2 GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA & CONTROL

2.1 Overview
A range of factors influence design choices for road projects. Design characteristics and
values adopted must provide a satisfactory service to roads users, and be economically
viable within the financial, topographical, and environmental constraints that may exist.

There are many aspects to be considered in the planning and design of road projects.
Chapter 2 provides guidance on:

context sensitive solutions;

sustainability;
functional classification;
speed (design speed, average running speed, operating speed);
design vehicle characteristics;
traffic volume controls and composition;
environmental considerations;
right-of-way considerations;
access control and access management; and
non-road design controls (e.g. drivers, pedestrians, cyclists).

2.2 Context sensitive solutions

Context sensitive solutions (CSS) is a collaborative, interdisciplinary approach that involves
all stakeholders to develop a transportation facility that fits its physical setting and preserves
scenic, aesthetic, historic and environmental resources, while maintaining safety and
mobility. CSS is an approach that considers the total context within which a transportation
improvement project will exist.

A design for new road or major reconstruction should take into account the following criteria:

access for other modes of transportation (e.g. walking, transit, bicycles)

the constructed and natural environment of the area; and
the environmental, scenic, aesthetic, historic, community and preservation impacts of
the activity.
The following are the basic principles behind context sensitive design:

1. Qualities of excellence in transportation design. The following apply:

The project satisfies the purpose and needs, as agreed to by a full range of
stakeholders. This agreement is forged in the earliest phase of the project
and amended as warranted as the project develops.
The project is a safe facility for both the user and the community.
The project is in harmony with the community, and it preserves
environmental, scenic, aesthetic, historic and natural resource values of the
area (i.e. exhibits context sensitive design).

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 The project exceeds the expectations of both designers and stakeholders,
and achieves a level of excellence in peoples minds.
The project involves the efficient and effective use of the resources (e.g. time,
budget, community) of all involved parties.
The project is designed and built with minimal disruption to the community.
The project is seen as having added lasting value to the community.
2. Characteristics of the process contributing to excellence. The following apply:

Communication with all stakeholders is open, honest, early, and continuous.

A multidisciplinary team is established early, with disciplines based on the
needs of the specific project, and with the inclusion of the public.
A full range of stakeholders are involved with transportation officials in the
scoping phase. The purposes of the project are clearly defined, and
consensus on the scope is forged before proceeding.
The roadway development process is tailored to meet the circumstances.
This process should examine multiple alternatives that will result in a
consensus of approach methods.
A commitment to the process from top agency officials and local leaders is
secured.
The public involvement process, which includes informal meetings, is tailored
to the project.
The landscape, the community and valued resources are understood before
engineering design is started.
A full range of tools for communication on project alternatives is used (e.g.
visualization).
The principles of context sensitive design/context sensitive solutions apply essentially to any
transportation project with the aim being to ensure that the full range of stakeholder values is
incorporated into the design process and final result. The Road Geometric Design Manual
prescribes typical design practices, but also recognises that some flexibility may be required
where the design criteria may be inappropriate.

For additional guidance on content sensitive solutions, the user should review the following
documents:

Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council Abu Dhabi Urban Street Design Manual (4)
NCHRP Report 480 A Guide to Best Practice for Achieving Context Sensitive
Solutions (5).
An ITE Recommended Practice, Designing Walkable Urban Thoroughfares: A
Context Sensitive Approach (6).
AASHTO A Guide for Achieving Flexibility in Highway Design (7)
NCHRP Report 642 Quantifying the Benefits of Context Sensitive Solutions (8)

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2.3 Sustainability
The overall goals of sustainable development are to meet human need and improve quality
of life to live within the earths ecological carrying capacity, and maintain or enhance its
natural capital; and to protect future generations from reduced quality of life. These goals
are achieved by addressing three dimensions of sustainability:

1. Economic development. Ensure that the financial and economic needs of current
and future generations are met.

2. Environmental stewardship. Ensure a clean environment for current and future

generations and use resources sparingly.

3. Social equity. Improve the quality of life for all people and promote equity between
societies, groups and generations.

Estidama, which is the Arabic word for sustainability, is the intellectual legacy of the late
Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan and a manifestation of visionary governance promoting
thoughtful and responsible development. The leadership of Abu Dhabi are progressing the
principles and imperatives for sustainable development, through Estidama, while recognising
that the unique cultural, climatic, and economic development needs of the region require a
more localized definition of sustainability.

The ultimate goal of Estidama is to preserve and enrich Abu Dhabi's physical and cultural
identity, while creating an always improving quality of life for its residents on four equal
pillars of sustainability: environmental, economic, social, and cultural. For additional
information on Estidama in Abu Dhabi, see www.estidama.org (9).

Transportation plays a key role in the global economy, and in the challenges and
opportunities associated with sustainable development. Sustainable transportation can be
viewed as an expression of sustainable development in the transportation sector.
Sustainable transportation addresses local, regional, national, and global issues and,
therefore, requires considerable coordination. It is important to apply sustainable
transportation in a holistic and integrated manner across the various sectors (external to
transportation) to ensure that key concerns such as depletion of resources, global climate
change, disruption of ecosystems and toxic pollution are effectively addressed.

A comprehensive definition of a sustainable transportation system states that sustainable

transportation:

allows the basic access needs of individuals and societies to be met safely and in a
manner consistent with human and ecosystem health, and with equity within and
between generations;
is affordable, operates efficiently, offers choice of transport mode, and supports a
vibrant economy; and
limits emissions and waste within the planets ability to absorb them, minimises
consumption of non-renewable resources, limits consumption of renewable
resources to the sustainable yield level, reuses and recycles its components, and
minimises the use of land and the production of noise.

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For additional information on sustainability, the user should review the following documents:

Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council Abu Dhabi Urban Street Design Manual (4)
Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council Public Realm Design Manual (10)
US Federal Highway Administrations Transportation Planning for Sustainability
Guidebook (11)
Center for Environmental Excellence by AASHTO website (12)

2.4 Functional classification

2.4.1 Relationship to roadway design
Motor vehicle travel involves a series of distinct travel movements. The six recognizable
stages in most trips include main movement, transition, distribution, collection, access and
termination. Each of the six stages of a typical trip is handled by a separate facility designed
specifically for the function.

The functional classification concept is one of the most important determining factors in
roadway design. In this concept, roads are grouped by the character of service they provide.
Functional classification recognizes that the public road network in Abu Dhabi serves two
basic and often conflicting functions access to property and travel mobility. See Figure
2.1. Each road or street will provide varying levels of access and mobility, depending upon
its intended service. The overall objective of the functional classification system, when
viewed in its entirety, is to yield an optimum balance between its access and mobility
purposes. When achieved, the benefits to the travelling public will be maximised.

The functional classification system provides the framework for determining the geometric
design of individual roadways and streets. Once the function of the roadway facility is
defined, the designer can select an appropriate design speed, roadway width, roadside
safety elements, amenities, and other design values. The Abu Dhabi Road Geometric
Design Manual is based upon this systematic concept to determine roadway design.

Table 2.1 summarises the principle features for each functional classification. For additional
guidance on functional classifications, see AASHTO A Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets (1).

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 Figure 2-1: Relationship of functionally classified systems in serving traffic mobility
and land access (1)

2.4.2 Function of roadway system for rural areas

The rural functional classification includes the following:

1. Principal arterial system. The rural principal arterial system consists of a connected
rural network of continuous routes having the following characteristics:

Serve corridor movements having trip length and travel density characteristics
indicative of substantial inter- and intra-Emirate wide travel.
Serve all or virtually all urban areas with population of 30,000 and over, and a
large majority of those with population of 20,000 and over.
Provide an integrated network without stub connections, except where
unusual geographic or traffic flow conditions dictate otherwise (e.g.
international boundary connections and connections to coastal cities).

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 Table 2.1: Characteristics of roads by class (4)
Road Classifications
Characteristic
Freeways Expressways Arterials Collectors Local Roads

Land access
Restricted Land access a and traffic Land access
Land Service No Access access from secondary movement of the primary
service roads consideration equal consideration
importance
Land access
Traffic Traffic
and traffic
Optimum Optimum movement the movement the
Traffic Service movement of
mobility mobility primary secondary
equal
consideration consideration
importance

Urban: < 5 km Urban: < 2 km Urban: < 1 km

Typical length of
Unlimited Unlimited Rural: as Rural: as Rural: as
road
required required required

Typical
Urban: 1.5 km Urban: > 1 km Urban: >200 m Urban: as
Intersection/ Urban: >400 m
Rural: >3 to 5 Rural: 3 to 5 Rural: 400 m to required
interchange Rural: >1.5 km
km km 1.5 km Rural: > 200 m
Spacing

Uninterrupted
Nature of traffic
Free flow Free flow flow except at Interrupted flow Interrupted flow
flow
intersections

All types except

Passenger and
Vehicle Type All types All types All types semi-trailers
Transit Bus**
and above*

Freeways
Freeways Freeways Arterials
Expressways Collectors
Connect to Expressways Expressways Collectors
Arterials Local roads
Arterials Arterials Local roads
Collectors

Notes:
*In industrial areas, collectors should accommodate all types of vehicle.
**In industrial and rural areas, trucks may require considerations.

The rural principal arterial system is divided into the following subcategories:

a. Freeways. The freeway is the highest level of an arterial. These facilities are
characterized by full control of access, high design speeds, and a high level
of driver comfort and safety. For these reasons, freeways are considered a
special type of road within the functional classification system, and separate
design criteria have been developed for rural freeways.

b. Other principal arterials. These facilities include expressways and other

multilane arterials, with or without a median. Partial control of access is
desirable along these facilities. The access is limited by governing
regulations.

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 2. Minor arterials. Rural minor arterial system, in conjunction with the principal arterial
system, should form a rural network having the following characteristics:

a. Links. Arterials should link cities, larger towns and other traffic generators
that are capable of attracting travel over similarly long distances.

b. Spacing. Arterials should be spaced consistent with population density so that

all developed areas of Abu Dhabi are within a reasonable distance of an
arterial road.

c. Service. Arterials should provide service to roads with trip length and travel
density greater than those predominantly served by rural collectors or local
systems. Minor arterial routes have relatively high overall speeds and
minimum interference to through traffic.

3. Collector roads. The function of rural collector roads is to collect traffic flow from the
rural local roads to the rural arterials and to distribute traffic flow from arterials back
to the local roads. Access to properties is normally allowed on collector roads. In
rural areas, the function of collector is twofold: To provide access to adjacent land
uses and to carry traffic into areas with sparse development. Collector roads are
further defined as follows:

a. Major collector roads. These routes serve larger towns and significant traffic
generators (e.g. shipping ports, mining areas) that are not served by an
arterial, expressway, or freeway. They also link these locations with higher
classified routes.

b. Minor collector roads. These roads are spaced at intervals consistent with
the traffic population density to accumulate traffic from local roads, provide
service to smaller communities, and link locally important traffic generators.

4. Local roads. Rural local roads generally have the following characteristics:

constitute the rural roads not designated as part of a higher classification,

serve primarily to provide access to adjacent lands and connections to higher
classified routes, and
provide service to motorists who travel relatively short distances as compared
to collectors or other higher classified routes.
Table 2.2 provides typical percentages of rural functional classifications.

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 Table 2.2: Guidelines for rural functional systems (U.S.) (1)
System Percentage of total rural road length

Principal arterial system 2% 4%

Principal arterials and minor arterial system 6% 12%

Collector road system 20% 25%

Local road system 65% 75%

2.4.3 Function of roadway system for urban areas

Urban areas are associated with cities and towns. AASHTO refers to suburban areas as the
area surrounding an urban center, which are usually residential areas on the outskirts of a
large city or town. Suburban areas may contain company facilities and industrial parks, but
are primarily filled with housing and associated retail businesses. Note: In Abu Dhabi the
term suburban is not used in its planning and design documents. Consequently, this
Manual does not provide design criteria for suburban areas.

The functional classification of urban roads and streets is usually less clear than that of rural
roads, as urban roads and streets generally are flanked by dense development that requires
frequent access at the boundary of the road. Historical requirements for curb side parking
and other uses (e.g. public transport routes or bicycle routes) further complicate functional
definitions.

Most urban arterial roads continue to function as major through traffic routes, but the
management of these roads often requires space to be dedicated to public transport or
bicycle use in preference to private car travel. There is also a trend on outer urban roads for
speed limits to be lowered to address pedestrian safety issues while sections of inner city
streets (formerly through arterial routes) are sometimes converted to pedestrian areas or
shared zones. Consequently, the function of particular sections of road may change over
time in accordance with community values. To better define urban roads and streets based
on context sensitive street design, the Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council defines urban
streets with a two name convention as described in Section 2.4.4. The first name is the
context name, based on the land use context, and the second is the street family name,
based on the transport capacity.

Urban functional classifications are defined as follows:

1. Principal arterial system. In general, the urban principal arterial system carries the
highest traffic volumes and accommodates the greatest trip lengths. The following
are the main characteristics for streets and roads of the urban principal arterial
system:

serves the major traffic movements within urbanised areas connecting central
business districts, outlying residential areas, major intercity communities and
major urban centres;
serves a major portion of the trips entering and leaving the urban area, as
well as the majority of the through traffic desiring to bypass the city; and

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 provides continuity for all rural arterials that intercept the urban area.
The principal arterial system is segregated as follows:

a. Freeways and expressways. Freeways and expressways may be connecting

links in the urban area, and they may be extensions of rural or other principle
arterials. These routes may traverse the urban area from one boundary to
another or may simply connect to another connecting link. Also, freeways
and expressways may provide access to circumferential routes around the
city or provide links to the central city.

b. Other principal arterials. These routes consist of a connected urban network

of continuous routes having the following designations and characteristics:

provide service to, through or around urban areas from rural arterial
routes, and may be connecting links;
serve generally as an extension of a rural arterial road;
typically the access is controlled by regulation; and
provide for an integrated network serving the entire urban area.
2. Minor arterials. Minor arterials include all arterials not classified as principal arterials.
These routes have the following general characteristics:

place more emphasis on land access than principal arterials;

provide service for trips of moderate length and at a somewhat lower level of
mobility than urban principal arterial routes;
provides access to geographic areas smaller than those served by the higher
system; and
provides intra-community continuity, but will not, for example, penetrate
neighbourhoods.
3. Collector streets. In urban areas, collector streets serve as intermediate links
between the arterial system and points of origin and destination. These facilities
typically have the following characteristics:

provide both access and traffic circulation within residential neighbourhoods

and commercial/industrial areas, and
may penetrate residential neighbourhoods or commercial/industrial areas to
collect and distribute trips to and from the arterial system.
4. Local streets. The streets functionally classified as urban local streets generally have
the following characteristics:

constitutes the urban streets not designated as part of a higher classification;

serves primarily to provide direct access to abutting land and higher order
systems;
offers the lowest level of mobility and highest land access services; and
discourages through traffic movements.

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Table 2.3 provides typical percentages of urban functional classifications.

Table 2.3: Guidelines for rural functional systems (U.S.) (1)

System Percentage of total urban road length

Principal arterial system 5% 10%

Principal arterials and minor arterial system 15% 25%

Collector road system 5% 10%

Local road system 65% 80%

2.4.4 Urban streets

Urban streets in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi serve many functions, and street classifications
must reflect more than the simple balance between automobile movement and access.
Many streets in Abu Dhabi must accommodate both a high degree of automobile movement
and a high degree of accessibility. To better define the various modes of transportation
within a municipality, the Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council defines municipal streets in the
Abu Dhabi Urban Street Design Manual (4), as follows:

1. Boulevard. A boulevard is a high vehicle capacity 3+3 street (three lanes in each
direction). Boulevards may have frontage lanes. Existing streets with 3+3 lanes or
more are also classified as boulevards.

2. Avenue. An avenue is a medium vehicle capacity 2+2 (two lanes in each direction)
street. Avenues may have frontage lanes.

3. Street. A street is a low vehicle capacity 1+1 street (one lane in each direction).
They typically have low traffic volumes and low speeds.

4. Access lane. An access lane is a very low volume capacity 1+1 street. They typically
have very low traffic volumes and very low speeds.

Table 2.4 illustrates the relationship between the Abu Dhabi street family and AASHTO
functional classification systems.

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Table 2.4: Relationship between street family and functional classification systems (4)
AASHTO functional classification
Street family Principal Minor
Collector Local
arterial arterial
Boulevard X X
Avenue X X (major collectors)
Street X (minor collectors X
Access lane X

2.5 Speed
2.5.1 Design speed
The project design speed is the selected speed for each project that will establish criteria for
several design elements, including horizontal and vertical curvature, superelevation, sight
distance, etc. The assumed design speed should be a logical one with respect to the
topography, anticipated operating speed, the adjacent land use, and functional classification.
Except for local streets where speed controls are frequently included intentionally and on
non-freeway urban streets, the designer should make every effort to use as high a design
speed as practical to attain a desired degree of safety, mobility, and efficiency. The selected
design speed should reflect the actual operating speeds to ensure the safe and efficient
movement of traffic. The selected design speed should not be less than the intended posted
speed limit. Table 2.5 shows the recommended design speeds for each roadway functional
classification.

Table 2.5: Design speed guidelines

Design speed (km/h)
Road class Rural roads Urban roads
Maximum Minimum Mountainous Maximum Minimum
Local road/
80 40 30 50 30
street
Collector/
100 60 50 60 30
avenue/street
Truck Routes 120 100 80 n/a n/a
Arterial/avenue/
110 90 60 80 40
boulevard
Expressway 120 100 80 120 80

Freeway 140 120 80 120 100

2.5.2 Average running speed

The running speed is the speed of over a specified section of road. It is equal to the distance
travelled divided by the running time (i.e. the time the vehicle is in motion). The average

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running speed is the distance summation for all vehicles divided by the running time of all
vehicles. By measuring average running speeds at various locations along an existing
section of road, the designer can identify those locations in similar terrain where speeds are
not uniform with the rest of the section and make decisions for improvements.

The average running speed is use to determine the minimum acceptable acceleration or
deceleration distances for freeway entrance and exit ramps). For all other geometric design
elements, use the selected design speed to determine the appropriate design criteria.

2.5.3 Average travel speed

The average travel speed is speed over a specified section of road. It is equal to the
distance travelled divided by the total travel time including time the vehicle is not in motion.

2.5.4 Space mean speed

An average speed that is computed from the average travel time of vehicles travelling along
a defined roadway segment. The average travel time is the weighted time that each vehicle
spends traversing the specific length of road.

2.5.5 Operating speed

The operating speed is the speed that drivers are observed operating their vehicles during
free-flow conditions. In practice, the term operating speed is commonly used to
characterise prevailing vehicular speeds on a road segment, either through field
measurements of speed or through informal field observations. Although no precise
percentile is used to define operating speed, typically it will be the 85th percentile of the
actual travel speeds.

2.5.6 Posted speed limit

Posted speed limit is the legal speed limit for a road that is determined by statutes or based
on an engineering and traffic investigation. Speed limits applied to roads have an effect on
vehicular speeds and, in particular, tend to restrain the fastest drivers. These posted speeds
are mandatory and are clearly displayed to road users. Nevertheless, it is important to
provide a margin of safety for those vehicles whose drivers choose to travel faster than the
speed limit. Table 2.6 indicates the posted speed that is appropriate for a given design
speed. Posted speeds are typically 20 km/h below the design speed for high-design speeds
(80 km/h or greater) and 10 km/h below the design speed for low-design speeds (70 km/h or
less). If the 85th percentile speed is greater than the posted speed limit, this is considered an
enforcement issue and is not a design issue.

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 Table 2.6: Recommended posted speed
Design speed Posted speed
(km/h) (km/h)
30 40 30 40
50 40
60 50
70 60
80 60
90 70
100 80
120 100
140 120

2.5.7 Truck/car speed relationship

Rural posted speed for trucks and other heavy-duty vehicles are less than the posted speed
for passenger cars and other light vehicles (typically 80 km/h or less). The Highway
Capacity Manual 2010 (13) defines heavy vehicles as any vehicle with more than four
wheels on the ground during normal operations. These vehicles are generally categorized as
trucks, buses, and recreation vehicles. They typically have less acceleration and require
more room for maneuvering, lane changing, and braking.

Trucks typically accelerate more slowly from a stop condition and experience greater
difficulty in maintaining desirable speeds on long, steep upgrades than automobiles. Truck
characteristics affecting speed on upgrades include mass, power, aerodynamic resistance,
drive-train-to-gear ratios and tires.

The number heavy vehicles are converted to equivalent passage cars for capacity analysis
purposes. The equivalent ratio is determined based on speed, terrain, power, etc., of the
heavy vehicle. See the Highway Capacity Manual 2010 (13) for applicable equivalency
ratios.

2.6 Design vehicles

2.6.1 Vehicle dimensions
The physical and operational characteristics of vehicles using the road are important controls
in roadway design. Design criteria may vary according to the type of vehicle and the volume
of each type of vehicle in the traffic stream. The design vehicle affects the radius returns,
left-turn radii, lane widths, median openings, turning roadways, and sight distances at
intersections.

Vehicular characteristics that impact design include:

1. Size. Vehicular sizes determine lane and shoulder widths, vertical clearances and,
indirectly, roadway capacity calculations.

2. Offtracking. The design of intersection turning radii, travelled way widening for
horizontal curves, and pavement widths for interchange ramps are usually controlled
by the largest design vehicle likely to use the facility with some frequency.

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 3. Storage requirements. Turn bay storage lengths, bus turnouts, and parking lot
layouts are determined by the number and types of vehicles to be accommodated.

4. Sight distance. Eye height and braking distances vary for passenger cars and trucks,
which can impact sight distance considerations.

5. Acceleration and deceleration. Acceleration and deceleration rates often govern the
dimensioning of such design features as speed-change lanes at intersections or
interchange ramps, climbing lanes, or passing lanes.

6. Vehicular stability. Certain vehicles with high centres of gravity may be prone to
skidding or overturning, affecting design speed selection, and superelevation design
elements.

Tables 2.7 and 2.8 present design vehicular dimensions and minimum turning radii for
design vehicles used in Abu Dhabi. These tables can be used to input vehicle dimensions
into turning template software (e.g. AutoTurn). Figures 2.2 and 2.3 illustrate the application
of the basic dimensions for combination trucks.

2.6.2 Turning templates

The design vehicle affects the radius returns, left-turn radii, lane widths, median openings,
turning roadways, and sight distances at an intersection. Figure 2.4 provides turning
characteristics of typical design vehicle. The designer should use the appropriate turning
software programs to check their designs. Include a copy of swept path design when
submitting plans to the DoT for review. The basic design vehicles used by Abu Dhabi for
design include:

Passenger Car (P),

Single Unit Truck (SU-9 and SU-12),
City Transit Bus (CITY-BUS),
Semitrailer Intermediate (WB-12 and WB-15),
Interstate Semitrailer (WB-20), and
Double Semitrailer/Trailer (WB-33D).
For other design vehicles, see the AASHTO A Policy on Geometric Design for Highways and
Streets (1). Note that the other design vehicle generally have better performance (e.g. off
tracking) than the design vehicles listed above.

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 Table 2.7: Minimum turning radii of design vehicles (1-revised)
Minimum design Centreline*
Minimum inside
Design vehicle type Symbol turning radius turning radius
radius (m)
(m) (CTR) (m)

Passenger car P 7.26 6.40 4.39

Single unit truck SU-9 12.73 11.58 8.64

Single unit truck SU-12 15.60 14.46 11.09

City transit bus CITY-BUS 12.50** 11.52 5.30**

Intermediate
WB-12 12.16 10.97 5.88
semitrailer
Intermediate
WB-15 13.66 12.50 5.20
semitrailer
Interstate
WB-20 13.66 12.50 0.59
semitrailer
Double trailer
WB-33D 18.25 17.04 4.19
combination

* The turning radius assumed by a designer when investigating possible turning paths and is set at
the centreline of the front axle of a vehicle. If the minimum turning path is assumed, the CTR
approximately equals the minimum design turning radius minus one-half the front width of the
vehicle.

** Based on dimensions provided by the DoT Public Transport Division.

2.6.3 Acceleration and deceleration rates

Acceleration and deceleration rates of trucks are often critical parameters in determining the
road design. These rates often govern the dimensions of such design features as
intersections, freeway ramps, climbing or passing lanes, and turnout bays for buses. Based
on their acceleration and deceleration performance, the passenger cars seldom control
design. The AASHTO A Policy on Geometric Design for Highways and Streets (1) provides
passenger car deceleration and acceleration rates. Chapter 6 Vertical Alignment provides
data on truck acceleration and deceleration rates.

2.7 Traffic volume and composition

To properly design the roadway facility, the road designer must determine the appropriate
traffic volume to use for the design of the facility. Selection of the appropriate traffic volume
is dependent upon several factors. The road designer must ensure the traffic design volume
is appropriate for their design. For additional guidance on traffic volumes and compositions,
see the Highway Capacity Manual 2010 (13).

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Table 2.8: Design vehicle dimensions (1-revised)

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Figure 2-2: Basic dimension of tractorsemitrailer vehicle

Page 22
Page 23
trailer vehicle (double trailer)
S = Distance from the rear effective axle to the hitch point or point of articulation

Figure 2-3: Basic dimension of tractor semitrailer vehicle/

T = Distance from the hitch point or articulation measured back to the centre of the next axle or centre of tandem axle
assembly.
Definitions:

1. Turning Radius. The circular arc formed by the turning path radius of the front outside tire of a
vehicle. This radius is also described by vehicular manufacturers as the turning curb radius.

2. CTR. The turning radius assumed by a designer when investigating possible turning paths. It is
set at the centre of the front axle of a vehicle.

3. Offtracking. The difference in the paths of the front and rear wheels of a vehicle as it negotiates a
turn. The path of each rearward tire of a turning vehicle does not coincide with that of the
corresponding forward tire. This phenomenon is shown in the drawing above.

4. Swept Path Width. The amount of roadway width that a vehicle covers in negotiating a turn equal
to the amount of offtracking, plus the width of the vehicle. The most significant dimension
affecting the swept path width of a tractor/semitrailer is the distance from the kingpin to the rear
trailer axle or axles. The greater this distance, the greater the swept path width.

5. Steering Angle. The maximum angle of turn built into the steering mechanism of the front wheels
of a vehicle. This maximum angle controls the minimum turning radius of the vehicle.

6. Tractor/Trailer Angle. The angle between adjoining units of a tractor/semitrailer when the
combination unit is placed into a turn. This angle is measured between the longitudinal axes of
the tractor and trailer as the vehicle turns. The maximum tractor/trailer angle occurs when a
vehicle makes a 180 turn at the minimum turning radius and is reached slightly beyond the point
where a maximum swept path width is achieved.

Figure 2-4: Turning characteristics of a typical semitrailer design vehicle (1)

2.7.1 Design year selection

The geometric design of a road should be designed to accommodate the expected traffic
volumes predicted to occur during the life of the facility, assuming reasonable maintenance.
This involves projecting the traffic volumes to a selected future year. For new construction

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and reconstruction projects, the recommended design year is 20 years from the expected
construction completion date.

2.7.2 Traffic characteristics

Forecasting future traffic volumes requires understanding of future land use, demographics,
and changes in the transportation system. It is usually completed by adopting a local travel
demand model or using modeling software for the urbanized/rural area. Current traffic data
is used to predict the future ADT, peak hour(s), directional distribution, and traffic
composition. These traffic characteristics are discussed in the following sections. The
Planning Section is generally responsible for determining this data.

2.7.2.1 Average daily traffic

The design of a road and its features should be based upon the traffic volumes and
characteristics to be served. Information on traffic volume serves to establish the loads for
the geometric road design. The data collected by agencies include traffic volumes for days of
the year and time of day, as well as the distribution of vehicles by type and weight. This data
also includes information on trends from which the designer may estimate the traffic to be
expected in the future.

The basic measure of the traffic demand for a road is the average daily traffic (ADT) volume.
The ADT is defined as the total volume during a given time period (in whole days), greater
than one day and less than one year, divided by the number of days in that time period. The
current ADT volume for a road can be readily determined when continuous traffic counts are
available. When only periodic counts are taken, the ADT volume can be estimated by
adjusting the periodic counts according to the season, month or day of week.

2.7.2.2 Peak hour traffic

Capacity and other traffic analysis typically focus on the peak-hour traffic volume as it
represents the most critical period of operations and has the highest capacity requirements.
The traffic pattern on any road varies during hours of the day, day of the week or time of
year. Rural and recreational routes often show a wide variation in peak hour volumes.
Urban streets, on the other hand, show less variation in peak-hour traffic.

A key design decision involves determining which hourly traffic volume should be used for
design. The selected design hourly volume (DHV) should not be so low that it is often
exceeded, or so high that traffic would rarely be sufficient to make full use of the resulting
facility. The selection of an appropriate hour for planning, design, and operational purposes
is a compromise between providing an adequate level of service for nearly every hour of the
year and providing economic efficiency. For rural and recreational routes, the 30th highest
hour is typically used for the DHV. For urban areas, the 100th hour is often used as the DHV.
The designer should review the resulting traffic conditions from the selected design hour to
ensure the acceptability of the design (i.e. meets the needs of drivers).

2.7.2.3 Peak hour factor

Peak hour traffic volumes are critical in evaluating capacity and other parameters because
they represent the most critical time period. It is the period during which traffic volume is at
its highest. The analysis of level of service is based on peak rates of flow occurring within
the peak hour because substantial short-term fluctuations typically occur during an hour.

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Common practice is to use a peak 15-minute rate of flow. Flow rates are usually expressed
in vehicles per hour, not vehicles per 15 minutes. The relationship between the peak 15-
minute flow rate and the full hourly volume is given by the peak-hour factor (PHF) as shown
in Equation 2:1:

PHF = Hourly Volume/Peak rate of flow (within the hour)

Equation 2-1: Peak hour factor

If 15-minute periods are used, the PHF is computed as:

Equation 2-2: Peak hour factor (based on 15-minute period)

where: PHF = Peak Hour Factor
V = Peak Hour Volume (vph)
V15 = Volume during the peak 15 minutes of flow (veh/15 minutes)

The following example illustrates the application of the PHF:

Example 2.71

Given: One hour traffic count (7:00 8:00) along a rural freeway:

7:00 - 7:15: 170

7:15 - 7:30: 200
7:30 - 7:45: 220
7:45 - 8:00: 180

Problem: Compute the peak hour factor (PHF).

Solution: Determine the peak hour factor:

PHF = 770/(4 220) = 770/880 = 0.875

Typical peak-hour factors for freeways range between 0.80 and 0.95. Lower factors are
more typical for rural freeways or off-peak conditions. Higher factors are typical of urban
peak-hour conditions.

2.7.2.4 Directional distribution

For two-lane rural roads, the DHV is the total traffic in both directions of travel. In the design
of roads with more than two lanes, on two-lane roads where important intersections are
encountered, or where additional lanes are to be provided later, knowledge of the hourly
traffic volume for each direction of travel is important.

A dual carriageway with a high percentage of traffic in one direction during the peak hours
may need more lanes than a road having the same ADT, but an equal percentage of
directional traffic. During peak hours on most rural roads, 55% to 70% of the traffic is
travelling in the peak direction, with up to as much as 80% occasionally. Directional

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distributions of traffic vary enough between sites that two dual carriageways carrying equal
traffic may have significantly different peak direction volumes.

Some studies have shown that urban radial routes may have up to 66% of the traffic
travelling in the same direction during the peak hour. Unfortunately, this peak occurs in one
direction in the morning and the opposite direction in the evening. Consequently, both
directions of the facility must have capacity for the peak directional flow. Urban
circumferential routes often have a 50/50 split during the peak hours for a more balanced
flow.

The directional distribution of traffic during the DHV should be determined by making field
measurements on the facility under consideration or on parallel and similar facilities.

In designing intersections and interchanges, the volumes of all movements occurring during
the design hour is required. This information is necessary for both the morning and evening
peak periods because the traffic pattern may change significantly from one peak hour to the
other.

2.7.2.5 Traffic composition

Vehicles of different sizes and weights have different operating characteristics and should be
considered in road design. Trucks are generally slower and occupy more roadway space
and have a greater individual effect on traffic operations than do passenger vehicles. The
effect on traffic operation of one truck is often equivalent to several passenger cars. The
number of equivalent passenger cars equalling the effect of one truck is dependent on the
roadway gradient and, for two-lane roads, on the available passing sight distance. Therefore,
the larger the proportion of trucks in a traffic stream, the greater the equivalent traffic
demand and the greater the road capacity needed.

For geometric design, it is essential to have traffic data on the types of vehicles expected for
the roadway facility. These data generally indicate the major types of trucks and buses as
percentages of all traffic expected to use the road. At intersections, the percentage of trucks
during the morning and evening peak hours should be determined separately. Variations in
truck traffic between the various traffic movements at intersections may be substantial and
may influence the appropriate geometric layout.

2.7.3 Capacity and operational analyses

2.7.3.1 Highway Capacity Manual

Capacity is the maximum sustainable hourly flow rate at which persons or vehicles
reasonably can be expected to transverse a point, or a uniform section of roadway during a
given time period under prevailing road, environmental, traffic, and control conditions. The
goal of the designer is to ensure the expected capacity of road reasonably meets the
demand for the facility. There are several documents available to assist the designer in
determining the capacity of a facility (e.g. United Kingdoms Design Manual for Roads and
Bridges). Abu Dhabi recommends the designer follow the guidance provided in the Highway
Capacity Manual 2010 (HCM) (13).

The HCM was developed considering the following analysis areas:

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 levels of analysis (operations, design, preliminary engineering, and planning);
travel modes (automobile and other motorized vehicles, pedestrians, bicycle, and
transit where it is part of a multimodal urban street facility);
spatial coverage (points, segments, and facilities); and
temporal coverage (undersaturated and oversaturated conditions).
The HCM provides tools to assist in estimating performance measures for individual
elements of a multimodal transportation system, as well as guidance on combining those
elements to evaluate larger portions of the system. Table 2.9 provides the system elements
and the service measurements used in the HCM.

To more accurately determine roadway capacities, capacity methodologies have grown in

complexity and cannot be reasonably documented (e.g. some methodologies require several
iterations to reach a solution). Consequently, commercial software (e.g. Synchro, PASSER
II, PASSER IV, CORSIM) is available to assist the road designer in running the complex
methodologies presented in the HCM.

The HCM was developed for the conditions in North America and, in particular, the United
States. Consequently, the designer should carefully evaluate the default values provided in
the HCM to ensure they are accurate for the conditions in Abu Dhabi.

2.7.3.2 Levels of service

Procedures for computing operational and roadway factors to define for conditions that are
other than ideal are applied through the level of service (LOS) concept.

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 Table 2.9: HCM service measures (13)
Service measure(s) Systems
HCM
System element analysis
chapter Automobile Pedestrian Bicycle Transit
measure
Freeway facility 10 Density Speed
Basic freeway segment 11 Density Speed
Freeway weaving
12 Density Speed
segment
Freeway merge and
13 Density Speed
diverge segments
LOS
Multilane road 14 Density Speed
Score
Percent
time spent LOS
Two-lane road 15 Speed
following, Score
speed
LOS LOS LOS
Urban street facility 16 Speed Speed
Score Score Score
LOS LOS LOS
Urban street segment 17 Speed Speed
Score Score Score
LOS LOS
Signalised intersection 18 Delay Delay
Score Score
Two-way stop 19 Delay Delay Delay
All-way stop 20 Delay Delay
Roundabout 21 Delay Delay
Interchange ramp
22 Delay Delay
terminal
Off-street pedestrian- Space LOS
23 Speed
bicycle facility events Score

The HCM explains the quality of traffic service provided by particular roadways under
specific traffic demands by means of a LOS. The LOS summarizes the operating conditions
on the roadway in terms of traffic performance measures related to speed, travel time,
manoeuvrability, interruptions, comfort, and convenience. The LOS range from LOS A
(free flow) to LOS F (breakdown flow). Table 2.10 shows the typical operating conditions
represented by these LOS. Each facility type generally has its own specific definitions for
LOS.

The HCM does not contain guidance for the usability of the LOS in roadway design. The
LOS criteria for roadway design are provide in Chapter 7 Rural and Urban Freeways,
Chapter 8 Rural Roads, and Chapter 9 Urban Streets. In general, the designer should
strive to provide the highest LOS practical. However, in urban environments, the designer
needs to consider other factors (e.g. pedestrians, bicycles, level of development). In these
cases, it may be more desirable to accept a lower LOS than otherwise may have been
provided.

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 Table 2.10: General definitions of LOS (13)
Level of service General operating conditions
A Free flow
B Reasonably free flow
C Stable flow
D Approaching unstable flow
E Unstable flow
F Breakdown flow
Note: Specific definitions of LOS A F vary by facility type and are presented in
the HCM (13).

2.8 Environmental considerations

Roads have wide-ranging effects in addition to providing traffic service to users. It is
important that roads be considered as an element of the total environment. The term
environment as used here, refers to the totality of humankinds surroundings (social,
physical, natural, and synthetic). It includes the human, animal, and plant communities, and
the forces that act on all three. The road can and should be located and designed to
complement its environment and serve as a catalyst to environmental improvement.

The area surrounding a proposed road is an interrelated system of natural (e.g. wind, sand),
synthetic, and sociologic variables. Changes in one variable within this system cannot be
made without some effect on other variables. The consequences of some of these effects
may be negligible, but others may have a strong and lasting impact on the environment,
including the sustenance and quality of human life. Because road location and design
decisions have an effect on the development of adjacent areas, it is important that
environmental variables be given full consideration, as listed below:

To present managers and decision makers with a clear assessment of potential

impacts that a project may have on the overall environment,
To apply to a project a methodology that assesses and predicts impacts and provides
the (a) means for impact prevention and mitigation, (b) enhancement of project
benefits, and (c) minimization of long-term impacts, and
To provide a specific forum in which consultation is systematically undertaken in a
manner that allows stakeholders to have a direct input to the environmental
management process.
Also, exercise care to ensure that all applicable environmental requirements are met. For
example, see Chapter 3 Cross Section Elements for guidance on blowing sand.

For additional guidance on environmental considerations, review the Abu Dhabi Planning
Council ESTIDAMA website (9), Abu Dhabi Environmental, Health, and Safety Manual for
Main Roads (14), and Abu Dhabi Environmental Assessment for Road Projects Manual (15).

2.9 Right-of-way considerations

The provision of right-of-way widths that accommodate construction, adequate drainage, and
proper maintenance of a road is an important part of the overall design. Wide rights-of-way
permit the construction of gentle slopes, resulting in greater safety for the motorist and

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providing for easier and more economical maintenance. The procurement of sufficient right-
of-way at the time of the initial improvement permits the widening of the roadway and the
widening and strengthening of the pavement at a reasonable cost as traffic volumes
increase.

The minimum right-of-way width for all functional classifications will be the sum of the travel
lanes, outside shoulders, and median width, if applicable, plus the necessary width for fill
and cut slopes, or for roadside clear zones, whichever is greater. Desirably, the right-of-way
width will accommodate the anticipated ultimate development of the roadway and utility
services corridors. The geometric design tables in Chapter 7 Rural and Urban Freeways,
Chapter 8 Rural Roads, and Chapter 9 Urban Streets provide the minimum right-of-way
widths for roadways in Abu Dhabi.

The right-of-way width should be uniform, where practical. In urban areas, variable widths
may be necessary due to existing development; varying side slopes and embankment
heights may make it desirable to vary the right-of-way width; and right-of-way limits will likely
have to be adjusted at intersections and freeway interchanges.

In developed areas, it may be desirable to limit the right-of-way widths. However, the right-
of-way width should not be less than that required for all the elements of the design cross
sections, utility accommodation, and appropriate border areas. DoT will review all official
written requests, with justification, for departures from the minimum right-of-way
requirements. For additional guidance on determining right-of-way widths in urban
environments, see the Abu Dhabi Urban Street Design Manual (4).

2.10 Access control and access management

Access management is the careful consideration of the location, type, and design of
vehicular access points to serve land development in a manner that helps minimise negative
impacts while still providing sufficient accessibility to the land. It is a systematic and strategic
response to the recognition that vehicular manoeuvres and volumes at each access point
will have specific and accumulative consequences to the flow and safety of the road for all
user types. It also involves roadway design applications (e.g. median treatments, auxiliary
lanes), the design of intersections, and the appropriate spacing of traffic signals.

In its simplest form, access management is conflict management. In the flow of traffic from
origin to destination, the fewer conflicts that occur during the driving experience, the less the
delay and the lower the probability of a crash. When the speed of the vehicle or the
frequency of access conflicts increases, the rate of conflict and the average frequency of
crashes increase. Access management techniques work to reduce both the frequency and
severity of traffic conflicts.

Access management is applied in a hierarchical manner. Freeways have the highest level of
control where access is only allowed using well-spaced, well-designed directional ramps.
The entire freeway has a non-traversable median to prohibit cross movements. As the
functional hierarchy steps down, to expressway then arterial, more access is allowed, but
must be well spaced and include design elements (e.g. turn lanes) and well-designed
transitions. See Figure 2.1.

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Access management in Abu Dhabi is a governmental program that sets standards for the
location, type, and design of any and all access points to any public road in the entire
Emirate. The program has been created and is implemented to help preserve the functional
integrity of public roads to ensure that the mobility, efficiency, and safety of public roads are
maintained for today and future generations. The Abu Dhabi Access Management Manual
(16) defines 13 access categories based on the facilitys functional classification and
whether the facility is in an urban or rural environment. See the Abu Dhabi Access
Management Manual for definitions and design requirements for each access category.

2.11 Non-road design controls

The characteristics of drivers and vehicles significantly influence the selected design criteria.
Where the driver and vehicle are properly accommodated, the safety and serviceability of
the road system are enhanced. When they are not accommodated, inefficient operation may
result.

2.11.1 Drivers
There are two types of drivers typical and elderly drivers. The following provides
guidance on these drivers:

1. Typical driver. The appropriate considerations for drivers are already built into the
applicable geometric design values (e.g. stopping sight distance, horizontal
curvature, superelevation, roadway widths). Typical drivers vary widely in their
operating skills, experience, intelligence, and physical condition. The road should be
as forgiving as practical to minimise the adverse effects of driver errors. The
following discusses certain principles and driver traits that should be incorporated
into the roadway design:

a. Information processing. Drivers are limited in how quickly they can gather
information, make a decision, and take action. They must process
information related to lane placement, speed, traffic control devices, road
alignment, roadside conflicts, and weather. If the amount, complexity, or
clarity of the information is inappropriate or excessive, this may lead to driver
error.

b. Primacy. Certain driving functions are more important than others. In order
of importance they are:

i. Control. Activities related to the physical control of the vehicle via the
steering wheel, brake, or accelerator.

ii. Guidance. Activities related to selecting a safe speed and vehicular

path on the road.

iii. Navigation. Activities related to planning and executing a trip from

point of origin to destination.

The designer must be aware of the relative importance of these activities and
ensure that the more important road information is properly conveyed to the

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 driver. This could result in the decision to remove or relocate lower priority
information, if it is likely to interfere with the higher priority information.

c. Expectancy. Drivers are conditioned through experience and training to

expect and anticipate what lies ahead on the road. If this driver expectancy is
violated, it will increase the time needed by the driver to assess the situation
and make the correct decision. These violations should be avoided. Where
they are unavoidable, the designer should allow for increased warning time.

d. Speed. Speed must be considered when accommodating the driver. Higher

speeds reduce the visual field and restrict peripheral vision.

2. Elderly Driver. In general, the median age of drivers is increasing. This reality
greatly emphasizes the criticality of the relationship between the driver and the
roadway environment. Although the opinions are not unanimous, there is general
agreement that advancing age has an effect on an individuals perceptual, mental,
and motor skills. It is important for the designer to be aware of the needs of the
elderly driver and, where desirable, factor these needs into the roadway design.

2.11.2 Pedestrians and cyclists

Roads throughout the Emirate are to be designed to emphasize family, hospitality,
inclusiveness and pedestrian access to neighborhood facilities, including mosques and
schools. All streets should be designed to accommodate pedestrians, transit users, cyclists,
and motorists so that all modes offer an attractive choice.

Do not include provisions for pedestrians and cyclists along freeways. However, consider
providing provisions for pedestrians and cyclists to safely cross the freeway at appropriate
locations (e.g. pedestrian bridges).

Chapter 13 Pedestrian and Bicyclist Facilities and the Abu Dhabi Urban Street Design
Manual (4) provide guidance on the design criteria for pedestrians and bicycle
accommodations.

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2.12 References
1. AASHTO. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, 2011.

2. Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council. Abu Dhabi Urban Street Design Manual,
2012.

3. NCHRP. NCHRP Report 480 A Guide to Best Practice for Achieving Context
Sensitive Solutions, National Cooperative Highway Research Program,
Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, 2002.

4. Institute of Transportation Engineers. An ITE Recommended Practice, Designing

Walkable Urban Thoroughfares: A Context Sensitive Approach, Washington DC,
2006.

5. AASHTO. A Guide for Achieving Flexibility in Highway Design, Washington, DC, May
2004.

6. NCHRP. NCHRP Report 642 Quantifying the Benefits of Context Sensitive Solutions,
National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Transportation Research Board,
Washington, DC, 2009.

7. Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council. ESTIDAMA website.

8. Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council. Abu Dhabi Public Realm Design Manual,
2012.

9. Federal Highway Administration. Transportation Planning of Sustainability

Guidebook, Washington, DC, January 2011.

10. AASHTO. Center for Environmental Excellent by AASHTO website, Association of

State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, 2011.

11. Transportation Research Board. Highway Capacity Manual 2010, National

Research Council, Washington, DC, 2010.

12. Abu Dhabi Department of Transport. Environmental, Health, and Safety Manual for
Main Roads, 2013.

13. Abu Dhabi Department of Transport. Environmental Assessment for Road Projects
Manual, 2013.

14. Abu Dhabi Department of Transport. Access Management Manual, 2013.

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