
note that, for parallel interconnection, some import of power is typically required to
meet utility interconnection requirements so that, from the electric load perspective
only, the CHP system would potentially be sized at around 550 kW for this example
production facility.
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Thermal loads must generally be extrapolated from bulk energy use data, such as
gas usage (therms or gigajoules of natural gas billed to the facility by the gas utility).
In the case of oil and coal, data on delivery quantities are usually available, but these
can range from one delivery per year, as may be the case for a small boiler plant
firing coal, to deliveries that occur every week. In such cases, an assessment must be
made on the monthly use of the fuel, which may best be determined through
discussions with facility personnel. The total fuel throughput must also be adjusted
using the existing thermal conversion devices to calculate the total monthly thermal
loads. This must be further refined to apportion the correct volume of fuel to each
addressable load. In the absence of individual data for each load, estimates should be
made for the portion of energy use associated with each load. Figure 3-8 shows the
breakout of addressable loads developed from monthly energy use, review of existing
heating and cooling equipment, and discussions with facility personnel.
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Note that most utilities read meters on a regular basis; however, they are not usually
read on an exact calendar basis. In addition, the number of days in a billing month may
not be the same as the calendar month, and it is frequently necessary to adjust utility
billing data for the number of days in the billing cycle. In general, it is useful to review
three to five years of historic billings or monthly fuel use data to identify long-term
trends and to assess whether the most recent 12-month data, which are generally the
basis of CHP system modeling, are typical.
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to enter into some form of externally financed or shared savings venture, the objectivity
and usefulness of the audit should be independently assessed.
Plant logs are another useful source of data; however, it is important to fully
understand the basis of such logs. When during the day or shift are data entered? Are
data taken at the same time each day or during successive shifts? Are the terms used on
the log consistent with generally accepted practice? Are the data available from the logs
consistent with metered, utility-supplied data?
Once these estimates have been developed and monthly use profiles developed, the
data must be further refined to calculate the load usage during operating hours for a
facility that does not support 8760 h operation of a CHP plant. The resulting addressable
loads during operating hours must then be analyzed to determine base, average, and peak
demands so that the true load factor for the CHP system can be developed. The resulting
loads should be compared to actual energy use to verify the accuracy of the profiles.
CHP systems sequentially provide electric or mechanical power and heat from the
same fuel source. The first energy stream produced by a topping-cycle CHP system is
power, and the waste heat created in the generation process is then recovered through a
variety of devices and converted to useful energy that can be applied to facility loads.
In topping cycles, the prime mover that generates the power can take a number of
forms, such as reciprocating internal combustion engines, combustion turbines, or fuel
cells. Each prime mover has different characteristics, both in terms of the amount of
input energy that is converted to power and heat as well as the form that the heat or
thermal output takes. In bottoming-cycle CHP systems, fuel is burned to first create
thermal energy that is then used to drive a power generation device such as a steam
turbine or organic Rankine cycle generator.Residual thermal energy is then typically
used to serve a thermal load.
The basic elements of a CHP systems primary function of providing power and
thermal energy can be fully described in terms of power and thermal efficiency. Among
many other characteristics to be considered, the first CHP configuration option to be
reviewed is the thermal/electric (T/E) ratio, which is a function of the power and
thermal efficiencies of the system. Described in Section 2.4, T/E ratio is a primary
criterion in matching the facility loads with the appropriate CHP configuration.
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appropriate T/E ratio to match the load will help to define possible CHP configurations.
Although the specific level of thermal load required may be contingent on which and
how many of the addressable loads can be brought to the CHP system, review of the T/E
ratio for the facility should help in refining the number of CHP configuration options.
Because prime movers are often described in terms of their nominal electric
efficiency, there may be a natural inclination to believe that the 40% efficient engine is
better than the 30% efficient engine. However, generally the better engine is the
one that best matches the load. A 40% electrically efficient engine will convert more of
the fuel to electricity and less to thermal output. If the application is limited by the
electric base load and has a higher thermal load than the CHP systems output, then a
better option may be to select an engine with a lower electric efficiency so that more of
the fuel is converted to thermal energy, and more of the thermal load can be provided
by the CHP plant. Applications such as district heating systems that use bottoming-
cycle configurations require very high T/E ratios, because the system addresses large
thermal loads, with relatively small electric loads available in the plant. In cases where
the limiting factor is thermal load availability, the higher electrically efficient engine
will be able to provide more power while still maintaining a high thermal load factor.
From an economic perspective, the better option should be reviewed against energy
costs to determine how to optimize fuel conversion efficiencies. A CHP systems T/E
ratio is a function of the cycle, prime mover type and design, heat recovery system,
thermal conversion technology design, and the load quality requirements.
When designing a CHP plant for a specific application, there are numerous issues
beyond load data and project goals that affect the outcome. A facility may meet all the
general requirements for the application of a specific CHP plant size and configuration,
but fuel availability or emissions limitations may prove an overriding concern that
either changes the design or eliminates the use of CHP altogether. The main issues are
discussed in brief in the following sections.
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Fuel quality also must be checked and, whereas natural gas pipeline quality fuel
is typically acceptable for many engines, higher-performance engines and fuel cells may
have fuel quality requirements that exceed that provided by the local utility. It is
important to recognize that not all gas supplies are of equal quality, with many gas grids
accepting synthetic gas or other forms of gas that may have a deleterious effect on the
gas quality, particularly just downstream from the point of injection. A fuel quality
statement should be obtained from the gas utility and provided to the engine supplier to
confirm compatibility.
When considering CHP systems that are fueled by biogas or synthetic gas, a higher
level of investigation regarding fuel energy content and impurities is required. Gas
pretreatment equipment will most likely be required to remove moisture, sulfur, particulate
matter, siloxanes, and other impurities. In addition, the operation and performance ratings
of the engine must be characterized for the specific energy content of the fuel. Low energy
gases, such as municipal wastewater treatment plant anaerobic digester gas, are compatible
with many engines, but these engines must be configured for the application and will not
perform at the same capacity or efficiency as if that engine were configured for typical
pipeline quality natural gas. Gas cleanup requirements can be relaxed if higher maintenance
costs and more frequent maintenance intervals are allowed, but there may be little option
to implementing high level gas pretreatment equipment if engine exhaust aftertreatment
is required, because fouling of catalysts can occur very quickly if fuel quality is low.
Solid fueled biomass, such as woody biomass, can be directly combusted in a boiler
to produce steam that turns a backpressure steam turbine to generate power, with the
exhaust steam going to process or heating. Alternatively, the biomass can be pyrolyzed to
produce syngas, which can be combusted in an engine to produce power and heat. In
these CHP systems, the fuel quality and energy content is a function of the type and
moisture content of the biomass as well as the combustion or pyrolysis process used.
Such systems are generally designed around the specific feedstock and must be
appropriately sized to the throughput of fuel necessary to provide the energy output
required by the facility.
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Although natural gas is the predominant fuel for CHP systems in the continental
United States, CHP systems can also be operated with a variety of fuels, including diesel
or propane. In all cases, the fuel specifications should be reviewed with the prime mover
supplier to ensure that the available fuel quality is in line with the manufacturers
requirements as well as its impact on warranty, maintenance, and emissions.
Power Safety: Utilities are concerned that an interconnected generator has the
potential to energize a utility circuit that is not being powered by the utility. This
condition can result in a safety hazard to utility personnel working on that circuit.
Most utilities will require the CHP system to install a reverse power relay and an
external disconnect switch that is accessible by utility personnel and that can be
used to disconnect and lock out the CHP system. For systems that are designed to
export power onto the grid during normal operation, additional protective devices
will be required to ensure the utility that the generator can be disconnected when
required. These devices generally must be reviewed by and meet the approval of
the electric utility before an interconnection will be allowed.
Grid Fault Protection: Utility operation of the grid can be quite complex and
include the coordination of relays, switches, and fault control. The interconnection
of a CHP system or any other active source of power within the grid generally must
be reviewed by the utility to avoid jeopardizing the ability of the utility to manage
grid operations.
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sufficient capacity, and be able to provide the quality required for the CHP system. If the
existing subsystems are not adequate, then the cost of new subsystems and equipment
should be included in the CHP project budget.
Major existing energy components such as boilers, hot water generators, emergency
power generators, and chillers will often still provide for the needs of the facility
beyond the capacity of the CHP system. When CHP plants are designed to meet base-
load requirements, the additional load is typically met using the existing equipment in
parallel with the CHP plant. In some situations, the installation of a CHP system may
defer or eliminate the need to replace a major component, thus providing a capital cost
credit toward the project. For new construction or major renovations, the installation of
a CHP system can be integrated with the installation of other major components,
including boilers and chillers, thus minimizing total project cost. In all scenarios and
particularly where existing equipment is used to support a new CHP plant, it is
important to review the equipment loads when the CHP system is fully operational
in order to ensure that the existing ancillary equipment has the turndown necessary
to accommodate the CHP plant. For example, where a CHP plant that generates
9 million Btu (9.5 GJ) or steam is added to an existing facility with a 300 hp steam
boiler (10 million Btu/h) (2943 kW) that is at times fully loaded, it will be necessary
to either adjust the existing boiler to provide for stable operation at 1 million Btu/h
(294 kW) or add a new small boiler to provide the supplementary steam. It is not
unusual that existing facilities have boilers that cannot operate efficiently below 30%
of their nominal capacity such that, if the CHP thermal output is slightly less than the
load, a new boiler may need to be incorporated as part of the CHP plant.
It is also important to recognize that, while CHP may provide a less costly source
of power and thermal energy, it will not solve preexisting problems with the site steam
and hot- or chilled-water systems or inadequacies in the power distribution system or
automated control systems. Any CHP review or audit should attempt to identify any
such inadequacies in the facility thermal and electric distribution systems which should
be fixed before installation of a CHP plant. Equally, any potential energy efficiency
measures that would impact the loads intended to be addressed by the CHP plant should
be implemented before installation of CHP equipment. Addressing such issues after
installation of CHP may not only result in wasted resources, but also lead to poor
performance of the CHP plant, resulting in lower efficiencies and higher-than-
anticipated maintenance costs.
3.3.5 Emissions
Local air quality emissions requirements for stationary engines, fuel cells, or boilers,
in the case of biomass CHP systems, are an important consideration for CHP system
design. Most projects, as a minimum, are required to ensure that project emissions
comply with local air quality requirements as defined by the local jurisdictional authority.
(See Chapter 10 for further information on emissions considerations.) This may require
the addition of exhaust aftertreatment devices, which must be included in the project
capital cost as well as operation and maintenance costs, because most of these devices
do consume chemicals and require replacement of components. Lower restrictions may
be placed on renewable fuels, such as landfill gas or digester gas, but if these systems
require exhaust aftertreatment, then a high level of gas pretreatment will most likely be
required to prevent fouling of any catalysts used for exhaust aftertreatment. Consideration
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must also be given to the location of the point of emissions or the stack. The location
must comply with local regulations that normally prescribe distances from air intakes,
open windows, etc., as well as sensitive receptors (people).
In almost all cases, CHP equipment requires noise attenuation and vibration
isolation. This should be considered in the beginning phase of design and may require
input from an acoustic specialist in sensitive areas, such as locations close to residential
developments, libraries, theaters, and health care facilities. Consideration also should
be given to other sources of vibration and their potential to interfere with CHP
equipment operation. Locations should also be checked for existing sources of vibration
that might impact the operation of the CHP plant components, which are typically
comprised of high-speed rotating machinery that is also sensitive to high levels of
vibration. In some cases, the location of the CHP plant may need to change to mitigate
noise and vibration issues if other methods cannot provide sufficient attenuation.
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working condition through its full life cycle, the requirements should include full
overhauls or changeout of major components. The main variable in terms of maintenance
requirements is the frequency of maintenance intervals, which can be a design
consideration, particularly for critical or remote applications. For more detail on
maintenance requirements for each type of prime mover, see Chapter 6.
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the existence of adequate concurrent electric and thermal loads and the
availability of natural gas or other acceptable fuels,
the availability of space for the siting of the CHP system and the ability to
interconnect with facility thermal and electrical systems, and
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Economic feasibility is critical to most projects and can be added to the technical
study and load analysis to determine the costs of operating with or without CHP. For
economic feasibility, the cost saving with CHP must overcome the net capital costs
associated with the project within a time period acceptable to the owner, or the project
must provide an acceptable rate of return on the investment over a specified period. The
first test is called payback, which provides an easily understood metric but does not
fully describe the project economics. The second return on investment test typically
incorporates allowances for inflation, taxes, and the cost of money, and is a truer
definition of the project from an economic perspective, albeit a more complex
assessment. Although the earliest efforts should uncover any potential roadblocks or
fatal flaws, the size and complexity of the facility as well as the desired level of detail
will determine which level of investigation is required. If grant application forms
require submission of engineering documents or studies, then the technical data supply
scope of the grant requirement should be included as a study requirement.
CHP studies fall into three general categories that vary from a basic screening
study to the investment grade audit that is used to make investment decisions. The basic
breakout in depth and complexity of analysis for an engineering review of a CHP
application are prescribed in the ASHRAE Level 1, 2, and 3 audits (ASHRAE 2011).
Level 1 screening studies are typically based on site energy use data and do not include
a comprehensive review of the facility. These are often provided free of charge by
equipment vendors, CHP developers, or support agencies and should be viewed as a
go/no go decision point for the next phase of engineering review. The next phase of
study is a Level 2 feasibility analysis that provides a more thorough review of energy
use data as well as some level of site suitability for the application of CHP, including a
general assessment of load addressability. If the Level 2 study suggests that CHP is
appropriate for the application, then the next phase of study is a Level 3 assessment
(also called investment grade audit) that requires a higher level of engineering expertise
and effort and is designed to provide a detailed analysis of how a proposed CHP
configuration would perform. Level 2 and 3 CHP analyses are generally provided by
consulting engineering companies (nonaligned with any equipment vendor or project
developer) with experience in the application of CHP as well as energy systems
operation and will also typically require some funds to be allocated to the project.
The U.S. EPA has developed a slightly different approach that is focused on a
single project. This process has two levels that include a Level 1 analysis with a goal to
determine if CHP is a proper technical fit for your facility and if CHP might offer
economic benefits. A Level 2 CHP feasibility analysis is a detailed analysis of the
economic and technical viability of installing a CHP system. A Level 2 study may
consider the return on investment for multiple CHP system sizes, configurations, and
thermal technology options. The Level 2 study normally follows a Level 1 CHP
feasibility analysis and is based on more detailed engineering and operational data
from the site. In essence, the EPAs Level 2 approach combines the ASHRAE Level 2
and 3 together around a single technical approach such as economic on-site generation,
renewables, or facility resiliency.
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In all cases, the underlying assumptions and valuation made in the development of
load factor and worth of utility offsets and/or capital cost offsets should be transparent
and should be checked for validity. The analysis of CHP should be based on a comparison
between a CHP system and the conventional system that best meets the requirements of
the site and the owner. Thus, if an absorption chiller is not the optimum choice for a site,
it should not be considered as part of the conventional system even if it is included in the
proposed CHP configuration. In this case, the conventional system budget and operating
costs should be based on the operation of an electric chiller, assuming it is the conventional
choice for such an application or existing equipment. CHP energy cost savings would
then be based on the purchased power and maintenance costs of the electric-chiller-
based conventional system versus the absorption-based CHP system. Similar concerns
exist with regard to standby engines, conservation, load management, and the overall
design of the sites processes and HVAC systems. The evaluation of CHP or other
nonconventional options must be conducted within the context of existing equipment or
the alternative conventional system for the site. If that existing system does not currently
operate at reasonable efficiency, it is necessary to determine whether it can be cost-
effectively restored to efficient operation. For example, CHP may be economical by
comparison to an inefficient boiler plant (e.g., an old and oversized unit operating at an
overall efficiency of 55%). In this situation, the recovered heat would be divided by 0.55
to determine the amount of fuel displaced, and it would be highly valued. However, it
may be more cost effective to improve the efficiency of the existing boiler and increase
its efficiency to 75%. In this case, the value of recovered heat would be decreased by
approximately 36% and the CHP system may no longer be viable.
The selection of the optimum CHP system should be based on the criteria developed
with the project end-user or owner, whether those criteria consider economics, risk,
emissions impact, energy efficiency, reliability, or some other performance measures.
An important decision that should be made early in the process is project ownership.
This can affect several key factors, including capital cost, term of project, operating
cost, and tax treatment. Ownership is based on a number of issues, including risk/reward
acceptance and the availability of cash or alternative funding. If the end-user seeks third-
party ownership and operation, it may be prudent to limit the detailed design activities
to those necessary to select a third-party concept and to negotiate a third-party contract.
The third-party will most likely want to conduct its own investment grade audit.
In general, the output of the ASHRAE Level 1 or EPA Level 1 study should include
a projected capital budget, CHP-related energy cost savings, projected operating costs
for the CHP plan,t and utility cost sensitivity. As a result of the Level 1 study, the owner
or developer should be able to make a decision as to the general technical approach and
how the project is to be developed.
The output of the ASHRAE Level 3 or EPA Level 2 study should include capital
cost estimates and decisions as to the manufacturer of prime mover, total installed
capacity, the number of prime movers, anticipated operating mode, the approach to
permitting, a project schedule, a strategy for supplemental and standby power, an
approach to fuel supply and purchasing, utility cost sensitivity, and an approach to
maintenance and staffing. The ASHRAE Level 2 or EPA Level 2 study should also
identify the source of data used and any data collection activities that are required
for detailed design, including recommendations for collection of profile data and
measurement of selected power and thermal loads.
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When third party financing or loans are used, there is an additional layer of financial
modeling required. This financial model is normally site specific and incorporates
confidential decisions on the internal rate of return (IRR), tax implications, financing
methods, discount rate, amortization schedule, end of life value, and ownership
structure. The Level ASHRAE 3 or EPA Level 2 study results should provide capital
cost and operating data in a form that can be used by others in the development of the
financial model.
At the core of such a study will be a comparison of the cost to generate power with
a CHP plant including the thermal credit versus the cost to buy power from the utility
(i.e., the CHP spark spread). The differential should be able to overcome the capital
cost within an acceptable amount of time for the project to have economic feasibility.
These types of screening studies can be instructive for stakeholders who have little or
no experience with CHP or in support of the corporate decision-making process to
fund a more detailed study.
Such screening studies can often be completed by the site itself with minimal
guidance other than general informational support or free web-based tools that allow
the user to enter total energy use and costs as well as some basic energy use details and
a basic load characterization. The results should include annual costs and revenues
with a statement of simple payback based on a gross estimated budget for the installed
plant and are often presented in terms of go or no go in answer to the requirement
for further study.
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While the screening study is often a low-/no-cost effort, it can set the design
direction for the project and should be handled by adequately knowledgeable personnel.
Because of a number of issues, including budget allocation cycles and project reporting,
many of the criteria used for prime-mover selection during the walkthrough are applied
throughout the development process. Decisions as to the total on-site capacity and the
number and type of prime movers should be reevaluated and refined as more detailed
or comprehensive information becomes available in later review stages.
A Level 1 study includes significantly more data analysis than is possible within
the scope of a screening analysis, particularly with regard to the use of more detailed
load profile data. Data collection is generally limited to readily available energy use
information, observations taken during a walkthrough of the site, and records from
computerized load management systems, which may prove a useful source of profile
data even if only for short periods during different load cycles.
Utility Billings: Total monthly electricity and fuel use, electric demand, and
total energy cost. Copies of actual utility bills for a recent summer and winter
month should be reviewed to verify utility cost assumptions as well as understand
seasonal energy cost variations. Historical information for bulk fuels such as oil
and coal may be based on deliveries that are decoupled from actual use patterns.
In this scenario, monthly energy use should be estimated based on application and
discussions with facility personnel.
Utility Rates: Electric and gas rate sheets are generally readily available directly
from the utilities websites.
Energy Profile Data: Both electric and natural gas utilities may be able to
provide energy profile data. Typically, electric utilities do record this data on a
15 or 30 min interval basis and will make interval data available to the owner or
their assignee. In addition, on-site data management systems, steam charts, and
equipment logs may be a source of such profile data. Production or occupancy logs
may also provide data that are useful in interpreting energy requirements.
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Estimated costs are provided based on rules of thumb for equipment, engineering,
and installation as well as any other alterations, buildings, or effort that is required to
make the CHP plant work. Utility costs can be based on the average all-in cost per
unit on a monthly basis, including commodity, transmission, distribution, taxes, and
surcharges. However, in regions where there are significant variations in time-of-day
rates or the demand portion of the utility charge is large, the evaluation should breakout
demand and energy costs and provide separate CHP system energy production and cost
categories for each time-of-day period according to the local utility tariff.
An economic evaluation based on the output of the CHP system, its operating and
maintenance requirements, electric and thermal offsets, as well as any other operating
financial consideration should be provided for each month of a one-year period. A
simple payback analysis based on operating cost savings and the estimated installed
cost should be provided with a utility cost sensitivity analysis for higher and lower
electric and thermal energy costs. Other considerations, such as funding sources, grant
programs, methods of project delivery, as well as impacts the project may have on the
facility operation and existing equipment should be discussed.
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an electric and thermal perspective as well as highlighting any major issues that may
cause concern. The ASHRAE Level 3 audit develops the proposed CHP technical
approach and provides a review of the proposed investment in economic terms and
should be sufficient to allow accounting and financing personnel to develop a financial
model, including interest, capital repayment, tax strategy, and ownership. The EPA
Level 2 analysis combines both facility and CHP reviews into a single effort.
An engineering site visit or visits are required to develop existing load profiles and
base lines as well as to provide a preliminary siting analysis, configuration selection,
and installation budget. The preliminary siting analysis should include site plans for
the proposed CHP location and nearby buildings. These drawings should identify the
location of existing utility lines including power, fuel, steam, water, sewer, and
telecommunications, as well as interconnection points and disconnects. The location of
any existing access ways, nearby property lines, fuel storage tanks, or other relevant
areas should also be noted. The identification of such lines is the responsibility of the
host site. Separate geotechnical or environmental impact assessments may need to be
carried out to validate existing information and are generally not included in the scope
of a CHP feasibility assessment.
Capital costs should be based on major equipment vendor cost proposals and site-
specific estimates for major equipment, including switchgear and heat recovery
equipment, as well as an installation cost estimate based on site requirements. All
development costs, including engineering, project management, environmental
permitting, utility interconnection, insurance, carrying costs, contingencies, etc. should
be included, and any costs outside of the CHP plant that are necessary to make the
system work should be identified. Maintenance costs and scopes should be obtained for
major equipment, and care should be taken to include the appropriate level of
maintenance and operating cost to maintain the unit through at least the payback period.
For most continuous duty applications, a comprehensive 10-year service contract that
would fully maintain the unit and leave it in good working condition should be used
where possible. Some of these costs can be internalized and reduced through self-
performance, but only properly trained and authorized personnel should work on the
major equipment. In addition, an agreement must be reached with major equipment
vendors to ensure warranty terms are not violated by internalizing routine maintenance
functions. Any accessory equipment, such as emissions treatment, fuel treatment,
thermally activated technologies, vibration isolation, noise mitigation, water treatment,
and weather protection should be fully identified and costs estimated.
Any capital cost offsets or avoided costs should be included as a separate line item
in the installation cost development with a full explanation of how they were derived.
Any additional costs required to facilitate installation of the CHP plant but not necessarily
included in the CHP installation cost should also be identified and fully explained.
The economic analysis provided with the Level 3 assessment should define all
relevant energy uses, offsets, and costs on a monthly basis for one year with an annual
cash flow analysis for at least 10 years and a simple payback calculation. Energy costs
and offset values should be calculated according to the existing utility tariff and most
recent bills with all energy and demand, commodity, and delivery as well as fixed and
variable costs separately accounted for each month. Gas, steam, or other thermal energy
used at site should include demand charges separately where applicable. Standby
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charges and any non-bypassable charges must also be included as a cost against the
CHP system in this level of analysis. Utility costs should account for any changes in
tariff that may result from the implementation of the proposed CHP plant. The economic
analysis should be run separately for a scenario with no grants or incentives as well as
for a scenario where potential grants or incentives are figured in.
The Level 3 study should also include an energy balance diagram of the proposed
CHP system for each operating mode or at least for summer and winter showing fuel
input, electric output, parasitics, thermal output, and thermal use and incorporate a fuel
use efficiency calculation in higher heating value of fuel for each mode of operation
and for a one-year period.
The averaging techniques that may have been the basis for the Level 1 feasibility
study should be replaced by more comprehensive modeling of the facilitys electrical
and thermal requirements and the CHP system performance. The load data should be
used to develop load-duration curves and capacity-load curves, which can be used to
estimate the extent to which CHP power and thermal energy can be used on-site to
displace purchased power and thermal energy from conventional boilers and burners.
Using a bin technique, the load duration curves can be used to develop an assessment
of the duration of loads in certain size bins during a specific period for each energy
form. Expressing electric and thermal loads as load durations according to size and
form allows for the development of load factors for a given size and configuration of
CHP plant. If the CHP system is to be operated at part load for significant amounts of
time, it is possible to determine the extent to which a specific engine will be operated
at part load and to use those heat rates and heat recovery data specific to part-load
operation for each engine. Engine efficiency and thermal energy quality and volume
vary with different output levels, because fuel input and thermal output are not linear
with electric output. For most reciprocating engines and combustion turbines, it is
generally recommended to operate systems at 75% to 95% of rated capacity to maintain
high efficiencies.
Occupancy and production data are also important for analyzing historic energy
requirements and for projecting future requirements. Plans for future additions,
demolitions, or modifications to the facility and its processes discussed as a basis for
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projecting future loads. Though the CHP feasibility analysis may not include a detailed
analysis of conservation and load management opportunities, it should include
consideration of their potential impact on energy requirements.
Monthly fuel use should not be less than the addressable and nonaddressable loads
combined. This is an important check to verify load assumptions and should include
the appropriate load-to-fuel conversion equipment (boilers, chillers, etc.) efficiency in
the calculation. Allowances can be made for single billing period mismatch, but in
general the assumed load cannot be greater than fuel use, unless there had been, or is
to be, a significant change in operation since the data were collected.
The utility costs in the assessment study are generally based on the most recent 12
months of purchased power and fuel costs. Where changes in future rates or tariff are
anticipated, the projected values should be used. The local electric and gas utility rate
tariffs include all the terms and conditions that govern the provision of regulated utility
service, including specific rates when interconnecting to the local distribution system.
The electric tariff is also useful in identifying other purchased power rates that may be
available for supplemental and possibly standby power, standby service charges, or for
specifying the prerequisites that must be met to obtain interconnection or other
conditions or restrictions that may have an economic impact on CHP viability. In some
cases, it may be useful to confirm the interpretation of a standby rate in correspondence
with the local utility. CHP plants that will be connected to the wholesale market will
have different economic metrics and may be dispatched for short operating periods to
avoid import of power during periods of high grid demand (high wholesale energy
cost), whereas they can be turned down or off during periods when grid power costs are
low. In this scenario, an 8760 h analysis of historic wholesale load node costs is required
to determine hours of operation, which depends on the hourly cost of wholesale power
as well as the minimum dispatch period.
In cases where new or upgraded natural gas service is required, the gas tariff may
be helpful in determining the investment that the gas utility or local distribution
company (LDC) can make to bring gas service to a CHP facility or to upgrade existing
service. The gas tariff also provides information on alternative rate structures that may
be available for CHP fuel gas. Once preliminary sizing has been completed, even if
only to the level of the walkthrough analysis, it is often helpful to contact the LDC to
determine if natural gas is available at required pressures; if nonfirm service is being
considered, the historic and projected level of interruptions should be established.
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within the utilitys transmission and distribution system. Because the cost of such studies
is usually passed back to the developer, as is any other cost incurred by the utility in
interconnecting the CHP plant, the cost of the study and the utility interconnect should
be negotiated and formalized to the extent possible during the early phases of project
development.
For natural gas supply costs, lower rates than historic data may suggest may be
obtained for interruptible service, and some utilities have special rates for natural gas
supplying a CHP system. A review of rate tariffs or discussion with local utility personnel
should occur early in the development process to identify any special rates that may
apply as well as to confirm gas availability and pressures through all seasons. If natural
gas service is interruptible, deliveries may be interrupted at the convenience of the LDC.
These interruptions may result from a lack of adequate system capacity, an inability to
deliver to specific locations, or because the cost of gas exceeds a specified rate. In
addition, if the commodity supplier and/or transmission contracts are also interruptible,
either or both may also interrupt. Discussions with the LDC should include some
estimate of interruptions, and this should be figured into the operating model.
If air permitting is complex, requiring more than two or three months, or if the
required control technology is uncertain, it may be necessary to develop initial designs
and process diagrams to the point necessary for permitting. If a design/build contract
format is to be used, it may also be prudent to delay any contract until the permit has
been obtained and control technologies, operating constraints, and emission-monitoring
requirements have all been specified.
The use of design/build contracting also imposes a need for the development of
geotechnical information as may be required for construction of new CHP system
foundations. If site conditions are not adequately specified, it may not be possible to
obtain meaningful fixed price proposals.
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and heat recovery, are functions of both building loads and ambient temperatures,
hour-by-hour modeling may be necessary for the performance analysis of any tracking
system. An hour-by-hour model may also be needed for the following cases:
Sites where cogenerated power is used both internally to displace power purchases
and sold to the wholesale market. In this case, and particularly so if the value of
power used internally is significantly different than the value of wholesale power, it
is necessary to quantify power exports on an hourly basis.
Sites where utility rates for supplemental and standby service require more
detailed modeling of the hourly output of the CHP system, either as a basis
for determining the total cost of power or, if standby rates are significant, for
determining the cost for the use of standby power.
Thermal profile data for sites that use oil, coal, or other bulk delivery fuels may be
difficult to develop. These fuels are typically limited to boiler use and can be entirely
displaced with recovered heat. However, fuel deliveries are on an as-needed basis and
may not be analytically linked to thermal profiles. In these cases, it may be necessary
to rely on discussions with facility operations personnel, together with any available
energy production data, such as steam charts (or condensate return readings as an
alternative to steam production). Where thermal use profiles are highly variable and no
historical data exist, it may be necessary to install metering and logging equipment to
obtain a reference point for current conditions.
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There are a number of publicly available free tools, as well as privately developed
tools available at a cost, that can be used to assist in the assessment of a CHP application.
Generally, the tools provide a level of output accuracy commensurate with input detail.
Simpler tools that provide the user with few input options and require only annual data
should be considered as screening tools whose output is intended to provide a go/
no-go answer to the requirement for further study. These types of tools typically do
not address the difference between fuel use and addressability of thermal loads and are
designed to provide some concept of theoretical potential for CHP at the site. The
advantage with such tools is that they require little time to produce results and are
generally available free of charge.
More sophisticated tools that provide significantly more detail and accurate results
can require significant time to input data appropriately to generate these results. Many
of these programs contain databases of equipment performance and cost characteristics
that are very useful in running various CHP configurations but that can become dated
over time unless they are continually updated. Many also contain template energy load
profiles for typical applications and allow the user to adjust these profiles to match
specific site conditions. Generally, these more sophisticated programs all contain
localized weather data that will adjust load profiles based on location and, combined
with the application templates, can provide a high degree of accuracy in determining
total facility loads. Although these programs are very useful and essentially combine
building modeling and CHP performance, they generally cannot account for physical
constraints, addressability of loads, or other overarching issues that can only be revealed
with a proper engineering site visit. However, they can be particularly useful for new
buildings where load information is not available.
A new ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool has been developed as a companion to this
guide using a Microsoft Excel-based spreadsheet that provides reliable and
transparent cost savings resulting from the application of CHP with a minimum of user
effort. The new tool requires technical input from the user, who is assumed to have
some technical understanding of a prime movers energy balance and who will acquire
an understanding of the host site thermal systems. The key to this new tool is reliance
on the user to make some quantitative decisions to overcome complex issues; this
greatly enhances the tools ability to provide accurate results with minimum input. The
tool allows users to profile existing or new facilities in terms of monthly electric and
thermal energy use.
The new tool takes a somewhat unique approach to solving the issue of obsolescence
of equipment databases by allowing the user to input the parameters for the CHP
system characteristics independently of the technology selection. This basically
recognizes the practical fact that, no matter which technology you are using, all outputs
can be expressed as a percentage of the fuel input. This does require the user to calculate
appropriate electric and thermal efficiencies based on fuel input; this can easily be
determined from manufacturer data.
Although CHP performance and energy costs are the most important factors to
consider from a theoretical perspective, the real issue when trying to calculate the
economic performance of a CHP plant is accurately assessing the addressable thermal
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loads. This is the most common failure in CHP application design. The new tool and
this design guide are significantly focused on resolving this issue. The new tool requires
input to a series of questions on thermal loads and existing equipment to determine the
possible applications for waste heat from a chosen CHP configuration. This requires
some level of site investigation and knowledge of energy equipment by the user that the
authors believe is necessary to provide a reasonably accurate result.
The new model provides an operation and maintenance cost evaluation, together
with energy cost offsets for the CHP plant, that provide monthly savings and costs and
result in a current-dollar annual savings statement for the proposed system together
with the annualized system efficiency. Based on the technology and size chosen, the
tool provides suggested inputs for capital cost that can be used or altered by the user.
Non-CHP costs, incentives that might apply, as well as other monthly costs and/or
savings can be input by the user to develop a simple payback statement. The average
energy cost is determined by the tool, and a sensitivity analysis for higher and lower
electric and gas prices is provided, including simple payback for each scenario. A
complete guide to the ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool is provided in Chapter 12.
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The value of the power and thermal energy produced by a CHP plant is a function
of the use of the output energy as well as the costs of energy that would otherwise have
been required. In its simplest form, 1 kWh of power produced by a CHP plant is worth
the value of 1 kWh from the utility as long as there is a 1 kWh load to be served. One
therm (105 MJ) of hot water produced by the CHP plant is worth the cost of gas divided
by the efficiency of the existing hot water boiler as long as 1 therm (105 MJ) of load is
available and addressable by the CHP plant.
The value of cogenerated energy depends on the ultimate disposition of that energy.
If the power is used to reduce purchases of electric power from an electric utility, then
the value of the cogenerated power depends on retail rates and the specific rate structure
applicable to that facility. Alternatively, if the CHP-produced power is exported from
the site and sold to an electric utility, then the value of the cogenerated power is based
on the utilitys costs for an alternative source of that same power. When power is used
on-site, thus reducing retail power purchases, the project is referred to as a self-
generation, internal-use, or displacement-type project. When the power solely is
exported and sold to a utility or to the wholesale market, the project is referred to as an
avoided-cost, wholesale-power, or utility generation project. Both concepts can be
considered in the evaluation of CHP system economics; however, in many open power
markets, offsetting power purchases typically provides higher savings and price stability
than selling power into a volatile wholesale market. Subsidies are sometimes provided
in performance-type payments, such as a rate per kilowatt-hour or therm, and should be
considered in the operating proforma.
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For projects that are primarily driven by operating economics (which is the case
with most applications), an understanding of the relative value of the various outputs
will help in selecting the optimal configuration. Where electric costs are high and fuel
costs are low, the electric output of the system is most valuable, whereas for applications
with a high cost of thermal energy, the thermal output may be the key component. Table
5-1 shows the value of various forms of energy generated by a CHP plant for a fixed
grid electric cost and at varying natural gas input values. This table assumes that the
CHP plant output is used to offset grid electric and natural gas fuel to a boiler. In
regions with high energy costs, CHP provides higher value output and, as capital costs
are generally not related to energy costs, plants in areas with high energy costs show
the highest rate of return.
Scenario A:
Input Values Offset Values
Natural Gas (NG) $0.60 /therm Electricity $29.31 /106 Btu/h
Grid Electricity $0.100 /kWh Heating $7.50 /106 Btu/h
NG Boiler Efficiency 80 % Cooling $5.00 /106 Btu/h
Elec Chiller Efficiency 0.60 kW/ton
Scenario B:
Input Values Offset Values
Natural Gas (NG) $1.00 /therm Electricity $29.31 /106 Btu/h
Grid Electricity $0.100 /kWh Heating $12.50 /106 Btu/h
NG Boiler Efficiency 80 % Cooling $5.00 /106 Btu/h
Elec Chiller Efficiency 0.60 kW/ton
Scenario A:
Input Values Offset Values
Natural Gas (NG) $5.69 /GJ Electricity $27.78 /GJ
Grid Electricity $0.100 /kWh Heating $7.11 /GJ
NG Boiler Efficiency 80 % Cooling $4.74 /GJ
Elec Chiller Efficiency 0.17 kW/kWC
Scenario B:
Input Values Offset Values
Natural Gas (NG) $9.48 /GJ Electricity $27.78 /GJ
Grid Electricity $0.100 /kWh Heating $11.86 /GJ
NG Boiler Efficiency 80 % Cooling $4.74 /GJ
Elec Chiller Efficiency 0.17 kW/kWC
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Table 5-2 shows the basic cost of on-site generation, value of thermal output, net
cost of CHP power output, and the simple payback in years for three different energy
cost scenarios. The net cost of CHP power output is calculated by applying the value of
the thermal output as a credit against the cost of power production and provides a
statement of overall CHP savings when compared to the grid electric power cost. The
net cost of CHP power also includes fuel and maintenance costs. The table is based on
a typical prime mover with 35% HHV electric and 35% HHV thermal efficiency, and
the capital cost is assumed to be $2500 per kW. The CHP plant is applied at a facility
that can use all the power and thermal output to offset grid power imports and natural
gas fuel to boilers and has a 95% electric load factor and a 100% thermal load factor.
As electric costs increase, the value of offset electricity increases, while a higher fuel
cost will be somewhat offset by the higher value of thermal offsets, so increases in
thermal energy costs are less impactful that increases in grid electric costs. As discussed
previously, higher energy costs in general lead to reduced payback periods, given that
the capital cost and maintenance cost are independent of energy cost.
Gas Offset
Thermal Load Factor 100% 100% 100%
Boiler Efficiency 80% 80% 80%
Natural Gas Offset per kWh 4268 4268 4268 Btu
Offset Value per kWh $0.021 $0.026 $0.030 @ 1000 Btu/ft3
CHP Economics
Net Cost per kWh $0.047 $0.053 $0.058 Includes HR equipment
Annual Savings per MW $271,015 $391,794 $512,573
CapX per MW $2,500,000 $2,500,000 $2,500,000
Simple Payback 9.2 6.4 4.9 Years
Note: Cost to maintain heat recovery (HR) equipment is excluded for power-only scenario.
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It is interesting to note that, whereas power offset generally has the highest financial
value, the value of the thermal output typically represents a significant portion of the
CHP system net cost savings. Given that CHP is based on the sequential generation of
power and thermal energy, it is necessary to first generate the power to produce the
thermal energy. The prime mover often generates at a similar cost to the grid, with the
offset thermal energy value providing the bulk of the savings required to pay down the
capital investment and provide energy cost reductions to incentivize the development
of the project. Table 5-3 indicates that, based on the data provided in Table 5-2, the
thermal output value is equivalent to between two thirds and one half of the total net
CHP system cost savings.
From this perspective, the importance of utilization of the thermal output to offset
fuel costs is vital to the economic success of the project. In all cases, high load factors
on thermal output should be encouraged, although the load factor has less impact in
regions where fuel costs are low. Using the same basic equipment and load parameters
as described above, Table 5-4 provides the cost of generation, thermal offset value, and
payback for varying thermal load factors while holding energy costs steady. As can be
seen from this table, the impact of thermal load factor is highly significant and as
impactful as energy costs in terms of economic performance.
It is also interesting to note the relative value of heating and cooling output. These
values are dependent on both the cost of energy (electricity for most chillers and natural
gas or other fuel for heating) and the efficiency of existing or proposed new non-CHP
chillers and boilers. Table 5-1 provided offset values of CHP system output based on
traditional assumptions 80% efficiency for natural gas boilers and 0.55 kW/ton (0.16
kW/kWC) for water-cooled electric chillers. Because of the high efficiency of water-
cooled electric chillers, the value of offsetting one million Btu (1055 MJ) of cooling
generally has a lower value than offsetting one million Btu (1055 MJ) of heating.
Therefore, when a CHP plant is configured to convert a significant portion of its thermal
output to cooling to offset chillers rather than offsetting heating, the return on investment
(ROI) period is generally increased for two reasons. First, the expense of adding cooling
conversion equipment such as absorption chillers increases the capital cost of the
project, and secondly, the offset value of the CHP system output is not as high. Using
the traditional efficiency assumptions outlined above, it can be stated that CHP systems
that require cooling output to maintain high load factor require higher spark spreads
than heating-only systems to provide the same ROI. However, offset values are a
function of the offset boiler or chiller efficiency. Table 5-5 provides a comparison of
offset values based on traditional equipment efficiencies and those for equipment of
lower efficiency. From this comparison, it can be seen that if the CHP system is
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offsetting an electric chiller with an efficiency of 1.0 kW/ton (0.28 kW/kWC), such as
an older air-cooled chiller, the value of cooling is higher than offsetting an 80%
efficiency boiler at the stated energy values.
When calculating the offset values for CHP output based on existing equipment
efficiencies, care must be taken to ensure that, where low efficiency is claimed, the
existing equipment cannot be adjusted to improve efficiency. In all cases where poor
performance of existing equipment creates a high offset value for CHP output, the
option of improving efficiency or replacing the equipment with new systems should be
considered as an option before calculating the offset values for CHP with a capital
credit to CHP if it allowed the measure to be offset.
Gas Offset
Thermal Load Factor 100% 75% 50%
Boiler Efficiency 80% 80% 80%
Natural Gas Offset per kWh 4268 3201 2134 Btu
Offset Value per kWh $0.026 $0.019 $0.013 @ 1000 Btu/ft3
CHP Economics
Include HR
Net Cost per kWh $0.053 $0.059 $0.066 equipment
Annual Savings per MW $391,794 $338,523 $285,251
CapX per MW $2,500,000 $2,500,000 $2,500,000
Simple Payback 6.4 7.4 8.8 Years
Note: Cost to maintain heat recovery (HR) equipment is excluded for power-only scenario.
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Typical electric and natural gas utility rate tariffs consist of several components,
including one or more of the following:
Demand Charge: This component is the monthly charge based on the maximum
facility demand on the utility system. Although it is usually based on the peak
demand that occurs during the month, it may be restricted to the peak demand
Scenario B:
Input Values Offset Values
Natural Gas (NG) $0.60 /therm Electricity $29.31 /106 Btu/h
Grid Electricity $0.100 /kWh Heating $9.23 /106 Btu/h
NG Boiler Efficiency 65 % Cooling $8.33 /106 Btu/h
Elec Chiller Efficiency 1.00 kW/ton
Scenario A:
Input Values Offset Values
Natural Gas (NG) $5.69 /GJ Electricity $27.78 /GJ
Grid Electricity $0.100 /kWh Heating $7.11 /GJ
NG Boiler Efficiency 80 % Cooling $4.34 /GJ
Elec Chiller Efficiency 0.16 kW/kWC
Scenario B:
Input Values Offset Values
Natural Gas (NG) $5.69 /GJ Electricity $27.78 /GJ
Grid Electricity $0.100 /kWh Heating $8.75 /GJ
NG Boiler Efficiency 65 % Cooling $7.90 /GJ
Elec Chiller Efficiency 0.28 kW/kWC
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that occurs during the on-peak period. The demand charge is generally based on
the utilitys fixed costs for delivering energy. A ratcheted demand charge may be
based on the actual peak demand experienced during the month or some percentage
of a previous peak demand. The ratchet period may extend back to the previous
peak cooling or heating season, 11 months, or to the inception of service. Ratchet
percentages may range from as low as 33% to a high of 100%. Two-part demand
structures are also becoming more common for electric utilities that operate in open
wholesale power markets: one demand charge is intended to recover the utility or
regional grid system generation capacity obligation costs, with the second charge
intended to recover the transmission and distribution (T&D) system costs. Two-part
demand structures may use different ratchets, with T&D and capacity obligations
often ratcheted at 100% for 11 months.
Demand charges may be changed in block increments, with the rate either
increasing or decreasing as the billed demand increases. In an inverted rate
structure, demand charges increase with increasing demand as the utility attempts
to discourage incremental use; decreasing block rate structures are characterized by
decreasing rates with increasing use. Demand charges may also vary as a function
of service voltage or gas pressure and from season to season.
Energy Charge: This component is the charge for the energy that is actually
delivered by the utility. It may be billed in different energy blocks, with the rate
usually decreasing as the amount of energy used increases. Energy blocks may
be defined as fixed, specific quantities of energy or, in the case of electric utility
supplied electricity, they may be variable and based on the time of day at which
energy is used. Typical time-of-use blocks include on-peak, off-peak, and
shoulder or intermediate hours.
Surcharges: Most rates include various surcharges that are intended to recover
specific costs. One of the most common is a fuel cost adjustment, which is intended
to adjust for fuel costs that may vary significantly from month to month. Where
electricity is purchased from the electric utility, this charge is sometimes referred to
as a purchased power adjustment. Other surcharges may be based on the cost of a
utilitys conservation and demand-side management programs, the need to fund the
decommissioning of nuclear power plants, tax adjustments, and, sometimes, various
societal benefits are funded through utility surcharges. These charges are usually
applied on the basis of kilowatt-hour use, although some may be computed on the
basis of a percentage of the total bill or energy cost.
Taxes: Most utilities include some tax imposed on behalf of a government body,
typically the state and the local municipality. State taxes take the form of a sales
tax; local taxes may be referred to as franchise fees, gross receipts taxes, use taxes,
or sales taxes. Government-owned buildings or nonprofit entities may be exempt
from some taxes.
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The output of a CHP plant reduces both energy use and energy demand of the host
facility. These components should be separated and accounted for separately when
providing a detailed economic analysis. Although using the average cost of electricity
based on total cost divided by total usage may be sufficient to provide an indication of
potential energy savings, it does not properly reflect the impact of load following or
system shutdowns and therefore tends to overstate energy cost savings. This is particularly
true when rate tariffs have high demand components or include ratchets.
Standby charges are generally imposed by the local electric distribution company
on a facility with CHP to address the cost of making service available as well as
providing power when the CHP unit is not operating. Standby charges are generally
based on the capacity of the CHP system (nameplate rating of the prime mover), and
must be taken into account when doing any level of economic analysis. These charges
are a direct cost to the project and can have significant impact on the net financial
savings. They typically include a monthly demand component as well as an energy cost
component. The load factor of the CHP generator and frequency of outages during
operating hours will have significant impact on the cost of standby service. Where CHP
generators are frequently down for either scheduled or unscheduled maintenance, the
cost of standby service will increase. In situations where the load factor is less than
50%, CHP systems will often not qualify for standby service, resulting in significantly
higher demand charges. Electric utility normal rate and standby tariffs often include
ratchet components which can cause a high demand payment for 12 months, even
though the high demand only occurred for a short period during one month. As rate
tariffs evolve to incorporate distributed generation such as CHP, there may be an
emphasis on facilitating on-site power generation that can maintain output during peak
grid demand periods and penalizing systems that cannot provide reliable output during
these times.
Utility rate structure considerations include existing tariff structures, standby rate
tariffs, and rate tariffs that may be applied after a CHP system has been installed. These
should be evaluated for their impact on the economics of implementing CHP. Once a
CHP system has been installed, the reduction in demand or energy usage may cause the
facilitys rate tariff to change, potentially resulting in a higher cost per unit of energy.
Some utilities have special supplementary power tariffs that would be used once a
facility has some form of on-site generation. When determining the cost of supplemental
power, it is also prudent to determine whether the end-user would be better served
remaining on the same full-service rate for supplemental energy, or if some other
partial service rate would be less costly.
Many utility rate tariffs for nonresidential customers have varying rates depending
on the time of day that the power is consumed. Depending on the differential between
on-peak and off-peak hourly energy charges as well as demand charges, the economic
advantage of operating on-site generation can vary widely. This differential depends to
some degree on the grid power generator mix, and it can cause a large variance in plant
economics versus using the average cost of power. This is particularly true for facilities
that wish to operate the CHP plant 24 h/day and may require the plant to be shut down
during off-peak hours. Though the value of offsetting power during peak hours is high,
the inability to run all hours because of low off-peak power costs can extend the
payback of the facility.
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Many utility tariffs also contain what are typically called non-bypassable charges.
These are generally relatively small charges per kilowatt-hour that are imposed on
energy usage by the facility rather than on energy supplied to the facility by the grid.
Therefore, these charges are imposed on energy generated on-site as well as imported
energy and must be added to the cost of operation of the CHP plant.
Gas utilities often provide special tariffs that reflect the high load factor associated
with CHP plants. These tariffs recognize the higher throughput associated with CHP
and typically offer reduced distribution charges per unit of throughput. Typically, these
tariffs are published on the gas utilitys web site and should be reviewed and applied to
the economic model. When applying such special CHP tariff rates, it is important to
apply them only to the CHP gas use, because the remaining facility gas throughput will
generally still come under the existing rate structure.
Where CHP plants are designed to offset internal power imports as well as export
power to the grid, the value of the power generated by such a plant is a combination of
the offset value of imported power as well as the sale value of exported power, together
with any standby service, non-bypassable charges, and other service charges that may be
imposed to allow export of power, which can include local distribution utility charges to
get the power from the facility to another facility or the wholesale power market.
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Water and wastewater fees for larger CHP systems may become significant within
the context of the projects operating cost structure. Water may be required for cooling
towers and boiler makeup; wastewater charges may result from boiler blowdown and
sanitary wastes.
CHP systems, even small ones, may be required to obtain offsets or allowances for
various emissions including both NOx and SOx. These charges may be a one-time cost
incurred as a condition for start-up or may be ongoing.
CHP systems are typically subject to both ad valorem or property taxes and income
taxes. The ad valorem tax rate is usually established by the local municipality and
school district and is assessed based on the value of the CHP system. These taxes are
often differentially applied to equipment, investment in buildings, and infrastructure,
and can have a significant effect on project viability. In some cases, where either the
state or the local government wishes to increase local investment, tax abatement may
be available.
CHP systems producing a reduction in operating costs are subject to federal and
possibly state income taxes. In those cases where the CHP system is owned by the
energy end-user, any resulting operating cost reductions will contribute to the end-
users overall profits, and to the extent that the end-user has taxable profits, the CHP
system will incur income taxes. In those cases where the CHP system is owned and
operated by a third party, the third party will be liable for income taxes on any resulting
margins. Any income tax exemption available to the end-user, such as a hospital,
nursing home, or governmental facility, is not directly transferable to the third party.
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While not common, some third-party transactions for the sale of power and/or
thermal energy to an end-user may be subject to local sales taxes or, alternatively, to
gross receipts taxes.
Even at the most elementary stages of CHP assessment, capital cost budget
estimates are required for the purpose of deciding whether to proceed with the
development of a CHP system. The accuracy of budget estimates will be directly
affected by the amount of engineering and analysis that is the basis for such estimates.
Budgets developed at the earliest stages of analysis are typically based on generic data
and rules of thumb. Any decisions based on those estimates must allow for significant
uncertainty and are only of value in determining whether a more detailed engineering
analysis is justified. As one proceeds through the development process, capital cost
estimates are refined based on more detailed design information and vendor quotations.
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Exhaust System and Stack: Ability to use the existing breeching and stack,
ability to use a single stack for multiple engines or for both diverter valve bypass
and HRSG exhausts, exhaust gas temperature, and emission control technology.
Water Supply and Treatment: Condition of existing water treatment system and
the use of water for thermal loops or injection into engine combustion chamber.
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Most budgets also include a contingency or an allowance for unforeseen costs and
requirements. Early in the design process, the contingency may be in the range of 15 to
20% of the estimated project cost. As the design uncertainty is reduced, the contingency
decreases accordingly. A 5% contingency is not atypical at the completion of design.
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basic concepts,
operating characteristics,
efficiency,
part-load operation,
start-up considerations,
maintenance,
availability,
fuel capabilities,
The prime mover that converts a fuels chemical energy or available thermal energy
into power is the heart of any CHP system. Commercially available fuel-based energy
conversion devices include internal-combustion reciprocating engines, combustion
turbines, microturbines, and fuel cells. Commercially available thermal energy systems
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include steam-driven turbines and Rankine and Stirling cycle systems. This chapter
reviews the characteristics of these commonly used CHP prime movers and aids in
understanding how best to apply each prime mover. Prime-mover design and
construction characteristics can be found in the 2012 ASHRAE HandbookSystems
and Equipment, Chapter 7, and other references listed in this guide.
The primary difference between the Otto and diesel cycles is the method of igniting
the fuel. Otto cycle or SI engines use a spark plug to ignite the premixed air-fuel
mixture after it is introduced into the cylinder. Diesel cycle engines compress the air
introduced into the cylinder, raising its temperature above the autoignition temperature
of the fuel, which is then injected into the cylinder at high pressure. Increased focus on
reducing engine exhaust emissions has largely contributed to the rise of natural gas and
renewable fuels versus liquid fuels in spark ignition engines as the design of choice for
CHP applications. Diesel cycle engines still remain the design of choice for emergency
and standby generators that operate limited run hours.
The Otto cycle is also called a constant-volume or explosion cycle. This is the
equivalent air cycle for reciprocating piston engines using spark ignition. Figure 6-1
shows the P-V and T-S diagrams, respectively. At the start of the cycle, the cylinder
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contains a mass of air at the pressure and volume indicated at point 1. The piston is at
its lowest position. It moves upward, and the gas is compressed isentropically to point
2. At this point, heat is added (combustion) at constant volume which raises the pressure
to point 3. The high-pressure charge now expands isentropically, pushing the piston
down on its expansion stroke to point 4, where the charge rejects heat at constant
volume to the initial state, point 1.
To determine the site-specific engine rating, the basis of the manufacturers ratings
(ambient temperature, altitude, and atmospheric pressure of the test conditions) must
be known. Various derating factors are then used to adjust the manufacturers nominal
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Rich-burn engines operate near the stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio (16:1), with
exhaust excess oxygen levels less than 4% (typically closer to 1%). Additionally, it is
likely that the emissions profile will be considerably different for a rich-burn engine at
4% oxygen than when operated closer to stoichiometric conditions.
Lean-burn engines may operate up to the lean flame extinction limit, with exhaust
oxygen levels of 12% or greater. The air to fuel ratios of lean-burn engines range from
20:1 to 50:1 and are typically higher than 24:1. The exhaust excess oxygen levels of
lean-burn engines are typically around 8%, ranging from 4 to 17%. Using high-energy
ignition technology, very lean fuel-air mixtures can be burned in natural gas engines,
lowering peak temperatures within the cylinders and resulting in reduced NOx emissions.
Natural gas engine efficiencies range from about 28% (LHV) for small stoichiometric
engines (<50 kW) to 47% (LHV) for large (5 MW or greater) lean-burn engines.
High engine speeds like 1800 rpm engine shown in Figure 6-2 result in a high
power density and lower installed cost.
As noted, engines also are categorized by their original design purpose: automotive,
truck, industrial, locomotive, or marine. Engines intended for industrial use are four-
stroke Otto cycle engines and are designed for durability and for a wide range of
mechanical drive and electric power applications. Stationary engine sizes delivering
generator outputs ranging from 5 kW to more than 18 MW, including industrialized
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auto and truck engines in the 60 to 600 kWe (see Figure 6-3) output range, and
industrially applied marine and locomotive engines to more than 18 MW. The largest
natural gas engine currently available for stationary CHP application is rated at 18.8
MW and is shown in Figure 6-4.
Finally, most modern engines are turbocharged to achieve higher power densities. A
turbocharger is a turbine-driven intake air compressor. The hot, high-velocity exhaust
gases leaving the engine cylinders power the turbine. Very large engines typically are
equipped with two turbochargers. On a carbureted engine, turbocharging forces more air
and fuel into the cylinders increasing the engines output. On a fuel-injected engine, the
mass of fuel injected must be increased in proportion to the increased air input. Cylinder
pressure and temperature normally increase as a result of turbocharging, increasing the
tendency for detonation for both spark ignition and dual fuel engines and requiring a
careful balance between compression ratio and turbocharger boost level. Turbochargers
normally boost inlet air pressure on a 3:1 to 4:1 ratio. A wide range of turbocharger
designs and models are used. Heat exchangers (called aftercoolers or intercoolers) are
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often used on the discharge air from the turbocharger to keep the temperature of the air
to the engine under a specified limit. Intercooling on forced-induction engines improves
volumetric efficiency by increasing the density of intake air to the engine (i.e., colder air
charge from intercooling provides denser air for combustion, thus allowing more fuel
and air to be combusted per engine stroke, increasing the output of the engine).
Heat rates of several SI engine generators are shown in Figure 6-6. The heat rate
for an engine of a given size is also affected by design and operating factors other than
displacement.
Figure 6-5. Typical Efficiency (HHV) of Stoichiometric Spark Ignition Engine Generators
(Figure 14, Chapter 7, 2012 ASHRAE HandbookHVAC Systems and Equipment)
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A reciprocating engine rejects heat from the following sources: radiation from the
engine block and other hot surfaces, exhaust gases, lubricating oil, jacket water, and,
for turbocharged and aftercooled engines, the engine aftercooler or intercooler. Heat
recovery characteristics vary as a function of engine speed, engine output, combustion
type (rich burn versus lean burn), engine design, and heat rejection strategy.
Manufacturer specifications should be carefully reviewed to determine the heat
rejection characteristics for a specific installation. Because there are no universally
accepted standards for quantifying heat recovery, it is important to note heat rejection
reference temperatures. In particular, the maximum allowable cooling-water circuit
return temperature defines the ability of a specific engine design and configuration to
meet the thermal load needs.
The most commonly used sources of heat recovery for reciprocating engines are
the engine exhaust gases, which typically exceed 1200F (649C), and the jacket
coolant, which is typically less than 240F (116C). Almost all the jacket heat can be
recovered as hot water.
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Heat can also be recovered from the exhaust gases, which can reach temperatures
in excess of 1200F (649C), and from the lubricating and turbocharger aftercooler
heat exchangers. Engine exhaust gases are lower in oxygen content (typically 4% to
8%) than combustion turbine exhaust gases, and, therefore, supplemental combustion
in the exhaust is generally not possible. Lube oil and aftercooler heat recovery is
generally at low temperatures (usually less than 160F [71.1C]) with return temperature
requirements of less than 120F (49C) and is of limited use unless low-temperature
heat loads are available, such as swimming pool heating, parking lot defrosting, etc.
Figure 6-7. Part-Load Heat Rate (HHV) of 1430, 425, and 85 kW Gas Engines
(Figure 17, Chapter 7, 2012 ASHRAE HandbookHVAC Systems and Equipment)
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Maintenance labor
Engine parts and materials, such as oil filters, air filters, spark plugs, gaskets,
valves, piston rings, electronic components, etc., and consumables such as oil.
Minor and major overhauls
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Liquid fuel engines can operate on a number of fuels, including distillate oil,
medium-weight and heavier residual fuels, and biodiesel. The heavier fuels are much
less costly than lighter oils; however, they generally result in higher engine maintenance
costs and more extensive maintenance procedures as well as increased emissions,
which may preclude their use in many regions. In addition, the heavier fuels can result
in fuel-handling problems, including the need for removal of contaminants and trace
materials and steam tracing in cold climates.
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NOx in reciprocating engines are specific output-based emission factors, such as grams
per horsepower-hour (g/hph) and grams per kilowatt-hour (g/kWh), or as total output
rates, such as pounds per hour (lb/h) or kilograms per hour (kg/h). Among the engine
options without exhaust aftertreatment, lean-burn natural gas engines produce the lowest
NOx emissions. In many localities, emissions pollutant reduction is mandatory. Three-
way catalytic reduction is the general method for stoichiometric and rich-burn engines,
and selective catalytic reduction (SCR) for lean-burn engines.
Piping that connects the engine to coolant, exhaust, and fuel systems and electrical
conduits can also transmit engine vibrations and must be isolated. Pipe hangers that
include springs for vibration control are generally used; pipe hanger spacing is varied
to eliminate resonance.
Combustion turbines (CTs) have been developed for stationary use as prime
movers. CTs are available in sizes delivering 1.3 to 480 MW and can burn a wide range
of liquid and gaseous fuels. Turbines, when available as dual-fuel engines, can shift
from one fuel to another without loss of service. Microturbine systems (covered in the
next section) typically range between delivered electric capacities of 30 to 250 kW.
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25
Simple-cycle (non-recuperative) CTs, when compared to the same size reciprocating engine.
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Nearly all turbine manufacturers present gas turbine engine performance in terms
of power output and specific fuel consumption26. A comparison of fuel consumption in
specific terms is the quickest way to compare overall thermal efficiencies of gas turbines
(ASME 2005).
26
Specific fuel consumption is the rate of fuel consumption divided by the power produced.
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The high-temperature combustor exhaust gases are then delivered to the turbine.
In the turbine, the exhaust gas energy is converted to kinetic energy and then to
mechanical work. The turbine itself is divided into two portions: the gas generator,
which consists of the turbine stages required to drive the compressor plus the
compressor, and the power turbine, which consists of the turbine stages required to
drive the externally driven equipment. Much of the work developed in the turbine,
sometimes as much as two-thirds of the turbines output, is required by the gas
generator. The turbine exhaust gases are considerably cooler than the combustor
exhaust gases, generally in the range of 850 to 1100F (454 to 593C).
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In some cases, the compressor and turbine are mounted on a single shaft, and the
entire power train operates at the same speed. These turbines are typically used in
constant-speed operations. Smaller turbines will rotate at high speeds (sometimes as
high as 20,000 rpm), and, therefore, a gear box is required to link the power turbine to
the load, particularly when the turbine is driving a generator. Larger turbines, typically
15 MW or greater, operate at 3000 or 3600 rpm, thus avoiding the need for a gear box.
Some turbines operate with multiple shafts where the higher pressure turbines are
connected to the axial compressor, and the lower pressure or power portion of the
turbine is connected to the load. Multishaft turbines, when combined with multistage
compressors, are referred to as two-spool machines, and they can be operated at
extremely high mechanical efficiency. Larger turbines operate at lower speeds or with
multiple shafts, sometimes allowing a direct-drive application.
Figure 6-11 and Figure 6-12 show the major components of a simple-cycle single
shaft and dual-shaft turbine generators, respectively.
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The turbine used depends on job requirements. Single-shaft turbines are usually
selected when a constant-speed drive is required, as in generator drives, and when
starting torque requirements are low. A single-shaft turbine can be used to drive
centrifugal compressors, but the starting system and the compressor match point must
be considered. Dual-shaft turbines allow for variable speed at full load and can easily
be started with a high-torque load connected to the power output shaft, and the power
turbine can be more optimally configured to match load requirements.
Increases in ambient temperature above the ISO rating of 59F (15C) can have
significant impact on a CTs output capacity and efficiency. Increase in temperature
decrease air density and results in lower air mass flow and lower power output capacity.
One or more of the several technologies (discussed in section 6.3.9) may be used to
cool the turbine inlet air and offset capacity losses during high-ambient-temperature
conditions. The economics of using turbine inlet air cooling and the type of system
used to provide cooling depend on ambient weather conditions and the value of power
output among other issues. Although the degree of capacity and efficiency losses
caused by increasing inlet air temperature are a function of the turbine design, capacity
losses can be as much as 5% per 10F (~5.6C) increase in inlet air temperature. For
further discussion on this topic, see the 2012 ASHRAE HandbookSystems and
Equipment, Chapter 8. Figure 6-13 and Figure 6-14 show typical effects of ambient air
temperature on power output and heat rate, respectively, for the two types of turbines.
The actual performance of a specific CT at different inlet air temperatures depends on
its design. Figure 6-13 and Figure 6-14 show that aeroderivative CTs are more sensitive
to ambient air temperature than are industrial-frame27 CTs. Figure 6-13 (Punwani and
Hurlbert 2006) shows that, for a typical aeroderivative CT, an increase in inlet air
27
Industrial-frame gas turbines are built specifically for continuous duty over long periods of
time. Because these machines are not designed to minimize weight as a jet engine is, they select
materials for long life, without compromise between weight and endurance. Industrial or frame
gas turbines are exclusively for stationary power generation and are available in the 1 to 250
MW capacity range. They are generally less expensive, more rugged, can operate longer between
overhauls, and are more suited for continuous base-load operation with longer inspection and
maintenance intervals than aeroderivative turbines. However, they are less efficient and much
heavier. Industrial gas turbines generally have more modest compression ratios (up to 16:1) and
often do not require an external fuel gas compressor.
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temperature from 59F to 100F (15C to 38C) on a hot summer day decreases power
output to about 81% of its rated capacity, a loss of 19% of the rated capacity. Figure
6-14 (Punwani 2003) shows that, for the same change in ambient air temperature, the
heat rate of a typical aeroderivative28 CT increases (i.e., fuel efficiency decreases) by
about 4% of the rated heat rate at ISO conditions. Increasingly, industrial-frame CTs
are using aeroderivative technology to improve performance; thus, their performance
curves are moving toward those of the classic aeroderivative CT.
CT capacity also decreases with increasing pressure losses in the inlet air or exhaust
sections of the turbine. Most applications require inlet air filters, silencers, and perhaps
inlet air cooling systems; most CHP applications require exhaust silencers and exhaust
heat recovery systems. Inlet pressure losses in filter, silencer, and ducting decrease
power output by approximately 0.5% for each inch of water column (2% per kPa)
pressure loss. Discharge pressure losses in waste heat recovery units, silencer, and
ducting decrease power output by approximately 0.3% for each inch of water column
(1.2% per kPa) pressure loss. Increase in pressure losses in the inlet and exhaust
sections also increases the CT heat rate.
28
Aeroderivative gas turbines for stationary power are adapted from their jet and turboshaft
aircraft engine counterparts. Although these turbines are lightweight and thermally efficient,
they are usually more expensive than products designed and built exclusively for stationary
applications. The largest aeroderivative generation turbines available are 40 to 50 MW in
capacity. Many aeroderivative gas turbines for stationary use operate with compression ratios in
the range of 30:1, requiring a high-pressure external fuel gas compressor.
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Both turbine capacity and efficiency also decrease over time as mechanical
clearances between both the compressor and the turbine blade tips and the stationary
casing increase. As hot-gas bypass through the clearances increases, blade erosion and
corrosion occurs, and the compressor is contaminated by dirt, resulting in decreased
capacity and efficiency. Typically, capacity can decrease by 2 to 6% over a three-year
period; however, a major overhaul of the turbine can restore performance to initial
values. Periodic compressor cleaning is also important in restoring the turbines original
performance.
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The Brayton or open-cycle turbine results in the exhausting of the working fluid,
which consists of air and combustion products, to the atmosphere. To minimize blade
corrosion, hot oxidation, and the resulting maintenance costs, the open-cycle turbine is
generally limited to the combustion of gaseous or light liquid fuels.
Figure 6-15 shows a typical performance curve for a 10,000 hp (7.5 MW) combustion
turbine engine. For example, at an air inlet temperature of 86F (30C), the turbine
develops its maximum power at about 82% of maximum speed. The shaft thermal
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efficiency of the prime mover is 18 to 35% with exhaust gases from the turbine ranging
from 806 to 986F (430 to 530C). If the exhaust heat can be used, overall thermal
utilization efficiency can increase.
Turbine inlet temperature and performance are also a function of design, and, in
general, efficiency increases with increasing turbine capacity. The turbines mechanical
efficiency is a function of the ratio of the turbine inlet and exhaust temperatures.
Efficiency can be increased by raising the temperature in the combustor, and
manufacturers are offering turbines with inlet temperatures approaching 2400F
(1316C). Lowering the turbine exhaust temperature can further improve efficiency; a
regenerative cycle, as shown in Figure 6-16, illustrates how this can be achieved. In
this case, the turbine exhaust gases are used to preheat combustion air prior to the
combustor, reducing the amount of fuel that is required to reach a specified turbine
inlet temperature and improving the heat rate of the turbine. Regeneration increases
the mechanical efficiency and the amount of power produced but increases the
complexity and system capital cost. It also decreases the availability of recoverable
heat in CHP systems, reducing the potential to displace fuel required by conventional
boilers. The increased cost of the regenerated turbine and the decreased value of
recovered heat must be evaluated against the increased power production to determine
if the regenerative cycle is cost effective.
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Turbine exhaust temperatures vary in a range from 850 to 1100F (454 to 593C),
and the amount of heat that can be recovered depends on the application of the recovered
heat. If a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) is used to produce steam or an exhaust-
fired absorption chiller is used, the need to avoid temperatures below the exhaust gas
acid dew points will limit heat recovery to exhaust gas exit temperatures of no less than
275 to 325F (135 to 163C). If exhaust heat recovery is required below the exhaust gas
acid dew points, it will be necessary to use corrosion resistant materials, such as
stainless steel, in the exhaust system. In addition, an acid collection and neutralization
system is required to prepare the acid for disposal. If the exhaust is used directly in a
process, the recoverable heat can be computed relative to the reference temperature of
the air that would be used in that process (frequently ambient air). Turbine exhaust
gases can be very clean, and when the turbine is operated on clean fuels, such as natural
gas or propane, the direct-process use of the exhaust can be practical.
In comparison, some multispool turbines are able to adjust airflow and compressor
work as a function of output. However, because the work required by the compressor
does not usually decrease as a linear function of the net turbine output, these compressor
losses also become an increasing fraction of the work performed by the turbine.
Although efficiency does not fall off as quickly as for the single-shaft turbine, efficiency
is still reduced at part-load operation.
Exhaust heat recovery from simple-cycle CTs also varies as a function of output,
because both the turbine airflow and the exhaust gas temperature vary as a direct
function of output. Because CTs are mass-flow-dependent devices, power output is a
function of mass flow, which is affected by ambient temperature or inlet air temperature
if turbine inlet cooling is used. Figure 6-17 shows the typical relationship between
mass flow, exhaust temperature, and power output as a function of capacity and ambient
temperature for a simple-cycle CT.
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Figure 6-17. Mass Flow, Exhaust Temperature, and Power Output as Function of Capacity
and Ambient Temperature
(Taniguchi and Miyamae 2000)
Figure 6-17 (SI). Mass Flow, Exhaust Temperature, and Power Output as Function of
Capacity and Ambient Temperature
(Taniguchi and Miyamae 2000)
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Gas turbine maintenance costs can vary significantly depending on the quality and
diligence of the preventive maintenance program and operating conditions. Although
gas turbines can be cycled, cycling significantly increases maintenance costs versus a
turbine that operates for intervals of 1000 h or more. In addition, operating the turbine
over the rated capacity for significant periods of time dramatically increases the
number of hot-path inspections and overhauls. Gas turbines that operate for extended
periods on liquid fuels experience higher than average overhaul intervals.
Many operational conditions affect the failure rate of gas turbines. Frequent starts
and stops incur damage from thermal cycling, which accelerates mechanical failure.
Use of liquid fuels, especially heavy fuels and fuels with impurities (alkalis, sulfur,
and ash), radiates heat to the combustor walls significantly more intensely than occurs
with, clean, gaseous fuels, thereby overheating the combustor and transition piece
walls. On the other hand, steady operation on clean fuels can allow gas turbines to
operate for a year without need for shutdown. Estimated availability of gas turbines
operating on clean gaseous fuels, as for natural gas, is in excess of 95%.
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As noted previously, combustion takes place external to the power turbine itself
and typically in a combustor. Because combustion is external to the power section, it is
possible to change from a gaseous to a liquid fuel without shutting down the turbine
and without any significant change in the turbines mechanical output. It is this
characteristic that makes combustion turbines attractive when low-cost, interruptible
sources of natural gas are available.
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relatively insignificant levels of SOx. In general, SOx emissions are greater when heavy
oils are fired in the combustion turbine. SOx control is thus a fuel issue rather than a gas
turbine technology issue. Particulate matter is a pollutant for gas turbines using liquid
fuels that, while not generally deemed significant, should be understood and evaluated.
Ash and metallic additives in the fuel may contribute to PM in the exhaust.
It is important to note that the CT operating load has a significant effect on the
emissions levels of the primary pollutants of NOx, CO, and VOCs. Gas turbines typically
operate at high loads. Consequently, gas turbines are designed to achieve maximum
efficiency and optimum combustion conditions at high loads. Controlling all pollutants
simultaneously at all load conditions is difficult. At higher loads, higher NOx emissions
occur because of peak flame temperatures. At lower loads, lower thermal efficiencies
and more incomplete combustion occurs, resulting in higher emissions of CO and VOCs.
Because of their light weight, low vibration signature, and smaller size, CT
foundations are not as large as those for other types of prime movers.
Many technologies are commercially available for CTIC, but the overall approaches
can be divided into three major groups:
Evaporative cooling
Chilled-fluid system
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increases). When the warm ambient inlet air comes in contact with the added water, it
transfers some of its heat to the liquid water and evaporates some of the water. Studies
show that evaporative cooling also reduces NOx emissions, because the increase in
moisture added to the air cools the combustion temperature.
Evaporative systems can cool the inlet air up to 98% of the difference between the
ambient dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures. Therefore, the most cooling can be
achieved during hot and dry weather. Evaporative systems have the lowest capital costs
among CTIC systems, and are the most common in use. Their primary disadvantage is
that the extent of cooling produced is limited by the wet-bulb temperature (and thus,
the extent of cooling is weather dependent). There are two types of evaporative systems:
direct and indirect. Two primary direct evaporative system types are commercially
used for evaporative cooling: wetted media and fogging. An indirect evaporative
cooling (IEC) CTIC system cools the inlet air by an indirect exchange of heat with an
air or a water stream that has been cooled by direct evaporative cooling.
Chiller systems cool inlet air by exchange of heat through indirect or direct contact
between warm ambient inlet air and a cold fluid produced by chillers. In indirect heat
exchange systems, chilled fluid flows inside a coil while the inlet air flows across the
coil face. Typical inlet-air-side pressure drop across the heat exchange coil is about 1
in. of water (250 Pa). The water vapor content (humidity ratio) of the inlet air remains
constant as its dry-bulb temperature decreases. Ammonia is the most commonly used
chilled fluid in direct refrigerant applications; for indirect-contact heat exchange
systems, the preferred chilled fluid is often water, though water/glycol, HFCs, HCFCs,
and other aqueous fluids are also used. Chiller systems can use vapor compression and/
or absorption chillers, with or without thermal energy storage (TES). Vapor compression
chillers used in CTIC systems could be centrifugal, screw, or reciprocating, and could
be driven by electric motors, steam turbines, or engines. Absorption chillers require
thermal energy from steam, hot water, hot exhaust gases, or natural gas as the primary
source of energy, and need much less electric energy than vapor compression chillers.
LNG vaporization systems are useful for power plants located near a liquefied
natural gas (LNG) import facility. In supplying natural gas for pipelines, power plants,
or other applications, LNG must be vaporized by some heat source. For applications in
CTIC, the inlet air is used as such a heat source.
Hybrid systems combine at least two technologies, which can be used simultaneously
in a sequential process; in some systems, each technology may also be used individually.
6.4 MICROTURBINES
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125
to the combustion chamber) and a second turbine downstream of the first to separately
drive the electric generator. Finally, the recuperator uses the exhaust of the power
turbine to preheat the air from the compressor (Figure 6-20).
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127
Figure 6-21 (SI). Microturbine Efficiency Curve with Respect to ISO Efficiency
128
In addition to the microturbine itself, the fuel compressor also requires periodic
inspection and maintenance. The actual level of compressor maintenance depends on
the inlet pressure and site conditions.
The basic design and low number of moving parts hold the potential for systems
of high availability; manufacturers have targeted availabilities of 98 to 99%. The use
of multiple units or backup units at a site can further increase the availability of the
overall facility.
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Microturbines are available that use methane-based oilfield flare casing gas or
low-energy (as low as 350 Btu) landfill/digester gas as fuel sources. Versions of these
are available that can accept sour gas with up to 7% hydrogen sulfide (H2S) content.
Microturbine gaseous fuel pressure requirements range between 70 and 115 psig
(0.43 MPa and 0.79 MPa [gage]).
Some fuels have inherently higher emissions levels. Liquid fuels generally have
higher NO2 and CO levels than natural gas. Landfill and digester gas fuels can have
lower NO2 levels with higher CO levels at full power. Fuels containing significant
amounts of CO and acetylene (C2H2) also result in higher NO2 emissions.
Because of their light weight, low vibration signature, and smaller size, microturbine
foundations are not as massive as those for other types of prime movers.
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Fuel cells convert chemical energy of a hydrogen-based fuel directly into electricity
without combustion. In the cell, a hydrogen-rich fuel passes over the anode, while an
oxygen-rich gas (air) passes over the cathode. Catalysts help split the hydrogen into
hydrogen ions and electrons. The hydrogen electrons move through an external circuit,
thus providing a direct current at a fixed voltage potential. A typical packaged fuel cell
power plant consists of a fuel reformer (processor), which generates hydrogen-rich gas
from fuel; a power section (stack) where the electrochemical process occurs; and a
power conditioner (inverter), which converts the DC power generated in the fuel cell
into AC power. Most fuel cell applications involve interconnectivity with the electric
grid; thus, the power conditioner must synchronize the electrical output of the fuel cell
with the grid (ASHRAE 2005).
A growing number of fuel cell applications are grid independent to reliably power
remote or critical systems.
Most fuel cells have similar designs, but differ in the type of electrolyte used. The
main types of stationary fuel cells, classified by their electrodes, are (1) phosphoric acid
(PAFC), (2) molten carbonate (MCFC), (3) solid oxide (SOFC), and (4) proton exchange
membrane (PEMFC. PAFCs, MCFCs, SOFCs and PEMFCs are commercially available.
The most significant research and development activities focus on PEMFC for automotive
and home use and SOFC for stationary applications. Efficiencies of several types of fuel
cells are shown in Table 6-2. Emissions from fuel cells are very low; NOx emissions are
less than 20 ppm. Large phosphoric acid fuel cells are commercially available.
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SOFCs can use carbon monoxide as well as hydrogen as direct fuel. Hydrogen and
carbon monoxide in the fuel stream react with oxide ions from the electrolyte, producing
water and carbon dioxide, and releasing electrons into the anode. The electrons pass
outside the fuel cell, through the load, and back to the cathode. At the cathode, oxygen
molecules from the air receive the electrons and the molecules are converted into oxide
ions. These ions are injected back into the electrolyte.
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fuel and carbonate ions from the electrolyte. This reaction produces water and carbon
dioxide, and releases electrons to the anode. At the cathode, oxygen and carbon dioxide
from the oxidant stream combine with electrons from the anode to produce carbonate
ions, which enter the electrolyte.
Electrode reactions in the PEMFC are analogous to those in the PAFC. Hydrogen
ions and electrons are produced from the fuel gas at the anode. At the cathode, oxygen
combines with electrons from the anode and hydrogen ions from the electrolyte to
produce water. The solid electrolyte does not absorb the water, which is rejected from
the back of the cathode into the oxidant gas stream (Hodge and Hardy 2002).
Meanwhile, oxygen is delivered to the cathode side of the MEA. The oxygen molecules
react with protons and electrons coming from the anode side to form water molecules.
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Heat-to-power equipment converts heat energy into shaft power, and in the context
of CHP the shaft power is typically used to drive a generator. Steam turbine generators
are by far the most common form of heat driven engines. This section will cover steam
turbines in some detail and also provide an overview of lower temperature heat to power
equipment emerging in CHP application, including Rankine and Stirling cycle systems.
134
The heat source, such as a boiler capable of burning gaseous, liquid, or solid fuels
or a combination of fuels, generates high-pressure steam. The heat source need not be
limited to combustion of traditional fuels; nuclear reactors, refuse, and waste
by-products have been successfully used in steam-cycle generation plants. In many
cases, the heat source consists of an HRSG, which is fired with turbine exhaust
gases, and the combination of a combustion turbine and steam turbine is referred to as
a combined cycle. Inlet steam conditions can vary over a broad range: pressures can
range from 150 psig (1034 kPa [gage]) to more than 3000 psig (20 670 kPa [gage]);
temperatures can range from a few degrees of superheat at 150 psig (1034 kPa [gage])
to more than 1000F (538C). CHP applications are generally limited to steam
pressures of no more than 700 to 800 psig (4823 to 5512 kPa [gage]) with temperatures
of no more than 800F (427C).
A second major component is a heat sink. Because the turbine operates by allowing
the steam to expand, giving up energy and doing work, the cycle must include a
mechanism for rejecting the steam and the energy therein, which is exhausted from
the turbine. This heat sink can be a thermal process, as is the case with CHP systems,
or it can be the environment.
Steam turbine technology is quite diverse, operating over a broad range of steam
conditions and design concepts. As described below, steam turbines can be categorized
in a number of ways, including the process by which steam expands and does work,
the manner in which steam exits the turbine, and the manner in which steam is
introduced into the turbine. All turbines operate on the same basic concept: as steam
expands while flowing through a nozzle, it accelerates and forms a high-speed jet. The
kinetic energy of the jet is then transferred to a series of rotating blades that produce
mechanical work.
The vast majority of steam turbine generators in use today are axial-flow turbines.
Conventional axial-flow steam turbines direct steam axially through the peripheral
blades of one or more staged turbine wheels (much like a pinwheel) one after another
on the same shaft. Figure 6-28 shows basic types of axial turbines. NEMA Standard
SM 24 defines these steam turbines and further subdivisions of their basic families
as follows:
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136
137
There are multiple variations of extraction turbine, in which steam is exhausted from
the turbine at different conditions at several points in the steam flow path. The advantage
of this type of turbine is that it allows extraction of the quantity of steam required at each
temperature or pressure as needed by the industrial process. The extraction ports can be
equipped for automatic operation, thus allowing the turbine to track a site thermal load.
Multiple extraction ports are possible and this turbine provides a great deal of flexibility
in matching the CHP cycle to the thermal requirements of the site. Extracted steam can
also be used in the power cycle for feedwater heating or for ancillary drives. Depending
on cycle constraints and process requirements, the final exit conditions from the extraction
turbine can be either backpressure or condensing. Conceptually, the extraction turbine is
a hybrid condensing/noncondensing turbine. When operating in an extraction mode, the
turbine can be efficient, with steam rates approaching those of a back-pressure turbine.
Induction turbines are equipped to accept steam at multiple ports. These turbines
are frequently found in industrial facilities, where steam may be available at pressures
that are lower than the throttle conditions of the turbine. The lower-pressure steam is
induced into the steam path and produces power as it expands to exit conditions.
Unlike the combustion turbine, steam turbine capacity is not a direct function of
ambient temperature, though, for condensing turbines, capacity is affected somewhat
by ambient temperature. Condensing turbines reject heat to the atmosphere or to some
body of water, and high ambient temperatures can reduce the heat rejection capacity of
the condenser, decreasing both turbine capacity and cycle efficiency.
138
When used in a combined cycle, as illustrated by Figure 6-32, the inlet steam
conditions are limited to the temperatures available from the combustion turbine
exhaust (typically 1000F [538C] or less). If additional heat is required, the exhaust
gas temperature can be increased to more than 1600F (871C) through the use of a
supplemental burner. In either case, the characteristics of the combustion turbine will
determine the steam turbine throttle conditions and, ultimately, cycle efficiency.
Because most turbines considered for CHP applications are multistage devices
designed for a specific application, typically including both condensing and extraction
capabilities, the part-load characteristics are unique to each turbine.
139
140
Figure 6-31. Efficiency of Typical Multistage Turbines Figure 6-31 (SI). Efficiency of Typical Multistage Turbines
The interval between steam turbine overhauls depends primarily on water quality
and turbine duty cycle. A complete internal inspection of a steam turbine can require
150 to 350 h to complete; however, problems encountered during the inspection can
significantly increase the length of the outage. Detailed planning can effectively shorten
the time required for an overhaul. Among the activities that should be conducted before
an overhaul is a review of outage and maintenance records to assess component
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142
Most corrosive effects occur in the later stages of the turbine where the steam
becomes wet and where impurities are deposited on blades and become more
concentrated. Impurities such as iron, manganese, silica, calcium, magnesium, sodium,
chlorides, sulfates, nitrates, and bicarbonates can leave deposits on blades, valves, and
turbine surfaces. These deposits reduce fluid flow, capacity, and efficiency, and,
through their corrosive action, they decrease turbine reliability and availability while
increasing maintenance costs. Oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen dissolved in
water can be highly corrosive and interactions among these gases can increase their
total corrosive effect.
There are two distinct sources of impurities that must be addressed: the boiler
makeup water and the condensate returned to the boiler. Because impurities tend to
become more concentrated in the steam turbine, it is important to ensure that the
concentrations of these impurities are well below the level that would cause damage.
The most commonly applied membrane process consists of reverse osmosis (RO),
in which a pressurized stream of water moves parallel to a semipermeable membrane;
pure water penetrates the membrane, leaving a more concentrated solution of dissolved
impurities behind. RO processes operate at pressures ranging from 150 psig (1034 kPa
[gage]) to more than 400 psig (2758 kPa [gage]). Higher pressures may be required for
water that is high in impurities. Membrane filtration is the use of membranes with pore
sizes ranging from 0.001 to 1.00 m to filter dissolved and suspended solids. RO pores
143
are smaller than the pores of membranes used for either micro- or ultrafiltration and,
therefore, provide the highest quality water.
Both treated makeup water and condensate are routed to a deaerator, where the
oxygen content of the water is reduced to less than 10 ppb. The deaerators also provide
feedwater storage capacity. Most deaeration is based on the use of steam to atomize the
feedwater and strip out dissolved oxygen. Chemical deaerators operate by injecting
chemicals that form insoluble compounds in the feedwater. These compounds are then
removed in the boiler blowdown.
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The following six processes are found in a typical ORC system (Figure 6-33), each
causing a change in the working fluid state:
Process 1-2: the working fluid is pumped (ideally an isentropic process) from low
to high pressure.
Process 2-3: the working fluid is then heated in the recuperator and preheater.
Process 4-5: the saturated vapor expands through a turbine to generate power
output (ideally an isentropic process), which decreases the temperature and pressure
of the vapor.
Process 5-6: the vapor leaving the turbine enters a recuperator where it exchanges
heat with the condensed working fluid leaving the pump.
Process 6-1: the vapor then enters a condenser where it is cooled at constant
pressure to become a saturated liquid. This liquid then reenters the pump, and the
cycle repeats.
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The heat driving the pistons in a Stirling engine is supplied from outside the engine
and transferred through heat exchangers to the piston volumes. Thus, the creation of
pollutants such as NOx can be avoided. Also, the external combustion aspect enables a
Stirling engine to operate equally well on multiple types of fuel, such as natural gas,
propane, gasoline, diesel, ethanol-85, biodiesel, or even heat from the sun.
147
Quiet operation of the Stirling engine is a notable feature. Many Stirling engine
configurations are balanced (by nature of their construction), and because the fuel is
burned slowly and constantly outside the engine, there are no local detonations to muffle.
There are two principal types of Stirling engines, kinematic and free-piston. All
Stirling engines have two functional pistons, one of which shuttles the working gas
between the hot and cold zones and is known as a displacer, while the other is subject to
the resulting pressure changes and does work to drive the engine. In the kinematic
engine, these two pistons are physically connected by a crank mechanism, whereas in
the free-piston engine, there is no physical linkage and the displacer oscillates resonantly.
Stirling engine CHP systems are on the market in Europe and Asia and are largely
thermal following devices, providing 300 We to 12.5 kWe of power (Figure 6-36).
6.8 GENERATORS
Almost all CHP system prime movers produce mechanical or shaft power, which is
then converted into electric power by a generator. Vendors of small and mid-sized CHP
systems frequently supply the engine generator as a single factory-integrated package
that is shipped to the CHP site where it is installed. Factory integration reduces the
need for more costly and perhaps less accurate field alignment of these components.
All generators operate on essentially the same principle: that the difference in the
voltage induced in a wire that is moved through a magnetic field is proportional to the
strength of the magnetic field and the speed with which the wire and the field move
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relative to each other. If the wire and the field move in the same direction relative to one
another, a direct current (DC) voltage will be produced; if the wire and field move in
alternating directions, then an alternating current (AC) will be produced. The frequency
of the AC current varies in proportion to the speed with which the direction of the wire
and the field change. In the typical generator, the field is rotated relative to the wire, and
the frequency of the power varies directly as a function of the rotational speed in
revolutions per minute (rpm). Three-phase power is produced using three sets of stator
windings and six poles (two per winding). The commercial standard frequency for the
United States is 60 Hz, and generator rotational speed is a multiple of 60, typically
1200 or 1800 rpm. Reciprocating engines operate at speeds that are acceptable for
generators, ranging from a few hundred rpm to 3600 rpm. Multishaft combustion
turbines can operate the power turbine at lower speeds that are compatible with the
generator, whereas single-shaft turbines typically operate at much higher speeds.
Single-shaft turbines generally require a gear box to link the turbine and the generator
to efficiently convert the high speed of the turbine to the low speed of the generator.
6.8.1 Definitions
Several concepts are important to a discussion of generators and interconnection.
The first is load types. In an AC electrical system, there are resistive, inductive, and
capacitive components.
Resistive loads include incandescent lamps, resistance heaters, and the cable itself.
If a circuit were purely resistive, the current and the voltage would be in phase. A
representation of the voltage and current waveforms for a resistive system is shown in
Figure 6-37. No real power system is purely resistive, because it will certainly also have
some capacitive characteristics (the ability to store energy briefly).
Figure 6-37. Pure Resistive Electrical System: Voltage, Current. and Power
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Inductive loads typically include induction motors, the ballast coils used with
fluorescent lamps, many low-energy lamps, and any systems that include magnetic
components, such as transformers, welding equipment, and many electrical goods. In
an inductive circuit, the current lags the voltage waveform, as shown in Figures
6-38a and 6-38b.
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Not all energy in a circuit performs real work, as some of it may be stored in
magnetic fields or in electromotive fields in a capacitor. Reactive power is a measure of
the energy that is stored in a circuit, typically in the magnetic fields of transformers and
motors, and is referred to as inductive power. If the reactive load is an inductive load,
then the reactive power is not dissipated as heat or useful work but is continuously
exchanged between the power source and the inductive load. The reactive power is the
product of the inductive current flowing through a load and the voltage drop across the
load and is expressed in reactive kilovolt-amps (RkVA). Reactive and real currents are
vector quantities that are 90 degrees out of phase with each other. Inductive loads have
leading power factors (the reactive current leads the real current), whereas capacitive
loads have lagging power factors. The relationship between real and reactive power is
illustrated by Figure 6-39. Apparent power is typically expressed in kilovolt amps
(kVA) and is the vector sum of reactive and real power. Figure 6-40 illustrates the phase
difference between current and voltage that is caused by a reactive load.
Power factor is the ratio of real power to apparent power and is a measure of the
efficiency with which the total power delivered by a source is used for real work. Some
utilities measure power and bill customers based on average power factor, using the
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ratio of kilowatt hours to kilovolt amps; other utilities measure and bill based on peak
reactive and apparent demand.
Many utilities attempt to encourage high power factors by billing for demand on
the basis of apparent power or by imposing additional charges for low-power-factor or
excess reactive loads. Some utility tariffs allow the utility to discontinue service if the
power factor drops to unacceptably low levels. It is common to correct power factor
problems caused by motors, transformers, and inductive heaters by adding capacitance
to the electrical circuit.
A wave can have both voltage and current harmonics, and total harmonic distortion
(THD) is the accepted measure of harmonic content. THD is defined by Equation
6-1 or 6-2.
To understand a system with an input and an output, such as an audio amplifier, the
analysis starts with an ideal system where the transfer function is linear and time-
invariant. When a signal passes through a nonideal, nonlinear device, additional content
is added at the harmonics of the original frequencies. THD is a measurement of the
extent of that distortion.
152
When the input is a pure sine wave, the measurement is most commonly the ratio
of the sum of the powers of all higher harmonic frequencies to the power at the first
harmonic, or fundamental, frequency:
6-1
6-2
if there is no source of power other than the signal and its harmonics.
153
Generator pitch is another key characteristic. Pitch is defined as the ratio of the
number of winding slots per generator pole to the number of slots enclosed by each
coil. When a generator is wound with a 2/3 pitch, the third-order harmonics, which
tend to be the largest harmonics, cancel each other out and are completely eliminated.
Most generators are not wound at a 2/3 pitch, however, and, if harmonics are excessive,
measures may be required to eliminate them.
154
Induction generators operate at the same voltage and frequency as the reactive
power source that supplies them and induction generators are simple to synchronize
with the utility grid. The amount of work the engine does and the amount of power the
generator delivers are functions of the generator speed relative to its synchronous
speed. When driven at its synchronous speed, an induction generator delivers no real
power. However, as the generator speed is increased above the synchronous speed, the
amount of real power delivered to the load is increased. Maximum power is available
at approximately 105% of synchronous speed. If the generator speed drops below the
synchronous value, it functions as a motor.
Induction generators interconnected to the utility grid and using cogenerated power
on-site to reduce utility purchases will worsen the power factor of the load served by
the utility. First, the induction generator will increase the reactive load imposed on the
utility; second, it will reduce the real power drawn from the utility. In many cases, it is
necessary to install capacitors to correct for power factor. The amount of correction
that is cost effective depends on the specific utility rate structure, and the tariff should
be reviewed to minimize the total or combined cost of power factor correction and
utility charges.
Because the frequency and voltage of the induction generator is determined by the
external source or utility grid, it requires a minimum of protective relaying. A reverse
power relay is required to protect against the generator operating as a motor. In addition,
the combination of an induction generator and power factor correction capacitors can
cause the induction generator to self-excite should the external source of reactive
energy be lost. While this self-excitation or ferroresonance is likely to decay rapidly, it
may be necessary to install a frequency relay to disconnect the generator should it
occur. Ferroresonance can also occur in circuits served by synchronous generators;
155
however, these generators have an inherent capability for self-excitation and already
require appropriate protective relaying.
6.8.4 Inverters
Most prime movers are rotating devices that produce AC power. There are, however,
some power generation concepts, such as fuel cells or microturbines, that produce
direct current. An inverter is a device that converts DC power to AC power. It is most
commonly used in applications where power is required at frequencies other than
60 Hz. Typically, when alternative frequencies are required, the commercial 60 Hz
power is rectified to produce DC power, which is, in turn, input to an inverter, where
AC power is produced at the desired frequency. Most inverters operate by cutting the
DC power into a series of blocks or square waves at a number of different frequencies.
These blocks are then electrically summed to create a voltage wave form that
approximates the required alternating current. Inductance and/or capacitance can be
added to the inverter to smooth out the wave and to better approximate a sinusoid. The
inverter output, including voltage and frequency, is controlled by the interconnected
voltage and frequency of the utility grid.
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A CHP topping cycle is based on the use of heat rejected from the power generation
process for an economically useful purpose. The use of this heat results in a reduction in
the amount of fuel that would otherwise be required for onsite combustion, thus reducing
total energy use. The economics of CHP applications often depend on effective use of
the thermal energy contained in the prime-mover exhaust gas and cooling systems,
which generally represent 60 to 70% of the inlet fuel energy. The amount of useful heat
that can be recovered per unit of electrical output varies as a function of the type of
prime mover, the particular configuration of the prime mover itself, and the actual
operations of the prime mover. This review of heat recovery systems is organized by
major prime-mover type; reciprocating engines, turbines, microturbines, and fuel cells.
30
A heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) is an energy recovery heat exchanger that recovers
heat from a hot gas stream. It produces steam that can be used in a process (CHP) or used to
drive a steam turbine (combined cycle).
157
Service water heating can also be effective, because water temperatures are
generally limited to 140F (60C) or less, with supply water temperatures generally
below 70F (21.1C). If water is to be used for potable purposes, double-wall heat
exchangers are required.
High-pressure steam systems with steam pressures exceeding 15 psig (103 kPa
[gage]) can be served with heat recovered from turbine and from reciprocating
engine exhaust. Process steam pressures of 125 to 150 psig (861 to 1034 kPa
[gage]) are typically required for steam distribution systems, two-stage absorption
chillers, and some industrial processes. Pressures of more than 150 psig (1034 kPa
[gage]) typically require turbine technology.
There are four sources of usable waste heat from a reciprocating engine: the engine
exhaust and jacket coolant are primary sources of waste heat, and smaller amounts can
be recovered from the lube oil cooler and the intercooler and aftercooler of the
turbocharger (if so equipped). Heat can generally be recovered in the form of hot water
or low-pressure steam at <30 psig (207 kPa [gage]). Medium pressure steam at up to
about 150 psig (1034 kPa [gage]) can be generated from the high temperature exhaust
gas, but the hot exhaust gas contains only about one half of the available thermal energy
from a reciprocating engine.
The most common use of this heat is to generate hot water or low-pressure steam
for process use or for space heating, process needs, domestic hot water, or absorption
cooling. However, the engine exhaust gases can also be used as a source of direct
energy for drying or other direct heat processes.
Heat in the engine jacket coolant accounts for up to 30% of the energy input and is
capable of producing 200 to 210F (93.3 to 99C) hot water. Exhaust temperatures of
850 to 1200F (454 to 649C) are typical. By recovering heat in the engine cooling
158
systems and exhaust, approximately 70 to 80% of the input energy can be effectively
used to produce both power and useful thermal energy.
The most common method of recovering engine heat is the closed-loop cooling
system as shown in Figures 7-1 and 7-2. These systems are designed to cool the engine
by pumped circulation of a coolant through engine passages and heat rejection through
an external heat exchanger, which transfers engine heat to a cooling tower or radiator
when there is excess heat generated. Closed-loop water cooling systems can operate at
coolant temperatures from 190 to 240F (88 to 116C). Depending on the engine and
CHP system requirements, the lube oil cooling and turbocharger aftercooling may be
either separate or part of the jacket cooling system.
Figure 7-1. Closed-Loop Heat Recovery System Recovering Jacket, Oil, and Exhaust Heat
Supplying Two Thermal Loads
Figure 7-2. Closed-Loop Heat Recovery System Recovering Jacket and Exhaust Heat
Supplying One Thermal Load
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Figure 7-1 depicts a closed-loop heat recovery system recovering jacket, oil, and
exhaust heat and supplying two discrete thermal loads. This particular system also has
an intercooler whose heat is rejected to the atmosphere.
Figure 7-2 depicts a closed-loop heat recovery system recovering jacket and exhaust
heat, which are combined to supply a single thermal load. This particular system also has
an intercooler whose heat is combined with the oil system and rejected to the atmosphere.
The heat recovery loop in Figure 7-2 illustrates several important considerations:
The jacket water can be routed to a heat recovery muffler where additional heat is
added from the exhaust gases.
The engine coolant loop serves the site heat load through a heat exchanger, thus
creating two loops: primary and secondary. This configuration allows the use of a
supplemental heat source to further increase the heat available to the load and serves
to isolate and protect the engine coolant circuit. It also insulates the engine cooling
system from failures and leaks in the site hot-water distribution system. A primary-
secondary system is particularly useful in multiengine installations, as each engine
cooling loop is separately controlled, protected, and interconnected with the site hot
water loop. Multiple loops lead to higher capital costs but increased reliability.
The engine coolant loop also includes a heat exchanger, which allows external
cooling of the engine coolant. This heat exchanger loop may use either a wet or dry
cooling tower and can include a service water source for use in emergency cooling.
The primary function of the heat recovery system is to remove heat from the engine
to avoid overheating. All heat recovery system design decisions should be made with
the goal of safe operation of the engine set.
Though the exhaust gases contain approximately one-third of the heat input, the
need to maintain stack gas temperatures in the range of 250F (121C) or more results
in an inability to recover as much as 50% of the exhaust heat. Figure 7-3 shows the
effect of lowering exhaust temperature below 300F (150C). This curve is based on a
specific heat recovery silencer design with an initial exhaust temperature of 1000F
(540C). Lowering the final temperature from 300F to 200F (150C to 94C)
increases heat recovery 14% but requires a 28% surface increase. Similarly, a reduction
from 300F to 100F (150C to 40C) increases heat recovery 29% but requires
a 120% surface increase. This reduction in temperature causes condensation in
the exhaust stack, requiring specialized materials (e.g., stainless steel grades that
can withstand acid corrosion). Therefore, the cost of heat transfer surface must be
considered when determining the final temperature.
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Exhaust gases can vary in composition, and heat exchanger and stack manufacturers
should be consulted to determine minimum stack exit temperatures.
If engine exhaust flow and temperature data are available, and maximum recovery to
300F (150C) final exhaust temperature is desired, the basic exhaust recovery equation is
q = m ( C p ) ( t t f ) 7-1
where
= m s ( hs hf ) 7-2
where
q = heat recovered, Btu/h (kW)
m s = mass flow rate of steam, lb/h/(kg/s)
hs = enthalpy of steam, Btu/lb (kJ/kg)
hf = enthalpy of feedwater, Btu/lb (kJ/kg)
w ( Cp ) ( o ti )
=m 7-3
w
where
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operate with large quantities of excess air and, therefore, the exhaust gases are not rich
in oxygen and are generally incapable of supporting additional combustion.
Jacket water flow rates must be selected to maintain the temperature difference
between the engine supply and return at levels specified by the engine manufacturer
without excessive flow rates, which would lead to component erosion, shortened engine
life, and increased maintenance costs. To avoid excessive thermal stress, the temperature
difference should be no more than 15F (8.3C). Lower temperature differences result
in reduced thermal stresses but higher flow rates. These higher flow rates require larger
pumps and heat exchangers at increased cost. Azeotropic antifreezes can be added to
the engine coolant for heat rejection during cold weather.
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As noted above, engine coolant heaters can be installed to preheat the coolant and
the engine prior to start-up. Heaters may be thermostatically controlled to maintain a
specified temperature.
The lube oil cooling loop can be used for cooling of the turbocharger aftercooler.
The temperature of the cooling water to the aftercooler should be as low as possible (in
the range of 85 to 90F [29 to 32C]) and, therefore, the aftercooler is typically the first
heat exchanger in the cooling loop. Higher-temperature cooling water to the engine
aftercooler requires derating the engines capacity; temperatures as high as 135F
(57C) are routinely used.
Combustion turbines operate at efficiencies ranging from as low as 20% HHV for
small turbines of 2000 kW or less, up through 45% HHV for larger turbines of 100
MW or more. Almost all of the energy not converted into mechanical power is rejected
from the turbine in the exhaust gases. Small quantities of heat are also rejected from the
turbine itself in ventilation air and from the lubricating oil system through separate
radiators. With exhaust gas temperatures ranging from 800F (427C) to more than
1000F (538C), much of the heat contained in the exhaust gases is recoverable. The
availability of high-temperature exhaust gases allows the recovery of a significant
quantity of steam and/or hot water of higher quality or higher temperature and pressure.
Direct drying results in the lowest capital costs because no HRSG is required. In
most retrofit applications, back-up burners are available from the existing process.
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Turbine exhaust gases are available at high temperatures, and the amount of available
heat q in those gases can be readily computed using Equation 7.4:
q = m ( Cp x t ) ( Cp x t )
1 1 2 2
7-4
where
Typical values for the exhaust gas specific heat are in the range of 0.25 Btu/lbF
(1.04 kJ/kgK) to 0.27 Btu/lbF (1.13 kJ/kgK) and vary as a function of the amount of
water or steam injection for NOx control. In many cases, it is acceptable to use the
specific heat for the average of the exhaust gas temperatures. The quantity of exhaust
gas mass flow varies as a function of turbine size and ranges from 25 to 30 lb/kWh
(3.15 to 3.78 kg/MJ) for larger turbines of 20 MW or more, from 35 to 40 lb/kWh (4.41
to 5.05 kg/MJ) for mid-sized turbines of 3 MW to 10 MW, and approximately 50 lb/
kWh (6.30 kg/MJ) for smaller turbines. Mass flow and turbine exhaust gas pressure
vary as a function of altitude, inlet and exhaust pressure drops, and ambient temperature.
For direct-drying applications, the exhaust gases may drop to temperatures that are
only slightly above ambient, thus, maximizing the temperature difference and the
amount of available thermal energy. In many cases, as in rotary dryers or in kilns, it is
necessary to reduce the exhaust gas temperature to the range of 350 to 450F (177 to
232C) to avoid damage to the product. Dilution with outdoor air may be acceptable if
the mass of exhaust gases is less than the mass required for drying and if the mass and
temperature balances are acceptable. In some cases, it may be necessary to divert and
reject a portion of the exhaust gases if they would result in higher than acceptable
temperatures. In other instances, the exhaust gases may not provide enough heat for the
drying process, making it is necessary to add additional heat to the drying stream. In
this case, supplemental firing in the turbine exhaust gases, as discussed below, may
provide adequate capacity.
164
Figure 7-5 shows the relationship between the temperature of the combustion gases
and the amount of fuel saved as a function of furnace exit temperature ranging from
1400 to 2400F (760 to 1316C). As shown here, the use of turbine exhaust at 800F
(427C) as preheated combustion air in a furnace reduces the amount of gas required
to achieve a specific furnace temperature by approximately 19%.
Duct burners can increase the temperature of the exhaust gas stream to as high as
1600 to 1800F (871 to 982C) without excessive burner maintenance or control
problems, and are also capable of operating at low capacities, although the need to
maintain a stable flame in the higher-velocity turbine exhaust gases presents a constraint.
A diverter valve may be required in direct-drying applications to bypass turbine exhaust
gases directly to the atmosphere should the drying process be out of service or when
the drying load is less than the amount of heat available in the exhaust gases. Diverter
valve pressure drop losses are typically about 2%.
165
be larger, with more heat exchanger surface than a fired boiler of the same capacity.
HRSGs can be equipped with economizers, superheaters, reheaters, and duct burners
for increased steam production. The pressure drop of the exhaust duct/HRSG system
should be minimized to reduce turbine capacity losses. Although the amount of heat
available can be computed using Figure 7-7, the amount of steam produced in the
HRSG is determined by the gas-steam temperature profile of the HRSG. The limits
of heat recovery are determined by the allowed HRSG stack exit temperature, which
is generally 300F (149C) or more, although 250F (121C) may be acceptable
for some applications and fuels. Stack exit temperature is limited by the need to avoid
condensation and the formation of acids in the stack (unless special measures
are taken). Part-load operation of the combustion turbine will result in lower turbine
exit temperatures and lower temperature exhaust gases from the HRSG. Stack
temperature analyses should consider part-load conditions if load tracking is an
operating alternative.
If the HRSG does not include an economizer, the stack temperature is limited by
the steam saturation temperature; however, even when an economizer is used, the
higher temperature and pressure of the steam at the exit conditions can result in stack
exit temperatures as high as 400F (204C), thus decreasing the amount of recoverable
heat used. In this case, multiple-pressure boilers may be economical, because they
allow a reduction of stack temperature to 300F (149C) with a resulting increase in
heat recovery.
167
where
Qs =
HRSG QE 7-6
The calculation of steam capacity from a HRSG is an iterative procedure that starts
with the turbine exhaust mass flow rate and temperature and the feedwater temperature
into the economizer. Gas and steam temperatures are profiled across the HRSG
components including the economizer, evaporator, and superheater. The boiler pinch
point is defined as the minimum difference between the exhaust gas temperature and
the saturated steam temperature into the HRSG evaporator and is shown in Figure 7-7.
The pinch point is typically a minimum of 40F (22.2C) and is critical to defining that
profile. Low pinch points increase the amount of recoverable heat; however, low pinch
points can significantly increase HRSG cost because the heat transfer surface must be
increased. The output of the calculations is stack temperature and steam flow. If the
stack temperature is too low, it is necessary to revise these calculations with a decreased
168
steam flow or to include supplemental heat from a duct burner. If the stack temperature
is too high, the steam flow can be increased.
HRSG steam production is also limited by boiler radiation losses lr, which are
typically 2%, and blowdown losses lb, which are on the order of 5%. Diverter valve
losses ld are approximately 2%. The diverter valve will allow continued operation of
the combustion turbine should the site steam load be interrupted or the HRSG be out
of service. Developmental work has been completed on an HRSG capable of operating
dry, thus eliminating the need for the diverter valve. This type of HRSG requires high-
quality water to avoid scaling problems.
Steam available from the HRSG can be used for preheating boiler feedwater, and
steam used there should be subtracted from the HRSG output to determine the total
amount of steam available for process use. Steam use in powerhouse drives may also be
included in this calculation. In evaluating CHP economics, it is necessary to ensure
consistency between measurements of the steam produced by the conventional system
and steam available from the CHP system.
In those applications where the entire site steam demand can be satisfied by an
HRSG, either with or without a supplemental burner, a conventional boiler may be
used for steam standby. To minimize the time required to bring the conventional boiler
on-line, a heat exchanger may be used to introduce a small amount of heat into the
boiler mud drum31 to keep the boiler warm. If the practice of maintaining a boiler in
warm standby was not followed for the conventional powerhouse, the steam used for
boiler heating must be considered an incremental parasitic load and deducted from the
steam available for process.
The use of a duct burner in combination with the HRSG provides several benefits:
The duct burner can be efficiently fired to provide modest amounts of additional
heat, eliminating the need to operate a conventionally fired boiler at low-load
conditions and low part-load efficiencies.
The duct burner can boost exhaust gas temperatures and mass flow, increasing the
capacity of the HRSG.
31
A mud drum is a water drum, particularly one mounted low on the boiler, whose function is
primarily to trap mud from circulation.
169
The 30 kW microturbine exhaust gas flow is 0.69 lbm/s (0.31 kg/s) at 530F (275C).
This microturbine does not have an internal heat recovery heat exchanger.
The 65 kW microturbine exhaust gas flow is 1.08 lbm/s (0.49 kg/s) at 588F (309C).
170
Table 7-1 presents typical hot water heat recovery capacity using the internal heat
recovery heat exchanger at 40 gpm (150 L/min) water flow.
The 200 kW microturbine exhaust gas flow is 2.93 lbm/s (1.33 kg/s) at 535F (280C).
Table 7-2 presents typical hot water heat recovery capacity using the internal heat
recovery heat exchanger at 150 gpm (570 L/min) water flow.
The 250 kW microturbine exhaust gas flow is 4.7 lb/s (2.13 kg/s) at 468 F (242C).
Figure 7-8 presents typical hot-water heat recovery capacity using the internal heat
recovery heat exchanger.
The amount and quality of heat available from fuel cells depends on the type of
fuel cell (Table 7-3). Generally, 25% of the inlet fuel energy is recoverable from higher-
quality heat from the stack and reformer subsystems, and another 25% is contained in
the exhaust gases that include the latent heat of the product water generated in the fuel
cell. The most common use of this heat is to generate hot water or low-pressure steam
for process use or for space heating, process needs, or domestic hot water.
Heat can be recovered in the form of hot water or low-pressure steam (< 30 psig), but
the quality of heat is very dependent on the type of fuel cell and its operating temperature.
The one exception to this case is the PEMFC, which operates at temperatures below
212F (100C), and therefore has only low-quality heat.
171
For example, there are four primary potential sources of usable waste heat from a
fuel cell system: exhaust gas including water condensation, stack cooling, anode-off
gas combustion, and reformer heat. The PAFC system achieves 36% electric efficiency
and 72% overall efficiency, which means that it has a 36% thermal efficiency or power
to heat ratio of one. Of the available heat, 25 to 45% is recovered from the stack-
cooling loop that operates at approximately 400F (204C) and can deliver low- to
medium-pressure steam. The balance of heat is derived from the exhaust gas cooling
172
loop that serves two functions. The first function is condensation of product water, thus
rendering the system water self-sufficient, and the second function is the recovery of
by-product heat. Because its primary function is water recovery, the balance of the heat
available from the PAFC fuel cell is recoverable with 120F (49C) return and 300F
(149C) supply temperatures. This tends to limit the application of this heat to domestic
hot water applications. The other aspect to note is that all of the available anode-off gas
heat and internal reformer heat is used internally to maximize system efficiency.
In the case of SOFC and MCFC fuel cells, medium-pressure steam up to about 150
psig (1034 kPa [gage]) can be generated from the high-temperature exhaust gas, but the
primary use of these hot exhaust gases is in recuperative heat exchange with the inlet
process gases. Like engine and turbine systems, the fuel cell exhaust gas can be used
directly for process drying.
32
Technology Characterization: Fuel Cells, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2008.
173
The single-stage cycle refers to fluid transfer through the four major components
of the refrigeration machine (evaporator, absorber, generator, and condenser) and
one heat recovery heat exchanger, as shown in the pressure-temperature diagram in
Figure 7-9.
The typical single-stage absorption cycle water chiller34 uses LiBr/water as the
fluid pair, whereas the typical refrigeration absorption cycle uses water/ammonia as the
fluid pair.
33
Bagasse is the fibrous matter that remains after sugarcane or sorghum stalks are crushed to
extract their juice. It is currently used as a biofuel and in the manufacture of pulp and paper
products and building materials.
34
Use of water, with a freezing point of 32F (0C), as a refrigerant limits the temperatures that
can be delivered by the absorber to more than 32F (0C).
174
Figure 7-10 shows a typical single-stage LiBr/water absorption chiller and Figure
7-11 is a schematic diagram of a typical LiBr/water absorption cycle, which is described
in detail as follows:
Heat is added to the cycle at the generator (Qgen), where a strong solution of LiBr
and water is heated, boiling the refrigerant (water). The water vapor leaving the
generator is at a high temperature and pressure and enters the condenser.
Heat is removed from the cycle in the condenser (Qcond), where the high-
temperature, high-pressure refrigerant (water vapor) is liquefied. Both the heat
of vaporization that was added to the refrigerant in the generator and the heat
that was removed from the cooling load are then typically rejected in a cooling
tower. Cooling tower loads for absorption chillers tend to be greater than those
for electric-motor-driven mechanical chillers, because the thermal input to the
generator is greater than the thermal input from compression. Capital and operating
costs must be understood because of these increased heat rejection requirements.
Heat is removed in the evaporator (Qevap) to satisfy the cooling load, where the
low-temperature refrigerant is sprayed over the load-cooling loop. The refrigerant
vapor pressure in the evaporator is kept quite low, typically at approximately 0.1
psia (0.689 kPa) or less, and the refrigerant vaporizes, taking the required heat
of vaporization from the cooling load. The evaporator pressure determines the
temperature.
The absorber is used to maintain the low vapor pressure in the evaporator/
absorber section of the cycle and also contains the absorbent. The absorbent, which
in this case is LiBr, is a material chosen because it has a high chemical affinity for
the refrigerant, which is water. The vapor produced in the evaporator quickly goes
into the solution in the absorber, maintaining a low vapor pressure. The absorption
reaction is exothermic, so heat is also removed from the absorber (Qabs).
The dilute (or weak) solution is then pumped (W) from the absorber through a
heat recovery heat exchanger to the generator where heat is added to boil off the
refrigerant (water) and start the cycle over again.
Two-stage absorbers are formed by coupling the absorbers and evaporators of two
single-effect cycles into an integrated, single cycle. Heat is transferred between the
high-temperature condenser and low-temperature generator. The heat of condensation
of the refrigerant (generated in the high-temperature generator) generates additional
refrigerant in the lower-temperature generator. Thus, the prime energy provided to the
high-temperature generator is cascaded (used twice) in the cycle, making it a two-stage
cycle (Figure 7-12).
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where
Qabs = absorption chiller cooling capacity, tons (kW)
absorption chiller = absorption chiller thermal efficiency (0.7 single stage, 1.1 two-stage)
35
This example compares conventional hot-water designs. For example, specially designed
absorption chillers to use microturbine exhaust will have different results.
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where
C p = specific heat for water at constant pressure = 1.0 Btu/llbF (4.19 kJ/kgK)
Tout = varies depending on the heat sink (e.g.,a cooling tower can provide an
average heat rejecction temperature of 97F [309K], a single stage
absorption chiller can provide a heat sink temperature of about 200F
[366.5K], and a two-stage absorption chiller about 325F [436K])
5, 000, 000 Btu h = m hot water 1.0 Btu/lbF (500F 97F) = 12,407 lbs/h
5, 275, 280kJ h = m hot water 4.19 kJ/kgK (533K 309K) = 5,621 kg/h
Qabs single stage = 12,407 lbs/h 1 (500F 200F) x 0.70 = 217 tons cooling
Qabs single stage = 5,621 kg/h 4.19 kJ/kgK (533K 366.5K) 0.70 = 2,744,794 kJ
Qabbs two stage = 12,407 lbs/h 1 ( 500 F 325F ) 1.10 = 199 tons cooling
Qabs two stage = 5,621 kg/h 4.19 kJ/kgK (533K 436K) 1.10 = 2,512,823 kJ
Using the preceding 5 million Btu/h (1465 kW) example and simply varying the
supply temperature and correcting for flow rate, Figure 7-13 provides the relationship
between supply temperature and chiller capacity. A crossover point around 550F
(288C) occurs. However, one caution to consider: the growing interest in applying
absorption chillers to CHP systems has stimulated development of specialty chillers
specifically designed to utilize exhaust gases, which would distinctly alter the
performance depicted in Figure 7-13. Always check with the manufacturer to understand
the best match for a given waste heat stream.
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Steam input pressure 9 to 12 psig (62 to 83 kPa [gage]) 115 psig (793 kPa [gage])
179
Figure 7-13 (SI). Absorption Chiller Capacity versus Thermal Supply Temperature
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Figure 7-14 depicts a typical dual-bed water/silica gel adsorption cycle, which is
described as follows:
Heat is added to the cycle at the desorber (Qdes), where a water-vapor-laden silica
gel bed is heated, driving the refrigerant (water) from the silica gel bed (adsorber/
desorber). The water vapor leaving the desorber is at a high temperature and
pressure and enters the condenser.
Heat is removed from the cycle in the condenser (Qcond), where the high-
temperature, high-pressure refrigerant (water vapor) is liquefied. Both the heat
of vaporization that was added to the refrigerant in the generator and the heat
that was removed from the cooling load are then typically rejected in a cooling
tower. Cooling tower loads for adsorption chillers tend to be greater than those
for electric-motor-driven mechanical chillers, because the thermal input to the
generator is greater than the thermal input from compression. Capital and operating
costs must be understood because of these increased heat rejection requirements.
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Heat is removed in the evaporator (Qevap) to satisfy the cooling load, where the
low-temperature refrigerant is sprayed over the load-cooling loop. The refrigerant
vapor pressure in the evaporator is kept quite low, typically at approximately
0.1 psia (0.689 kPa) or less, and the refrigerant vaporizes, taking the required
heat of vaporization from the cooling load. The evaporator pressure determines
the temperature.
The adsorber section is used to maintain the low vapor pressure in the evaporator/
adsorber section of the system. The adsorbent, which in this case is silica gel,
because it is very porous, has a large specific surface area and a high adsorbent
affinity for the refrigerant, which is water. The vapor produced in the evaporator
quickly goes into the porous silica gel, maintaining a low vapor pressure in this
section of the system. The adsorption reaction is exothermic so heat is also removed
from the adsorber (Qads).
The dilute (or weak) solution is then pumped (W) from the adsorber through a
heat recovery heat exchanger to the generator where heat is added to boil off the
refrigerant (water) and start the cycle over again.
The growing interest in the recovery of thermal energy in the lower temperature
range < 212F (<100C) is leading to an increased interest in adsorption chiller
technology (Figure 7-15). A distinct advantage of adsorption chillers is that they can
produce chilled water using low temperature 140 to 176F (60 to 80C) waste water.
However, this capability comes at a cost, in that adsorption chillers have low efficiencies36
and require multiple beds that switch between adsorbing and desorbing. To manage
constant chilled-water flow and temperature requires adsorption chillers to be installed
with thermal storage, and the complete installation including a chiller, thermal storage,
valves, pumps, and controls can be a cost consideration.
36
With 83.4F (28C) cooling tower water, providing 53.6F (12C) chilled water: one
adsorption chiller using 149F (65C) hot water has a 0.42 COP. The same chiller with 212F
(100C) hot water yields a 0.65 COP.
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The principle of operation (Figure 7-17) is that steam is fed to a steam turbine
(Qsteam), which turns a compressor. The compressor provides the motive force for a
traditional refrigerant vapor compression cycle where useful cooling is generated in the
evaporator. Heat is rejected in the refrigerant condenser to cooling water (Qcond). The
same cooling water is then also passed to the steam condenser to absorb the heat
required to condense the steam exiting the turbine (Qsteam cond). The condensed steam
(condensate) is returned to the steam generating source.
In a desiccant system, if the desiccant material is cool and dry, its surface vapor
pressure is low, and moisture is attracted and absorbed from the air, which has a higher
vapor pressure. After the desiccant material becomes wet and hot, it is moved to another
airstream and the water vapor is expelled by raising the temperature (this step is called
regeneration). After regeneration, the desiccant material is ready to be brought back
to adsorb more water vapor. The entire adsorption process involves only water vapor;
no liquid is ever condensed.
Desiccants can be either solids or liquids. The difference between solid and liquid
desiccants is their reaction to moisture. Some simply collect moisture like a sponge
collects water. These desiccants are called adsorbents and are mostly solid materials.
Silica gel is an example of a solid adsorbent.
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Steam distribution piping can be quite large and, to minimize costs, these systems,
in the past, have been constructed without a condensate return loop, but this is not
currently common practice. Large quantities of heat may be lost when the condensate
is discharged. Construction of a steam distribution system without a condensate return
can result in a number of operating costs that must be included in any life-cycle cost
analysis. These additional costs include the loss of condensate thermal energy with a
negative effect on system distribution efficiency and increased requirements for
treated water at the steam production facility. The requirement to replace the
condensate results in higher costs for both raw water and chemical treatment. In many
cases, the condensate temperature, whether discharged to a sewer system or a surface
body of water, will exceed allowed discharge temperatures, requiring that the end-user
mix the condensate with service water, thus incurring additional water costs. Finally,
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if the condensate is discharged to a sewer system, there may be sewer charges for the
incremental load. Hot-water distribution systems are able to function with smaller
pipe sizes; however, two pipes are required: a supply and a return. Hot-water
distribution systems generally return all water, thus avoiding makeup water supply
and associated chemical treatment costs.
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Underground installations are generally more costly to construct, with their cost
being a function of the burial technique. System losses tend to be lower, because the
surrounding temperature is higher and constant; however, underground installations
can be quite expensive to maintain. Leaks may be difficult to identify, and repairs can
be quite costly and inconvenient, because it is necessary to dig up the existing lines.
Despite these shortcomings, underground distribution systems are most frequently
specified. When hot- and chilled-water distribution systems are included in the same
tunnel or trench, the distribution systems must be adequately insulated and separated
from each other to avoid a short-circuiting effect. Manholes should be designed to
allow water to drain, thus reducing the potential for standing water to break down
pipe insulation.
There are two general choices for burial: tunnels and trenches or direct burial.
Tunnels and trenches may be of varying size and cost. The most costly option consists
of a concrete utility tunnel that may also include electrical cables, telecommunications,
and chilled-water lines. Large tunnels also allow personnel and material transportation
between buildings. Smaller tunnels may be nothing more than shallow trenches
equipped with a removable cover for maintenance and repair. Tunnels and trenches may
be constructed of poured-in-place concrete or of prefabricated concrete or steel
sections. Tunnels and trenches allow pipes to be elevated, thus reducing the potential
for corrosion. Direct burial is becoming more common and requires much more care
during installation. Prefabricated piping is also more commonly specified, both to
reduce installation costs and to ensure quality in pipe construction, including the
welding and joining of pipe sections. Pipe corrosion is a significant problem with
direct-burial systems, and both protective coatings and cathodic protection are
sometimes required to reduce the potential for deterioration.
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8.1 REGULATION
Government approval procedures are those required by the local planning and
building departments, fire department, and air quality district to ensure that a CHP
project complies with the following:
Local ordinances (e.g., noise, set-backs, general planning and zoning, land use,
and aesthetics)
Standards and codes (e.g., fire safety, piping, electrical, and structural)
The roles and responsibilities of several authorities having jurisdiction over CHP
siting and permitting are outlined, including the following:
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1. Location
2. Technology
3. Size/emissions rates
The New Source Review (NSR) permitting program was established as part of the
1977 Clean Air Act Amendments. Under this program, stationary sources of air pollution
are required to obtain an air permit before commencing construction or making certain
modifications. The permit specifies the air pollution control devices that must be used,
emission limits that must be met, and how the facility must be operated.
There are three types of NSR permitting requirements. A source may have to obtain
one or more of the following:
Public involvement
Nonattainment NSR permit: Nonattainment NSR permits are required for new
major sources or major modifications to major sources in a nonattainment area.
These permits are generally issued by state and local permitting authorities.
Minor source permit: Minor NSR is for pollutants from stationary sources
that do not require PSD or nonattainment NSR permits. Minor NSR permits often
contain permit conditions to limit the emissions to avoid PSD or nonattainment
NSR. Minor NSR permits are issued by state and local permitting authorities
according to programs approved by EPA.
37
BACT is an emissions limitation based on the maximum degree of control that can be achieved.
It is a case-by-case decision that considers energy, environmental, and economic impact. BACT
can be add-on control equipment or modification of the production processes or methods. This
includes fuel cleaning or treatment and innovative fuel combustion techniques. BACT may be a
design, equipment, work practice, or operational standard, if imposition of an emissions standard
is infeasible.
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Title V permits: This permit type is mandatory for major sources, which are
those featuring a Potential to Emit38 (PTE) for one or more regulated pollutants
that is greater than the federal thresholds. It is also required for certain sources that
are subject to the federal New Source Performance Standards. This type of permit
requires submission of much more extensive documentation than the state facilities
permit. A 30-day public comment period on a proposed permit applies, and EPA
has 45 days for review. If EPA objects, the site must satisfy its objections before the
permit can be issued. Facilities must certify each year that they are in compliance
with the permit conditions, and must renew the permit every five years. Significant
modification of a Title V permitted facility (i.e., addition of a new or modification
of an existing emission unit or change in mode of operation) triggers the need to
apply either for a modified Title V permit or a state permit for the new unit. For
example, major NOX source facilities are defined as those with PTE 25 tons/yr in
severe nonattainment areas and 100 tons/yr for nonattainment areas.
8.1.2 Grid Interconnection
Interconnection refers to the technical, contractual, rate, and metering issues that
must be settled between a CHP system owner, utility, and local permitting authorities
before the system can be connected to the electrical grid. Interconnection requirements
vary from state to state and from utility to utility. Interconnection issues tend to revolve
around procedures to obtain interconnection and the uncertainty about the amount and
type of equipment that is necessary to protect utility line workers and the utility system
in general. Key utility interconnection concerns include the following:
Power safety: Utilities are concerned that an interconnected generator has the
potential to energize a utility circuit that is not being powered by the utility. This
condition can result in a safety hazard to utility personnel working on that circuit.
Most utilities will require installation of an external disconnect switch that is
accessible by utility personnel and that can be used to disconnect and lock out the
CHP system.
IEEE 1547: In March 1999, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) Standards Association Board voted to undertake the development of
uniform standards for interconnecting distributed resources with electric power
systems. Since then, the IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee 21 has
completed work on the development of the IEEE 1547 Standard for Distributed
38
The potential to emit is the highest amount of regulated pollutants your business could release
into the air when operating at full capacity for 8760 h/yr (even if you never have or will not
actually emit the highest amount).
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Standard interconnection rules: These rules address the application process and
the technical requirements for interconnecting CHP projects of a specified type and
size with the electric grid. Standardized interconnection rules, which are generally
developed and administered by a public utility commission, establish clear and
uniform processes and technical requirements for connecting CHP systems to the
electric utility grid. These rules are an important mechanism for improving the
market conditions for CHP.
These requirements may specify that the CHP system must conform to industry or
national standards (e.g., IEEE 1547, UL 1741), and might include protection systems
designed to minimize degradation of grid reliability and performance, as well as to
maintain worker and public safety.
39
IEEE 1547, Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems,
http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/scc21/1547/1547_index.html.
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In 2001, the U.S. Department of Energy established the first of eight regional Clean
Energy Application Centers to provide local technical assistance and educational
support for CHP development. In 2001, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
established the CHP Partnership to encourage cost-effective CHP projects and expand
CHP development in underutilized markets and applications.
On August 8, 2005, the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct 2005) was signed into
law. Section 1253(a) of EPAct 2005 adds a new section 210(m) to the Public Utility
Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 (PURPA) that provides for termination of an electric
utilitys obligation to purchase energy and capacity from qualifying CHP facilities and
qualifying small power production facilities (QFs), including CHP facilities, if the
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (Commission) finds that certain conditions
are met. PURPA removed Federal feed-in tariffs40 for CHP plants and essentially put a
significant drag on the expansion of CHP systems nationwide.
On August 30, 2012, Presidential Executive Order 13626 was issued to accelerate
investment in industrial energy efficiency. This Executive Order directs the Departments
of Energy, Commerce, and Agriculture, and the Environmental Protection Agency, in
coordination with the National Economic Council, the Domestic Policy Council, the
Council on Environmental Quality, and the Office of Science and Technology Policy to
coordinate policies to encourage investment in industrial efficiency focusing on CHP.
Specifically, these agencies were directed, as appropriate and consistent with applicable
law, to
Federal focus and support encompassed within this Executive Order targeting
increasing industrial CHP use will undoubtedly impact market adoption throughout the
Federal sector, and influence state policy as well as the private sector.
Federal tax policy relating specifically to CHP will remain in effect until 2017 and
should be incorporated in any economic evaluation. The key to applying the Investment
Tax Credit (ITC) is that the CHP plant must be in service before January 1, 2017.
40
A feed-in tariff (FIT) is a policy mechanism designed to accelerate investment in energy
technologies. It achieves this by offering long-term contracts to energy producers, typically
based on the cost of generation of each technology. Technologies such as CHP are often eligible.
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The CHP Investment Tax Credit (ITC) is a tax credit for the costs of the first
15 MW of CHP property. To qualify for the tax credit, the CHP system must meet the
following conditions:
Produces at least 20% of its useful energy as electricity and 20% in the form of
useful thermal energy
Smaller than 50 MW
Constructed by the taxpayer or have the original use of the equipment begin with
the taxpayer
The 60% efficiency requirement does not apply to CHP systems that use biomass
for at least 90% of its energy source. The ITC may be used to offset the alternative
minimum tax, and the CHP system must be operational in the year in which the credit
is first taken.
The CHP ITC is claimed through IRS Form 3468, available on the IRS website.
Facility owners who claim the ITC cannot claim the production tax credit (PTC) or
receive a grant in lieu of the ITC.
For fuel cells, the credit is equal to 30% of expenditures, with no maximum credit.
However, the credit for fuel cells is capped at $1500 per 0.5 kilowatt of capacity.
Eligible property includes fuel cells with a minimum capacity of 0.5 kW that have an
electricity-only generation efficiency of 30% or higher. (The credit for property placed
in service before October 4, 2008 is capped at $500 per 0.5 kW.)
Facility owners who claim the ITC cannot claim the production tax credit (PTC) or
receive a grant in lieu of the ITC.
The ITC for both microturbines and fuel cells is available for eligible systems
placed in service on or before December 31, 2016. As with the CHP ITC, facility
owners can choose to receive a one-time grant in lieu of receiving the tax credit as long
as the facility is depreciable or amortizable. The Treasury Department is now accepting
applications for the grant program. A guidance document, terms and conditions, the
application, and answers to frequently asked questions related to taking a grant in lieu
of the tax credit are available on the U.S. Department of Treasury website.
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State financial incentives are an important instrument for increasing the use of
technologies that provide benefits to both residents and the state overall. The
incorporation of a financial incentive can make energy efficiency investments more
alluring for private and public entities. Homeowners and businesses not only save
energy but also reduce pollutants, improve electric system reliability, and save
significant amounts of money over the life of their investments. Financial incentives
also help newer technologies, such as micro-CHP, to overcome barriers to market entry.
Financial incentives can take many forms: rebates, grants or loans for energy-
efficiency improvements, direct income tax deductions for individuals and businesses,
and exemptions from sales tax on eligible products. The majority of financial incentives
for CHP systems, however, are loans and grants; tax exemptions, grants, and bonds are
less commonly used. Eligibility often depends on meeting specific energy savings
goals, such as a 20% reduction in facility energy use over five years.
State programs are too numerous and transitory to list in a design guide, however
understanding all economic incentives available to a CHP project can be critical to a
positive economic outcome. The Database of State Incentives for Renewables &
Efficiency (DSIRE http://dsireusa.org/) is the most comprehensive resource for current
state, local, and utility incentives for energy efficiency and renewable energy. The
following paragraphs provide some examples of different state projects.
Loans. States offer low-interest loans for a wide variety of energy efficiency measures.
Rates and terms vary by program, though a maximum 10-year term is common. For
example, New Jerseys Clean Energy Solutions Capital Investment Loan/Grant Program
provides interest-free loans and grants to New Jersey-based industrial, commercial, or
institutional entities for end-use efficiency and combined heat and power projects. Loans
are limited to $5 million, of which up to $2.5 million may be taken as a grant. Loans have
a maximum 10-year term, and a minimum of 50% of project costs must be financed by
the project sponsor. The loan program receives revenue from the sale of greenhouse gas
emission allowances under the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI).
Grants. Most grant programs are designed primarily to offset the costs of eligible
technologies, although some promote research and development or support project
commercialization. For example, Massachusetts Green Communities Grant Program
provides funding for municipalities to pursue energy efficiency and renewable energy
projects. Among the conditions for eligibility are the requirement to establish an energy
use baseline and the development of a plan to reduce energy use 20% below this baseline
within five years. Ohios Advanced Energy Fund Grants program offers grants up to
25% of project cost (with a maximum of $100,000) for, among other things, CHP and
waste heat recovery projects up to 25 MW. Applications are evaluated according to a
number of criteria including overall system efficiency, the balance of financing
committed, and project cost per kilowatt produced.
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Tax Credits and Exemptions. Like most property tax exemptions, Arizonas
Energy Equipment Property Tax Exemption program, for example, excludes the added
value of eligible renewable and energy efficient systems from the valuation of the
property for tax purposes. As another example, Oregons Business Energy Tax Credit
provides tax credits to businesses for a wide variety of renewable and energy efficiency
initiatives. A 50% tax credit is awarded to high-efficiency CHP projects that achieve
20% annual energy savings.
Rebates. As an example of a state rebate program, New Yorks Energy $mart New
Construction Program provides technical assistance and cash rebates for the installation
of energy-efficiency measures, including CHP, in new or substantially renovated
buildings owned by businesses, state and local governments, not-for-profits, colleges
and universities, and other facilities. The program awarded $53 million in 2010. The
state also offers a smaller-scale program for existing facilities.
Bonds. The use of bonds to incentivize CHP deployment is rare. However, New
Mexicos Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Bond Act authorizes up to $20
million in bonds to finance energy efficiency and renewable energy improvements in
state government and school buildings. State agencies or school districts may request
an energy assessment from the New Mexico Energy, Minerals and Natural Resources
Department to identify specific energy saving measures. Combined heat and power and
waste heat recovery systems are eligible for funding. Bonds are to be paid back by
realized energy savings.
Grant assistance requirements generally assure the grantor that the funds will
actually achieve the intended results. The requirements assure that the host site and the
CHP system complies with certain minimum standards.
A CHP host facility must be located in the appropriate jurisdiction of the grant
making entity. Third party ownerships (or leased CHP equipment), such as those
procured under Power Purchase Agreements, are generally permitted with certain
provisions such as the following: (1) binding agreement (or lease) between the customer
and third party with a term of at least five (5) years, (2) host site has assigned payment
of the CHP incentive to the third party owner and (3) only permanently installed
equipment is eligible for incentives.
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197
41
Fuel and CO2 Emissions Savings Calculation Protocol for Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
Systems, ASHRAE 2009
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The energy content of the fuel consumed by the CHP system can be measured
directly as the higher heating value of the fuel consumed (typically in million Btu
[gigajoules]) or by the fuel volume or weight, which can then be converted to the
energy value through fuel-specific energy factors or heating values. Fuel consumption
can also be estimated based on the electric or power output of the CHP system and the
net generation efficiency. The CO2 emissions from the CHP system are a function of
the type and amount of fuel consumed. CO2 emissions rates are commonly presented
as pounds of emissions per million Btu (kilograms per gigajoule) of fuel input. Table
9-1 shows energy and CO2 average emissions factors for common fuels.
The fuel use and CO2 emissions avoided at the site result from the displacement by
the CHP system of some or all of the fuel otherwise combusted in boilers or other thermal
equipment to provide required heating or cooling services. The amount of energy and
emissions represented by this avoided fuel can be calculated from the thermal output of
the CHP system and the efficiency characteristics of the avoided thermal equipment.
The amount of avoided fuel use can be estimated by measuring the annual useful
thermal output of the CHP system and applying an efficiency factor representative of the
avoided equipment (e.g., 80% efficiency for a natural gas boiler). Once the fuel used to
produce the equivalent amount of avoided thermal energy is estimated, the avoided
energy and CO2 emissions can be calculated through the fuel-specific factors that are
listed in Table 9-1. The following are relevant equations for calculating avoided thermal
fuel use and CO2 emissions:
FT = CHPT/T 9-3
where
CO2 Emissions
Factor
Fuel Type Energy Factor kg/GJ
(lb/106 Btu)
Natural Gas 1030 Btu/ft3 38.3 MJ/m3 117 50.3
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CT = FT EFF 9-4
CT = Avoided thermal CO2 emissions savings, lb (kg) CO2
FT = Avoided thermal fuel savings, Btu (GJ)
EFF = Fuel-specific emission factor, lb/106 Btu (kg/GJ) CO2
To estimate the fuel and emissions reduction from avoided electricity purchases,
one must first determine the amount of grid generation avoided by the generation of
power from the CHP system. When power produced from a CHP system is consumed
on site, close to or at the point of generation, the overall grid savings also includes the
avoided delivery losses for power that occur along the transmission and distribution
systems. A portion of the electricity that is transmitted over power lines is lost because
of resistance and other forms of dissipation, commonly referred to as transmission
losses. The amount of electricity actually delivered to consumers is, therefore, less
than the amount generated at central station power plants, usually by about 7 to 10%.
Consequently, avoiding 1 MWh of purchased electricity on site means that more than
1 MWh of electricity no longer needs to be generated at the central station power plant.
To estimate fuel and emissions savings from displaced central station generation, the
electricity displaced on site must be converted to a corresponding amount of avoided
grid generation. This can be calculated using the following equation:
where
Published data on the U.S. grid electricity heat rates and emissions factors are
available from a number of sources. A prime source is the EPA Emission & Generation
Resource Integrated Database (eGRID). Developed by the State and Local Branch of
the EPA Climate Protection Partnership Division, eGRID is considered the preeminent
source of data on the environmental attributes of virtually all of the electric power
generated in the United States, linking air emissions to electricity generated. The most
recent version, eGRID2007, includes operational data from 2005. eGRID provides fuel
use, resource mix, and emissions data for power generation at various levels of
aggregation, including plant, electric generating company (EGC), state, power control
area (PCA), eGRID subregion, NERC region, and the U.S. total. Development of the
aggregate data begins with the plant level data. In aggregating to any one of these
aggregation levels, the values of the emissions, net generation, heat input, and nameplate
capacity of specific plants are attributed to that entity.
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CHP facilities should use geographic factors based on their specific location to
accurately estimate the fuel use and emissions rate of electric generators supplying
power to the grid in their area. It is highly recommended to use the heat rate and
emissions factors corresponding to a facilitys eGRID subregion in the savings
calculations. An EGC may purchase power and/or export its power to other EGCs; state
electricity generation may not serve all of the consumption within the state. The eGRID
subregion emissions and resource mix (based on generation, not consumption)
uniformly attribute power in a specific region of the country and minimize these issues.
Using the eGRID subregion emission factors is the recommended approach by the
EPA Climate Leaders program. The eGRID subregions are identified and defined by
EPA using the NERC regions and PCAs as a guide. An eGRID subregion is often, but
not always, equivalent to an Integrated Planning Model (IPM) subregion. The 26
eGRID sub regions in eGRID2007 are subsets of the NERC regions (see Figure 9-1).
The associated PCA determines the eGRID subregion, which is defined as a subset of
the NERC region and is composed of entire PCAs, with the exception of PJM
Interconnection and New York Independent System Operator PCAs (each is associated
with three eGRID subregions). Each eGRID subregion consists of one or a portion of
a power control area. Subregions generally represent sections of the grid that have
similar emissions and resource mix characteristics. Subregions may also be partially
isolated by transmission constraints.
The total fuel use and CO2 emissions represented by avoided central station power
are calculated through the following equations:
FG = EG * HRG 9-6
where
and
CG = EG * EFG 9-7
where
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A key factor in estimating the energy and CO2 emissions savings for CHP is
determining the nature of the avoided central station generation. Should the calculation
of the displaced energy and CO2 emissions be based on the all-generation average of the
region the facility is located in, the all-fossil average, the average for some specific fuel
type, an estimate of marginal generation, or a projection of future installed generation?
eGRID and the other data sources typically include a variety of regional heat rate
and emissions data based on fuel type (e.g., coal, oil, and natural gas), all fossil fuels
(a weighted mix of fuels), and all generation sources (including nuclear and renewable
generation). Currently, there is no consensus on the baseline to use for displaced power
calculations, and different entities base their estimates on different comparisons. The
discussion provides several alternatives.
Demand for electricity varies widely over the year, and different kinds of generating
equipment are used to meet the varying load as it occurs. A common way of looking at
this is with a load duration curve. The load duration curve shows the electric demand
in MW for a region for each of the 8760 hours in the year. The hourly values are sorted
from highest to lowest.
Figure 9-2 shows the load duration curve for the central midwestern United States
(the old ECAR NERC region) for a recent year. The shape of the curve is typical of
electric load duration curves. The vertical axis shows demand in megawatts, and the
horizontal axis shows the hours of the year. The chart shows that the highest hourly
electric demand was 93,500 MW, most likely on a hot summer day. The demand for the
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next highest hour was about 93,000 MW, possibly on a different day. The minimum
demand was 23,300 MW, perhaps in the middle of a temperate spring night. Every hour
of the year had at least this much demand. The next highest hour had a demand of
35,000 MW. The demand was at least this much for all except one hour of the year.
The area under the curve is the total generation, about 524 million MWh. The total
generation for the 23,300 MW base-demand that exists every hour of the year is 40% of
the total generation (area under the curve). The minimum demand for all but the last two
hours of the year is 40,000 MW, and the generation at that level for all but one hour of
the year comprises 66% of the total generation. Including the units that operate for 5600
h and greater per year account for 90% of the total generation. In contrast, the peak
10,000 MW of capacity operates for 80 h or less per year and accounts for only 0.075%
of generation. The peak 20,000 MW operates less than 700 h per year and accounts for
only 0.7% of generation.
This varying electric load is met with a large number of different types and sizes of
generating units. Figure 9-3 shows a typical generating mix. In a competitive electric
market, the units are dispatched based on their variable cost: the cost of fuel, consumable
items, and operation and maintenance costs directly related to production.
Peaking units may run only tens to hundreds of hours per year, so a high capital
cost is not supportable. On the other hand, high efficiency is not critical, because these
plants only run when there is no other source of capacity and electricity prices are very
high. Simple-cycle gas turbines are the classic peaking generator, though reciprocating
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engines and standby oil and gas steam plants are used for peaking in some parts of the
United States.
Between the peak and the base load, various generating assets are used to meet
demand. In most regions, these are cycling coal, oil, and gas steam units. Large hydro
generators can also fit in this regime. Developers of gas combined-cycle plants would
like them to run 5000 h or more per year, in the base- to low-intermediate-load ranges.
Depending on the cost of gas and other factors, large hydro generators may run in the
middle-intermediate range.
The CO2 emissions from power generation are the product of the megawatt-hours
of generation of each part of the mix times the emission rate in lbs (kg) CO2 per
megawatt-hour. Multiplying each unit of generation under the load curve times the
associated emission factor would derive an emissions curve that would look very
similar in shape to the load curve. The nuclear component would drop out. The coal
component would be accentuated because of higher emission rates. Note that, even at
peak hours, the majority of emissions are from the base-load units. Most CHP systems
are baseload. For simplicity, assume that a CHP facility operates for the entire year
except for a two-week maintenance outage; the generator will run for 8400 h at its full
load. This is a must run unit. The system will run for these hours independent of what
the rest of the central generating system does.
This case is shown on the load duration curve (Figure 9-4) by inserting the
appropriate amount of capacity at the 8400 h level. The CHP must-run generation
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means that some other generation is not needed in each hour that it runs. Compared to
the base case, the addition of the CHP unit displaces an equal amount of generation at
the top of each hour that it runs, essentially taking a slice off the top of the load curve
for the hours that the unit runs. The CHP system is displacing power from the last unit
of generation in each of these hours. Depending on the hour, that unit could be a cycling
coal, oil, or gas steam unit, a combined cycle unit, a central station peaking turbine, or
a reciprocating-engine unit.
The displaced fuel consumption and CO2 emissions are the product of the displaced
generation times the specific heat rate and emission rate of each central station unit
avoided. Although the heat rates and emission rates vary for each of these units, the
aggregate rates for the displaced generation is going to be very close to the average
heat rate and CO2 emissions rate for all fossil units in the region.
This graphical analysis suggests that, short of a detailed dispatch analysis, the all-
fossil average heat rate and CO2 emission rate are reasonable estimates for the calculation
of avoided fuel and emissions.
In summary, to calculate the fuel use and CO2 emissions impacts of a CHP system,
both outputs of the CHP system must be accounted for. The thermal output of the CHP
system displaces the fuel normally consumed in and emissions emitted from on-site
thermal generation in a boiler or other equipment, and the power output displaces the
fuel consumed and emissions from grid-connected power plants. To quantify the fuel
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or CO2 emissions savings of a CHP system, the fuel use of or emissions released from
the CHP system must be subtracted from the fuel use or emissions that would normally
occur without the system (i.e., using conventional separate heat and power).
A key factor in estimating the energy and CO2 emissions savings for CHP is
determining the nature of the avoided central station generation.
A user can select from a large number of different separate heat and power system
profiles, compare them to a CHP system (characterized by the user), and estimate the
carbon, CO2, SO2, and NOX emissions from both systems and the corresponding
emissions reductions achieved by the CHP system. The CHP Emissions Calculator is
intended to help CHP end users and other interested parties calculate the emissions
attributable to their CHP projects. In addition to estimating emission reductions, the
CHP Emissions Calculator presents the carbon equivalency of these emissions
reductions in terms of number of cars removed from the road. The results screen from
the calculator is shown in Figure 9-5.
207
The CHP Emissions Calculator is designed for users with at least a moderate
understanding of CHP technology and its terminology; therefore, a glossary of the
terms that appear in the Emissions Calculator is not provided. The calculator can be
found at http://www.epa.go/chp/basic/calculator.html.
The Calculator includes all six greenhouse gases specified by the Kyoto Protocol
(CO2, CH4, N2O, HFC and PFC, and SF6) and enables calculated and projected emissions
for the years 1990-2060, with charts and graphs illustrating changes and trends in an
institutions emissions over time. The spreadsheets were originally based on the
workbooks provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, www.
ipcc.ch) for national-level inventories, and incorporate data from the Fourth Assessment
Report of the IPCC. The CCC has adapted this IPCC data for use at institutions such as
a college or university, but follows virtually the same protocols. The CCC uses standard
methodologies codified by the GHG Protocol Initiative and used by corporations, the
state of California, The Climate Registry, and other entities to account for greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions. These methodologies are currently the most accurate and widely
accepted among policy makers. Inventories produced by the CCC are compatible with
current standards used to craft forthcoming cap-and-trade policy. The CCC is also a
preferred tool for the ACUPCC (American College and University Presidents Climate
Commitment). The CCC assesses campus level emissions and decisions based on actual
annualized energy consumption. The Calculators logic diagram is shown in Figure 9-6.
9.1.3 World Resources Institute Allocation of GHG Emissions from CHP Plant
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Figure 9-6. Logic Diagram from Clean Air Cool Planet Campus Carbon Calculator
This tool intends to facilitate the allocation of GHG emissions attributable to the
purchase or sale of energy from a CHP plant (Figure 9-7). This is a cross-sector tool
that should be applied by all companies whose operations involve the purchase or sale
of energy from a CHP plant.
The purpose of this tool is to facilitate this allocation of GHG emissions to the
separate energy streams of the CHP plant by determining the separate GHG emission
factors associated with each stream. To do this, it is first necessary to determine the
total direct emissions emitted by the CHP plant. Note that this tool does not facilitate
this calculation. Total direct emissions of the CHP plant can be determined by using the
revised GHG Protocol calculation tool for Direct Emissions from Stationary
Combustion, available on the GHG Protocol website, www.ghgprotocol.org, or using
the results from EPA CHP Emissions Calculator.
Once the emission shares from a CHP plant are allocated to each energy stream,
the indirect emissions associated with the purchase or sale of electricity, heat, or steam
from a CHP facility should be accounted for in a GHG inventory the same way as
indirect emissions associated with the purchase or sale of electricity, heat, or steam
from a non-CHP plant:
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Calculating full-fuel-cycle (FFC) emissions42 from fuel input into a CHP system is
relatively straightforward. Calculating FFC emissions saved by thermal energy recovered
from the CHP generator and used by the building (e.g., for heating, hot water, chilled
water) requires knowledge of the thermal system, the served load,and the technology
that was not needed as a result of the CHP system (i.e., the technology displaced by the
recovered thermal energy).
Using the EPA Model (10.1.1), the following design case study describes a CHP
system using a lean-burn reciprocating engine providing 328 kW of power and thermal
energy to drive an 80 ton (281 kWTH) single-effect absorption chiller. This case study is
a typical screening analysis example where it is necessary to project potential CHP fuel
use and CO2, SO2, and NOx emissions and potential savings when compared to a
conventional approach using electricity supplied by the grid. A data center example was
chosen because it is a high-energy-density facility where electric computing and thermal
cooling loads directly correlate, making this market niche a potential CHP application.
Figure 9-7 Allocation of GHG Emissions from CHP Plant Data Output Screen
(Note: this figure is from the 9.1.3 WRIs Allocation of GHG Emissions and is only available
in I-P units)
CHP system exhaust. FFC includes combustion, fugitive, and spillage emissions, as well as
water discharges. Emissions from engine and CHP plant fabrication are not included.
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The data center electric load profile is considered constant for this facility, and the
thermal load is internally generated by the data servers. The cooling required by the data
center is also constant at 80 tons based on server cooling requirements. The baseline
electric cooling system consisted of an 80 ton water-cooled screw chiller operating at
0.8 kW/ton (0.227 kWe/kWTH) at the full-load design point. Table 9-2 provides the CHP
system performance characteristics assuming 8333 h of annual operation to allow for
scheduled maintenance. Scheduled maintenance will use the grid as backup.
Table 9-3 provides the performance and emissions characteristics of the lean-burn
reciprocating engine operating on natural gas.
The model consists of 31 questions necessary to define the CHP plant being
assessed (Table 9-4), the on-site production of electricity and thermal energy from the
CHP plant, and the displaced emissions from off-site generation of electricity, including
transmission losses.
Table 9-4 presents the necessary inputs to the CHP-EC model, based on the case
study. The remainder of this example examines the various eGRID blends of generation,
national, state, eGRID region, and subregion results used to estimate the fuel use and
emissions of the displaced electric power generation.
The model provided the following performance results (Figure 9-8) for the case
study CHP plant based on the inputs in Table 9-4 which are compared to the model
results in Table 9-5.
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The environmental benefits are derived from displacing fuel used to create thermal
energy and displacing electricity from the grid. Displacing fuel used to generate and
deliver electricity requires an understanding of the operation of the electric grid, likely
power plant(s) that would provide power to the building site where the proposed CHP
plant is to be located, and the type of power plant whose electricity would be displaced
by the electricity generated by the CHP plant (e.g., nuclear, baseload coal, hydro,
combined-cycle, cycling coal, oil and gas, peaking plants). (See section 9.1)
Continuing with the case study developed in section 9.2, the model allows emission
factors for all generation, fossil, coal, oil, or gas generation as the emission factor for
the displaced generation. The model also includes seven generic generator types,
including various coal boiler and combined-cycle units that cover the range from older
coal boilers with low-NOx burners to the newest natural gas combined-cycle units with
selective catalytic reduction (SCR).
Figure 9-9 presents annual emissions data, including a blend of all generation; all
fossil generation; and coal-, oil-, or gas-fueled generators. Considering this case studys
CHP plant is designed to run base-loaded, like most profitable CHP systems, it is a
reasonable assumption that base-load electric power would be displaced. Therefore,
nuclear, hydro, and a blend of fossil-fired power plants could be displaced. Nuclear
power plants are designed as large power generators for economic reasons and take
many hours, if not days, to achieve a steady state power output. Existing nuclear and
hydropower plants are high-capital-cost and low-variable-cost producers whose capital
costs have been fully amortized, yielding low-cost electricity with no direct carbon
emissions. Therefore, it is unrealistic to believe that nuclear or hydropower would ever
be displaced, for a multitude of reasons, leaving a fossil blend as the logical choice.
(see Section 9.1 load duration curves for electricity production) Therefore, CHP
displacing base-load power is not a reasonable assumption after all is considered.
212
213
Figure 9-10 provides a compelling case to use state-based emissions for power
generation versus the national average data. California data shows 76% less CO2
savings versus the national grid, whereas South Dakota shows a 23% increase in carbon
savings. This is due to the widespread use of natural-gas-powered generation in
California versus coal-powered generation in South Dakota. However, the data available
on a state basis generally do not include imported electricity, so state-level data are not
always reflective of the real emissions impact of displaced electricity.
214
Fuel 106 Btu (GJ) 28,792 (30 377) 28,630 (30 206) 0.06
CO2 tons/yr
1683 (1527) 1675 (1520) 0.05
(Mg/yr)
NOx tons/yr
2.42 (2.2) 2.52 (2.29) 0.04
(Mg/yr)
SO2 tons/yr
0.01 0.0
(Mg/yr)
Figure 9-11 presents the CHP system savings versus the grid. It shows agreement
between Colorado power generation data and eGRID subregion, indicating in-state
generation closely follows the eGRID subregions emissions and fuel savings.
Washington state and the NWPP closely track for CO2 and fuel savings, with increasing
NOx deviation likely caused by imported power. The state of California and the CAMX
subregion data results track in the same general direction with only a significant
NOx deviation.
The bottom line for this example is that the CHP plant conserves energy and reduces
CO2 and SO2 emissions versus the all fossil average grid throughout the country. The
CHP plant also reduces NOx emissions in most states, except for certain states, such as
California and Colorado. In this example, to generate NOx savings, the lean-burn engine
would require emissions aftertreatment.
43
Technology Characterization: Reciprocating Engines, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
ICF Company, 2008.
215
Figure 9-9. NOx, SO2, and CO2 Emissions from Grid and CHP System
Oxides of nitrogen (NOx). NOx emissions are usually the primary concern with
natural gas engines and are a mixture of (mostly) NO and NO2 in variable composition.
In measurement, NOx is reported as parts per million by volume in which both species
count equally (e.g., ppmv at 15% O2, dry). Other common units for reporting NOx in
reciprocating engines are grams per horsepower-hour (g/hph) and g/kWh or as an
output rate such as pounds per hour (grams per hour). Among natural gas engine
options, lean-burn natural gas engines produce the lowest NOx emissions directly from
the engine. However, rich burn engines can more effectively make use of three-way
catalysts to produce very low emissions. If lean-burn engines must meet extremely low
emissions levels, selective catalytic reduction (SCR) must be added.
Three mechanisms form NOx: thermal NOx, fuel-bound NOx and prompt NOx. The
predominant NOx formation mechanism associated with reciprocating engines is
thermal NOx. Thermal NOx is the fixation of atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen, which
occurs at high combustion temperatures. Flame temperature and residence time are the
primary variables that affect thermal NOx levels. The rate of thermal NOx formation
increases rapidly with flame temperature. Fuel-bound NOx forms when the fuel contains
nitrogen as part of the hydrocarbon structure. Natural gas has negligible chemically
bound fuel nitrogen. Fuel-bound NOx can be at significant levels with liquid fuels.
Prompt NOx is attributed to the reaction of atmospheric nitrogen, N2, with radicals such
as C, CH, and CH2 fragments derived from fuel. Occurring in the earliest stage of
combustion, this results in the formation of fixed species of nitrogen, such as NH
(nitrogen monohydride), HCN (hydrogen cyanide), H2CN (dihydrogen cyanide), and
CN (cyano radical), which can oxidize to NO.
The control of peak flame temperature through lean-burn conditions has been the
primary combustion approach to limiting NOx formation in gas engines.
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Figure 9-10. Percent of Emissions Reduction Using Case Study CHP System
For any engine, there are generally trade-offs between low NOx emissions and high
efficiency. There are also trade-offs between low NOx emissions and emissions of the
products of incomplete combustion (CO and unburned hydrocarbons). There are three
main approaches to these trade-offs that come into play, depending on regulations and
economics. One approach is to control for lowest NOx, accepting a fuel efficiency
penalty and possibly higher CO and hydrocarbon emissions. A second option is finding
an optimal balance between emissions and efficiency. A third option is to design for
highest efficiency and use postcombustion exhaust treatment.
Carbon Monoxide (CO). CO and VOCs both result from incomplete combustion.
CO emissions result when there is inadequate oxygen or insufficient residence time at
high temperature. Cooling at the combustion chamber walls and reaction quenching in
the exhaust process also contribute to incomplete combustion and increased CO
emissions. Excessively lean conditions can lead to incomplete and unstable combustion
and high CO levels.
217
Figure 9-11. Annual Percentage Emissions and Fuel Reduction, NERC WECC region and
Associated eGRID Subregions
Lean burn engine technology was developed during the 1980s as a direct response
to the need for cleaner-burning gas engines. As discussed previously, thermal NOx
formation is a function of both flame temperature and residence time. The focus of
lean-burn developments was to lower combustion temperature in the cylinder using
lean fuel/air mixtures. Lean combustion decreases the fuel/air ratio in the zones where
NOx is produced so that peak flame temperature is less than the stoichiometric adiabatic
flame temperature, thereby suppressing thermal NOx formation. Most lean-burn
engines use turbocharging to supply excess air to the engine and produce the
homogeneous lean fuel-air mixtures. Lean-burn engines generally use 50 to 100%
excess air (above stoichiometric). The typical emissions rate for lean-burn natural gas
engines is between 0.5 to 2.0 g/bhph (0.68 to 2.7 g/kWh).
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Emissions
System 1* System 2* System 3 System 4 System 5
Characteristics
Electricity
100 300 1000 3000 5000
Capacity, kW
Electrical
28.4% 31.1% 35% 36% 39%
Efficiency (HHV)
Engine
Rich Rich Lean Lean Lean
Combustion
Diluting the fuel-air mixture with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), which
replaces some of the air and contains water vapor that has a relatively high heat
capacity and absorbs some of the heat of combustion
Reducing the inlet air temperature with a heat exchanger after the turbocharger
or using inlet air humidification
219
The following catalytic exhaust gas treatment processes are applicable to various
types of reciprocating engines.
SCR systems add a significant cost burden to the installation and maintenance
costs of an engine system, and can severely impact the economic feasibility of smaller
engine projects. SCR requires on-site storage of ammonia or urea, a hazardous
chemical. In addition, ammonia can slip through the process unreacted, contributing
to environmental health concerns.
220
it appears that NOx reduction of 80% and reduction of both CO and NMHC emissions
by 60% may be possible. Long-term testing, however, has raised issues about sustained
performance of the catalysts. Current lean-NOx catalysts are prone to poisoning by
both lube oil and fuel sulfur. Both precious metal and base metal catalysts are highly
intolerant of sulfur. Fuel use can be significant with this technology; the high NOx
output of diesel engines would require approximately 3% of the engine fuel consumption
for the catalyst system.
44
Technology Characterization: Gas Turbines. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, ICF
International Company. 2008.
221
It is important to note that the gas turbine operating load has a significant effect on
the emissions levels of the primary pollutants of NOx, CO, and VOCs. Gas turbines
typically operate at high loads. Consequently, gas turbines are designed to achieve
maximum efficiency and optimum combustion conditions at high loads. Controlling all
pollutants simultaneously at all load conditions is difficult. At higher loads, higher NOx
emissions occur because of peak flame temperatures. At lower loads, lower thermal
efficiencies and more incomplete combustion occurs, resulting in higher emissions of
CO and VOCs.
The control of peak flame temperature through diluent (water or steam) injection or
by maintaining homogenous fuel-to-air ratios that keep local flame temperature below
the stoichiometric adiabatic temperature have been the traditional methods used to limit
NOx formation. In older, diffusion-flame combustion systems, fuel/air mixing and
combustion occurred simultaneously. This resulted in local fuel/air mixture chemical
concentrations that produced high local flame temperatures. These high temperature
hot spots are where most of the NOx emissions originate. Many new gas turbines
feature lean, premixed combustion systems. These systems, sometimes referred to as
dry, low-NOx (DLN) or dry, low-emissions (DLE), operate in a tightly controlled, lean,
(lower fuel-to-air ratio), premixed mode that maintains modest peak flame temperatures.
CO and VOCs both result from incomplete combustion. CO emissions result when
there is insufficient residence time at high temperature. In gas turbines, the failure to
achieve CO burnout may result from the quenching effects of dilution and combustor
wall cooling air. CO emissions are also heavily dependent on the operating load of the
turbine. For example, a gas turbine operating under low loads tends to have incomplete
combustion, which increases the formation of CO. CO is usually regulated to levels
below 50 ppm for both health and safety reasons. Achieving such low levels of CO
had not been a problem until manufacturers achieved low levels of NOx, because
the techniques used to engineer DLN combustors had a secondary effect of increasing
CO emissions.
VOCs can encompass a wide range of compounds, some of which are hazardous
air pollutants. These compounds discharge into the atmosphere when some portion of
the fuel remains unburned or partially burned. Some organics are unreacted trace
constituents of the fuel, whereas others may be pyrolysis products of the heavier
hydrocarbons in the gas.
Emissions of CO2 are also of concern because of its contribution to global warming.
Atmospheric warming occurs because solar radiation readily penetrates the earths
atmosphere and reaches surface of the planet, but infrared (thermal) radiation from the
surface is absorbed by the CO2 (and other polyatomic gases such as methane, unburned
hydrocarbons, refrigerants, water vapor, and volatile chemicals) in the atmosphere,
with resultant increase in temperature of the atmosphere. The amount of CO2 emitted
is a function of both fuel carbon content and system efficiency. The fuel carbon content
of natural gas is 34 lb/106 Btu, oil is 48 lb/106 Btu, and (ash-free) coal is 66 lb/106 Btu.
NOx control has been the primary focus of emission control research and
development in recent years. The most prominent emission control approaches are
described in the following paragraphs.
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Water or Steam Injection. The first technique used to reduce NOx emissions was
injection of water or steam into the high-temperature flame zone. Water and steam are
strong diluents and can quench hot spots in the flame, reducing NOx. However, because
positioning of the injection is not precise, some NOx is still created. Depending on
uncontrolled NOx levels, water or steam injection reduces NOx by 60% or more. Water
or steam injection enables gas turbines to operate with untreated exhaust-NOx levels as
low as 25 ppm at 15% O2 on natural gas. NOx is only reduced to between 42 to 75 ppm
when firing with liquid distillate fuel. Both water and steam increase the mass flow
through the turbine and create a small amount of additional power. Use of exhaust heat
to raise the steam temperature also increases overall efficiency slightly. The water used
must be demineralized thoroughly to avoid forming deposits and corrosion in the turbine
expansion section. This adds cost and complexity to the operation of the turbine. Diluent
injection increases CO emissions appreciably, because it lowers the temperature in the
burnout zone, as well as in the NOx formation zone.
Noise can also be an issue in lean premixed combustors; acoustic waves form
because of combustion instabilities when the premixed fuel and air ignite. This noise
also manifests itself as pressure waves, which can damage combustor walls and
accelerate the need for combustor replacement, thereby adding to maintenance costs
and lowering unit availability.
All leading gas turbine manufacturers feature DLN combustors in parts of their
product lines. Turbine manufacturers generally guarantee NOx emissions of 15 to 42
ppm using this technology. NOx emissions when firing distillate oil are typically
guaranteed at 42 ppm with DLN and/or combined with water injection. A few models
(primarily those larger than 40 MW) have combustors capable of 9 ppm (natural gas
fired) over the range of expected operation.
223
SCR reduces between 80 to 90% of the NOx in the gas turbine exhaust, depending
on the degree to which the chemical conditions in the exhaust are uniform. When used
in series with water/steam injection or DLN combustion, SCR can result in low-single-
digit NOx levels (2 to 5 ppm).
SCR systems are expensive and significantly impact the economic feasibility of
smaller gas turbine projects. In addition, ammonia can slip through the process
unreacted, contributing to environmental health concerns.
224
term testing indicates that catalytic combustion exhibits low vibration and acoustic noise,
only 1/10 to 1/100 the levels measured in the same turbine equipped with DLN combustors.
9.4.3 Microturbines45
Microturbines have the potential for extremely low emissions (Table 9-8). All
microturbines operating on gaseous fuels feature lean premixed (dry, low-NOx, or
DLN) combustor technology, which was developed relatively recently in the history of
45
Technology Characterization: Microturbines, US Environmental Protection Agency, ICF
International Company, 2008
225
gas turbines and is not universally featured on larger gas turbines. All of the example
commercial units have been certified to meet extremely stringent standards in Southern
California of less than 4 to 5 ppmvd of NOx (15% O2); CO and VOC emissions are at
the same level. Non-California versions have NOx emissions of less than 9 ppmvd.
Emissions
System 1 System 2 System 3 System 4 System 5
Analysis
Electricity
400 200 300 1200 100
Capacity, kW
Electrical
Efficiency 37.80% 35% 43% 43% 43%
(HHV)
Electric only, for typical systems available. Estimates are based on fuel cell system developers
goals and prototype characteristics. All estimates are for emissions without after-treatment and
are adjusted to 15% O2.
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CONSTRUCTION CONTRACTING
Contracting for the design and construction of a CHP system is one of the most
critical decisions made throughout the development process. With the growth of
nonutility generation, the basic structure of most power plant construction contracts
has changed.
This type of organizational structure, as shown in Figures 10-1 and 10-2, provides
a number of benefits, including an opportunity to reduce costs by seeking competitive
bids for the construction phase. Because all bidders are responding to a known specific
requirement, the owner has a basis for comparing price, although it may be difficult to
measure and quantify qualitative differences among bidders. Additionally, it allows for
a more complete development of project costs, including construction costs, based on
actual construction proposals as a basis for a final decision as to whether or not to
proceed with project development.
The design/bid/build approach also has several disadvantages. First, it requires that
the design be essentially completed as a condition of construction bidding. The
separation of design and construction activities results in a lengthier development
period, with greater costs resulting from escalation. This potential for cost increase
may be offset by the increased certainty regarding the construction phase for the design/
bid/build process compared to some alternatives. The most significant source of
difficulty with this form of contracting is that the owner cannot obtain guarantees for
227
the performance of a CHP project. The architect/engineer (A/E) will not be able to
provide meaningful guarantees regarding either the cost or the performance levels of
the resulting CHP system. The contractor cannot provide such guarantees based on a
design from someone else; the contractor can only guarantee to build the project in
accordance with the plans and specifications provided by the design professional. Thus,
the owner must bear the primary risk of project performance, knowing that any resulting
failures or problems may require a lengthy and costly arbitration or litigation process
to determine the cause and the responsibility for the problems.
These problems are exacerbated when the project must be completed on a fast
track, either as a condition for a power sale to a utility, a need to supply power and
thermal energy to an end-user facility, or for new host or end-user sites because the
overall host or end-user facility construction project may be fast-tracked. If contractors
are required to submit bids based on partial plans and specifications, the opportunity
for budget overruns is also increased. The responsibility for any resulting problems is
also less certain.
The use of separate construction managers provides one mechanism for dealing
with the problems inherent in traditional contracting. Two alternative construction
manager (CM) roles are possible. In both cases, the owner retains an engineer for
evaluation of the design, equipment procurement, and actual construction; however,
two alternative organizational structures are possible, as shown in Figure 10-3. In one,
the CM contract includes the actual construction of the CHP system. In the other, the
CM is retained as an agent or consultant to the owner.
228
If the CM is retained as an agent of the owner, the problems of risk and performance
guarantee remain with the owner; the CM provides specialized expertise for dealing
with that risk. If the CM is the prime contractor responsible for construction, it is
possible to shift some of the cost risk to the CM. In either role, as an agent or as a prime,
the CM can reduce the project budget risk through the use of a guaranteed maximum
price form of contract. Under this form of agreement, the CM is paid a fixed fee that is
separately negotiated by the owner and CM and is then reimbursed for actual construction
costs. Because of the expertise of the CM in construction and value engineering, a CM
is sometimes engaged during the design process to help refine and improve designs and
to establish a budget prior to the receipt of contractor and vendor bids.
10.3 ENGINEERING/PROCUREMENT/CONSTRUCTION
229
Figure 10-3. Construction Manager Including Construction (Left) and Agent (Right)
deficiencies, low heat rate, and poor availability. Many EPC contracts specify financial
penalties or liquidated damages for failure to achieve required performance levels and
may also include bonuses for above-specification performance. Because the contract
for design and construction rests with a single vendor, it is also possible to shift schedule
risk entirely to that vendor. The erasure of an external interface between design
professionals and construction contractors eliminates one major cause of construction-
related disputes and cost overruns. Finally, as shown in Figure 10-5, a design/build
approach can reduce the overall time required to develop a project.
Because of the increased risk associated with a fixed-price EPC contract, the
contractor will include additional contingencies, and the price may be greater than
would be the case for alternative, more traditional forms of contracting. Some of this
risk premium may be offset with economies realized by fast-tracking development,
leading to an earlier in-service date, and from reduced administrative costs resulting
from dealing with a single entity. The use of a single EPC contract also results in the
loss of the traditional role of the design professional as a monitor of construction on
behalf of the owner. The design professional is employed by the EPC contractor and it
is prudent for the owner to retain separate and independent design and construction
review services.
The use of an EPC contract imposes additional duties on the owner. First, the
owner must fully specify existing conditions that will have an impact on design and/or
construction costs or run the risk of cost overruns despite the fixed-price EPC. Second,
the owner must develop an understanding of the project that is adequate to develop an
EPC contract, including the specification of all critical performance parameters and
valuing any liquidated damages and bonuses. The owner must be capable of defining
an acceptance test procedure that properly demonstrates performance, including
measures of reliability and availability. Lastly, the owner must be capable of monitoring
the EPC process and evaluating actual performance.
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Because of the unique nature of many CHP systems and the preliminary stage at
which a contract must be awarded, EPC contracting raises special concerns:
Selection of Key Equipment and Components. In many projects, the owner will
have selected the key equipment, including the type and size of the prime movers,
the size of the HRSGs or the heat recovery system, and fuels. To the extent that the
owner specifies a particular piece of equipment, including a specific manufacturer or
model, that owner is reducing the risk that is shifted to the EPC contract. If the owner
specifies a piece of equipment, and that equipment does not function, the owners
claim on the EPC contract may be reduced. It may be possible to obtain performance
guarantees from the vendor and base the EPC contractors performance and liabilities
on those vendor guarantees. Owners should limit their direct intervention in the EPC
contract, both to preserve design and cost flexibility and to limit their own liabilities.
Acceptance Testing. The acceptance testing procedures are the key to ensuring
that the CHP system meets required performance levels. The overall testing
procedural approach and the specific testing procedures should be specified in the
design/build contract. The parameters that form the basis of testing will usually be
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determined by the unique aspects of each project. As noted above, testing of heat rate
and capacity can be required, as can short-term performance at rated output (testing
period of one to seven days), reliability (continuous operation for a testing period of
14 to 45 days), and dependability (a minimum of 5 to 10 successive successful start-
ups within a specified time). Other key issues include
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Selection of the proper form of contracting requires care and should involve input
from other professionals, including legal counsel.
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The success of the permitting process relies upon a coordinated effort between the
developer of the project and the various entities that must review project plans and
analyze their impacts.
Each utility has had its own specific requirements that, in the past, have sometimes
appeared to be arbitrary, overly complicated, and prohibitively expensive. Recent
regulatory interventions, standardization and equipment certification initiatives at the
federal and state levels have helped to provide better definition and certainty to both the
technical and contractual requirements for interconnection approval.
1. Application. A formal application is filed with the servicing electric utility. This
application usually asks for information on the location, technical and design
parameters, and operational and maintenance procedures for the planned CHP
system. The level of detail required and application fees can vary considerably
from one utility to another.
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c. Facility study: might be required if the system impact study indicates that
grid system reliability would be adversely affected by interconnection of the
CHP system. This study would identify and design any required facility or
system upgrades that might be necessary to maintain grid integrity.
The costs of the studies are typically paid by the applicant, but can be negotiated
with the utility. It is important to execute specific agreements with the utility if specific
studies are required. These agreements should outline the scope of the study and
requirements and include a good faith estimate of the cost to perform the study.
County and City Planning Bureaus. These govern land use and zoning issues
and may conduct environmental impact assessments, including noise studies,
and are responsible for compliance with local ordinances. For example, many
local zoning ordinances stipulate the allowable decibel levels for noise sources,
and these levels vary, depending on the zoning classification at the site. The local
zoning board or planning bureau determines whether land-use criteria are met by a
particular project and can usually grant variances if conditions warrant.
State and Local Building and Fire Code Departments. These address CHP-
related safety issues such as exhaust temperatures, venting, natural gas pressure,
fuel storage, space limitations, vibration, gas and steam piping, and building
structural issues. Building departments are often part of a citys planning division.
Most CHP projects require a building permit.
Water/Sewer and Public Works Authorities. These rule on water supply and
discharge matters. Typically, they ensure that a project is compliant with the federal
Clean Water Act; decide whether local water and wastewater quality standards will
be or are being met; and evaluate waste streams that empty into lakes, rivers, and
other bodies of water.
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Major source thresholds for hazardous air pollutants (HAP) are 10 tons/year for
a single HAP or 25 tons/year for any combination of HAP.
46
Note that the reason adding an on-site CHP system increases site emissions is that there is no
offset for the displaced electric generation, transmission, or distribution related emissions
credited to the CHP system.
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that must obtain a PSD permit anyway, to cover other regulated pollutants, must also
address GHG emissions increases of 75,000 tpy (68.0 Mg/yr) CO2e or more. New and
existing sources with GHG emissions above 100,000 tpy (90.7 Mg/yr) CO2e must also
obtain operating permits. It is incumbent on CHP system developers to keep updated
on this and other developing regulations to be current on the requirements.
Major characteristics that typically differentiate projects for air permitting purposes
include the following:
Does the CHP system trigger permit requirements? If it is not exempt, what
relevant emissions threshold is it below or above?
Is the site an existing or new facility? Is the site currently considered a major
emissions source or a minor emissions source? Adding a new source of emissions
to an existing major source can trigger additional permitting requirements; adding
a new source to an existing minor source may move the facility into the major
source category.
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Project development options generally are reduced to financial decisions that may
be influenced by the nature and focus of the company making the decision. In other
words, CHP decisions are first and foremost financial, but systems development and
ownership decisions might be influenced by the company expertise and focus.
This section primarily focuses on the financial options. CHP systems require an
initial investment to cover the cost of equipment, installation, and regulatory/permitting
costs; these costs are then typically recovered through lower energy costs over the life
of the equipment.
There are a variety of capital providers in the market, and different investors have
different objectives. The terms under which capital is provided vary from source to
source, and depend on factors such as the lenders appetite for risk, the expected return
on the project, and the time horizon for repayment.
The primary financing options available to CHP projects include the following:
For small businesses, the Small Business Administration (SBA) can guarantee
85% of bank loans up to $150,000 or 75% of bank loans up to $2 million for various
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projects, including CHP. Host or facility owners should ask potential developers and
equipment suppliers if debt financing is a service they can provide. The ability to
provide financing may be a key consideration when selecting a developer, equipment
vendors, and/or other partners.
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suppliers and project developers acting as ESCOs. In a BOO project, the ESCO finances
the entire project, owns the system, and incurs all costs associated with its design,
installation, and maintenance. The ESCO sells heat and power to the host at a specified
rate that offers some savings over current energy expenditures, or can enter into an
energy savings performance contract (ESPC) with the host. In an ESPC, the ESCO and
the host agree to share the cost savings generated by the project; in return, the ESCO
guarantees the performance of the CHP system. An ESPC mitigates the risks associated
with new technologies for facility owners, and allows operation and maintenance of the
new system by ESCO specialists.
ESPCs are frequently used for public-sector projects. There are no upfront costs
other than technical and contracting support. Traditional ESPCs have three components:
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Another way for federal agencies to implement efficiency and CHP projects is
through partnerships with their franchised or serving utilities. Federal agencies can
enter into sole-source utility energy service contracts (UESCs) to implement energy
improvements at their facilities. With a UESC, the utility typically arranges financing
to cover the capital costs of the project. Then the utility is repaid over the contract term
from the cost savings generated by the energy efficiency measures. With this
arrangement, agencies can implement energy improvements with no initial capital
investment. The Energy Policy Act of 1992 authorizes and encourages federal agencies
to participate in utility energy efficiency programs offered by electric and gas utilities
and by other program administrators (e.g., state agencies). These programs range from
equipment rebates (i.e., utility incentives) to delivery of a complete turnkey project.
Federal legislation and numerous legal opinions demonstrate that agencies have full
authority to enter into utility energy service contracts as well as take advantage of
utility incentive programs.
After the basic technical and economic elements of the CHP are understood, a
positive feasibility study completed, and the financing structure is obtained, the project
participants enter the project implementation stage, which includes the following steps:
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If the owner(s) are self-financing and developing their own project, then soliciting
subcontracts and/or equipment purchases will be required. If the CHP project is self-
financed and procured, complete project specifications should be used to solicit bids.
If third-party developers will develop the CHP project, then preliminary designs or
30% designs could be used to solicit bids for these services.
10.6.5 Construction
The project team approves, with the supplier, a schedule of the regular inspection
days to ensure fulfillment of the approved time-schedule physical delivery and quality.
Based on inspection and reporting by site supervision, the project team makes
decisions about potential changes required in the projected status and as proposed by
the supplier.
The designer of the CHP system should be involved to supervise the project
construction to ensure that the equipment is installed correctly, in accordance with the
original design. The main role of the designer is to provide technical and economic
evaluation of the impact of changes that usually appear during construction, in
comparison with the design.
10.6.6 Commissioning
The last phase of CHP project implementation is commissioning, which usually
lasts for several weeks. During this phase, it is important to train the staff that will be
responsible to operate the plant and to perform basic maintenance following
commissioning.
At the end of commissioning, the CHP plant is turned over to the owner for normal
operation. Potential failures usually appear during the first year of operation; therefore,
it is important that the supplier is bound by contractual terms to remove any failures
that result from the equipment or changes in original construction plans.
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Operator training should start during the installation phase of the project. For
smaller projects sited in an existing powerhouse and where the operating responsibility
will rest with the existing powerhouse staff, that staff should be part of the project
design team or, at a minimum, participate in design and construction reviews. It is
important that the operating staff have a complete understanding of the system design
philosophy, all components and their functions, limitations and relationships to other
components, and all operating and maintenance procedures. In retrofit applications
where the CHP system operation will be the responsibility of existing operators, this
training can be accomplished throughout the construction and installation process. For
larger CHP systems, and typically those third-party-owned systems of several hundred
megawatts that are based on power sales to a utility, it may not be practical to have the
complete operating staff available through design and installation. In this case, key
persons should be brought into the project as early as possible during installation.
Pressure Testing. The heat management system, including the HRSG, radiators,
mufflers, heat exchangers, and other components, should be pressure tested to ensure
system integrity. If the CHP system includes its own water supply and treatment
system, that system should be tested and used as a supply for pressure testing.
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Chemical Cleaning. Final chemical cleaning of all water and coolant systems.
Checking of Safety Valves. All settings and functions of safety valves should be
verified upon initial operation at pressure and temperature.
Start-Up. Start-up procedures will vary as a function of the type of prime mover
and heat recovery system.
10.6.7 Validation
During this trial period, a verification of the achieved results and the comparison to
projected parameters should take place. This verification should also contain the
emission measurements, which will document the real environmental benefits.
After the end of trial operation and the verification of results, for future reference,
it is recommended that the CHP project developer summarize the project results and
experience gained in a report.
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CASE STUDIES
Case studies are important learning tools for understanding the results of design
choices. The case studies presented in this chapter are based on real installations. The
case study structure follows a standardized format and is designed to walk the reader
through the process that was undertaken in delivering the subject CHP systems and
explain the lessons learned.
This case study provides a typical example multibuilding campus CHP system
evaluation. The campus covers 140 acres on the west coast of the United States with an
enrollment approaching 2000 students.
11.1.1 Introduction
The main university campus consists of approximately 50 buildings, ranging in
age from only a few years old to over 90 years old (see Figure 11-1). The buildings
range in size from 600 ft2 (56 m2) to over 100,000 ft2 (9 290 m2). Usage includes
academic, laboratory, dormitory, administration, libraries, and various others. Eleven
of the buildings have 12 kV electrical service, with 4160 V electrical service serving
the remainder of the buildings. At present, 10 buildings are connected to the campus
energy center (CES) chilled-water system, and 12 buildings are connected to the hot-
water distribution system. The CES building is approximately 19,000 ft2 (1765 m2).
The CES building is divided into two general areas. The west end of the CES houses
the heating hot-water boilers and ancillary equipment, and the east side of the CES
houses the chillers and ancillary equipment. There is also an electrical room located
on the west end of the CES, and three structural cooling tower cells are located on the
east end of the CES. The CES at the university is located near the campus core. The
CES currently provides chilled water and hot water to the buildings as indicated in
Figure 11-1. Significant expansion of the campus thermal and power requirements
prompted the CHP assessment.
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The 12 kV and 4160 V switchgear have the capability of remotely operating the
feeder and main breaker for load shedding and generator(s) or cogeneration feed to
provide standby power. This system is scheduled for automation with paralleling gear
and controls through programmable logic controller (PLC) and LAN to operate two
1500 kW 48/12,000 V standby generators.
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Source: U.S. Energy Information Agency.
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At the same time, natural gas prices had seen a price spike from about $0.30 per
therm50 to more than a $1.00 per therm in December of 2000, and then natural gas
prices falling back again over the last year (Figure 11-3).
50
100,000 Btu (29.3 kWh).
51
Source: U.S. Energy Information Agency.
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Energy price volatility has made for difficult times for those with significant energy
budgets, such as this university. Escalating energy prices are one of the reasons (along
with the need to replace aging, inefficient equipment, and to plan for future campus
expansion) that the site decided to explore energy cost saving options, including CHP.
Figure 11-4. ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool Site Data Input Screen
(ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool [I-P units only])
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Table 11-1. ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool Operating Hours Input Screen
Operating Hours
Operating Hours per Day 24
Days per Week 7.0
% Operating Hours 100%
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Figure 11-6 shows an estimated existing peak-day 24 h heating load profile for the
university, based on provided site data. The peak existing heating load is estimated at
7.5 million Btu/h (2200 kW).
Figure 11-6 (SI). Estimated Existing Peak-Day Heating/Domestic Water Load Profile
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The planned additional heating loads to the CES are therefore approximately 6.5
million Btu/h (1900 kW), increasing the peak estimated heating load without diversity
to approximately 14 million Btu/h (4100 kW). (Figure 11-7).
Figure 11-7. CES Estimated Future Peak Heating Water Load Profile
Figure 11-7 (SI). CES Estimated Future Peak Heating Water Load Profile
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Figure 11-8 shows the smoothed out estimated existing CES peak-day 24 h
cooling load profile. The existing peak cooling load is estimated at 500 tons, and occurs
at approximately 3:00 in the afternoon. The estimated total ton-hours for the existing
peak day are approximately 8000 (28 000 kWhTH) .
Figure 11-8. CES Estimated Existing Peak-Day Chilled Water Load Profile
Figure 11-8 (SI). CES Estimated Existing Peak-Day Chilled Water Load Profile
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Figure 11-9 shows the estimated future peak-day cooling load profile. The peak
cooling load is estimated with diversity at 1120 tons (3940 kW). The estimated future
peak-day total ton-hours are 18,000 (63 306 kWh).
Figure 11-9. CES Estimated Future Peak Heating Water Load Profile
Figure 11-9 (SI). CES Estimated Future Peak Heating Water Load Profile
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From the preceding load analysis, planning for four future addressable thermal
loads was determined:
Hot water for space heating. 14 million Btu/h (4100 kW) maximum
Hot water for reheat (10% outdoor air fraction for reheat purposes), because this
is the high desert, and humidity control is generally not an issue. However, some
reheat is used in laboratories that are overcooled because of multiple fume hoods.
Domestic hot water. 250,000 Btu/h (73 kW) is estimated for the limited load
served by the CEC for DHW and swimming pool.
Chilled water for space cooling. 1120 tons (3940 kW) maximum.
Table 11-2 shows the ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool Operating Hours Input screen
containing the site schedule information.
Figure 11-10 presents both the addressable and nonaddressable loads versus the site
fuel usage. The addressable thermal loads to displace onsite fuel usage consist of space
heating and domestic hot water. The significant nonaddressable winter thermal load
exists because a noteworthy number of campus buildings are not heated from the campus
loop, and most of the DHW service is distributed and does not use the hot water loop.
(Note that system efficiencies would improve and overall energy costs would be reduced
if additional building and DHW production were connected to the CEC.)
Table 11-2. ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool Site Data Input Screen
for Addressable Thermal Loads
(Note: this table is from the ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool and is only available in I-P units)
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The data in Table 11-4 are then entered into the Monthly Electric Billing Data section
of the ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool (Table 11-5).
Figure 11-10. ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool Addressable & Nonaddressable Loads
(million Btu/h per month)
(ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool [I-P units only])
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Table 11-6 shows the natural gas load profile and cost available at the time of the
assessment.
The actual data in Table 11-6 must be projected to the future to incorporate known
growth. An additional 6.5 million Btu/h was projected. This is an approximate 87% energy
use increase, which is good enough for an initial feasibility assessment and is incorporated
in increasing both the energy and demand elements. The more difficult element at that
time was to project forward natural gas prices during a particularly volatile time in energy
markets. In this case, a future fixed cost was determined to be $6.23/dekatherm52.
Table 11-4. Projected Electric Use and Cost for CHP Plant Design
Table 11-5. Monthly Electric Billing Data ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool Site Input
(Note: this table is from the ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool and is only available in I-P units)
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Unit of energy equal to 10 therms or one million British thermal units.
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The data in Table 11-7 are then entered into the Monthly Natural Gas Billing Data
section of the ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool (Table 11-5).
Base loading any domestic hot water load is a starting point to displace natural gas.
Hot-water heating load will displace natural gas during winter months.
Hot water to provide absorption generated chilled water is likely essential to deliver
operating hours required for CHP efficiency and pay back the capital investment.
Figure 11-11 presents a logical CHP hot-water system schematic. Note that the
single effect absorption chiller is not shown but would be fed by the hot-water loop.
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Table 11-7. Projected Natural Gas Use for the CHP Plant Design
Usage Usage,
Month Use Dtherms $/DT $/GJ Cost, $
Therms GJ
From Figure 11-12, the calculated performance of the single effect chiller is
333 tons, which is within 10% of the actual unit selected. Figure 11-13 shows the
16-cylinder, 1500 kW engine generator set.
Figure 11-14 shows the exhaust heat recovery heat exchanger (left in green) and
SCR/particulate filter exhaust aftertreatment system (right silver box).
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Table 11-8. Monthly Natural Gas Billing Data ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool Site Input
(Note: this table is from the ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool and is only available in I-P units)
Monthly Billing
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Data
Billing days
31 28 31 30 31 30
per month
DTherm 11,692 12,481 13,366 10,045 7,156 3,990
Fuel Use
GJ 12,336 13,168 14,102 10,598 7,550 4,210
Fuel Cost $ $72,842 $77,758 $83,271 $62,580 $44,585 $24,856
Monthly Billing
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Data
Billing days
31 31 30 31 30 31
per month
DTherm 4,394 3,860 6,300 8,738 13,280 14,374
Fuel Use
GJ 4,636 4,073 6,647 9,219 14,011 15,165
Fuel Cost $ $27,375 $24,046 $39,252 $54,435 $82,735 $89,548
Figure 11-12. ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool Site Data Input Screen for the CHP System
(Note: this table is from the ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool and is only available in I-P units)
Figure 11-17 shows that the CHP system equipped with an SCR substantially
reduces emissions evaluated versus the eGRID all-fossil average for California.
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http://www.epa.gov/chp/basic/calculator.html.
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Figure 11-14. Exhaust Heat Recovery Heat Exchanger (left), Exhaust SCR (right)
As shown in Figure 11-10, engine heat is obtained from both the engine jacket and
from the engine exhaust via a hot water heat recovery generator producing 224F
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Figure 11-15. ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool Average Electric and Thermal Demand versus
CHP System Capacity
(ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool [I-P units only])
Figure 11-16. ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool Average Electric and Thermal Demand versus
CHP System Load Factor
(ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool [I-P units only])
(107C) jacket water (JW). Note that, because a relatively expensive 50% glycol mixture
is used in the JW and the JW system has different temperature requirements from the
campus hot-water system, the JW system is separated from the campus HW system with
a heat exchanger.. The campus hot water is then either pumped out to the campus for
space heating or used directly at the plant to drive the 350 ton absorption chiller.
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While rarely used, in the case where there is insufficient hot-water load, a dump
radiator can reject heat to the atmosphere to ensure cool (193F [89C] maximum)
JW supply to the engine. During engine startup, a 3-way thermostatic valve allows the
jacket water to recirculate until it reaches the proper temperature.
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Figure 11-21 provides a graphical representation of the cash flow and a brief utility
rate sensitivity assessment.
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Figure 11-21. ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool Payback and Utility Cost Sensitivity
(ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool [I-P units only])
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11.2.1 Introduction
As with all global manufacturing operations, biotechnology companies and
pharmaceutical manufacturers continue to seek ways to reduce energy costs as well as
improve process reliability. In addition, many global manufacturers are trying to move
towards environmentally friendly, more sustainable processes. Energy requirements for
a pharmaceutical manufacturing facility involve thermal, electrical, and pneumatic
loads, which generally apply to the manufacturing process in the following ways:
The 24/7 operation and coincidence of thermal, pneumatic, and electric loads
makes such processes amenable to the application of CHP, which can reduce energy
costs, improve reliability, and reduce greenhouse gas footprint.
The original option was to simply supplement the steam supply with on-site boilers,
but initial studies identified the availability of high, coincident electric and thermal loads
that made the facility a good fit for combined heat and power. CHP added significant
economic benefit, both in terms of energy cost savings as well as avoidance of production
loss, because of higher electric reliability. An energy master plan and feasibility study
addressing the most reliable energy solution for the campus suggested the development
of a CHP plant to serve six buildings with electricity and five with high-pressure steam.
Today, with 5 MW of CHP capacity, the operation provides energy for the campus
entire thermal load and for the majority of its electric load. The electric grid is still used
for a portion of the facilitys power needs, and the electric grid serves as a backup source
of power. In addition, the on-site CHP plant has the ability to obtain steam from the
network, or sell its excess steam into the network for use by other customers.
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facilities, detailed load shapes cannot be made available, other than stating that the
facility had a peak electric demand of approximately 10 MW, a peak steam demand of
approximately 35,000 lb (15 900 kg) per hour, and operates 24 h/day, 7 days/week.
Electric peaks occur in summer coincident with high ambient temperatures, and there
is a consistent base load of approximately 5 MW available year round. Steam demand
peaks in winter, but there are also significant process steam and process and space-
conditioning cooling needs in summer. The ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool was used to
compare the results with actual performance reports from the site (Figure 11-23).
To develop the load profile, the electric monthly demand, use, and cost, as well as
steam use and cost were input to the model. Because the facility used district steam
purchased from a third party, the total throughput in million Btu per month was entered
together with the total monthly steam cost. To create the proper load profile, the various
heater and boiler efficiencies were set to 98%, which allows for 2% leakage and piping
heat losses to the main loads.
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Based on the equipment selection, the 5 MW CHP plant would have a 76% electric
load factor, and 84% of the steam output would be used by space heating and process
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However, with consideration of future load growth and steam reliability issues, the
site actually used a dual-fuel (natural gas and ultralow-sulfur diesel) combustion turbine
with a site adjusted 5.3 MW capacity (Figure 11-25). The system included low-NOx
premix combustion and an inlet air cooler.
A heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) was added to convert the exhaust heat
energy to steam. The HRSG was fitted with a supplemental duct burner that increased
the steam output of the system from 25,000 lb/h to 52,000 lb/h. A selective catalytic
reduction (SCR) unit was incorporated to meet the strict emissions requirements for the
area. Two additional independent dual-fuel steam boilers were added for steam reliability.
Although the ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool does not allow for duct burners or
additional savings from on-site boilers versus purchased steam, it does reflect the
baseload case against a basic CHP plant. The addition of duct burners and supplemental
boilers should only serve to enhance the base-case economics.
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The CT generator operates in parallel with the electric utility and is equipped with
load shedding switchgear for island operation during a utility failure. With the two
supplemental boilers providing backup and peak steam capacity, the plant also
maintains an automated connection to the district steam system to provide a third level
of backup for the steam supply (Figure 11-27).
Figure 11-26. ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool Load Demand and CHP Load Factor
(ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool [I-P units only])
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Installation was completed, and the plant was commissioned in 2007, providing a
reliable and very efficient source of heat and power for the campus. The state-of-the-art
facility is the recipient of the Cambridge GoGreen Award and has been a model for
many subsequent CHP implementations.
The operation of the system benefited from a New England ISO derived income of
$15,000 per month reflected in the modeled economic evaluation (Figure 11-30).
Since initial start-up, a series of upgrades has improved the ROI of the plant. The
modeled economics are based on 2004 energy costs and demonstrate an acceptable
payback, considering the significant indirect cost savings of improved steam and power
reliability. With escalations in energy costs, in 2010, the plant actually saved the facility
$4 million in energy costs and paid off the initial investment within the first four years
of operation.
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This case study provides a departure from the conventional CHP systems described
in the previous case studies in that electricity, cooling chilled water, and heating hot
water are supplied to the building from a neighboring office building, and domestic
hot-water heat is supplied from a district steam loop. Therefore, this case study will
not use the ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool, but instead will walk through the addressable
load analyses using a publically available thermal-load profile for a full-service hotel.
11.3.1 Introduction
A high-rise office building located in the Logan Square neighborhood of
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, is located just behind a hotel. The building stands at 400 ft
(122 m) with 30 floors, and was completed in 1983 (Figure 11-31). Adjacent to the
office building is a world-renowned 364-room 330,000 ft2 luxury hotel. The hotel also
contains three restaurants, a full-service hotel laundry, and an indoor pool and spa. All
sites posed interesting engineering and economic challenges, and the luxury hotel was
no different. The hotel purchases electricity, hot water for heating, and chilled water for
cooling from the office building. The hotel further purchases steam for domestic hot
water from a district system and natural gas from the local utility54 for cooking. This
present location is an extraordinary, but important, urban case study, because energy
data is multifaceted, complex, and somewhat limited. Nevertheless, this case study
demonstrates the fundamentals of defining addressable thermal loads first, understanding
the cost of reaching these loads, assessing the energy economics, and developing a
sound economic solution.
A new, dedicated isolation heat exchanger was installed between the hydronic
heating riser and the central plant, with an injection pump feeding circulating hot water
from the riser to the new microturbines. A preheat heat exchanger was also installed to
preheat domestic hot water, and additional heat exchangers were piped into the heating
water loop to serve the kitchen, laundry, pool, and spa. The injection pump ensures that
30 to 40 gal (115 to 150 L) of water get to the microturbines every minute. The
microturbines impart 1.2 million Btu/h (350 kW) to the heating water loop. The
isolation heat exchanger transfers heat from the office building heating-water loop
(supply) to the hotel heating-water loop.
The $1.05 million solution included installing three microturbines, which generate
174 kW, or 30% of the hotels overall electricity. Additionally, the new system,
completed in October 2009, supplies all of the buildings day-to-day domestic hot water
and satisfies 15% of its heating needs.
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Local utility receives delivery charge, and natural gas is purchased as a commodity.
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In 2008, before the CHP plant was installed in the hotel, the monthly electric usage
was available from invoices and is depicted in Figure 11-32. Electricity is supplied
under contract from the neighboring office building electric submeters to provide
general power and lighting to the hotel.
Note that the minimum hourly average electricity demand was 600 kW per hour
which occurred in January of 2008 (Figure 11-33).
Using the EPA data56 and applying it to the hotel yields a potential daily range from
about 400 to 1200 kW.
55, 56
CHP in the Hotel and Casino Market Sectors. U.S. EPA CHP Partnership. December 2005.
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The CHP plant developer at that time had a single commercial product (a
microturbine rated at 65 kW ISO and 58 kW net) that could be configured in arrays.
From a purely electrical perspective, Figure 11-34 shows that up to six microturbines
could be installed and not exceed the monthly average minimum power requirement
projected using the EPA data.
Figure 11-35 shows a portion of the results of monitoring the EPA studied hotel
electric use for a period of almost two weeks during the summer of 2002. The minimum
nighttime electric load was 304 kW, and the maximum peak electric use occurring at
10:00 p.m., July 17th, (not shown) was 540 kW. The minimum electric loads during the
winter months were 5 to 10% lower.
The problem with following the above daily example is that the electricity is not
cooling dominated, because the space conditioning electricity is borne by the adjacent
hotel. Extrapolating from Figure 11-34, the 400 kW per hour monthly usage is a good
limit at this stage of analysis.
Hot water is supplied under contract from the adjacent office building to provide
space heating to the hotel.
Chilled water is supplied under contract from the adjacent office building to
provide space cooling to the hotel.
Steam is supplied under contract from a district steam system and is converted to
hot water for guests, the laundry, the kitchen, the pool, and the spa.
Figure 11-36 shows the steam purchased from the district loop is used for domestic
hot water use, and hot water purchased from the neighboring office building, supplied
for space heating, has the potential to be addressed by a CHP system. However, the
domestic hot water is divided into separately addressed heat exchangers by end use,
which would require access by the CHP thermal loop.
Figure 11-37 presents a typical thermal load profile for a full service hotel based
on measurement and verification data57.
Figure 11-38 takes the data shown in Figure 11-37 and apportions it to the domestic
hot water load.
Figure 11-39 presents the monthly thermal load shown in Figure 11-38 as average
hourly thermal load and superimposes the hourly thermal heat recovery potential of
one to six microturbines producing 175F (79.4C) hot water returning at 155F
(68.3C). In general terms, given the data available, three microturbines would have a
consistently high thermal capacity factor.
57
CHP in the Hotel and Casino Market Sectors. U.S. EPA CHP Partnership. December 2005.
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Figure 11-34. 2008 Average Hourly Electricity Usage with Microturbine Capacity
58
CHP in the Hotel and Casino Market Sectors. U.S. EPA CHP Partnership. December 2005.
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Comparing the 24 h load curve in Figure 11-37 and the average and minimum
thermal load curves, an estimated 80% thermal load factor can be applied to a CHP
plant using three microturbines and providing thermal energy for space heating, guest
hot water, the laundry, kitchen, pool, and spa (Figure 11-40).
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Figure 11-39. 2008 Average Hourly Thermal Usage by End Use with CHP Recovered Heat
Figure 11-39 (SI). 2008 Average Hourly Thermal Usage by End Use with CHP Recovered Heat
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Figure 11-40. 2008 Minimum Hourly Thermal Usage by End Use with CHP Recovered Heat
Figure 11-40 (SI). 2008 Minimum Hourly Thermal Usage by End Use with CHP Recovered Heat
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Note that 2008 was the year when energy costs peaked. Actual steam cost for 2009
was $28.43/106 Btu ($26.95/GJ), reflecting the economic downturn, and $30.19/106
Btu ($28.62/GJ) in 2010. Of course, the designer in 2008 did not have the certainty of
foresight regarding macro-economic events. However, a prudent designer might hedge
his/her bets and use $32/106 Btu ($30.33/GJ) for calculation purposes. The heating hot
water cost fell to $36.80/106 Btu ($34.88/GJ) in 2009 and then rose to $39.93/106 Btu
($37.85/GJ) in 2010.
The energy costs in Table 11-9 would lead to selecting a CHP plant favoring
thermal energy production over electricity production (a low thermal-to-electric [T/E]
ratio system) ,which favors microturbines over reciprocating engines.
Figure 11-41. Three Microturbines with Integrated Hot-Water Heat Recovery Heat Exchangers
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Installed capital cost for three microturbines, heating hot water isolation heat
exchanger; DHW heat exchanger; repiping the laundry heat exchanger; repiping
the kitchen heat exchanger; repiping the pool heat exchanger; repiping the spa heat
exchanger; installation of all necessary piping, valves, and pumps; interconnection
and all electrical services: $1,050,000.
Interest ratethe natural gas utility offered a 0% interest loan to be paid back as
a surcharge of natural gas sales: 0%.
Natural gas cost in years 1-2 ($/Decatherm): $12.00.
Natural gas cost in years 1-2 ($/GJ): $11.37.
Natural gas cost in year 3 ($/Decatherm): $10.00.
Natural gas cost in years 1-2 ($/GJ): $9.48.
Natural gas escalation in years 4-10: 5%.
Electricity cost ($/kWh): $0.10.
Electricity escalation: 3%.
Steam cost ($/106 Btu): $37.15.
Steam cost ($/GJ): $35.21.
Domestic hot water and space heating cost ($/106 Btu): $37.43.
Domestic hot water and space heating cost ($/GJ): $35.48.
Steam (and DHW) escalation: 5%.
Fixed maintenance costs ($/kW): $0.019.
The exceptional economics (104.84% IRR, shown in Table 11-10) are a direct
function of the source and high cost of the thermal energy streams and are dominated
by the incentive provided by the natural gas utility. This municipal utility provided a
0% interest loan for the project that is being repaid by a fee on the natural gas being
consumed by the CHP plant.
Table 11-11 shows the impact of a conventional 0% interest loan booked at the
beginning of year one, this reduces the IRR to a still respectable 28.9% and also reduces
the net present value (NPV) by half.
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Table 11-10. Initial Project Return on Investment without Initial Capital Expenditure
Year 0 1 2 3 4 5
Domestic hot water
$244,726 $256,962 $269,810 $283,301 $297,466
heating
Space heating $91,671 $96,254 $101,067 $106,120 $111,426
Electricity production $146,562 $147,939 $149,330 $150,734 $152,150
Electrical generation
2.00% 2.00% 2.00% 2.00%
degradation per year*
Total utility savings $482,958 $501,155 $520,207 $540,154 $561,042
Costs
Capital cost $0
Natural gas consumption -$255,320 -$255,320 -$212,767 -$223,405 -$234,576
Maintenance costs -$27,847 -$27,847 -$27,847 -$27,847 -$27,847
Total costs -$283,167 -$283,167 -$240,614 -$251,252 -$262,422
Annual cash flow
Annual net operating
$199,791 $217,988 $279,593 $288,902 $298,620
savings
Capital recovery -$199,000 -$199,000 -$199,000 -$199,000 -$199,000
Total cash flow -$30,000 $791 $18,988 $80,593 $89,902 $99,620
Cumulative cash flow $791 $19,779 $100,373 $190,275 $289,895
Year 6 7 8 9 10
Domestic hot water
$312,339 $327,956 $344,354 $361,571 $379,650
heating
Space heating $116,998 $122,848 $128,990 $135,439 $142,211
Electricity production $169,905 $171,502 $173,114 $174,741 $176,384
Electrical generation
0.00% 2.00% 2.00% 2.00% 2.00%
degradation per year*
Total utility savings $599,241 $622,305 $646,458 $671,752 $698,245
Costs $0 $0 $0 $0 $0
Capital cost $0 $0 $0 $0 $0
Natural gas consumption -$246,304 -$258,620 -$271,551 -$285,128 -$299,384
Maintenance costs -$27,847 -$27,847 -$27,847 -$27,847 -$27,847
Total costs -$274,151 -$286,466 -$299,397 -$312,975 -$327,231
Annual cash flow $0 $0 $0 $0 $0
Annual net operating
$325,090 $335,839 $347,061 $358,777 $371,014
savings
Total cash flow -$55,000 $0 $0 $0 $0
Cumulative cash flow $270,090 $335,839 $347,061 $358,777 $371,014
IRR 104.84%
NPV $538,225
* Microturbines will be rebuilt in year 5.
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Year 0 1 2 3 4 5
Domestic hot water
$312,339 $327,956 $344,354 $361,571 $379,650
heating
Space heating $116,998 $122,848 $128,990 $135,439 $142,211
Electricity production $169,905 $171,502 $173,114 $174,741 $176,384
Electrical generation
0.00% 2.00% 2.00% 2.00% 2.00%
degradation per year*
Total utility savings $599,241 $622,305 $646,458 $671,752 $698,245
Costs $0 $0 $0 $0 $0
Capital cost $0 $0 $0 $0 $0
Natural gas consumption -$246,304 -$258,620 -$271,551 -$285,128 -$299,384
Maintenance costs -$27,847 -$27,847 -$27,847 -$27,847 -$27,847
Total costs -$274,151 -$286,466 -$299,397 -$312,975 -$327,231
Annual cash flow $0 $0 $0 $0 $0
Annual net operating
$325,090 $335,839 $347,061 $358,777 $371,014
savings
Total cash flow $325,090 $335,839 $347,061 $358,777 $371,014
Cumulative cash flow $559,986 $895,825 $1,242,885 $1,601,663 $1,972,677
IRR 28.89%
NPV $276,776
* Microturbines will be rebuilt in year 5.
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2. The hotel heating thermal loop receives heat (now isolated) from the office
buildings hot water loop. This heated hot water is pumped to the hotel roof. On
each floor, heating hot water supplies heat through a heating coil located in a
floor air-handling unit, which in turn supplies conditioned air to the guest rooms
and hallway of each floor.
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3. An injection pump extracts 240 gpm (15 L/s) to be heated by the microturbine
heat recovery systems and reinjects the hot water back into the return line where
it returns to the isolation heat exchanger to pick up more heat from the office
building heating loop.
4. A new domestic hot-water preheating heat exchanger is tied into the hotel
heating loop to extract microturbine heat.
5. The laundry, kitchen, pool, and spa brazed-plate heat exchangers are added to
recover heat for the heating loop and supply these respective end uses.
The initial assessment accounted for an 80% load factor, including a two week
shutdown that amounts to about 10 weeks of downtime.
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Figure 11-43 (SI). Actual Hot-Water Usage July 13 to July 19, 2010
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Figure 11-44 (SI). Actual Hot-Water Usage October 24 to October 31, 2009
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site-to-source energy conversion factors from Standard 105. Applying Table 11-13
factors to Table 11-12 site energy figures yields the source energy data in Table 11-14.
Comparing the source energy use in 2010 and 2011 versus 2008 presents a 6 to 8%
annual source energy savings.
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The ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool has been further developed as part of ASHRAE
research project RP-1592 to provide an initial understanding of the CHP potential for
a given site. The results of the analysis are intended to be used for guidance purposes
only. The results of this CHP Analysis Tool should not be used for financial investment
decision making.
Site Data Input: describes the current site and its energy consumption
The ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool was developed for U.S. practitioners and is only
available in I-P units.
The Site Data Input screen (Figure 12-1) is where the existing load profiles and
energy costs for the site are established. The Site Data Input screen also contains the
most important step in developing a successful understanding of a sites CHP potential
the addressable thermal loads. Perhaps the most common design flaw in selecting and
configuring a CHP plant is incorrectly estimating the facilitys addressable loads,
which, if not properly itemized and quantified, can lead to a significant reduction in
anticipated thermal cost savings as well as annual fuel utilization efficiency.
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1. Can the thermal loads be physically addressed by a CHP system? This includes
such things as physical location (e.g., thermal loads are too far apart and cannot
be economically addressed) and type of equipment servicing the thermal load
(e.g., direct-expansion (DX) systems serve space heating or cooling and,
therefore, it is too expensive to convert to chilled-water/hot-water coils.).
2. This also includes an understanding of the thermal capacity of the CHP prime
mover that is available to service the load. Examples include the following:
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d. The available combustion turbine exhaust temperature, flow, heat flow, and
allowable back pressure.
a. Process dependent thermal loads (heating and cooling) that the user must
define in terms of average load per hour, deviation in terms of a single
percentage term that will calculate the maximum and minimum process
loads. These are non-weather-dependent loads.
c. Domestic hot water, which requires the user to input the average hourly load.
4. The Addressable Thermal Loads input table (Figure 12-3.) consists of the
following data entry parameters:
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a. Process Heat Type: available choices from the drop down menu are hot
water (MBH = 1000 Btu/h), steam (lb/h) or hot air (MBH).
b. Average Process Heat Load: the average hourly load directly pertains to
the operating hours already selected. It is most important to understand the
direct relationship between the addressable load selected and the
CHP prime mover selected. For example, serving a hot-water load that
requires 190F is non-addressable with a reciprocating-engine jacket
designed for a coolant temperature range of 160 to 180F (71 to 82C).
A microturbine providing hot exhaust gas to a process will have a supply
temperature between 350 and 450F (177 and 232C), whereas a
combustion turbine will have a supply temperature of between 800
and1000F (426 and 538C).
c. Process Heat Load Deviation: the process heat deviation is used to develop
the initial max/min load estimate. For example, entering 30% with an
average load of 3000 MBH means the maximum process load
will be calculated as 3900 MBH and the minimum will be calculated as
2100 MBH.
d. Space Heating Type: available choices from the dropdown menu are hot
water (MBH), steam (lb/h) or hot air (MBH).
e. Max Space Heating Load: entering the maximum space heating load
drives the installed capacity for the space heating system. The actual
load is calculated using local weather conditions based on the max
space-heating load input. The load should be the operating maximum
of the plant and not the nominal capacity of the plant.
f. Chilled Water Reheat: available choices for the dropdown menu are hot
water (MBH) or steam (lb/h). Chilled-water reheat load is derived from
the cooling load and the outside air fraction.
g. Outside Air Fraction: inputting the outside air fraction allows the model
to estimate the external latent load and, combining with average internal
latent load, to yield an estimated thermal reheat requirement.
h. Average Domestic Hot Water: input the average hourly load (MBH)
directly that pertains to the operating hours already selected. The model
recognizes the volatility of domestic hot-water demand and accounts for
this by using 20% of the average load as the base load. The CHP analysis
tool considers domestic hot water to be a steam load if steam is selected
as the exhaust use in the CHP System Input tab, otherwise it is
considered as a hot-water load.
j. Average Process Cooling Load: input the average hourly load (refrigeration
tons) directly that pertains to the operating hours already selected.
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l. Max Space Cooling Load: entering the maximum space cooling load
drives the installed capacity for the space-cooling system. The actual load
is calculated using localized weather data and the max space-heating load
input. The load should be the operating maximum of the plant and not the
nominal capacity of the plant.
The pie-chart (Figure 12-5) provides a graphical picture of the sites annual energy
cost according to the monthly billing data input.
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Fuel use offsets (see Figure 12-8) are provided in terms of fuel input associated
with each addressable load based on the data entered into the Addressable Thermal
Load section. They are compared to the total fuel input based on billing data and
provide a check on the validity of the addressable load data. Assuming that there are no
new loads added to the facility, the nonaddressable fuel use should always be a positive
number. If it is negative, this indicates that the claimed addressable loads may be too
big, because the fuel use associated with these loads should be no greater than the
actual fuel use provided in the billing information.
A more-detailed breakout of thermal loads and fuel use is provided at the end of
the tab to allow the user to review the loads compared to fuel use on a monthly basis.
Although the annual totals should result in an overall minimum of zero nonaddressable
fuel use, the monthly breakout helps to understand the accuracy of the various load
model components. Figure 12-9 presents an example of a typical application where
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nonaddressable fuel use is negative in June. This may be due to a misalignment of loads
and billing periods or due to a production shutdown in June and would have little
impact on the overall results as long as addressable load fuel use is lower than actual
fuel use for the rest of the year.
The ASHRAE CHP Analysis Tool was developed with the intention of having the
user input the CHP efficiencies as they would be with respect to the load type. The CHP
System Input screen (Figure 12-10) requires the user to understand the performance
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aspects of the CHP prime mover, particularly in relationship to the electricity and
addressable thermal loads that were input on the preceding worksheet. A number of
parameters relating to the performance of the CHP system, as well as the CHP fuel cost,
capital costs, and other costs and savings, are entered in this section to complete the
analysis. Figure 12-10 shows the complete CHP System Input tab along with the results
of matching the proposed CHP system with the loads entered in the Site Data Input tab.
The Nominal CHP System Performance (Figure 12-11) screen contains default
characteristics for a generic microturbine, generic reciprocating engines (<100 kW,
>100 kW and <700 kW and >700 kW), and simple-cycle combustion turbines. The
electric efficiency, exhaust heat recovery efficiency, and the jacket water heat recovery
efficiency (if available) are represented as a percentage of the fuels lower heating value
(LHV is used in this section because most manufacturers data is provided in terms of
LHV and is converted to HHV for load and efficiency calculations as well as economic
evaluation). The CHP performance input data is the second-most important area after
assessing the addressable loads. The user must understand the recoverable thermal
efficiency relative to the load. For example, if the user is inputting data for a microturbine,
and the thermal load is moderate temperature hot water 140F (60C), the exhaust
heat recovery efficiency may be 48%, whereas if the load is steam, the heat recovery
efficiency could be 30%. This issue highlights a significant deviation from most existing
model approaches; this e-tool requires the user to have some understanding of how
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prime-mover heat outputs interact with loads. This approach not only requires some
effort by the user, but, more importantly, once that understanding is obtained, it allows
very quick analysis of complex applications, with reliable results.
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Fuel Input (LHV), Exhaust HR, Jacket Water HR, and nominal CHP System
Efficiency are then calculated for the system based on the efficiencies input by the user.
The right-hand column data entries concern the thermal heat recovery uses based
on the Site Input Worksheet.
If process or space cooling is used, the heat recovery use (hot water, steam, or hot
air) is then selected which, in turn, provides a dropdown menu containing the available
equipment. If no addressable cooling is available or desired, then the user selects none,
to remove the cooling option from the analysis.
Exhaust Use. The user defines the heat recovery product from the exhaust stream
by selecting one of the options from the dropdown menu. Depending on the application,
exhaust can be used to generate hot water (MBH [= 1000 Btu/h]), steam (lb/h), or hot
air (MBH). In cases where hot water is produced by the exhaust from a reciprocating
engine, the total exhaust heat recovered as hot water will be added to the jacket heat
recovery to provide a single hot-water stream from the CHP plant.
Chiller Output Temp.If cooling is chosen, the chiller output temperature is >40F
(4.4C). If refrigeration is chosen, the chiller output temperature is either >40F
(4.4C), 20 to 40F (6.7 to 4.4C), 0< to 20F (17.8< to 6.7C), 20 to 0F (28.9<
to 17.8C) or < 20F (< 28.9C).
Figure 12-12 to 12-13 contain the output of the CHP system performance versus
the previously entered load data. This provides the user with an understanding of the
load availability versus CHP system output for the chosen configuration that allows the
user to iterate solutions focusing on optimizing load factor.
Figure 12-12 provides annual average demand and base-load data calculated from
the Site Data Input Worksheet. The CHP system output to satisfy the load requirements
is presented in the right two columns indicating output and load factor.
Figure 12-13 provides a quick valuation of average site demand (blue bars) versus
the CHP system capacity (red-striped bars). Note that, for the example data shown, the
CHP system produces 980 kW, which represents approximately 32% of the average
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Figure 12-12. Demand, Base Load, CHP Output, and CHP Load Factor Table
power demand; 1.9 million Btu of hot water, which is 67% of the hot-water demand;
over 59% of the steam demand; and 29% of the average cooling demand.
Figure 12-14 presents the same site average annual demand (blue bars) with the
CHP system capacity load factor superimposed in red-striped bars. In this scenario, the
CHP electric output has a 100% load factor, hot-water heat recovery has a 63% load
factor, steam output from the CHP system has a 92% load factor, and cooling output
has a 58% load factor.
The graphs in Figures 12-13 and 12-14 can assist the user in fine-tuning CHP
prime-mover selection and thermal heat recovery and use options that will maximize
load factor. In the model, any thermal energy not used for heating purposes is passed
through to the chiller and converted to cooling. Again, using the example data shown,
this means that the available hot-water heat recovery after the hot-water load has been
satisfied will be available for the chiller.
The overall annual efficiency is calculated as the total fuel use efficiency (see
Figure 12-15) by adding the electric output to the thermal output and dividing the result
by the higher value of the total fuel input. This result is an important design guide on
the suitability of the selected CHP size and configuration for the application. For
economically driven projects, the result should be greater than 60%, which is also a
typical efficiency threshold for grant qualification.
Calculated CHP Installation Cost. This provides the basic CHP system installed
cost based on currently available information for the selected system type. The basis
for equipment cost is the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Table 1 for seasonally
adjusted labor for manufacturing, which in June 2012 was 113.8 (2005 basis 100).
The basis for installation labor is the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Table 1 for
seasonally adjusted labor for installation, maintenance, and repair, which in June 2012
was 116.7 (2005 basis 100).
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Figure 12-14. Demand, Base Load, CHP Output, and CHP Load Factor
reflect actual site conditions and costs. Where the user has an installation cost developed,
the adjustment factor should be used to bring the models cost into line with actual
installation costs. The models material and labor costs are based on June 2012
estimates. Therefore, the user should consider changes in labor and manufacturing
costs when making further adjustments to the Calculated CHP Installation Cost.
Chiller Type. The chiller type is displayed to remind the user which thermally
activated cooling system is chosen, performance assessed, and costed.
Adjusted CHP Installed Cost. This is the corrected dollar amount of the
Adjustment Factor for new equipment costs and complexity of the site installation over
and above a straightforward system installation.
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Non-CHP System Costs. This cell provides a place to add any non-CHP-system-
related costs, such as a significant upgrade to the piping distribution system that may
not be included in rebatable CHP costs.
Fed 10% ITC. The current 10% federal investment tax credit can be selected from
the dropdown menu, which automatically calculates the credit and subtracts it from the
total net installed cost.
Grant/Rebate. Federal, state, and utility-based grants can be entered. Figure 12-17
is a simple grant calculator that quickly calculates a potential grant amount based on $/
kW ($550/kW example). Grant caps are usually expressed as a percentage of project
capital, typically on an installed basis (example = 30%).
Capital Cost Credit. This cell provides a place to enter any additional capital cost
credits that can be applied to the project, such as offsetting purchase of diesel backup
generators if the CHP system will provide emergency power capability, or costs associated
with bringing new power service to the facility if the CHP plant can provide this power
instead. The number entered here is deducted from the net installed cost but does not
impact the CHP system installation costs, which may be the basis for grant caps.
Net Installed Cost Budget. This calculates the adjusted capital amount, including
any additions, complexities, incentives, grants, and cost offsets.
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The $/kW provides a rule-of-thumb check to compare this project with prior
experience. This number is based on the net installed cost number and includes all
capital cost adders and offsets.
Existing Fuel. This displays the existing fuel from the Site Data Input Worksheet.
CHP Fuel. This displays the CHP fuel, which is natural gas, because the CHP
prime movers this model focuses on are microturbines, reciprocating engines, and
combustion turbines. Other gaseous fuels can be used, but this will require prime-
mover efficiency adjustments and fuel cost adjustments.
Projected CHP Fuel Cost. The basic fuel cost is generated from the monthly
fuel bills; however, the user can change this calculated cost, inputting a different
$/MMBtu cost.
Use Projected Cost. To use the project cost versus the historical calculated cost,
select Yes from the dropdown box.
Incremental Oper Cost. The user can input additional incremental operating
expense on a cost-per-month basis. Standard CHP system maintenance, including
cooling/refrigeration system maintenance, is included in the basic operating-cost
calculation.
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Standby Charge. The user can input distributed power standby charges, if they
exist. The value input here is carried through the economic evaluation as a per-month
operating charge.
Other Incremental Cost. This can be used for any additional monthly input charges.
Other Savings. This can be used for any additional monthly savings.
Total Power Output. Total electric power produced annually by the CHP System
in kWh.
Total Useful Heat. Total useful heat supplied annually to the site in million Btu.
Total Useful Cooling. Total cooling or refrigeration supplied annually to the site
in ton-hours.
Cost of Fuel. Total annual cost of fuel, based on the operating hours, electric load
factor, electric efficiency, and the monthly unit cost of fuel.
Maintenance. The total annual maintenance cost includes the prime mover, heat
recovery, and chiller plant, if selected.
Operation. Annual cost based on user-supplied input for incremental operating cost,
if required. The proposed CHP plant may require additional operating or administrative
personnel, which should be accounted for here.
Standby Cost. The annual charge calculated from the Operating Cost input screen.
Other Costs. The annual charge calculated from the Operating Cost input screen.
Power Offset. The annual value of the net power delivered to the site by the CHP
system displacing retail purchase of electricity. This calculation also includes kWh
offset by a cooling system, if used.
Heat Offset. The net thermal heat (note: thermal cooling displaces electricity)
delivered to the site by the CHP system displacing retail purchase of natural gas.
Capital Budget. Calculated installed capital net of all additional cost, offsets, and
capital incentives.
Net Annual Savings. Net annual offsets less net total costs.
10-Year Net. The 10-year net value is the total value of the project in present
dollars when a 3% escalation is applied to all costs and offsets and includes interest
charges based on the cost of capital, if financing is selected.
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Figure 12-20 shows the input for calculating interest charges, if financing is desired.
If the project is to be funded by the owner, then a 1-year loan term should be selected
with 0% interest rate.
Figures 12-22 to 12-27 provide the user with printed results of the analysis, which
is intended to serve as a a comprehensive CHP analysis report and a deliverable that
can be provided to the client.
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GLOSSARY
auxiliary firing addition of extra fuel into the exhaust gases of a turbine to
provide an increase in heat output. This technique uses the preheated excess oxygen in
the exhaust gas from the turbine and provides extra heat at high efficiency. Ideally
suited for meeting peak heat demands.
base load the level of demand, for heat or electricity, that exists for the majority
of the operating period. The demand will rarely be less than this base load. This load
should be met from the lowest cost sources.
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capacity the maximum power output or the load for which a generating unit,
generating station, or other electrical apparatus is rated. Common units include kilovolt-
ampere (kVa), kilowatt (kW), and megawatt (MW).
capacity factor the ratio of the energy that a plant produces to the energy that
would be produced if it were operated at full capacity throughout a given period, usually
a year. Sometimes called the plant factor.
demand charge charge for the maximum rate at which energy is used during
peak hours of a billing period.
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exit fee charge levied by a utility when a customer leaves the grid or reduces its
load through distributed generation, to compensate for investments made by the utility
on behalf of that customer.
extraction condensing steam turbine a turbine system that exhausts the steam
to a lower-than-atmospheric pressure. This increases the efficiency of the generation
but increases the cost and complexity of the plant.
heating value (or calorific value) the number of heat units obtained by the
combustion of a unit mass of a fuel. . (Also see lower heating value (LHV) and higher
heating value (HHV).
higher (or gross) heating value (HHV) the standard measure of the energy
released during combustion of a fuel, assuming the product water is in the liquid state,
after the products of combustion are cooled to the original fuel temperature. Most
engine suppliers quote engine fuel consumption and efficiencies using the lower
heating value (LHV) of the fuel, but gas is sold by its HHV. It is essential to use the
same definition of HHV throughout CHP system calculations involving fuel costs and
fuel energy inputs. For natural gas fuel, the HHV is approximately 5 to 10% higher
than the LHV.
independent power producer (IPP) any entity not regulated by the government
as a public utility that owns or operates an electricity generating facility and offers
electric power for sale to utilities and/or the public (also known as nonutility generator).
lower heating value (LHV) the standard measure of the energy released during
combustion of a fuel, assuming the product water is in the gaseous state. The LHV is
the total heat produced in combustion less the energy in the uncooled products of
combustion, including uncondensed water vapor. The LHV of fuel is typically 5% to
10% less than the higher heating value (HHV).
319
marginal cost in the utility context, the cost to the utility of providing the next
(marginal) kilowatthour of electricity, irrespective of sunk costs.
net metering practice that allows the electric meters of customers with generating
facilities to turn backwards when the generators are producing energy in excess of the
customers demand, enabling customers to use their own generation to offset their
consumption over a billing period.
open access ability to send (or wheel) electric power to a customer over a
transmission and distribution system not owned by the generator of the power.
peak load the maximum demand for heat or electricity that occurs in any one
hour in a year.
Public Utility Regulatory Policy Act (PURPA) of 1978 federal legislation that,
among other things, requires utilities to buy electric power from private qualifying
facilities, at an avoided cost rate equivalent to what it would have otherwise cost the
utility to generate or purchase that power. Utilities must further provide customers who
choose to self-generate a reasonably priced backup supply of electricity.
retail wheeling transmitting electricity over transmission lines not owned by the
supplier of the electricity to a retail customer of a supplier.
320
thermal energy storage (TES) system that produces cold water, usually at
night when electrical rates are lowest, and stores the water in insulated tanks for use in
air-conditioning applications when rates are higher.
wheeling moving electricity from the generating facility to the customer over
one or more separately owned electric transmission and distribution systems.
321
EXERGY ANALYSIS
The term exergy originated from the Greek words meaning from and work
(McGovern, 1990a). It means the useful energy or, work, potential of a system at a
specified state that could be realized as the system relaxes to the state of the overall
environment, coming to intensive property (e.g., Ttemperature, Ppressure, chemical
composition) equilibrium with that environment. Exergy is a co-property of the state of
the system and the reference environment. In many contexts, the term exergy is thought
of as synonymous with: available work, available energy, availability, available useful
work, maximum work, or reversible work.
The useful work could be defined as the energy that could cause a mass to be lifted
through a distance in a gravitational field, or perfectly elastic spring to be compressed
by a measurable displacement, or frictionless flywheel to be accelerated from one
angular velocity to another (McGovern, 1990a) as the defined system relaxes to the
intensive properties of the overall environment, that is, as it is thermodynamically
driven to intensive property equilibrium with the overall environment, achieving the
so-called dead- state conditions. Thermodynamic work includes mechanical work,
electrical work, chemical work, and so on. Definitions, concepts, and exergy related
equations follow primarily from the second law of thermodynamics, and are simply
re-conceptualizations of the first and second laws. . The second law of thermodynamics
expresses the directions of energy transfer in terms of intensive property (T, P, chemical
composition) differences between a defined system within a given boundary and,
ultimately, the overall macro-environment. The Clausius statement of the second law is
this: Nno process is possible whose sole result is the transfer of heat from a body of
lower temperature to a body of higher temperature. This concept gave the definition of
a physical property: the entropy.
323
In an isolated system:
( S )ISOL 0 B-1
The equality sign corresponds responses to the ideals case of a reversible process.
In a combined system,
( S )SYSTEM + ( S )SURROUNDINGS 0 B-2
The increase of entropy is the prediction of thewhat processes, chemical reactions,
transformations between various energy forms, or direction of heat transfer (Kotas,
1985) that can occur as a defined system interacts with its surroundings, the macro-
environment. The second law gives the limit of energy conversions between different
forms of energy, and, thereby, leading to the concept of energy quality. On a molecular
level, entropy can be considered as a measurement of randomness and resultant
uncertainty of matter. All practical interactions between a system and the environment
increase the randomness of the system and environment, leading to a smaller portion
of energy available to convert into useful, ordered work. Therefore, the entropy is
considered as the measurement of unavailability of the energy in the system relative
to the environment (Reynolds, 1977).
Two groups of phenomena are found in irreversible process. One involves direct
dissipation of work into internal energy of the system; that is, i.e., fully organized
macroscopic work is converted to the microscopic energy associated with the random
motion of the molecules. This dissipation is caused by solid or fluid friction, mechanical
or electrical hysteresis, ohmic resistance, etc.
324
The condition for reversibility of a process is that the system passes through a
series of equilibrium states; that is, the process is allowed to occur in an infinite number
of small state changes, and dissipative phenomena are absent from the system.
Therefore, the interaction between the system and the environment occurs in a quasi-
static manner.
In an irreversible process, all its effects on both the system and its environment
cannot be negated without calling on the aid of a perpetual-motion machine of the
second kind, in contravention of the second law of thermodynamics. All practical
processes are, in some measure, irreversible (Haywood 1992).
Internal reversibility implies that all process within the system are reversible (i.e.,
that there is an absence of friction, of diffusive heat transfer, and of diffusive mixing
within the system, so that the system passes through a succession of equilibrium states
in a quasi-static process).
External reversibility implies that all heat exchanges between the system and its
environment are made reversibly. This requires either that the temperature of any part
of the system that exchanges heat with the environment is infinitesimally different from
that of the environment, or that such an equal amount of heat exchange frorm the
environment to the system could occur by immediately reversing the infinitesimal
temperature gradient. Full reversibility implies the existence of both internal and
external reversibility, in the sense defined above.
where
p0 = ambient pressure
V1 = volume at state 1
V2 = volume at state 2
Internal energy change is the total work output (mechanical and/or electrical)
produced directly by system Z.
External work output is the work produced by such auxiliary cyclic devices as are
needed to ensure external reversibility. This is wholly in the form of useful shaft work
(McGovern, 1990a).
325
Normal work:
Assuming the diameter of the piston rod is negligible, the work transmitted by it
during the expansion of the gas is given by
p0
Wu = pdV p0 V B-5
P
Wu = W p0 dV B-6
326
Shear work:
By means of a suitable ideal mechanism, shear work at a boundary can cause the
lifting of a weight and no other effect. Therefore,
Wu, s = Ws B-7
Important theorems in availability are found in Haywood (1992) and are noted as
follows:
For a system that can exchange heat with a single thermal reservoir (e.g., the
environment at temperature T0 , the gross work output is the same for all fully reversible
processes between the same specified end states 1 and 2. During any irreversible
process between these same specified end states in the presence of the specified
environment at temperature T0 , the gross work output is always less than the state 1 to
state 2 transition difference.
For a system undergoing an irreversible process between specified end states in the
presence of an environment at temperature T_0, the loss of gross work output due to
irreversibility is equal to T0 Sc , where Sc is the entropy creation due to irreversibility
within the system.
In a fully reversible process, there is zero entropy creation in the combined system
+ environment context (i.e., entropy is conserved).
Exergy may now be formally defined as the maximum useful work that could be
produced by the interaction of a system with a specified reference environment.
One of the main uses of this concept is in an exergy balance in the analysis of
thermal systems. The exergy balance is similar to an energy balance but has the
fundamental difference that, whilewhereas the energy balance is a statement of the law
of conservation of energy, the exergy balance may be looked upon as a statement of the
law of degradation of energy. Degradation of energy is equivalent to the irretrievable
loss of exergy, (maximum available useful work) due tobecause all real, practical,
processes arebeing irreversible. From (Kotas, 1985).
327
B.2.3 Environment
The environment, as conceived in the Exergy Methodin the context of exergy, is a
very large body or medium in the state of perfect thermodynamic equilibrium. Thus,
this conceptual environment has no gradients or difference involving pressure,
temperature, chemical potential, kinetic, or potential energy and, therefore, there is no
possibility of producing work from any form of interaction between parts of the
environment. Any system outside the environment whichthat has one or more
parameters, such as pressure, temperature, or chemical potential, thatwhich differs
from the corresponding environmental parameter, has the potential to produce useful
work as it interacts with the macro-environment and drives toward equilibrium with it
(i.e., transitions to the dead state).
B.2.4 Equilibrium
The Environmental State
Equilibrium can be conceptualized in two forms: :
Restricted equilibrium, in which conditions of mechanical and thermal
equilibrium between the system and the environment are satisfied, requires the
pressure and the temperature of the system and environment to be equal. The
adjective restricted indicates that, under these conditions, the substances of the
system are restrained by a physical barrier that prevents the exchange of matter
between system and environment. Under conditions of restricted equilibrium, there
are no requirements of chemical equilibrium between system and environment.
The kinetic and potential energies of a stream of substance are ordered forms of
energy and thus fully convertible to work. Therefore, when evaluated in relation to
the environmental reference, they are equal to kinetic and potential exergy respectively.
Thus,
Ek = m C
2
B-12
2
EP = mg E Z 0 B-13
where m becomes is the mass flow rate of the fluid stream, c is the bulk velocity of
the fluid stream relative to the surface of the earth, Z0 is the altitude of the stream above
the sea level, and gE is gravitational acceleration, considered a constant.
Use of environmental reference states for c and Z is only important where there is
direct interaction of the stream with the environment, for example, when evaluating
kinetic exergy of the exhaust gases of an engine. In most other cases, only changes in
kinetic and potential exergies are associated and, therefore, any inertial reference frame
may be used.
329
values using standard chemical exergy tables. The dividing state in the processes that
are used to determine physical and chemical exergy is the environmental state (T0 , P0 )
(McGovern, 1990; VM, 1973)
E = U U * T0 ( S S * ) + P0 (V S * ) + ( i* 0,i ) Ni B-14
The superscript * refers to the thermomechanical dead state of the system, whereas
subscript 0 refers to properties of the specified reference environment. i* represents the
chemical potential of substance i within the system, whereas 0,i represents the chemical
potential of the same substance i in the specified reference environment.
This expression represents the total exergy of a system at a specified state as defined
by three independent thermodynamic properties (usually T and P) and its chemical
composition (expressed as the numbers of moles of all substances present) with respect
to a reference environment as specified by the three independent thermodynamic
properties (again usually T and P) and its chemical composition (in terms of the mole
fractions, Ni of all substances present). The chemical potential pi of a component i
within a system is the partial molar Gibbs free energy of that component such that for
the system,
G = i Ni B-15
For a particular chemical species i which is at its partial pressure pi* within a system
at the thermomechanical dead state and that also exists in the specified reference
environment, the chemical exergy is equal to the reversible isothermal work that would
be done if the substance were to expand from its actual partial pressure to its partial
pressure in the specified reference environment. If the chemical species is an ideal gas,
this can be represented as
p
Ech ,i = mi RT
i 0ln p
*
i
B-16
o, i
Thus, for a system consisting of a mixture of ideal gases which all exist in the
specified reference environment,
Ech = mi RT p
i 0ln p
*
i
B-17
o, i
EW = W p0 V B-18
Ew,s = Ws B-19
Ew,n = Wn = p0 V B-20
where Ew,s is shear work exergy and, Ew,n is normal work exergy.
330
h1 + C2 + gz1 + q = h2 + C2 + gz2 + w
2 2
1 2 B-21
Here the term w represents the shear work done by the steady flow system and
excludes the flow work interactions (normal work) at system boundaries 1 and 2.
E12 = A1 A2 B-25
= H H 0 T0 ( S S0 ) B-26
B = H T0 S B-27
Thus, the reversible shear work transferred from the system to some useful work
reservoir for a flow process from state 1 to state 2 in which only reversible heat transfer
interaction with the specified reference is allowed is given by
Ws = B1 B2 B-28
The lost work theorem, states that the exergy destruction is equal to the product of
T0 and the entropy generated within the system:
i = T0 ( s2 s1 ) dqT B-29
331
The rational efficiency is therefore defined as follows. Let E1-2 represent the
decrease in the exergy of the system over the period for which the rational efficiency is
defined. E1 > E2, then the rational efficiency, , is given by
Eout, k
= Ein ,1 + E12
B-30
If E1< E2 then
Eout ,k + E21
= Ein ,1
B-31
Eout ,k
= Ein ,1
B-32
fE = E
(E + Q) B-34
fQ = Q B-35
(E + Q)
where fE and fQ are the fractions of the emissions from the electrical and thermal
products, respectively.
E and Q stand for the net outputs of electrical energy and thermal energy from the
CHP system, respectively.
where cE and cQ denote for the unit economic values of electricity and heat,
respectively.
fQ = Q
E cE + Q B-39
cQ
FQ = Q B-40
B
where B is the energy efficiency of the independent devices for thermal energy.
FE = F FQ B-41
Then
Q
fQ = F B
B-42
f E = 1 fQ B-43
The problem with traditional CO2 emissions methods is that the results are not
commonly accepted and it is thought that the reasoning is not well established (Rosen
2006). To some degree, the results could be conflicting. In many cases, the use of those
methods is overly complex.
333
C = C E + Cq B-44
CE and CQ are the CO2 emissions with the electrical and thermal energy products.
where F is the total fuel usage and is the CO2 emission coefficient.
C = ( FE + FQ ) B-46
The fuel exergy consumption, EXFE and generating the electrical exergy EXE
EX B-47
EX = E
FE E
where E is the exergy efficiency of generating the electrical energy product in the
process.
FQ Q
where Q is the exergy efficiency of thermal energy.
EX
E
fE = E B-49
EX E
E
+ X Q
E Q
EX
Q
fQ =
Q
EX E B-50
E
+ X Q
E Q
334
Strictly speaking, exergy is the portion of energy that could convert into useful
work, but exergy analysis can indicate when such energy might be more effectively used
as heat in a thermal process addressed by the system, rather than attempting to convert
to it to mechanical work or electrical energy. Only during ideal processes would exergy
be conserved; otherwise, it would decrease in direct proportion to the entropy created.
First law energy analysis is widely implemented in all different aspects of industrial
applications. First law energy analysis alone ignores the quality of energy being addressed
and therefore does not address considerations to establish the relative value of converting
the potential energy of a system at question into work or its application as immediately
useful thermal energy. Stated alternatively, high-efficiency equipment may have a very
low efficiency if it is forced to use low-quality energy forms. Thermal-energy-dependent
equipment efficiencies or effectiveness factors may be optimized by careful consideration
of the degradation of changes in the quality of the thermal energy in the utilization
processes. Exergy analysis reveals the energy utilization issues that can be ignored in
first law energy analysis. It offers an insightful view of the characteristics of systems and
helps in design of efficient systems by indicating the nodes at which energy is most
effectively converted to different useful forms to meet the goals of the system.
Efficiency Analysis
Heating
The electricity generation rate W is the function of heat generation rate QH andwith
the use of an electric chiller:
( )
W = elec
CHP
elec
CHP
Q H B-51
W = ( ) (Q
CHP
elec
CHP
elec
H +Q gen) B-52
elec and heat are the electrical and heat efficiencies of the CHP, respectively.
where CHP CHP
335
W + Q H + Q gen
CHP
tot
=
E f
B-54
Figure B-2. Simplified Diagram of CHP District Energy System Proposed by Edmonton Power.
(Rosen et al. 2004)
Figure B-2 (SI). Simplified Diagram of CHP District Energy System Proposed by Edmonton
Power (SI version) (Rosen et al. 2004)
336
(RE ) f
gen
B-56
where QH and Qgen , respectively, are the exergetic temperature factors for QH and
Qgen. For heat transfer at a temperature T, 1 T0T (Kotas 1985), where T0 is the
environmental temperature. R is the energy grade function; for most fossil fuels, it is
between 0.9 and 1.0 (Dincer et al. 2003; Kotas 1985).
Cooling
B-57
Wch
337
Table B-1. Overall and Subsystem Efficiencies for CHP-based District Energy System
Energy efficiency, (%) Exergy efficiency, (%)
One-stage Two-stage One-stage Two-stage
Centrifugal absorption absorption Centrifugal absorption absorption
System chiller chiller chiller chiller chiller chiller
Heating side* 85 85 85 30 31 31
Cooling side 532 80 143 14 9 12
Overall system 94 83 88 28 29 29
*The heating side includes cogeneration, district heating and end-use heating.
The cooling side includes chilling, district cooling and end-use cooling.
These are coefficient of performance (COP) values when divided by 100.
The pipes are considered perfectly insulated so that there is no heat loss or
infiltration during the transport of fluid.
For heating:
Q Q Hu
DH =
u
H
B-59
Q QH H
For cooling:
Cu
DC = Q Q
u
C
B-60
Q QC C
For heating:
Q H + Q u,w u,w
UH = Q
u,s u,s
H H QH
B-61
Q u Q Hu
H
For cooling:
Q C
UC = Q
u,r
u,r
C
B-62
Q u Q Cu
C
B-63
E f
The overall system exergy efficiency is
Q H + Q Q H Q Q C
sys =Wnet + Q
u,s u,w u,r
u,s u,w u,r
B-64
H H C
( RE )f
338
Research results
From a first law analysis point of view, the system seems to achieve high efficiency.
The comparison with exergy analysis demonstrates that the first law energy analysis
cannot provide a meaningful understanding of the system. The exergy efficiency is much
lower than the energy efficiency. The low exergy efficiency of the chillers is the main
reason for the low exergy efficiency for the whole system.
The difference between exergy and energy analysis is mainly because the first law
energy utilizes the energy quantity and ignores the quality of different forms of energy.
The electricity exergy and energy analysis is identical, but the thermal energy analysis
involves the quality. This research improved the understanding of efficiencies of the
district energy and its components. It may help designers and engineers to simulate and
understand the exergy in district CHP systems.
Efficiency Analysis
The system provides electric power to the electrical auxiliaries of the boiler. The
system also provides the fuel to burn. The flow of water is the heat transfer medium.
It is assumed that the energy input via electricity is one-half the 100 units of
calorific values at the system boundary.
For 100 units of calorific value of the fuel, the exergy is 106.8 units.
339
This low rational efficiency demonstrates that there is still a huge space for
improvement for the boiler, even though it has a first law efficiency of 85%.
Efficiency Analysis
The thermal efficiency of the microturbine is based on the first law of energy
conservation as the ratio of work obtained to the input of energy:
where LHV is the lower heating value of the fuel, W is the work generated, Q is the
unit of heat input, and m is the mass flow rate in kg/s.
E = E KN + E PT + E CH + E PH B-70
where, EKN is kinetic exergy, EPT is potential exergy, ECH is chemical exergy, and
E PH
is physical exergy.
is the molar Gibbs function of formation, which equals 1.04 for natural gas c,c
is the efficiency of the combustion chamber.
340
E PH = ( h h0 ) T0 ( s s0 ) B-72
Research results
From the first law analysis showed that the microturbine with an absorption chiller
reduces 41% of the carbon dioxide emissions and has an energy utilization factor of
65%. This is because the exhaust heat was recovered in the absorption chiller. The
second law exergy analysis indicated that the most exergy destruction was in the
entrance of the absorber, this resultinged from the mixing process and heat transfer
between three streams entering the absorber.
where EQ and EW are the exergy transfers associated with Q and W, respectively.
I is the loss of exergy because of irreversibility, and is the specific exergy.
Exergy efficiency:
Eout
= Ein
= 1 E1 < 1 B-74
in
The exergy is an extensive property, and defined by the system and reference
environment: temperature T0, pressure p0 , and chemical potential i0:
E = ( H H 0 ) T0 ( S S0 ) + Ni ( i i 0 ) B-75
For the heat transfer and a constant temperature, the thermal exergy is given by
T
(
EQ = 1 T Q 0
p
) B-76
Domestic gas-fired and electric heating equipment exergy efficiency are given by
(1 )
( )
T0
Tp Q
T
= = 1 T0 B-77
We p
341
From these equations, we know that reference temperature T0 influences the exergy
efficiency. When the process temperature Tp is low, for example, as in space heating,
the exergy efficiency is reduced by 50%. At high process temperatures, the exergy
efficiency only decreases by 20%.
Conclusions
Exergy analysis is a significant engineering and policy analysis tool. It provides a
different understanding of complex energy systems. For example, Reistad (1975) noted
that, from the first law perspective, the energy loss is in the condenser, and there is little
room for improvement, unless by the bottoming cycle. Second law analysis shows
the major exergy losses are in the combustion process and heat exchangers.
Researchers found that the residential/commercial sectors have higher potential for
energy savings, because of the huge difference between the overall energy and exergy
efficiencies. More specifically, the exergy efficiency is generally lower than the energy
efficiency, because it takes the quality of energy into account. In addition, although the
building industry is less energy intensive than other fields of industry, it is more likely
to encounter challenges related to energy use.
The parasitic load resulting from a natural gas compressor can be estimated using
the following equation as found in Gas Engineers Handbook (1965).
where
H p = parasitic load,
K = k / ( k 1)
k = specific heat ratio=1.26
Qs = gas flow, scf/day
Ps = standard pressure = 14.73 psia
Ts = sttandard temperature = 520 R
T1 = gas inlet temperature, R
Z = compressibility factor (approximately 0.95 to 1.00 over
the range of temperatures and pressures of interest))
e = compressor efficiency
C = pressure ratio
Pressure ratio C is the ratio of the absolute discharge pressure to the absolute inlet pressure.
342
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COMBINED
generation is recovered as useful energy, avoiding the losses that would otherwise be
incurred from separate generation of heat and power. Recent advances in electricity-
efficient, cost-effective generation technologiesin particular, advanced combustion
turbines and reciprocating engineshave allowed for new configurations of systems
that combine heat and power production, expanding opportunities for these systems
This guide provides up-to-date application and operational information about prime
movers, heat recovery devices, and thermally activated technologies; technical and
economic guidance regarding CHP systems design, site screening, and assessment
guidance and tools; and installation, operation, and maintenance advice. As well as a
DESIGN GUIDE
glossary of terms, the book features extensive, detailed case studies on implementations
in university, industrial, and hotel settings. Information is presented in both Inch-Pound
(I-P) and International System (SI) units.
Also included with the book is access to the newly developed ASHRAE CHP Analysis
Tool, a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet (in I-P units only) for use in assessing sites for
CHP applicability.
Combined Heat and Power Design Guide is an essential resource for consulting
engineers, architects, building owners, and contractors who are involved in evaluating,
selecting, designing, installing, operating, and maintaining these systems.
ISBN 978-1-936504-87-9