Bolting Technology

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Bolt Science Limited 2004 - All Rights Reserved

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Handbook on Bolting Technology
Contents
Bolt and Thread Terminology .........................................................................................................................3
Bolt Terminology ............................................................................................................................................3
Thread Terminology .......................................................................................................................................3
Coarse and Fine Threads...............................................................................................................................4
The Strength of Bolts and Nuts and their Markings ......................................................................................5
Terminology used to Describe Bolt Strength...................................................................................................5
Property Class and Strength Grade ................................................................................................................6
Matching the Bolt Strength to the Nut Strength ...............................................................................................7
Markings on Fasteners...................................................................................................................................7
The Stress Area of a Thread ..........................................................................................................................8
The Basics of Bolt Loading.............................................................................................................................8
Methods of Tightening Threaded Fasteners ................................................................................................10
Torque-Angle Controlled Tightening .............................................................................................................10
Yield Controlled Tightening...........................................................................................................................11
Hydraulic and Jack Bolt Tensioning..............................................................................................................11
Heat Tightening............................................................................................................................................11
Tension Indicating Methods..........................................................................................................................12
Torque Tightening of Threaded Fasteners...................................................................................................13
What is Torque?...........................................................................................................................................13
Determining the Torque Value ......................................................................................................................14
1. Experimental Determination of the Torque Value ..................................................................................14
2. The Nut Factor Method .........................................................................................................................14
3. The Full Torque Tension Relationship................................................................................................16
Lubrication and Re-use of Fasteners............................................................................................................18
Hydraulic Tensioning of Bolts ......................................................................................................................20
Hydraulic Tensioners ...................................................................................................................................20
Elastic Recovery ..........................................................................................................................................21
Hydraulic and Oil Filled Nuts ........................................................................................................................22
Rubber Filled Nuts .......................................................................................................................................23
Equipment Suppliers....................................................................................................................................23
Load Sensing Fasteners ...............................................................................................................................24
Strain Gauges..............................................................................................................................................24
Load Cells....................................................................................................................................................24
Rotabolt .......................................................................................................................................................25
SmartBolts ...................................................................................................................................................25
Load Indicating Washers..............................................................................................................................25
Tension Control Bolts...................................................................................................................................26
Suppliers of Load Sensing Fasteners...........................................................................................................27
Tightening Procedures for Bolted Joints .....................................................................................................28
Introduction..................................................................................................................................................28
Elastic Interaction and Bolt Cross Talk .........................................................................................................28
Tightening Sequences .................................................................................................................................28
Tests on Bolt Cross Talk ..............................................................................................................................29
Conclusions from the Tests ..........................................................................................................................30
Two Pass Tightening Sequence ...................................................................................................................30
Use of Multiple Tightening Tools...................................................................................................................30
Hydraulic Tensioning....................................................................................................................................30
Ways to Check the Tightening Sequence .....................................................................................................30
Solder Plug Method..................................................................................................................................31
Pressure Sensitive Film............................................................................................................................31
The Tightening Procedure............................................................................................................................31
Appendix 1 - Thread Shear and Stripping Areas .........................................................................................32
Appendix 2 - Key Mechanical Properties of Bolts and Fasteners...............................................................33
Appendix 3 - Key Mechanical Properties of Nuts.........................................................................................34
Appendix 4 - Tightening Sequences for Circular Bolt Patterns ..................................................................35
Appendix 5 - Example Tightening Procedure ..............................................................................................36
Appendix 6 - Glossary of Terms ...................................................................................................................37
Bolt Science Limited 2004 - All Rights Reserved www.boltscience.com Page 2 of 43

Bolt and Thread Terminology
Bolt Terminology
A bolt is the term used for a threaded fastener designed to be used in conjunction with a
screw. A screw is the term used for a threaded fastener designed to mate with a pre-formed
internal thread or forming its own thread.
Names are given to specific parts of a

bolt, the head, shank and thread being
the three main parts. The size of a bolt is Head Shank Diameter
Thread
a combination of the thread diameter and
the length. The length is normally taken
from the underside of the head to the end
of the thread. Length
For example a bolt designated as M12 x 100 indicates that the bolt is a metric thread of 12
mm diameter and of 100 mm length. A full designation of the bolt usually includes the head
type and the standard that the bolt is made to. For example: Hexagon head bolt DIN 6914 -
M12 x 100 indicates that a standard
hexagon head form is to be used, DIN
6914 refers to the standard that the
bolt is to be made to (the German
standard on high strength hexagon
head bolts) and M12 x 100 is as per
the previous explanation
In a similar manner, a bolt designated

as 1/2 x 4 indicates that the bolt has a
1/2 inch thread diameter and the bolt is 4 inches in length.
Head forms that are commonly used are the hexagon head, flanged head, socket head and
12 point head. The size of the hexagon head on a bolt is defined by the across flats (or A/F)
dimension of the hexagon. Typically the A/F size is approximately 1.5 times the bolt thread
dimension.
Thread Terminology
A thread is a groove that in the Pitch
case of fasteners is typically of
a vee form. Enlarging a section
Major Crest
of a thread it can be observed Diameter Angle
as a series of ridges and
Pitch
hollows. Specific names are Diameter
given to parts of the thread.
Minor
The crest is the top most Diameter Root
section of the thread. The root
is the bottom of the thread. The Pitch/2
thread flanks lie between the
roots and crest of the threads.

The major diameter of a thread is, for an external thread, the diameter over the crests
of the thread. For an internal thread it is the diameter over the thread roots. The pitch
diameter cannot be directly measured since there is no marking or indication on the thread to
measure. To explain the pitch diameter, it is first necessary to understand what the pitch is.
The pitch of the thread is the distance between successive points on the thread form as
illustrated in the diagram. For inch threads, the pitch is defined as the number of threads per
inch - or tpi. With metric threads the pitch is directly specified.
The pitch diameter is the diameter on the thread that the space between the threads is
equal to the space across the thread. The pitch diameter is a critical dimension in
determining the acceptability of threaded connections. It is sometimes referred to as the
effective diameter. The minor diameter of an external thread is the diameter of the roots of
the thread. For an internal thread it is the diameter over the thread crests. Most thread forms
have a radius at the root of an external thread. The radius improves the fatigue resistance of
the thread.
Coarse and Fine Threads

Threads are often referred to as
coarse or fine. This has nothing to do
with the thread quality. A coarse or
fine thread refers to the pitch size, a
coarse thread having a larger pitch
than a fine thread for the same thread
diameter. There are thread series for
both coarse and fine threads. For
example the UNF thread refers to a
Unified National Fine thread, UNC to a
Unified National Coarse. For a given
thread diameter, a UNF thread has a
smaller pitch - that is, a larger number
of threads per inch - than a UNC
thread. A standard metric thread is a
coarse thread. There is a metric fine
thread series but it is normally only
specified for specialised applications.
There are advantages and disadvantages in selecting a coarse thread compared to a fine
thread.
Size for size a fine thread is stronger than a coarse thread. This is both in tension
(because of the larger stress area - this term is explained later in this tutorial) and shear
(because of the larger minor diameter).
Fine threads have also less tendency to loosen, since the thread incline is smaller and
hence so is the off torque. The off torque is the torque that tends to undo the fastener and
is present because of the preload (that is, the clamp force provided by the bolt).
Because of the smaller pitch, fine threads allow finer adjustments in applications that
need such a feature.
Fine threads can be more easily tapped into hard materials and thin walled tubes.
Fine threads require less torque to develop equivalent bolt preloads.

Fine threads also have a number of significant disadvantages:

Fine threads are more susceptible to galling than coarse threads. Galling is a type of
thread seizure.
Fine threads need longer thread engagements and are more prone to damage and thread
fouling.
Fine threads are also less suitable for high speed assembly since they are more likely to
seize when being tightened.
A key point is that normally a coarse thread is specified unless there is an overriding
reason to specify a fine thread. Certainly for metric fasteners, fine threads are more
difficult to obtain.
The Strength of Bolts and Nuts and their Markings
Terminology used to Describe Bolt Strength

Tensile Strength
When a force is applied to a bolt, one factor that
determines what load will be required to break the
bolt, is the strength of the material that the bolt is Yield
made from. Two key properties that are discussed in
relation to the strength of a material are the yield
strength and the tensile strength. These are shown
in the Load-Extension diagram. Up to the yield point,
the material responds to a loading in an elastic
manner. That is, if the loading is released the part
will return to its original length. After the yield point,
plastic deformation is occurring and if the loading is Plastic Deformation Elongation
released, the part will not return to its original Elastic
dimensions - a permanent extension, or set, will Deformation
have occurred. The tensile strength corresponds to

the maximum load that the material can sustain.
Continued loading will result in failure of the part.
With high strength materials, the point that
yield occurs cannot be readily identified from the
stress-strain curve. This is because in many
materials, the load extension line is a curve rather
than a straight line. To overcome this problem,
standards typically specify a proportional limit at
which to measure the stress. In metric standards a
0.2% non-proportional elongation of the gauge length
is specified. The gauge length is the distance on the
test specimen that deflection is measured. If the
gauge length is 50 mm and the 0.2% value is used,
then the equivalent yield point is taken when 0.1 mm
(that is 0.002 x 50) deflection occurs relative to the
original tangent of the load elongation curve.

Property Class and Strength Grade

Six billion bolts are made each year. You could specify a bolt material by defining all the
properties that you wish the bolt to have, however this would lead to millions of 'specials' that
would be very expensive. Bolt strength
for steel bolts is usually specified by
means of a property class (metric) or
grade (inch threads). By specifying a
property class, all the key mechanical
and physical properties are defined
together with the appropriate test
methods.
For metric fasteners, ISO 898 is
the key standard that defines property
classes for bolt, screws, studs and nuts
made of carbon and alloy steel. For bolts
there are defined 10 property classes, 3.6
to 12.9, for nuts there are 7 property
classes, 4 to 12. Typically a bolt of
property class 8.8 is used with a nut of
property class 8.
The ISO 898 standard applies to bolts between M1.6 to M39, made from carbon or alloy steel
to be used within a temperature range of -50C to +300C (250C for 10.9). The national
standards, such as DIN, ASTM, SAE and BS, for metric fastener materials are based upon
the ISO standard. A property class for a bolt consists of two figures:
The first figure indicates 1/100 of the nominal tensile strength in N/mm2. The second figure
indicates 10 times the ratio between lower yield strength (or the 0.2% limit) and the nominal
tensile strength. For example the bolt shown has a property class of 8.8. The first figure 8
indicates that the nominal tensile strength is 800 in N/mm2 i.e. 8 x 100. The second figure
indicates that the lower yield strength is 640 in N/mm2 i.e. 8/10 x 800. Full details about
property classes for metric bolts are shown in Appendix 2.
The intention of matching the property class of the nut to that of the bolt is to provide an
assembly that is capable of being tightened to the bolt proof load without thread stripping
occurring. A nut is largely subjected to tensile stresses. A property class for nuts consists of
single figure indicating 1/100 of the minimum tensile strength in N/mm 2 . The mode of failure
of nuts is typically by the thread stripping. This is an undesirable mode of failure in that it is
gradual and can result in partially failed fasteners being left in assemblies. To prevent this,
the nut height is selected so that thread stripping will not occur when a 'proof load' is applied
to the nut. Details about property classes for metric nuts are
shown in Appendix 3.
Ensuring that a bolt or nut meets all the requirements
of the specification is a time consuming and difficult
operation. By specifying a proof stress and the
corresponding proof load - a quick and simple check can be
made to assess that a batch of fasteners is likely to be
satisfactory. The proof load of a nut is the axially applied
load the nut must withstand without thread stripping or
rupture. The proof load of a bolt, screw or stud is the specified load the product must
withstand without permanent set.

The proof load typically is between 88% to 94% of the yield strength for the property
class. After applying the proof load for some 15 seconds and then releasing, there should be
no permanent extension of the bolt (to within +/- 0.0125mm). A male mandrel is used for the
proof load on nuts. Following the test the nut should be capable of being removed by hand.
Matching the Bolt Strength to the Nut Strength

It is important to ensure that the appropriate strength of
nut is matched to the property class of the bolt.
Normally a property class 8 nut is matched with a 8.8
bolt, a 10 nut with a 10.9 bolt etc. If a tightening
method is used that results in the bolt reaching yield,
then there is the possibility of thread stripping
occurring. In such cases, nuts of a higher property
class can be used to eliminate the problem, for
example a nut of property class 12 used with 10.9
bolts. Thread stripping is when the internal thread is
sheared off ending up embedded into the bolt thread.
Most fastener standards do not directly specify
an upper limit on a property class strength. The upper
value of tensile strength is usually indirectly controlled by the standard specifying a maximum
hardness value. Completing a hardness test can be quickly and cheaply completed. For
steels, a hardness value can be equated to a tensile strength by a lookup table. (For example
SAE J417 and DIN 50150 include such tables.) Standard bolts can be used up to 300 C,
however significant property changes will occur including a drop in the tensile strength.
Markings on Fasteners
Most of the standards used to specify bolt strength also specify that markings should be
placed upon the bolt head. Typically two such marks are required. A strength grade mark,
such as the 8.8, and a mark to indicate the manufacturer, for example LOBO to indicate that
the bolt was made by LOBO S.P.A of Italy.
Markings are important in quality assurance. You can see the grade of an installed bolt
and who manufactured it if there are subsequent concerns or problems. Most bolts have the
marks raised so that they can only be produced during the primary manufacturing process.
The disadvantage of indented marks is that they can be added later in the supply chain and
so are easier to falsify.
There are hundreds of strength grade markings that can be applied to a bolt head.
There is no central resource that lists them all. There is presently no world-wide listing of
manufacturer marks. However there is a listing maintained in the US by the Patent and
Trademark Office for Fastener Quality Act.
US standards bodies such as SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) and ASTM
(American Society for Testing and Materials) publish metric fastener standards. The SAE
metric fastener standard (SAE J1199) specifies head markings as per the ISO standard.
ASTM standards are marked with the ASTM standard such as A 325M. Inch based US
standards tend to use radial markings to indicate the strength grade. For example, the photo
shows an SAE Grade 8 bolt, the triangle is the manufacturer's mark.
As previously explained, it is important that the grade of nut is matched to the strength
of the bolt to ensure that thread stripping does not occur. Markings on nuts tend to be more
indistinct than those on bolts. Marking is by indenting the bearing surface, the side of the nut

or by embossing on the chamfer. One approach with US inch based nuts is to use a line
marked on the nut at a specified angle from a circular indent in the nut face. For example, an
SAE Grade 5 nut has a line 120 degrees from the circular indent.
The Stress Area of a Thread

When a bolt is loaded what are the factors
that determine its strength under direct
tensile loading? The strength of the
material that the bolt is made from is one
obvious factor. The size of the bolt itself is
the other obvious factor. The thread is normally the weakest link of a threaded fastener. That
is, tensile failure normally occurs in the threaded region. The thread itself has a complex form
and there are obvious difficulties in deciding what area of the thread to use for strength
calculations.
Detailed tests were completed in the 1930's1 to establish

the equivalent diameter of bar that could be substituted for
the thread. The stress area is the term used for the area of
Diameter? this equivalent section. Carefully conducted tensile tests
were performed using plain bars and threaded bars that
had been machined from the same bar of steel. Using the
major diameter of the thread as the bar diameter resulted
in the bar strength being significantly higher than the thread strength. Using the minor
diameter of the thread as the bar diameter resulted in the bar strength being approximately
15% weaker than the thread strength.
Using the pitch diameter of the thread as the bar diameter resulted in the bar strength being
approximately 15% stronger than the thread strength. Using a diameter that was halfway
between the pitch and minor diameters as the bar diameter gave results that were within 3%.
The area of bar based upon this mean diameter is known as the stress area. Tables giving
the stress area of a particular thread are available. The stress area of a particular sized
thread can be determined by calculating the area of section that is the mean of the pitch and
minor thread diameters.
The Basics of Bolt Loading

It is not widely understood how a bolted joint carries a direct
force applied to the joint. A fully tightened bolt can survive in an
application that an untightened, or loose bolt, would fail in a matter
of seconds. When a load is applied to a joint containing a tightened
bolt, it does not sustain the full effect of the load but usually only a
small part of it. This seems, at first sight, to be somewhat contrary to
common sense. The diagram shows a bolt and nut securing a
bracket to a support plate. With the nut loose on the bolt, if a weight
of 1 unit is added to the bracket, then the force in the bolt shank will
increase by 1 unit. However, if the nut is now tightened and the
weight applied, the force in the bolt shank will not increase by 1 unit
1
'Tests on Threaded Sections' by E M Slaughter, Metal Progress, March 1933

but usually by only a small fraction of this amount. An understanding as to why the bolt does
not sustain the full effect of the applied load is fundamental to the subject.
A model can often be of help in understanding why the bolt

does not sustain the full effect of the applied load. The special
fastener shown here has a spring pushing up against the
head of a bolt head. By pulling the threaded end of the bolt
down, the spring is compressed. The markings on the side of
the fastener will indicate the force in the shank of the bolt.
Consider the special fastener passing through a
support plate and secured to a bracket. The nut is tightened
to compress the spring so a force of 2 units is present in the
bolt shank.
A weight of 1 unit is now placed on the bracket. The
bolt does not move relative to the scale. Hence the force in
1 the bolt shank remains at 2 units.
To help visualise why this is the case, consider what would
happen if the force in the bolt shank did increase. This would
mean that the spring would compress more and a gap would occur between the support plate
and the bracket. If this was to happen then a force imbalance would result. There would be
two plus units of force acting up as a result of the spring force and one unit of force acting
down due to the weight. The effect of applying the 1 unit of weight is not to increase the force
in the bolt shank but to reduce the clamping force between the support plate and the bracket
from 2 units to 1 unit.
If a weight greater than 2 units of force was to be added to the bracket, for example 3 units,
then a gap between the support plate and the bracket would occur. The force that was acting
between the support plate and the bracket has now been
completely removed. The head of the bolt would move
down to the 3 unit mark indicating that there were 3 units of
force in the bolt shank.
In this example, the load in the bolt will not increase until
the external force applied exceeds the preload induced into
the bolt.
Older design procedures proposed calculation methods

based upon the idea that the bolt will not 'feel' any of the
applied load until it exceeds the bolt's clamp force. That is,
the bolt should be sized so that its clamp force is equal to
the external load after a factor of safety has been included.
In practical situations there will be a slight increase in the

bolt tension as a result of an applied force. This is because
the joint will compress when the bolt is tightened. As the
applied force unloads the joint, the plate and bracket thickness will expand and the bolt will
stretch. This will add a small proportion of the applied force to the bolt's preload.

Methods of Tightening Threaded Fasteners

In general terms, threaded fasteners such as bolts, screws and studs are used so that they
will exert a clamp force on the joint. This clamp force holds the joint together and prevents
any relative movement. Even small fasteners can provide a substantial clamp force. For
example a M12 bolt can provide a clamp force of 60 kN (6 tons) of force!
There are six main methods used to control the preload of a threaded fastener. Specifically:
1. Torque control tightening.

2. Torque - Angle controlled tightening.
3. Yield controlled tightening.
4. Bolt stretch method.
5. Heat tightening.
6. The use of tension indicating methods.
Torque tightening, or torque controlled tightening as it is sometimes called, is when a torque

is specified as a measure of how tight a threaded fastener should be. Torque control is
covered in greater depth in the next
section.
Torque-Angle Controlled Tightening

The Bolt Tension - Angle graph shown
here involves three stages:
1. A non-linear initial stage when the joint

plates are being pulled together.
2. A linear stage when the bolt tension is

proportional to angle. The bolt is elastic
within this range and will recover its
original length if untightened.
3. A final stage when additional rotation of the nut does not increase tension in the bolt. This
is plastic non-recoverable bolt deformation.
The Torque-Angle of Turn graph takes the

same form as the Bolt Tension-Angle of Turn
graph. To improve the accuracy of the
method, a snug torque is specified to allow
for the non-linear part at the start of the
graph. An angle of turn is then specified so
that the yield of the bolt is exceeded and a
consistently high bolt tension is achieved.
The snug torque is typically between 30% to
60% of the yield torque value.
The angle of turn that is specified is determined so that it will result in the fastener being

tightened to the flat part of the graph. The major advantage of the torque-angle of turn
method is that it will produce a consistently high level of bolt tension that is independent of
any friction variation. A typical specification for a M12 bolt may be 50Nm snug torque
followed by 120 degrees of turn. The snug torque and angle of turn values are usually
determined experimentally.
Yield Controlled Tightening

With yield controlled tightening, specialist
tightening equipment is used that measures
both tightening torque and angle of turn. The
equipment determines the gradient of the curve
and indicates when the yield point of the bolt is
reached.
As with angle control, a snug torque is usually

specified with yield control so that the gradient
can be measured starting from the straight-line
portion of the graph. Yield controlled tightening represents a very accurate method of
tightening bolts. It is used in critical applications in the automotive and related industries.
Because of the cost of the tools necessary to use this method, widespread adoption of this
method is unlikely. Although manufacturers may be able to invest in the equipment, unless
service staff have similar equipment, the Designer cannot depend upon high preloads being
maintained in the field.
Hydraulic and Jack Bolt Tensioning

A problem relating to the tightening of large bolts is that very high tightening torques are
required. Although this can be partly overcome by the use of hydraulic torque wrenches, the
use of hydraulic tensioning devices is commonplace for bolts over 20mm in diameter.
Hydraulic tensioning is dealt with in another
section. Besides using hydraulic pressure, bolt
tensioning can also be achieved by the use of jack
bolts.
Heat Tightening
Heat tightening utilises the thermal expansion
characteristics of the bolt. It is normally used only
on very large bolts. The bolt is heated and
expands; the nut is indexed (using the angle of
turn method) and the system allowed to cool. As
the bolt attempts to contract it is constrained
longitudinally by the clamped material and a
preload results.
The heating is normally done by a heating element

inserted through a hole in the bolt.

Tension Indicating Methods

Special methods and techniques have been developed to indicate the tension in the bolt.
These include:
1. Tension indication built into the bolt.

2. Tension indication built into a washer.
3. Tension indication by external measurement i.e. ultrasonics.
The first two methods are discussed in a

separate section on load sensing
fasteners. Ultrasound can be used to
measure the bolt extension accurately.
Access to one end of the bolt is required
to allow an acoustic transducer to be
placed on the part. This generates a pulse of ultrasound that bounces off the other end of the
bolt and returns to the transducer. The transit time is measured and the length computed.
Once the bolt extension is known, the tension in the bolt, the preload, can be calculated.
The bolt is then tightened and the measurement repeated. The change in length is then
determined from which the bolt preload can be calculated. The latest instrumentation retains
bolt lengths in memory and completes all the necessary calculations so that the bolt preload
can be displayed. It is necessary to keep details of the original length of each bolt if the joint
is to be tightened in multiple passes or make long-term measurements.
Ultrasonic instrumentation is capable of resolving to better than 0.0025 mm, but accuracies
like these are usually only possible under laboratory conditions. For work completed in
petrochemical plants and construction sites, the measurements are usually accurate to the
nearest 0.01 mm, resulting in preload control to within 5-15 percent.

Torque Tightening of Threaded Fasteners
What is Torque?
Torque tightening, or torque controlled tightening as it
is sometimes called, is when a torque is specified as a
measure of how tight a threaded fastener should be.
Torque is force acting on a lever to produce a turning
effect i.e Torque = Force x Distance.
Applying a large force using a small lever

arm can give the same torque as applying a
small force on a long lever. For example,
applying 1000 N on a lever 0.1 metres long
will give the same torque as applying 100 N
at 1 metre i.e. a torque of 100 x 1 = 100 Nm.
If the force applied to the spanner is

measured in newtons and distance is
measured in metres then the torque is
newton-metres and the abbreviation is Nm . Similarly, if the
distance is measured in feet and the force in pounds then
the torque is pound-feet and the abbreviation is lb-ft.
As the torque is applied to a bolt, the tension in the bolt

increases. Applying the right amount of torque is important.
Too little and the bolt and joint could become slack - too
much and the bolt will break.
Bolt Preload
The tension in the bolt is often referred to as preload, since the joint is preloaded with this
tension. The bolt preload generates a clamp force
on the joint. It is this clamp force that is vital in
preventing the joint plates from moving and the
joint from failing.
Applying torque to a bolt is an indirect means of
controlling the bolt preload and hence the clamp
force on the joint. The torque-tension relationship
defines how much torque will be converted into
preload.
If the clamp force provided by the bolts is not

sufficient, joint movement can occur, leading to
fretting of the surfaces. This can reduce the bolt
tension making it easier for further movement to
occur and the bolt to self-loosen. Ensuring that the joint is tight is vital to ensuring that failure
will be prevented!

The bolt-nut assembly typically absorbs the torque in three ways:

1. The torque needed to stretch the bolt by forcing the nut thread up the bolt thread.
2. The torque needed to overcome friction between the threads.
3. The torque needed to overcome friction under the nut face (if this is being turned).
The key factors affecting the torque-tension relationship are the value of friction coefficient in
the threads and under the nut face. The use of a lubricant, whether or not any rust is present
are significant factors that influence the friction value. The friction radius influences the torque
value and hence the hole sizes used and the fit between the threads also have an effect. If a
particular torque value has been determined in one
application, it does not mean that the torque value
is appropriate from that bolt used in another
application. The relationship between torque and
bolt tension only applies up to the yield of the bolt
material. Up to this point, there is a straight-line
relationship between torque and tension.
Determining the Torque Value

There are three common ways to determine a
torque value for a particular fastener:
1. By completing a test that allows the induced

clamp force in the fastener to be plotted against the applied torque.
2. By determining the torque value using the nut factor method.
3. By determining the torque value using
the full torque-tension equation.
1. Experimental Determination of the

Torque Value
Using a load cell and a torque wrench it

is possible to plot the torque-tension
relationship. From such a graph it is
possible to determine the appropriate
torque to apply to the fastener. Such a
graph is shown at the side.
2. The Nut Factor Method
The nut factor method uses a simplified version of the full torque-tension formula that
simplifies matters for calculations; the formula is:
Torque = Bolt Preload F x Bolt Diameter D x Nut Factor K
The nut factor is a number that summarises the friction effects and thread details into a single
number. The value of the nut factor is related to the friction coefficient, the K factor is typically

the friction coefficient plus 0.04. For most kinds of fastener finishes, the nut factor is typically
between 0.1 and 0.3. Example values2 are:
Moly paste or grease 0.10 to 0.18

Machine Oil 0.10 to 0.22
Machnically galvanized 0.35 to 0.49
Black Oxide 0.11 to 0.28
Copper based antiseize 0.08 to 0.23
Steel on steel 0.16 to 0.27
Cadmium plate (waxed) 0.17 to 0.20
As can be seen from the table of K values, there can be a significant variability in the K value
for a particular fastener finish. This is because the friction coefficient can vary so much. This
is the major disadvantage of the torque tightening method - the variability of the preload
which can result.
To determine the preload in the bolt, you first have to decide how much stress you are going
to place the bolt under. Typical direct stress values vary between 50% to 80% of the yield
stress.
The following formula can be used to determine the bolt preload:
Preload F = Bolt Yield Strength x Thread Stress Area x Percentage Factor
Example Calculation
What is the bolt preload for a M24 bolt of property class 10.9 when stressed in tension to
60% of its yield strength?
Solution
From tables (see Appendix 1), the stress area of a M24 thread is 353 mm2, the yield strength
of a property class 10.9 bolt is 940 N/ mm2 and 60% as a factor is 0.6, so:
Preload F = 940 x 353 x 0.6 = 199092 N = 199 kN
It is required to determine the tightening torque for the M24 bolt to produce the 199 kN
preload. The threads and nut face are to be lubricated using moly paste (MoS2
molybdenum disulphide a high pressure lubricant) and the nut factor will be taken as 0.14,
so:
Torque = Bolt Preload F x Bolt Diameter D x Nut Factor K
Torque = 199092 x 24 x 0.14 / 1000
Torque = 669 Nm (The factor of 1000 is used so that the torque will be in Nm, otherwise the
answer would be in Nmm.)
2
Values taken from An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints by John H. Bickford.

Torque Prevailing Fasteners

Some nuts and bolts have a feature that restricts the ease at which threads can be mated
together. A plastic insert or a noncircular head on the nut or a plastic patch on the bolt can
provide this resistance. Alternatively, distorting the threads in the nut can provide the
resistance.
The torque needed to run the nut down the thread before
clamping occurs is know as the prevailing torque. It is typically
between 5% and 25% of the overall tightening torque.
To determine the required tightening torque when a prevailing
torque fastener is used, it is normal practice to add the
prevailing torque onto the tightening torque. So:
Total Torque = Tightening Torque + Prevailing Torque
Example Calculation
In the previous example (the M24 thread), it is decided to include a Nyloc nut which has a
maximum prevailing torque of 90 Nm; what would now be the appropriate tightening torque?
Solution
In the previous example, the tightening torque was determined as 669 Nm so:
Total Torque = 669 + 90 = 759 Nm
In terms of the fastener, the effect of the prevailing torque is to increase the torsional stress
present in the thread. Since fastener failure is a result of a combination of tensile plus
torsional stresses, a very high prevailing torque can lead to thread failure during tightening.
Hence, if a prevailing torque fastener is to be used then limiting the tensile stress to 70% of
the yield strength is recommended to avoid high combined stresses.
3. The Full Torque Tension Relationship
The full torque tension relationship is shown below for ISO and unified thread forms (thread
flank angle = 60 degrees):
P De
T F 0.577 d 2
2
t n
2
Where: T Total tightening torque

F Bolt preload
t Coefficient of friction for the threads
d2 The basic pitch diameter of the thread (d - 0.6495 p where d is the nom. dia.)
p Pitch of the thread
n Coefficient of friction for the nut face or bolt head
De The effective bearing diameter of the nut or bolt head.
do di
The value of De (according to DIN 946) is taken to be: De
2

With do being the outer bearing diameter and di being the inner bearing diameter.
The bolt preload F is usually established by determining the force needed to result in the bolt
yielding and then taking a percentage of this value.
There are various ways to do this, one way is to calculate the preload based on a percentage
of tensile yield i.e.
Preload F = Bolt Yield Strength x Thread Stress Area x Percentage Factor
The key variables involved in determining the torque value are the values of the coefficient of
friction under the bolt head and in the threads. Significant variation can occur in friction
between what would appear to be identical fasteners. Typical thread friction values are:
Black oxide bolt and nut 0.1 to 0.16

Copaslip lubricant 0.07 to 0.12
Molydbenum Disulphide lubricant 0.06 to 0.11
Electroplated zinc 0.10 to 0.29
Micro-encapsulated anaerobic adhesive 0.18 to 0.24
Typical values for the under head coefficient of friction is:
Black oxide bolt onto aluminium 0.12 to 0.22

Black oxide bolt onto grey cast iron 0.16 to 0.21
Black oxide bolt onto machined steel 0.12 to 0.18
Zinc plated bolt onto machined steel 0.10 to 0.18
Since over-tightening that can lead to fastener failure is undesirable, the tightening torque
should be based upon the minimum friction value. The coefficient of friction can also change
on loosening and re-tightening the bolt. This is particular true of zinc plated fasteners and
fasteners employing thread locking adhesive.
The debris from previous tightening can result in the friction coefficient increasing resulting in
a lower clamp force for a given torque value.
Example Calculation
A M12 x 1.75 property class 8.8 bolt and nut is lubricated with Copaslip (thread friction = 0.1
and head friction = 0.09) and tightened. If the bolt goes into a hole (diameter 12.7 mm) and
the bolt head is 19 mm across flats, estimate the tightening torque required.
A M12 bolt has a stress area of 84.3 mm2, utilising 75% of the minimum yield gives:
F = 84.3 x 640 x 0.75 = 40464 N
The basic pitch diameter d2 is d - 0.6495 P where d is the nominal thread diameter.
i.e. d2 = 12 - 0.6495 x 1.75 = 10.863 mm

The effective head bearing diameter can be taken as (19+12.7)/2 = 15.85mm
1.75 15.85
T 40464 0.577 x10.863 x0.1 0.09
2 2
Torque = 11270 + 25363 + 28861 = 65494 Nmm = 65 Nm
Lubrication and Re-use of Fasteners
Tightening threaded fasteners to a specified torque value is commonly done so that there is
some control over the clamp force that is generated. This applies to all sizes and types of
bolts. If the friction present in the threads and under the nut face remains constant, then re-
tightening a bolt to a particular torque will produce the same clamp force as in a previous
tightening.
In the majority of joints, it is the clamp force that is required by the application. The clamp
force may be needed to prevent leakage from a gasket or to prevent slippage of the joint.
Because in most situations the clamp force cannot be measured without expensive
equipment, the torque applied to the bolt is controlled so that there is some control made on
the clamp force generated.
Even on new nuts and

bolts, a significant reduction
in the clamp force can
result when they are
untightened and then
retightened. This reduction
is due to the surfaces being
damaged by wear. Applying
oil to threads and under the
nut face is often done to
assist in reducing friction.
Because of the high
pressures present between
the mating threads, the can
oil be squeezed out
resulting in surface damage
to the finish and subsequently a lower clamp force when re-tightened.
Applying standard lithium grease to the threads and under the face of the nut provides a
lower coefficient of friction than oil. Also, on re-tightening there is a more consistent torque-
tension relationship resulting in less scatter.
Using a specialist thread lubricant, such as Copaslip, applied under the nut face and on the
threads, results in a low coefficient of friction and hence a greater clamp force for a given
applied torque. On re-tightening there is a highly consistent torque-tension relationship
resulting in less scatter.

Large users of fasteners, such as the automotive industry, typically define the required
friction coefficient of the finish applied to nuts and bolts. In order to meet these specifications,
the fastener supplier includes a dry lubricant in the finish negating the need for a lubricant to
be applied at the time of assembly.
In chemical plants and on pressure vessels, such finishes are not used and a lubricant needs
to be applied on assembly so that a consistent torque-tension relationship is achieved.
Ideally all nuts and bolts would be replaced when removed. This is often not feasible or cost
effective.
If it is decided to re-use the fasteners, it is vital that an assessment is made that the level of
corrosion, or thread damage, is such that performance will not be impaired. If damaged or
rusty nuts and bolts are used without a lubricant, the net effect will be that only a small
amount of clamp force will be produced when the fasteners are torqued. This can later cause
joint problems.
Prior to re-use it is vital that the threads and

the bearing surfaces are cleaned from rust and
any paint that may be present. If the surface
finish of the fasteners is essentially
undamaged then re-use is typically not a
problem if a thread lubricant is used.
If there is rust and paint present on the threads and under the nut or
bolt face then this must be removed if a consistent torque tension
relationship is to be achieved (so that a given amount of torque will
give a consistent amount of clamp force). This can be achieved by
running a tap through the internal thread and a die or wire brush on
the external thread.
As previously shown, using a thread lubricant can

significantly reduce surface damage and give a more
consistent torque-tension relationship. A special
thread lubricant should be applied to the bolt thread
and to the underside of the nut face. If a special
thread lubricant is not available, a lithium-based
grease will give better performance than is typically
achieved with oil.

Hydraulic Tensioning of Bolts
Hydraulic Tensioners
Hydraulic tensioners overcome the problems associated
with torque tightening by using hydraulics to stretch
directly the stud. Hydraulic tensioners fall into two basic
categories.
1. Jacking tools that attach to standard studs and use

normal nuts. The tooling is removed when the studs
have been tightened.
2. Hydraulic nuts that are fitted instead of standard nuts

and are left in place when the stud is tightened.
The idea behind hydraulic jacking is for hydraulic pressure to provide the force needed to
stretch the stud. After hydraulic pressure is applied the nut is rotated so that it is in contact
with the joint and the pressure released so that the nut maintains the clamp force.
Fitting a Hydraulic Tensioner to a Stud
The stud must protrude past the nut a

minimum of the stud diameter for the
tooling to be able to be safely attached.
The sequence is shown above, first a

nut rotating socket is placed on the nut.
With the socket placed over the nut, a
bolt tensioner is placed over the socket
and the stud. A threaded sleeve is then
rotated onto the end of the stud so that
it rests on the top of the hydraulic
tensioner. With the unit assembled
hydraulic lines are attached. The
hydraulic pressure can be delivered by a hand pump or electrically driven. Once hydraulic

pressure is applied, the nut is rotated by using a tommy bar securing into the socket. The
pressure can then be released and the unit removed.
So that the joint is evenly tensioned, ideally all the studs in the joint are tightened
simultaneously. This is known as 100% tensioning.
It may not be possible to achieve

100% tensioning because there may not be enough
tensioners available or for accessibility reasons.
In such cases, other tensioning arrangements can be used. With 50% tensioning, only half
the bolts are tightened at once. After the first half have been tightened, the tensioners are
used to tighten the remaining studs.
It is possible to use fewer tensioners, like the arrangements shown above, however in such
cases it may be necessary to re-tighten the studs which were tightened first to allow for the
effects of elastic interaction in the joint.
Elastic Recovery
Because the bridge of the hydraulic tensioner rests on the joint in a different location to the
nut, when the hydraulic pressure is released and the force acts on the nut, elastic recovery
occurs resulting in a loss of tension.
This is usually compensated for by overtensioning initially so that the stud has the correct
tension when elastic recovery occurs.
Sequence of Elastic Recovery with the use of Hydraulic Tensioners
The bridge of the hydraulic tensioner rests on the joint in a different location to the nut, when

the hydraulic pressure is released and the force acts on the nut, elastic recovery occurs
resulting in a loss of tension. The sequence showing how elastic recovery occurs is
presented in the diagram. Elastic recovery is usually compensated for by initially
overtensioning so that the stud has the correct tension when elastic recovery occurs. The
larger the length to diameter ratio, the smaller the amount of overtension required.
Hydraulic and Oil Filled Nuts

Instead of using a removal jacking unit to tension studs, hydraulic nuts are available that are
intended to be permanently part of the joint.
Use of Hydraulic Nuts
Their use is illustrated in the above diagram. Hydraulic lines

are attached and pressure applied. The stud is tensioned to
the appropriate value. A collar on the nut is tightened and the
pressure released. The nut is left permanently in place.
An alternative design of nut uses shims instead of a collar to

secure the assembly once the correct tension has been
reached.

Rubber Filled Nuts

A rubber filled nut is a variation on the
hydraulic nut. Instead of hydraulic fluid,
the nut uses the incompressible nature of
rubber to create the tensioning force.
Jack bolts are used to apply pressure to
the rubber and so only hand tools are
required for tightening. The dis-
advantage being their accuracy is not as
great as hydraulic tensioning. Shims are
used to lock the nut in place.
Hydraulic tensioning is typically applied to

bolts M24 (1 inch) upwards. They allow
accurate control of fastener tension
without manual effort and in a safe
controlled manner.
Equipment Suppliers
Suppliers of hydraulic tensioning equipment include:
Hedley Purvis www.hedley-purvis.com

Hytorc www.hytorc.com
BOLTTECH www.bolttech.com
Hydratight Sweeney www.boltup.com
Hydraulic Tensioning Technology www.tentec.com

Load Sensing Fasteners
Tension is created in a bolt when it is stretched when tightened. Besides measuring the
torque to be applied to the fastener, several other methods have been developed to establish
how much tension there is in a bolt. The major problem with torque control is its lack of
accuracy in controlling preload. For a given torque setting the preload can vary by typically up
to 35%.
Strain Gauges
It is possible to apply strain gauges to bolts. Normally when this is done,
special strain gauges are applied into a hole that has been drilled into
the centre of the bolt. Strain gauged bolts require calibrating. This can be
achieved by using load cells or alternatively a tensile test machine. The
advantage of strain gauged bolts is that they can very accurately
measure bolt tension (to less than 1%). They are generally only used for
testing and development since they are expensive and the leads can get
damaged easily.
Load Cells
A load cell (a transducer that measures
compressive forces) can be used in a joint to
measure bolt load. Load cells specially designed
for bolting look like thick washers. The accuracy
that load cells can measure bolt preload depends
upon the specific design and instrumentation used;
typically the accuracy is between 1% to 5%.
Load cells can very accurately measure bolt

load. They are usually used for
experimental purposes or critical
applications on larger bolt sizes since they
are relatively expensive and require a
device to be plugged into the unit to display
the loading. It is possible to link several
load cells together so that a complete joint
can be monitored.

Rotabolt
The Rotabolt3 is a specially modified bolt which has had a hole drilled and tapped down the
middle of it. Screwed into the hole is a rod that as a free spinning disk or rota on the other
end. The rota sits in a recess in the bolt head. In the unloaded condition, the rota is free to
spin. When the correct bolt tension is achieved, the bolt will have stretched sufficiently for the
rota to jam on the bolt head.
Each
Rotabolt is
individually
calibrated by
testing so
that an
accuracy of
+/- 5% is
claimed. The
idea can be applied to studs as well
as bolts. Standard sizes covered are from M12 to M50. They are typically used in critical
applications were the increased cost of the fastener can be justified. A recent development is
a visual version of Rotabolt. The bolt is at the correct tension when the lines on the rota and
bolt head align.
SmartBolts
SmartBolts4 indicate the bolt's preload by a colour
change on the bolt head. There are two accuracy
grades available, standard and precision. Black
indicates that the bolt is tensioned to the proof load of
the fastener. This is shown in the diagram at the side.
On the precision grade, the bright yellow indicator

changes as the tension increases in the bolt. The
colour changes to green at design tension (typically
90% of proof) and has completely turned to a deep
blue-black at 100% of proof load. The precision grade
of Smartbolts have an accuracy of 5%.
Load Indicating Washers

Load indicating washers (or DTI's - Direct
Tension Indicators as they are known in the
US) have raised bumps that are compressed
as the bolt is tightened.
The gap between the bolt head or nut face as
3
Rotabolt is a registered trademark of Rotabolt Limited see www.rotabolt.co.uk
4
SmartBolts are a registered trademark of Stress Indicators, Inc. see www.smartbolts.com

the bumps are compressed is measured by the use of feeler gauges. When the bolt
compresses the bumps so that predetermined gap remains - the bolt is known to have the
right tension. A key point in the fitment of load indicating washers is that hardened plain
washers should be used under the rotating part (usually the nut) and that the load indicating
washer should not have a part rotated against it.
To-date load indicating washers are not usually used in

mechanical engineering applications.
A visual version of the

load indicating
washer as been
developed. Squirter5
DTI's indicate when
the correct tension is
reached by orange
silicone squirting out
from the washer
giving a clear visual signal that the correct tension is
reached. A bolt version of the squirter DTI is also
produced known as a squirter-twist bolt have a splined
end for tightening.
Tension Control Bolts
Tension control or twist off bolts are designed to provide a consistent level of bolt loading by
a section of the bolt shearing off when the correct tension is reached. Because the torsion in
5
Squirter DTI is a registered trademark of Applied Bolting Technology Products, Inc. see
www.appliedbolting.com

the bolt is affected by the thread friction, there can still be a

significant variation in the bolt load when the end shears off. It
is important to initially check the installation and keep the 1.
lubrication conditions the same.
The sequence of assembly is shown in the diagram below:
1.The inner socket is slid over the bolt spline and the outer
socket over the nut. 2.
2. The outer socket is rotated whilst the bolt spline is held and
then rotated until the section is sheared
3.With the spline sheared off the unit is pulled back.
4. The bolt spline section can now be discarded from the tool.
3.
4.
Suppliers of Load Sensing Fasteners
Load Cells
Scan-Sense AS www.boltsafe.com
Rotabolt
Rotabolt Limited www.rotabolt.co.uk
Smartbolts
Stress Indicators, Inc. www.smartbolts.com
Load Indicating Washers

Applied Bolting Technology Products, Inc. www.appliedbolting.com
Thomas William Lench Limited www.thomas-william-lench.co.uk
Tension Control Bolts

Tension Control Bolts Limited www.tcbolts.co.uk

Tightening Procedures for Bolted Joints
Introduction
Many problems relating to bolting stem from how carefully or otherwise, the bolts comprising
the joint had been tightened. Tightening a multi-bolt joint is more complicated than tightening
a single bolt, since the tightening of one bolt can affect the load in an adjacent bolt. This
elastic interaction is known as bolt cross talk and is explained in the following slides.
To minimise the cross talk between bolts in a joint, tightening bolts in a joint in a particular
order (or sequence) is frequently completed. The following notes offer ways to assemble a
joint safely so that the load in each bolt is consistently high.
Elastic Interaction and Bolt Cross Talk

The outer two bolts have been tightened
compressing the joint under the bolts. The
middle bolt is yet to be tightened.
The middle bolt is subsequently tightened

compressing the joint directly under the bolt but
also compressing the joint slightly under the two
other bolts leading to a loss of load in these
bolts.
The effect of the load in one bolt reducing when

another bolt near it is tightened is known as
elastic interaction or, alternatively, bolt cross-
talk.
Tightening Sequences
In order to reduce the effect of elastic
interaction, it is normal practice to tighten a joint
using a tightening sequence.
A tightening sequence involves going around a

joint and tightening the studs/bolts in a particular
order. A tightening sequence is illustrated in the
diagram for a 20 bolt flange. Stud 1 is tightened
first, followed by stud 2 and so on.
Tightening sequences for the common flanges

are presented in the course handbook.
It is called a single pass tightening sequence

since each stud is tightened only once.

For non-circular bolt patterns, it has been found

that a good tightening sequence can be
obtained by starting tightening the bolts in the
middle and spiralling outwards. An example is
shown in the diagram.
Tests on Bolt Cross Talk

Tests6 have been completed over the years to
investigate the effects of bolt cross-talk and
ways in which it can be minimised. Once such set of tests
is shown briefly here. A 20 bolt circular flange was used in
the experiments with the bolts tightened in the following
order:
1, 11, 16, 6, 2, 12, 17, 7, 3, 13, 18, 8, 4, 14, 19, 9, 5, 15,

20, 10
That is, bolt 1 was tightened first, followed by bolt 11, then
16 etc. with bolt 10 being the final one.
Reported here are the results from three sets of

tests. The first on the joint with no gaskets
present, the second when a sheet gasket was
present and the third, when a spiral wound
gasket was present.
The first chart shows the load variation in the

studs in a joint with no gasket present. Each
stud was tightened in sequence to 100% load,
the load in each stud after tightening is shown in
the chart. The load scatter in the studs as a result
of elastic interaction was as much as 35% in this
test.
The second chart shows the load variation in the

bolts in a joint with a sheet gasket present. The
load scatter in the studs as a result of elastic
interaction was as much as 59%.
The third chart is for the load variation in the studs

in a joint with a spiral wound gasket present. The
load scatter in the studs as a result of elastic
interaction was as much as 93% in this test.
6
These tests where reported in the paper Bolt Preload Variation during torquing of a bolted
flange connection. PVP-Vol. 274, Advanced Computer Applications ASME 1994.

Conclusions from the Tests

Even when using a tightening sequence, the variation in the load in the studs can be
considerable.
The 'softer' the joint (more flexible - lower stiffness joints that result when a gasket is
used), the larger is the likely variation in the bolt/stud load.
It is common practice for large gasketed joints to be tightened using a multi-pass
arrangement. Failure to use a multi-pass tightening sequence can result in uneven gasket
pressure leading to it leaking.
What is meant by a multi-pass sequence is tightening each stud/bolt more than once. A two
pass sequence involves tightening each bolt twice, a three pass sequence - each bolt is
tightened three times.
Two Pass Tightening Sequence

With a two pass tightening sequence, the bolts are typically tightened to 50% of the full
torque value initially. When all the bolts have been tightened to 50% of the full torque, the
tightening sequence is repeated but this time to the full value of the required torque. Finally, it
is common practice to complete a final checking pass at the full torque setting to ensure that
are the bolts are at the full torque value.
Use of Multiple Tightening Tools

To further minimise bolt cross talk and to speed up the joint assembly process, multiple
torque tightening tools are sometimes used on joints simultaneously. It is usual for either 2 or
4 tools to be used. When two tools are being used, the
tightening is still completed in sequence starting with the first
two bolts in the sequence and then moving on to the next
two and so on.
When four tightening tools are used, the first four bolts in the
sequence are tightened followed by the next four and so on.
Hydraulic Tensioning
When hydraulic tensioning is being used to tighten the bolts,
it is common to employ 50% tensioning. That is, half the
bolts are tightened simultaneously.
In order to allow for the effects of cross talk, the load induced in the bolts tightened in the first
pass can be greater than that which is actually required. The required load is induced into the
bolts tightened by the second pass. This results in the tension in the bolts tightened by the
first pass reducing because of the cross talk effect.
Ways to Check the Tightening Sequence

Two methods that can be used to check the tightening sequence are:
The solder plug method.
The use of pressure sensitive film.

Solder Plug Method

This method is suitable for when gaskets are used
in a joint. The test involves the use of cylindrically
shaped soft-solder plugs (50-50 lead-tin by weight)
that are inserted into holes, drilled or punched
through the gasket in the flanged-joint assembly.
The bolts are then tightened in the specified manner. The solder, because its inelastic, will
remain at the compressed thickness of the gasket after the joint is disassembled
subsequently.
Pressure Sensitive Film

Fuji manufactures a film product that will
allow the pressure distribution within a
bolted joint to be determined. The film is
inserted between the plates of the joint,
the joint tightened. The subsequent colour
change in the film determines the localised
pressure.
When pressure is applied, the microcapsules are broken and the

colour-forming material that is released reacts with the colour-
developing material to generate colour. Through Particle Size
Control (PSC) technology, the microcapsules are designed to react
to various degrees of pressure, releasing their colour-forming
material at a density that corresponds to the pressure. When using this film, pressures up to
130MPa can be determined accurately.
The Tightening Procedure

A tightening procedure for a joint specifies how the joint is to be tightened. Such a procedure
indicates:
The details of the risk assessment that should be completed prior to assembling the joint.
The assessment should cover both risk to physical assets and property and risk to
personnel.
The condition of the joint faces prior to assembly (check on whether the joint surfaces are
flat, clean and free from corrosion, grease and oil).
The condition of the bolts, studs and nuts prior to tightening (should a lubricant be added
to the thread and under the nut face? Checks for thread nicks and damage).
Details of the number of tightening passes required to tighten the joint (and what torque at
each pass is required) and the sequence that they should be tightened.
Any final checks required to be completed on the joint.

Appendix 1 - Thread Shear and Stripping Areas
Thread Tensil Root Thread Shear Internal Thread Minor Tap Drill
2
Diameter and e Area Area, mm per mm Diameter Dia.
Pitch Stres mm 2 of engaged threads mm mm
s A3 Extern Internal Max. Min.
Area al Thread
mm 2 Thread ASn
As ASs
MI.6 x 0.35 1.27 1.08 1.87 2.65 1.321 1.221 1.25
M2 x 0.4 2.07 1.79 2.48 3.44 1.679 1.567 1.6
M2.5 x 0.45 3.39 2.98 3.18 4.54 2.138 2.013 2.05
M3 x 0.5 5.03 4.47 3.91 5.54 2.599 2.459 2.5
M3.5 x 0.6 6.78 6.00 4.67 6.60 3.010 2.850 2.9
M4 x 0.7 8.78 7.75 5.47 7.77 3.422 3.242 3.3
M5 x 0.8 14.2 12.7 7.08 9.99 4.334 4.134 4.2
M6 x 1 20.1 17.9 8.65 12.2 5.153 4.917 5.0
M8 x 1.25 36.6 32.8 12.2 16.8 6.912 6.647 6.8
M10 x 1.5 58.0 52.3 15.6 21.5 8.676 8.376 8.5
M12 x 1.75 84.3 76.2 19.0 26.1 10.441 10.106 10.2
M14 x 2 115 104 22.4 31.0 12.210 11.835 12.0
M16 x 2 157 144 26.1 35.6 14.210 13.835 14.0
M20 x 2.5 245 225 33.3 45.4 17.744 17.294 17.5
M22 x 2.5 303 281 37.0 50.0 19.744 19.294 19.5
M24 x 3 353 324 40.5 55.0 21.252 20.752 21.0
M27 x 3 459 427 46.2 62.0 24.252 23.752 24.0
M30 x 3.5 561 519 51.6 69.6 26.771 26.211 26.5
M36 x 4 817 759 63.1 84.1 32.270 31.670 32.0
M42 x 4.5 1121 1045 74.3 99.2 37.799 37.129 37.5
M48 x 5 1473 1376 85.8 114 43.297 42,587 43.0
M56 x 5.5 2030 1905 101 134 50.796 50.046 50.5
M64 x 6 2676 2519 117 154 58.305 57.505 58.0
M72 x 6 3460 3281 133 173 66.305 65.505 66.0
M80 x 6 4344 4144 149 193 74.305 73.505 74.0
M90 x 6 5591 5363 169 217 84.305 83.505 84.0
M100 x 6 6995 6740 189 241 94.305 93.505 94.0
Notes
1. The tensile stress area in the table was computed using the formula:
As = 3.14159 / 4 x (D - 0.9382 x P)2
Where D = Nominal major diameter of the thread.
P = Thread Pitch
The thread shear areas have been calculated on the basis of a 6g external thread tolerance
class and a 6H internal thread tolerance class on the worst case condition. If the threads are
made to any different tolerance class, the areas must be calculated using the full formula.
(For small diameter external threads a tolerance class of 4g6g is usually specified - the shear
areas of the external threads will be slightly greater than those shown in the table.)

2. The tap drill sizes are based upon ISO 2306 'Drills for Use Prior to Tapping Screw
Threads'. The diameters are within the 6H tolerance class for the internal thread, if a
tapping drill diameter is larger than the maximum quoted internal thread diameter then the
external thread stripping area will be reduced and the full formula must be used to
establish the thread shear area.
Appendix 2 - Key Mechanical Properties of Bolts and Fasteners
Mechanical and Property Class

Physical Property 3.6 4.6 4.8 5.6 5.8 6.8 8.8 9.8 10.9 12.9
d<=1 d>1
6 6
Minimum 330 400 420 500 520 600 800 830 900 104 1220
Tensile 0
Strength
Minimum Yield 190 240 340 300 420 480 - - - - -
Strength
Stress at 0.2% - - - - - - 640 660 720 940 1100
proportional
limit
Stress under 180 225 310 280 380 440 580 600 650 830 970
proof load
Percent 25 22 - 20 - - 12 12 10 9 8
Elongation after
Fracture
Reduction area - - - - - - 52 52 48 48 44
after Fracture
Impact Strength - - - 25 - - 30 30 25 20 15
J
Minimum 52 67 71 79 82 89 22 23 28 32 39
Rockwell HR HR HR HR HR HR HRC HR HR HR HRC
Hardness B B B B B B C C C
Maximum 95 95 95 95 95 99.5 32 34 37 39 44
Rockwell HR HR HR HR HR HR HRC HR HR HR HRC
Hardness B B B B B B C C C
Max. Tensile 705 705 705 705 705 800 1020 108 117 123 1400
Strength based 0 0 0
on Max.
hardness
Notes
1. The information presented above has been extracted from ISO 898-1: 1999 'Mechanical
properties of fasteners made of carbon steel and alloy steel - Part 1:Bolts, screws and
studs'.
2. All strength and stress values quoted are in N/mm2 .
3. The ISO 898 standard applies to bolts between M1.6 to M39, made from carbon or alloy
steel to be used within a temperature range of -50C to +300C (250C for 10.9).

4. The bolt head should be marked with the property class that the bolt is made to and a
mark or symbol to represent the manufacturer.
5. The proof load can be determined by multiplying the stress under proof load in the above
table by the stress area for the thread that is quoted in Appendix 1.
Appendix 3 - Key Mechanical Properties of Nuts
Nominal Thread Property Class of Nut

Diameter 4 5 6 8 9 10 12
Mating >M16 3.6, 4.6, 4.8
Bolt <=M16 3.6, 4.6, 4.8
<=M39 5.6, 5.8 6.8 8.8 9.8 10.9 12.9
Proof To M4 520 600 800 900 1040 1150
Load Over M4 to M7 580 670 855 915 1040 1150
Stress Over M7 to M10 590 680 870 940 1040 1160
N/mm2 Over M10 to M16 610 700 880 950 1050 1190
Over M16 to M39 510 630 720 920 920 1060 1200
Notes
1. The information presented in the table has been extracted from ISO 898-2 'Mechanical
properties of fasteners Part 2: Specification for nuts with specified proof load values'.
2. The proof load can be determined by multiplying the proof load stress in the above table
by the stress area for the thread that is quoted in Appendix 1.
3. The intention of the standard is to provide an assembly that is capable of being tightened
to the bolt proof load without thread stripping occurring.

Appendix 4 - Tightening Sequences for Circular Bolt Patterns

Appendix 5 - Example Tightening Procedure

An example tightening procedure for a 20 bolt circular flange consisting of M30 property class
10.9 bolts. They are to be tightened using two hydraulic torque wrenches simultaneously
using a three pass procedure.
Prior to Tightening
Conduct a risk assessment to ensure that any hazards are identified and steps taken to
ensure that all relevant safety procedures and protocols are met.
The personnel involved in the work have been given appropriate training and are
competent in the use of the equipment.
Check that the joint faces that are to be bolted together are flat by using a straight edge,
the deviation from flat must not exceed 1mm. The surfaces should be clean and free from
corrosion, grease and oil. If grease/oil/dirt is present remove using a de-greasing agent.
Check that the fasteners are free from damage and the nuts are able to be screwed onto
the bolts by hand force alone. Place Never-Seize Paste generously on the bolt threads
and on the nut face. Ensure that no
lubricant is placed between the joint
faces.
Tightening Procedure
1. Bring the two faces of the joint together

and align the holes, place bolts 1, 2, 3
and 4 bolts into their holes and tighten
using a hand wrench to secure the joint
together. Check that the joint faces are
square to each other. If appropriate
ensure that both joint faces are
supported during tightening so that the
bolts are not being used to pull the joint
together.
2. Place all the bolts in their relevant
holes and run the nuts down them so
that they are ready to be tightened.
3. Set the tightening torque to 500 Nm, tightening bolts 1,2 simultaneously, followed by bolts
3,4, and then 5,6 and so on.
4. Set the torque to 1000 Nm and repeat the tightening sequence.
5. Set the torque to 2000 Nm and repeat the tightening sequence.
6. As a check, starting with bolt 1, apply 2000 Nm to each bolt working in a clockwise
sequence around the joint.
7. Visually check the joint for any ambiguities to indicate that the bolts may not have seated
correctly.

Appendix 6 - Glossary of Terms

ACORN NUT BOLT
A nut (so-called because of its shape) that has a domed top that so A bolt is the term used for a threaded fastener designed to be used
it prevents contact with the external thread. in conjunction with a screw.
ANTI-FRICTION COATING BREAKAWAY TORQUE

AF coatings are dry lubricants consisting of suspensions of solid The torque necessary to put into reverse rotation a bolt that has
lubricants, such as graphite, PTFE or molydbenum disulphide of not been tightened.
small particle size in a binder. Such coatings can be applied to
fastener threads to replace metallic coatings such as zinc and BREAKLOOSE TORQUE
cadmium and offer maintenance free permanent lubrication. By
careful selection of the lubricants AF coatings can be designed to The torque required to effect reverse rotation when a pre-stressed
meet specific applications. The coatings are permanently bonded threaded assembly is loosened.
to the metal surface and provide a lubricating film preventing
direct metal to metal contact. CADMIUM ELECTROPLATING
Coating of threaded fasteners with cadmium can provide the parts
ANTI-SEIZE COMPOUND with excellent corrosion resistance. The appearance of the coating
An anti-seize compound is used on the threads of fasteners in is bright silver or yellow if subsequently passivated. The friction
some applications. The purpose of the compound depends upon values associated with this coating are also comparatively low. A
the application. It can prevent galling of mating surfaces - such chromate conversion coating is frequently applied to the surface
compounds are frequently used with stainless steel fasteners to to improve corrosion resistance. Cadmium is not now frequently
prevent this effect from occurring. In some applications it is used used because of the environmental and worker health problems
to improve corrosion resistance to allow the parts to be associated with the coating process and should not be used in
subsequently dis-assembled Thirdly, it can provide a barrier to applications above 250C or when contact with food is possible.
water penetration since the threads are sealed by use of the
compound. CLAMPING FORCE
The compressive force which a fastener exerts on the joint.
ALLOWANCE
An intentional clearance between internal or external thread and CLASS OF FIT
the design form of the thread when the thread form is on its The Class of Fit is a measure of the degree of fit between mating
maximum metal condition. Not all classes of fit have an internal and external threads. Three main Classes of Fit are
allowance. For metric threads the allowance is called the defined for metric screw threads :
fundamental deviation.
FINE: This has a tolerance class of 5H for internal threads and 4h
ANAEROBIC ADHESIVE for external threads.
An adhesive that hardens in the absence of air, such adhesives are
often used as a thread locking medium. MEDIUM: This has a tolerance class of 6H for internal threads
and 6g for external threads.
ANGLE CONTROLLED TIGHTENING
COARSE: This has a tolerance class of 7H for internal threads
A tightening procedure in which a fastener is first tightened by a and 8g for external threads.
pre-selected torque (called the snug torque) so that the clamped
surfaces are pulled together, and then is further tightened by For Unified threads, a similar designation as for metric threads is
giving the nut an additional measured rotation. Frequently bolts used. The thread classes used are 1A, 2A and 3A for external
are tightened beyond their yield point by this method in order to threads and 1B, 2B and 3B for internal threads.
ensure that a precise preload is achieved. Bolts of short length can
be elongated too much by this method also the bolt material must COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
be sufficiently ductile to cater for the plastic deformation
involved. Because of the bolt being tightened beyond yield, its re- A dimensionless number representing the ratio of the friction
use is limited. force to normal force. Typically for threaded connections it is
about 0.16 but can vary significantly depending upon the
BASIC THREAD PROFILE materials used and whether a lubricant has been used.
This is the theoretical profile of external and internal threads with
no manufacturing tolerance applied.
COMMINGLING
A term used to describe the undesirable practice of mixing
BEARING STRESS fasteners from different batches that are the same size and grade
in the same container.
The surface pressure acting on a joint face directly as a result of
the force applied by a fastener. CONE PROOF LOAD
BIHEXAGON HEAD This is an axial applied force applied to a nut when it is seated on
a cone shaped washer that has an included angle of 120 degrees.
A bolt or screw whose cross section of its head is in the shape of Failure in this test is usually due to the nut splitting. The intention
a 12 pointed star. of the test is to introduce a nut dilation operation that will assess
the potential detrimental effects of surface discontinuities. This
type of test which is sometimes applied to nuts which are
intended for high temperature service.

DECOMPRESSION POINT EMBEDMENT

The point at which there is zero pressure at the joint interface as a Localised plastic deformation that occurs in the vicinity of
result of forces applied to the joint. If the applied force is clamped fasteners or in the fastener threads.
increased beyond the decompression point, a gap will form at the
interface. Analytically, a criteria of joint failure is often taken as ENVIRONMENTALLY ASSISTED CRACKING
when the applied force on the joint reaches the decompression (EAC)
point. This is because forces acting on the bolt(s) can
dramatically increase at this point. Loading beyond this point can A process that can occur with the use of high strength steel
also result in fretting at the interface that will lead to bolt tension fasteners in which crack initiation and growth occurs in the
loss that will subsequently lower the decompression point. This fastener at a comparatively low stress level as a result of
process can continue until bolt failure does occur. The failure can interactions that occur with the environment. Hydrogen is
be by fatigue or other mechanism but the underlying cause was suspected of causing EAC in high strength steel fasteners, the
loading of the joint beyond the decompression point. It is for this hydrogen being produced as a result of chemical reactions
reason that it is frequently taken as a failure criteria in analysis (galvanic corrosion in a moist environment) or being present from
work. a plating process that may have been applied to the fastener.
DACROMET EXTERNAL FORCE OR LOAD

A high performance surface coating that can be applied to Forces exerted on a fastener as a result of an applied loading to
fasteners. The coating consists of passivated zinc flakes that is the joint.
stoved onto the metal surface. The coating can be coloured and
eliminates the risk of hydrogen embrittlement associated with EXTERNAL THREAD
electroplated metal. DACROMET is a registered trademark of
A screw thread that is formed on an external cylinder, such as on
Metal Coatings International, Inc.
bolts, screws, studs etc.
DESIGN FORM OF THREAD
FLUORO-CARBON THREAD COATING
The design form of an internal or external thread is the thread
A low friction coating applied to threads. This type of coating is
form in it's maximum metal condition. It is the same as the basic
thread profile except that the thread roots are rounded. If either frequently used to prevent thread fouling when a assembly
the internal or external thread form exceeds the design form of containing threaded fasteners is painted. Unless masked in some
the thread profile then a potential interference exists. way before painting, electro deposited primers can cover the
threads. If this occurs assembly difficulties can result unless the
expensive chore of cleaning the threads is completed. A fluoro-
DIRECT TENSION INDICATORS carbon thread coating eliminates the need for masking or cleaning
Direct Tension Indicators (DTI's) is a term sometimes used to since paint will not adhere to the coating. This type of coating can
describe load indicating washers. Projections on the face of the also prevent problems caused by weld splatter obstructing the
washer (usually on the face abuting the bolt head or nut) that threads of weld nuts during their placement. Such coatings also
deform under loading as the bolt is tensioned. An indication of have the property of reducing the torque-tension scatter during
the tension in the bolt can be made by measuring the gap between tightening.
the washer face and the nut or bolt head. The smaller the gap - the
greater the tension in the bolt. Commonly used in civil rather than FRICTION
mechanical engineering applications.
Mechanical resistance to the relative movement of two surfaces.
There are two main types of friction; STATIC FRICTION and
DYNAMIC FRICTION DYNAMIC FRICTION. Typically static friction is greater than
Resistance to relative movement of two bodies that are already in dynamic friction.
motion.
FRICTION STABILIZERS
EFFECTIVE DIAMETER Coating materials used on fasteners with the intention of reducing
This is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder coaxial with the the scatter in the thread and bearing surface friction coefficients.
thread, which has equal metal and space widths. It is often
referred to as pitch diameter. Sometimes referred to as the simple FUNDAMENTAL DEVIATION
effective diameter to differentiate from the virtual effective
diameter. An intentional clearance between internal or external thread and
the design form of the thread when the thread form is on it's
maximum metal condition. For metric threads the fundamental
EFFECTIVE NUT DIAMETER deviation are designated by letters, capitals for internal threads
Twice the effective nut radius. and small letters for external threads. Some tolerance classes have
a fundamental deviation of zero. For imperial threads the
EFFECTIVE NUT RADIUS fundamental deviation is called the allowance.
The radius from the centre of the nut to the point where the FUNDAMENTAL TRIANGLE HEIGHT
contact forces, generated when the nut is turned, can be
considered to act. The fundamental triangle height is normally designated with the
letter H. This is the height of the thread when the profile is
ELECTROLESS NICKEL extended to a sharp vee form. For 60 degree thread forms such as
metric and Unified thread series, H equals 0.866025 times the
A relatively thin, hard coating that can be applied to threads and thread pitch.
deposited uniformly. Bright metallic in appearance this coating
has excellent resistance to wear and corrosion.

GALLING HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT

An severe form of adhesive wear which occurs during sliding Steel fasteners exposed to hydrogen can fail prematurely at a
contact of one surface relative to another. Clumps of one part stress level well below the materials yield strength. Hydrogen
stick to the mating part and break away from the surface. (Can embrittlement occurs in fasteners usually as a result of the part
frequently occur when both the nut and bolt are zinc coated.) being exposed to hydrogen at some time during its manufacturing
process but it can also occur through in-service corrosion.
GRIP LENGTH Electroplating is generally considered to be a major cause of
hydrogen absorption in steel fasteners due to the release of
Total distance between the underside of the nut to the bearing hydrogen during this process. Higher strength steels are more
face of the bolt head; includes washer, gasket thickness etc. susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement than lower strength steels
however it is considered that there is no lower strength limit.
HARD JOINT However, as a rule of thumb, steels below Rockwell C 35 are
A joint in which the plates and material between the nut and bolt considered to be far less susceptible. Tests such as the
bearing surfaces have a high stiffness when subjected to incremental load hydrogen embrittlement test can be completed to
compression by the bolt load. A joint is usually defined as hard if assess if hydrogen embrittlement is present in a batch of
the bolt is tightened to its full torque rotates through an angle of fasteners.
30 degrees or less after it has been tightened to its snug condition.
IMPACT WRENCH
A wrench, usually powered by electricity or air, in which repeated
HARDENED WASHERS blows from little hammers are used to generate torque to tighten
fasteners. The torque applied to the fastener depends upon the
The force under the head of a bolt or nut can exceed, at high time and the air pressure applied to the tool (for pneumatic
preloads, the compressive yield strength of the clamped material. wrenches). The torque applied by an impact wrench to a fastener
If this occurs excessive embedding and deformation can result in is influenced by the joint stiffness.
bolt preload loss. To overcome this hardened washers under the
bolt head can be used to distribute the force over a wider area into INSTANTANEOUS CENTRE OF ROTATION
the clamped material. A more modern alternative is to used a
flange headed nuts and bolts. The point in space that an eccentrically shear loaded joint rotates
about. The deformation and the load sustained by an individual
HEAT TIGHTENING bolt in a bolt group is dependent upon the distance that the bolt is
from the instantaneous centre. The direction that the individual
Heat tightening utilises the thermal expansion characteristics of bolt force acts is perpendicular to a line joining that bolt to the
the bolt. The bolt is heated and expands: the nut is indexed (using instantaneous centre.
the angle of turn method) and the system allowed to cool. As the
bolt attempts to contract it is constrained longitudinally by the INTEGRAL FASTENER
clamped material and a preload results. Methods of heating
include direct flame, sheathed heating coil and carbon resistance A term used to describe types of fasteners which are higher
elements. The process is slow, especially if the strain in the bolt is resistant to vibration loosening and/or removal. Some types have
to be measured, since the system must return to ambient special thread forms.
temperature for each measurement. This is not a widely used
method and is generally used only on very large bolts. INTERNAL THREAD
A screw thread which is formed in holes, such as in nuts.
HIGH STRENGTH FRICTION GRIP BOLTS
Sometimes abbreviated to HSFG bolts. Bolts which are of high JAM NUTS
tensile strength used in conjunction with high strength nuts and See LOCKNUT
hardened steel washers in structural steelwork. The bolts are
tightened to a specified minimum shank tension so that transverse
loads are transferred across the joint by friction between the
JOINT CONTROL TIGHTENING
plates rather than by shear across the bolt shank. See YIELD CONTROLLED TIGHTENING
HOLD AND DRIVE BOLTS K FACTOR

Special bolts that have a tang at the threaded end of the shank. The factor in the torque tightening equation: T=KDF where T is
This tang is gripped by the tightening tool during assembly so the fastener tightening torque in Newton metres, D is the fastener
that the reaction torque is absorbed whilst the nut is tightened diameter in metres, F is the fasteners preload in Newtons and K is
from the same side. Such bolts allow what used to have to be a factor whose value is often taken as 0.2. The formula gives the
done by two men to become a one-man task. approximate tightening torque for standard fasteners used under
normal conditions.
HOT BOLTING
This term is used for the completion of maintenance work on a KEPS
bolted joint when the joint is under loading. This can involve the A pre-assembled nut and washer assembly (the washer is attached
replacement of individual bolts. There are risks both to the joint to the nut so that it won't fall off)- a trademark of ITW
itself and to health and safety associated with this technique. Shakeproof. The origin of the word came from ShaKEProof. The
s on the end being acquired due to them being purchased in
HYDRAULIC TENSIONER quantities usually greater than one.
A hydraulic tool used to tighten a fastener by stretching it rather
than applying a large torque to the nut. After the fastener has been
LEFTHAND THREAD
stretched, the nut is run down the thread to snug up with the joint, A screw thread that is screwed in by rotating counterclockwise.
the hydraulically applied load is than removed resulting in tension
being induced into the fastener.

LENGTH OF ENGAGEMENT NUT RUNNER

The axial distance over which an external thread is in contact A torque control fastener tightening tool that is usually powered
with an internal thread. by compressed air. The design of the tool is such that attempts are
made to ensure that the applied torque is independent of joint
LOCK NUT stiffness.
There are two common usage's of this term: OCTAGON HEAD
1. A nut which provides extra resistance to vibration loosening by A bolt or screw whose head cross section is a regular polygon
either providing some form of prevailing torque, or, in free with 8 sides.
spinning nuts, by deforming and/or biting into mating parts when
fully tightened. OVERTAPPING
Tapping of a thread following a plating operation so that the
2. The term is sometimes used for thin (or jam) nuts used to lock
thread tolerances comply within specification allowing the
a thicker nut. When used in this way the thin nut should be
internal and external threads to assemble. It is normal practice to
adjacent to the joint surface and tightened against the thick nut. If overtap the internal rather then the external thread.
placed on top of the thick nut the thin nut would sustain loads it
was not designed to sustain.
PILES
MAJOR DIAMETER Term used in structural engineering for the joint plates.
This is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder parallel with the
crests of the thread; in other words it is the distance from crest to PITCH
crest for an external thread, or root to root for an internal thread. The nominal distance between two adjacent thread roots or crests.
MEANSHIFT PLY
The difference in tightening torque values produced by the same A single thickness of steel forming part of a structural joint.
tightening tool on hard and soft joints. A hard joint typically gives
a higher torque value than a soft joint. Generally speaking, the POOCHING
lower the meanshift of a tightening tool, the better it will be in
achieving a specified torque value irrespective of the joint Pooching is a term sometimes used describe the effect of the area
condition. immediately surrounding a tapped hole being raised up as a result
of the tension from the stud. Tapped holes are often bored out for
MINOR DIAMETER the first couple of threads to eliminate this problem.
This is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder that just touches the PRELOAD
roots of an external thread, or the crests of an internal thread.
The tension created in a fastener when first tightened. Reduces
MOLYBDENUM DISULPHIDE after a period of time due to embedding and other factors.
A solid lubricant that acts as a high pressure resistant film. Can be PREVAILING TORQUE
used by itself as a dry lubricant as well as in with other solid
lubricants and in oils and greases. Used in threads such lubricants The torque required to run a nut down a thread on certain types of
act as a separating film to prevent corrosion formation on the nuts designed to resist vibration loosening. The resistance can be
thread surface (even under adverse temperature and provided by a plastic insert or a noncircular head.
environmental conditions) ensuring the release of the threaded
connection. Such films can also act as friction stabilisers. PROOF LOAD
The proof load of a nut is the axially applied load the nut must
NICKED THREADS withstand without thread stripping or rupture, that of a bolt, screw
Nicks or indentations in threads can occur during the or stud is the specified load the product must withstand without
manufacturing process and during fastener transportation. In permanent set.
general, nicked thread problems tend to increase as the thread
diameter increases and for fine pitches. PROPERTY CLASS
There are acceptance tests for nicked threads that involve A designation system which defines the strength of a bolt or nut.
measuring the maximum torque required to drive a GO gauge
For metric fasteners, property classes are designated by numbers
down the thread. Examples of acceptance tests are SAE J123 and
where increasing numbers generally represent increasing tensile
the Ford Motor specification WA990 1993. Nicks and
strengths. The designation symbol for bolts consists of two parts:
indentations in threads are sometimes referred to as gouges.
1. The first numeral of a two digit symbol or the first two
NOMINAL DIAMETER numerals of a three digit symbol approximates 1/100 of the
The diameter equal to the external diameter of the threads. minimum tensile strength in MPa.
NUT DILATION 2. The last numeral approximates 1/10 of the ratio expressed as a
percentage between minimum yield stress and minimum tensile
Under load, the wedging action of the threads causes dilation of stress.
the nut resulting in an increase in the minor diameter of the nut
and reducing the effective shear areas of both the external and Hence a fastener with a property class of 8.8 has a minimum
internal threads. tensile strength of 800 MPa and a yield stress of 0.8x800=640
MPa.

The designation system for metric nuts is a single or double digit provided to allow the set screw to be rotated. These types include
symbol. The numerals approximate 1/100 of the minimum tensile hexagon socket, fluted socket, screwdriver slot and square head.
strength in MPa. For example a nut of property class 8 has a Various point designs are available (the part of the set screw that
minimum tensile strength of 800 MPa. A bolt or screw of a rotates against the shaft being secured) and include:
particular property class should be assembled with the equivalent Cup - hollowed end and is the most commonly used point style.
or higher property class of nut to ensure that thread stripping does Used when the digging in of the point is not undesirable.
not occur. Cone - Pointed end, this type generates the highest torsional
holding power and is typically used for a permanent connection.
PRYING Oval - Rounded end that is typically used when frequent
adjustment is required. The oval end prevents/reduces
The amplification of an external force acting on a bolt by a lever indentation.
action which can occur when that force is an eccentric tensile Flat - Cause little damage to the shaft and are used when frequent
load. adjustment is required.
Dog - Flat end with the threads stopping short of the end with the
REDUCED SHANK BOLT end fitting into a hole.
A bolt whose shank diameter is smaller than the nominal diameter
of the bolt (normally the shank diameter of such a bolt is SHANK
approximately equal to the effective diameter of the thread). That portion of a bolt between the head and the threaded portion.
RELAXATION SHOULDER SCREWS
The loss of clamping force in a bolt which commonly occurs as a A threaded fastener with a plain, precision machined, shank that
result of embedment. Can also be caused by gasket creep, is used for location purposes. They are typically used for pulleys
differential temperature expansion or vibration loosening. and linkages.
RIGHT HAND THREAD SNUG TORQUE
A screw thread that is screwed in by rotating clockwise. The The torque required to pull plates together so that direct contact
majority of screw threads are right handed. occurs; often used in angle control tightening. The snug torque
ensures that metal to metal contact occurs at all the interfaces
ROLLED THREAD within the joint. It is only at this point can the required angle of
A thread formed by plastically deforming a blank rather than by rotation start in order that the bolt is tightened sufficiently. The
cutting. Increases both fatigue strength and thread shear strength. snug torque is usually determined experimentally on the actual
joint.
ROOT DIAMETER
Identical to MINOR DIAMETER
SCREW SNUGGING
Threaded fastener with the thread running up to the head of the The process of pulling parts of a joint together, most of the input
fastener; has no plain shank. turn during this process is absorbed in the joint with little tension
being given to the bolt.
SCREW THREAD
A ridge of constant section which is manufactured so that a helix SOCKET HEAD CAP SCREW
is developed on the internal or external surface of a cylinder. A screw with a round head with usually a hexagon indentation in
the head for tightening purposes. Used on machine parts and is
SEMS typically made from high strength steel (grade 12.9 in metric).
A screw and washer assembly. A screw or bolt which has a
captive washer. The washer is frequently loose on the plain shank
SOFT JOINT
of the fastener, the shank diameter being equal to the effective A joint in which the plates and material between the nut and bolt
diameter of the thread; the thread being rolled from this diameter. bearing surfaces have a low stiffness when subjected to
The origin of the word is a frequent question. In the 1930's E. C. compression by the bolt load. In such a joint, the bolt (or nut)
Crowther was a representative for a company that sold both typically has to be tightened by two or more complete turns, after
shakeproof washers and screws. He came up with the idea of it has been torqued to the snug condition, before the full
placing the washer on the screw before it was thread rolled. The tightening torque is achieved. Often the placement of a gasket in a
major diameter of the screw being larger than the washer hole joint results in a soft joint.
prevents it from coming off. The Illinois Tool Works made
machines that produced these patented pre-asSEMbled washers SOFT TORQUE
and screws. The s at the end of SEMs is thought to be been
subsequently picked up because they are not usually purchased An alternative name, used by some manufacturers, for snug
individually. In spite of the original patents and trademarks the torque.
word SEMS is generally recognised as a generic term applicable
to screw and washer assemblies. STATIC FRICTION
Friction at rest; a force is required to initiate relative movement
SET SCREW between two bodies - static friction is the force that resists such
A set screw is a threaded fastener that is typically used to hold a relative movement. Sometimes referred to as stiction.
sleeve, collar or gear on a shaft to prevent relative motion. It is a
threaded member that normally does not have a head. Unlike STIFFNUT
most other threaded fasteners it is basically a compression device A term used to describe a lock nut which has a prevailing torque.
normally used to generate axial thrust. Various sockets types are

STRENGTH GRADE THREAD RUNOUT

See PROPERTY CLASS The portion at the end of a threaded shank which is not cut or
rolled to full depth, but which provides a transition between full
STRESS AREA depth threads and the fastener shank or head.
The effective cross sectional area of a thread when subjected to a THREADLOCKER
tensile force. It is based upon a diameter which is the mean of the
pitch (or effective) and the minor (or root) diameters of the Can be a term used for a number of vibration resistant products
thread. The use of this diameter stems from the work of E. M. but is now usually reserved for threadlocking adhesives.
Slaughter in the 1930's. He completed carefully controlled tests Specifically, a liquid anaerobic adhesive applied to nut or bolt
using various sizes of standard threads and compared their thread, once hardened it fills the inner spaces between the threads
strength with machined bars made from the same bar of material. to produce a solid plastic of a known shear strength.
He found that this mean diameter give results that agreed with the
tensile test results to within about 3%. The error on the minor and TIN/ZINC ALLOY ELECTROPLATING
pitch diameters was about 15%. Tests completed subsequent to
these by other investigators have also shown that the stress Tin/zinc alloy coatings (typically 70% tin and 30% zinc) are
diameter is a reasonable approximation to a threads tensile applied to threaded fasteners to provide a corrosion resistant
strength. (Reference: 'Tests on Thread Sections Show Exact coating. One of the advantages of such coatings is that bimetallic
Strengthening Effect of Threads.' by E. M. Slaughter, Metal corrosion will not occur when placed into contact with such
Progress, vol 23, March 1933 pp. 18-20) metals as aluminium or steel.
STRUCTURAL BOLT TOLERANCE CLASS

A structural bolt is a heavy hexagon head bolt having a controlled A combination of tolerance grade and a fundamental deviation
thread length intended for use in structural connections and which is given to an internal or external thread. A tolerance class
assembly of such structures as buildings and bridges. The for an internal thread when combined with the tolerance class for
controlled thread length is to enable the thread to stop before the an external thread gives the class of fit for the mating threads.
joint ply interface to improve the fastener's direct shear
performance.This term is used in civil and structural engineering TOLERANCE GRADE
but is not frequently used in mechanical engineering. The difference between maximum and minimum metal conditions
for a tolerance applied to a screw thread. For metric threads the
STUD tolerance grade is given a number.
A fastener which is threaded at both ends with an unthreaded
shank in between. One end (which often has a thread tolerance TORQUE MULTIPLIER
which results in more thread interference) is secured into a tapped A gearbox used to increase the torque produced by a small hand
hole the other is used with a nut. wrench.
SYMMETRICAL THREAD TORQUE WRENCH
A symmetrical thread is one which has both flanks of the thread A manual wrench which incorporates a gauge or other method to
profile inclined are the same angle. indicate the amount of torque transferred to the nut or bolt.
TENSION WASHERS TURN OF THE NUT METHOD

A general name given to spring washers, curved washers, See ANGLE CONTROLLED TIGHTENING
Belleville washers and disc springs. This type of washer provides
a relatively low stiffness (compared to the joint stiffness) and can U BOLT
be used to act as a spring take-up with a bolt to prevent
movement between parts. A U shaped fastener threaded at both ends used primarily in
suspension and related areas of vehicles.
THREAD CREST
The top part of the thread. For external threads, the crest is the
ULTRASONIC EXTENSOMETER
region of the thread which is on it's outer surface, for internal An instrument which can measure the change in length of a
threads it is the region which forms the inner diameter. fastener ultrasonically as the fastener is tightened (or measure the
length before and after it is tightened).
THREAD FLANK
VIRTUAL EFFECTIVE DIAMETER
The thread flanks join the thread roots to the crest.
The effective diameter of a thread but allowing for errors in pitch
THREAD HEIGHT and flank angles.
This is the distance between the minor and major diameters of the WAISTED SHANK BOLT
thread measured radially.
A bolt whose diameter is less than the minor diameter of the
THREAD LENGTH thread. Frequently the shank of the bolt is 0.9 times the root
diameter.
Length the portion of the fastener with threads.
WIRE THREAD INSERT
THREAD ROOT
A threaded insert that is typically used for tapped hole repair or to
The thread root is the bottom of the thread, on external threads improve the thread stripping strength of softer metals such as zinc
the roots are usually rounded so that fatigue performance is and aluminium. The inserts are assembled into a previously
improved. tapped hole using a special driving tool. A thread locking

compound is frequently used to secure the insert if the assembly

is subject to vibration.
YIELD CONTROLLED TIGHTENING

A fastener tightening method which allows a fastener to be
tightened to yield. The angle of rotation of the fastener is
measured relative to the applied torque, yield being assessed
when the slope of the relationship changes to below a certain
value. Sometimes called joint controlled tightening.
ZINC ELECTROPLATING
Zinc electroplating is a common way to protect threaded fasteners
from the effects of corrosion. Zinc electroplating can be
completed in acid chloride, alkaline or cyanide baths.
Supplemental coatings are frequently applied to zinc
electroplating. These coatings, such as zinc phosphate or
chromate conversion, provide a protective passivation layer on
the zinc that assists in reducing the corrosion rate.
ZINC/COBALT ALLOY ELECTROPLATING

This coating is similar to zinc electroplating completed in an acid
chloride bath - a small amount of cobalt (typically about 1%) is
added to increase the plating speed.
ZINC PHOSPHATE CONVERSION COATING

A zinc phosphate conversion coating is frequently added to zinc
electroplated parts, such as bolt threads, to improve corrosion
resistance. This type of chemical conversion coating provides a
protective passivation layer on the zinc improving its corrosion
resistance.

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This document forms part of a training course that was delivered by Bolt Science Limited.

Bolt Science Limited 2004 - All Rights Reserved

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Bolt and Thread Terminology

Names are given to specific parts of a

In a similar manner, a bolt designated

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Coarse and Fine Threads

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Fine threads also have a number of significant disadvantages:

The Strength of Bolts and Nuts and their Markings

Terminology used to Describe Bolt Strength

have occurred. The tensile strength corresponds to

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Property Class and Strength Grade

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Matching the Bolt Strength to the Nut Strength

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The Stress Area of a Thread

Detailed tests were completed in the 1930's1 to establish

The Basics of Bolt Loading

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A model can often be of help in understanding why the bolt

Older design procedures proposed calculation methods

In practical situations there will be a slight increase in the

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Methods of Tightening Threaded Fasteners

1. Torque control tightening.

Torque tightening, or torque controlled tightening as it is sometimes called, is when a torque

Torque-Angle Controlled Tightening

1. A non-linear initial stage when the joint

2. A linear stage when the bolt tension is

The Torque-Angle of Turn graph takes the

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Yield Controlled Tightening

As with angle control, a snug torque is usually

Hydraulic and Jack Bolt Tensioning

The heating is normally done by a heating element

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Tension Indicating Methods

1. Tension indication built into the bolt.

The first two methods are discussed in a

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Torque Tightening of Threaded Fasteners

Applying a large force using a small lever

If the force applied to the spanner is

As the torque is applied to a bolt, the tension in the bolt

If the clamp force provided by the bolts is not

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The bolt-nut assembly typically absorbs the torque in three ways:

Determining the Torque Value

1. By completing a test that allows the induced

1. Experimental Determination of the

Using a load cell and a torque wrench it

2. The Nut Factor Method

Torque = Bolt Preload F x Bolt Diameter D x Nut Factor K

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Moly paste or grease 0.10 to 0.18

The following formula can be used to determine the bolt preload:

Preload F = Bolt Yield Strength x Thread Stress Area x Percentage Factor

Preload F = 940 x 353 x 0.6 = 199092 N = 199 kN

Torque = Bolt Preload F x Bolt Diameter D x Nut Factor K

Torque = 199092 x 24 x 0.14 / 1000

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