9d28939de23952ae026dc6a4a5584db6

IEEE 1250 /D11 May 2010
1 IEEE P1250 /D11

2 Draft Guide for Identifying and Improving Voltage
3 Quality in Power Systems
4 Prepared by the Voltage Quality Working Group of the
5 Power Quality Subcommittee of the Transmission and Distribution Committee
6 Copyright 2010 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

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IEEE 1250 /D11 May 2010
1 Abstract: The use of some electrical equipment attached to typical power systems creates voltage quality
2 concerns. There is an increasing awareness that some equipment is not designed to withstand the surges,
3 faults, distortion, and reclosing duty present on typical utility distribution systems. Traditional concerns
4 about steady-state voltage levels and light flicker due to voltage fluctuation also remain. This guide
5 addresses these concerns by documenting typical levels of these aspects of voltage quality and indicating
6 how to improve them. Other documents that treat these subjects in more detail are referenced.
7
8 Keywords: benchmarking, disturbance analyzers, faults, harmonic distortion, light flicker, momentary
9 voltage disturbances, noise, performance, power conditioners, susceptible equipment, surge protection,
10 surges, voltage fluctuation, voltage quality
11
Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. ii

IEEE 1250 /D11 May 2010
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Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. iii

IEEE 1250 /D11 May 2010
1 Introduction
2 (This introduction is not part of IEEE P1250/D11
3 Draft Guide for Identifying and Improving Voltage Quality in Power Systems.)
4
5 This guide was developed out of an increasing awareness of the incompatibility of some modern electronics
6 equipment with a normal power system environment. Simply put, much new user equipment is not
7 designed to withstand the surges, faults, distortion, and reclosing duty present on typical electric utility
8 distribution systems or within the users facility.
9 Notice to users
10 Laws and regulations

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IEEE 1250 /D11 May 2010
1 Current interpretations can be accessed at the following URL: http://standards.ieee.org/reading/ieee/interp/

2 index.html.
3 Patents
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Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. v

IEEE 1250 /D11 May 2010
2 Participants
3 At the time this draft guide was submitted to the IEEE-SA Standards Board for approval, the Voltage
4 Quality Working Group had the following membership:
5
6 Dennis Hansen, Chair
7 Russ Ehrlich, Vice-chair
8 Fred Hensley, Secretary
9
10
11 Art Arneson 24 Randy Horton 37 Dan Sabin
12 Richard Bingham 25 Bill Howe 38 Andrew Sagl
13 Math Bollen 26 John Kennedy 39 Bob Saint
14 Reuben Burch 27 Albert Keri 40 Ken Sedziol
15 Gary Chang 28 Scott Lacy 41 Mark Stephens
16 Randy Collins 29 Kevin Little 42 Mike Swearingen
17 Russ Ehrlich 30 David Luprek 43 Rao Thallam
18 Bill Garlatz 31 Bill Moncrief 44 Tim Unruh
19 Erich Gunther 32 Mark McGranaghan 45 James Wikston
20 Mark Halpin 33 David Mueller 46 Charlie Williams
21 Dennis Hansen 34 Marty Page 47 Brian Wong
22 Fred Hensley 35 Dean Philips
23 Paul Hodges 36 Paulo Ribeiro
48
49 The following members of the balloting committee voted on this guide. Balloters may have voted for
50 approval, disapproval, or abstention.
51
52 (to be supplied by IEEE)
53
54
Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. vi

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 CONTENTS
2 1. Overview .................................................................................................................................................... 1
3 1.1 Scope ................................................................................................................................................... 1

4 1.2 Purpose ................................................................................................................................................ 1
5 2. Normative references .................................................................................................................................. 2
6 3. Definitions .................................................................................................................................................. 2
7 4. The power system ....................................................................................................................................... 2
8 4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 2

9 4.2 Overview of power systems ................................................................................................................. 2
10 5. Identifying voltage quality in power systems ............................................................................................. 7
11 5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 7

12 5.2 Basic types of voltage quality variations ............................................................................................. 7
13 5.3 Disturbances .......................................................................................................................................21
14 5.4 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................................26
15 6. Electric Utilities and Voltage Quality........................................................................................................28
16 6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................28

17 6.2 Steady State Voltage Quality in Utilities ............................................................................................28
18 6.3 Utility System Disturbances ...............................................................................................................30
19 6.4 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................................33
20 7. Susceptibility of power system loads ........................................................................................................34
21 7.1 Types of susceptible loads ..................................................................................................................34

22 7.2 Ride-through capability ......................................................................................................................36
23 8. Power Quality Improvements for End Users .............................................................................................38
24 8.1 End user wiring and grounding ...........................................................................................................38

25 8.2 Premium Power Solutions ..................................................................................................................38
26 8.3 End User Power Conditioning (Within the Facility) ..........................................................................41
27 8.4 Controlling Harmonics .......................................................................................................................48
28 8.5 Surge Protective Devices (SPDs) .......................................................................................................50
29 8.6 Special Considerations for VFDs .......................................................................................................50
30 8.7 Special Considerations for Residential Loads ....................................................................................51
31 8.8 Economic Analysis of Power Conditioning Alternatives ...................................................................52
32 9. ....................................................................................................................................................................53
33 Table 7Example Results from Cost/Benefit Analysis ...............................................................................53
34 Annex A ........................................................................................................................................................54
Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. ii

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 A.1 Glossary .............................................................................................................................................54

2 A.2 Bibliography ......................................................................................................................................58
3
Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. iii

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 Draft Guide for Identifying and Improving Voltage

2 Quality in Power Systems
3 IMPORTANT NOTICE: This standard is not intended to assure safety, security, health, or
4 environmental protection in all circumstances. Implementers of the standard are responsible for
5 determining appropriate safety, security, environmental, and health practices or regulatory
6 requirements.
7
8 This IEEE document is made available for use subject to important notices and legal disclaimers. These
9 notices and disclaimers appear in all publications containing this document and may be found under the
10 heading Important Notice or Important Notices and Disclaimers Concerning IEEE Documents.
11 They can also be obtained on request from IEEE or viewed at http://standards.ieee.org/IPR/disclaimers.html.
12
13 1. Overview
14 1.1 Scope
15 The reader of this Guide will find discussions of ways to identify and improve voltage quality in power
16 systems, and references to publications in this area. More specifically this Guide includes:
17
18 1. Voltage quality levels from benchmarking studies
19 2. Factors that affect power system performance
20 3. Mitigation measures that improve power system performance
21 4. References to current relevant in-depth IEEE standards and other documents
22
23 This Guide only addresses subjects in depth where no other power quality reference does so. It is a
24 "gateway" document for power quality which points the way to other documents in this field.
25 1.2 Purpose
26 The primary purpose in writing this Guide is to assist power delivery system designers and operators in
27 delivering power with voltage quality that is compatible with electrical end-use equipment. Another
28 purpose is to point utility system customers toward power quality solutions that may exist in the power
29 utilization system and equipment.
30
Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. 1

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
2 2. Normative references
3 The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document. For dated
4 references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the referenced
5 document (including any amendments or corrigenda) applies.
6
7 There are no normative references for this guide.
8
9 3. Definitions
10 For the purposes of this draft guide, the following terms and definitions apply. The Authoritative Dictionary
11 of IEEE Standards, Seventh Edition, should be referenced for terms not defined in this clause.
12
13 4. The power system
14 4.1 Introduction
15 This section describes typical utility power systems. Understanding the basics of power system design and
16 operation is helpful in understanding the voltage quality characteristics described in Clause 5. Voltage
17 quality characteristics can be affected at various levels of a power system. In Europe the electricity is
18 typically generated and provided at 50Hz whereas in North America 60Hz is the most common frequency.
19
20 4.2 Overview of power systems
21 Power systems are typically thought of as having three main divisions: generation, transmission, and
22 distribution. Figure 1 below is an over-simplified diagram of the electric power system. In reality, there
23 are many exceptions such as the fact that some large industrial customers are actually served by substations
24 directly from the transmission system and some small generators may feed directly into the distribution
25 system.
26

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1
2 Figure 1 The electric power system
3 Interconnection of the generation, transmission, and distribution systems takes place in an electrical
4 substation. Substations may include transformers that convert voltages from low to high or high to low,
5 depending on the need. A substation that has a step-up transformer increases the voltage while decreasing
6 the current, while a step-down transformer decreases the voltage while increasing the current for
7 distribution. Electric power may flow through several substations between generating plants and
8 consumers, and may be changed in voltage several times.
9
10 The generation and transmission components are typically connected in an interconnected grid fashion.
11 Within the grid the transmission lines transport bulk power for long distances that typically cross
12 multiple service territories and multiple utilities. Figure 2 shows a simple transmission system, referred to
13 as a network, illustrating how most of the substation buses have more than one source. In most
14 circumstances the loss of a single line or generator should not cause overloads within the remaining
15 network. This offers a high degree of reliability because power can be maintained to most buses even with
16 the loss of a line or source.
17

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1
2
3
4
C H
5
E
6
D
7
8
9 B G J
10
11 F
12
13 A Breaker K
Bus
14
Line
15 GEN GEN
16
17 Figure 2 Transmission network, showing generators, substations, and line sections
18
19 Distribution lines (commonly called primaries) are usually not interconnected but are designed in a radial
20 fashion except in some cities that use a mesh distribution scheme. Radial distribution systems consist of a
21 source originating at a substation in which the transmission system voltage is stepped down with a
22 transformer that serves a distribution bus. See Figure 3. The distribution bus has breakers that feed lines
23 which carry the power to many customers in an area. There are usually line protective components
24 (reclosers and fuses) downstream of the substation breaker on distribution lines. These components create
25 situations in which only a portion of the distribution line may need to be de-energized to clear a fault (short
26 circuit), thereby saving many of the customers on the line from experiencing interruptions unnecessarily.
27

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1
2
To Transmission Grid
3
4
5 Distribution substation with transformers (T1 & T2)
6 and 3 distribution feeders (1, 2, &3)
7 T1 T2
8
9
10 1 2 3 Recloser Fuse
11
12 R
13
14
15
16
17
18
19 Feeder 2 Three phase
20 Loads customers
21 Single phase tap
22 for residential
23 Feeder 1
24
25
26 Figure 3 Distribution substation and example of recloser and fuses along line
27
28
29 Power system voltages are typically expressed in line-to-line kV. The line-to-line voltage is 1.732 times
30 the lineto-neutral voltage. Practically all generation and transmission is three-phase. Distribution lines
31 typically leave the substation as three-phase and may proceed that way for several miles. But they may
32 also have lateral tap lines that are only providing two phases or even a single phase, depending on the loads
33 being served. Rural lines serving residential loads are commonly single phase. Table 1, below describes
34 the various components and typical voltage ranges of the utility system:

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1
2 Table 1 Common Parts of the Power System
3
4 A significant goal related to the operation of the utility power system is to provide reliable power with a
5 minimum number of interruptions. As such, the utility systems are designed to isolate problem areas
6 quickly and to interrupt as few customers as possible. For this to happen, the system protection schemes
7 must quickly identify a faulted line section and then trip or open the proper isolating component to cause
8 the fewest number of customers to experience the loss of power.
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 5. Identifying voltage quality in power systems
2 5.1 Introduction
3 This section describes expected voltage quality characteristics at various levels of a power system.
4 Methods of describing the voltage quality characteristics are presented along with example benchmarking
5 results. Important characteristics that may impact the voltage quality characteristics are also described.
6
7 5.2 Basic types of voltage quality variations
8 It is useful to divide voltage quality characteristics into two basic categories:

9
10 Steady state (continuous) voltage quality characteristics. This refers to the quality of the normal voltage
11 supplied to a facility. How much can the voltage magnitude vary from the nominal value? How distorted
12 is the voltage? What is the unbalance (imbalance) among the three-phase voltages? What is the
13 magnitude, frequency, and angle of each phase. All of these characteristics can be quantified and limits for
14 the variations can be developed.
15
16 Disturbances (including reliability). This refers to voltage quality variations that occur at random
17 intervals and are not associated with the continuous characteristics of the voltage. The variations include
18 sustained interruptions (reliability), momentary interruptions, voltage sags (and swells), and transients. All
19 of these disturbances can impact a facility, depending on the equipment susceptibility and investments that
20 have been made in power conditioning.
21
22 Indices provide the foundation for characterizing the supply system voltage quality levels in a consistent
23 manner. Indices can be used to establish baselines of performance as a function of system characteristics.
24 The following sections describe indices that can be used to describe voltage quality levels in both of these
25 major categories along with example benchmarking results that can provide the basis for establishing
26 targets and limits.
27 5.2.1 Steady state (continuous) voltage quality characteristics
28 Steady state power quality characteristics must meet minimum requirements to assure the proper operation
29 of equipment. The basic concepts of compatibility levels are established in IEC 61000-2-2 [A8]. This
30 concept applies to all steady state types of power quality. It is not as applicable to disturbances, such as
31 voltage sags (dips), interruptions, and transients. The normal variations of steady state power quality
32 characteristics allow them to be characterized with trends over time and with statistical distributions. The
33 statistical nature of these characteristics lends them to being represented by specific statistical levels. For
34 instance, the limits in EN 50160 [A1] for steady state power quality are evaluated at the 95% probability
35 level. Recent discussions have indicated that other probability levels may also be appropriate for fully
36 characterizing performance (see most recent edition of European Regulator document).
37
38 Figure 4 illustrates the concept that applies for steady state power quality characteristics. The power
39 quality performance of the supply system is characterized statistically and this can be compared with the
40 statistical characteristics of the equipment immunity to determine the likelihood that equipment will be
41 affected by the voltage quality variations. The objective is to define a voltage quality level that can be
42 achieved with reasonable investment in the power system and will also have a low probability of causing
43 equipment problems. This level is called the compatibility level. It is defined with statistics. As
44 indicated above, a typical way of defining the compatibility level for performance evaluations is the level
45 that can be exceeded only 5% of the time (95% probability that the level will not be exceeded).
46

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 Figure 5 illustrates the concept of the compatibility level compared to a time trend of a steady state
2 voltage quality characteristic (for example, harmonic distortion). Other important voltage quality levels are
3 also shown in both Figure 4 and Figure 5:
4
5 Equipment damage level this is the level of quality that may pose a threat to equipment health if it is
6 exceeded. Such conditions are important to identify when they occur, and prevent if possible. Examples
7 may include harmonic resonance, ferro-resonance, high neutral currents, conditions that may cause over-
8 heating, etc. There should be some margin between the compatibility level for the supply and the
9 equipment damage level.
10
11 Equipment immunity level this is the level of quality that may affect equipment performance if it is
12 exceeded. It is also defined statistically. There should be some margin between the compatibility level for
13 the supply and the equipment immunity level.
14
15 Alarm level this is the level of quality at which notification will occur, i.e. the level at which an
16 investigation or other response may be warranted. The alarm level should be above the planning level, but
17 below equipment immunity, equipment damage, and safety levels.
18
19 Planning level this is the level of quality that the electric utility establishes as their design objective.
20 Usually, the planning level is defined at some level below the compatibility level to help assure that the
21 actual compatibility level will not be exceeded. For instance, the compatibility level for harmonic voltage
22 distortion might be 8% but the planning level might be 5% to help make sure that the 8% level is not
23 exceeded.
24
25 Assessed level this is the actual level existing on the system, usually based on measurements. For
26 instance, the evaluation of performance for the European standards requires measurements over a one week
27 period and then the assessed level for comparison with the minimum performance requirements (based on
28 the compatibility levels) is the level that is exceeded for 5% of the measurements (one measured value
29 every ten minutes).
30
31
32 Figure 4 Concept of compatibility levels for the electric supply system and the immunity
33 characteristics of equipment.

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1
Disturbance magnitude
Equipment immunity test levels
Compatibility level
Utility planning levels
Assessed level
2
time
3 Figure 5 Important concepts for evaluation of the steady state voltage quality
4 characteristics of the supply system.
5
6 We are interested in defining the steady state power quality levels that should allow proper operation of
7 virtually all customer equipment. Thus, if these power quality levels are met at the supply point, the steady
8 state quality should be considered acceptable and should not result in customer problems. There is little
9 value to providing even better power quality if these levels are not likely to cause problems. Extremely
10 susceptible equipment that requires even better quality justifies special power conditioning and should not
11 be the basis of the overall system requirements.
12
13 Recommendations for these minimum requirements for the steady state characteristics are developed in the
14 following sections. Important standards and references that are the basis of the recommendations are cited
15 and described as appropriate. In addition, typical levels of these steady state characteristics are provided
16 from two important sources
17
18 The EPRI Distribution Power Quality (DPQ) project [A7]. Steady state power quality
19 characteristics were described for distribution systems in the United States. Note that these
20 statistics are based on evaluation of single cycle samples of the three-phase voltages. These
21 samples are then analyzed to determine the rms voltage magnitudes, the unbalance, and the
22 harmonic distortion levels. Flicker levels were not characterized in the DPQ project. This method
23 of evaluating steady state power quality characteristics is different than the method recommended
24 in IEC 61000-4-30 [A2] and related standards. These methods use 10 minute rms values as the
25 basis for characterizing the steady state power quality. The 10 minute calculations can involve
26 smoothing compared to the single cycle samples.
27 CIGRE C4.07 Working Group Report [A58]. This working group gathered survey information
28 describing both steady state power quality and disturbances from systems around the world. In
29 general, the surveys referenced in this report used IEC methods for characterizing performance.
30
31 The steady state power quality levels should be evaluated using the measurement procedures outlined in
32 IEC 61000-4-30. This standard provides a convenient reference to make sure that all systems are being
33 evaluated in the same manner. The IEEE Std 1159 working group has developed a similar set of
34 recommended characterization procedures [A3] that are consistent with the methods in the IEC standard.

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
2 5.2.2 Voltage Regulation
3 The ability of equipment to handle steady state voltage variations varies from equipment to equipment.
4 The steady state voltage variation limits for equipment are usually part of equipment specifications. The
5 Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC) specifies equipment withstand recommendations for IT
6 equipment according to the ITIC Curve (formerly the CBEMA curve). The 1996 ITIC Curve specifies that
7 equipment should be able to withstand voltage variations within +/- 10% (variations that last longer than 10
8 seconds).
9 5.2.2.1 Example limits
10 Voltage regulation standards in North America vary from state to state and utility to utility. The most
11 commonly applied standard in the United States is ANSI C84.1. Voltage regulation requirements are
12 defined in two categories:
13
14 Range A is for normal conditions and the required regulation is +/- 5% on a 120 volt base at the
15 service entrance (for services above 600 volts, the required regulation is -2.5% to +5%).
16 Range B is for short durations or unusual conditions. The allowable range for these conditions is -
17 8.3% to +5.8%. A specific definition of these conditions is not provided.
18
RANGE A RANGE B
128
(b)
Service Voltage > 600 V
124
Service Voltage 120-600 V
Service Voltage > 600 V

Service Voltage 120-600 V
Voltage (120 V Base)
120
Utilization Voltage
Utilization Voltage
116
112
(a)
108
(a)
104
19
20 Figure 6 Voltage regulation requirements from ANSI C84.1.
21
22 IEC 61000-2-2 mentions that the normal operational tolerances are +/- 10% of the declared voltage. This is
23 the basis of requirements for voltage regulation in EN 50160 for the European Community. EN 50160

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 requires that voltage regulation (at the LV PCC) be within +/- 10% for 95% of the 10 minute samples in a
2 one week period. All 10 minute samples should be within -15% to +10%, excluding voltage dips.
3 5.2.2.2 Survey results
4 Figure 7 illustrates the statistics of voltage regulation levels obtained in the DPQ project. Voltage
5 regulation is described in this case as the range of voltage over the period of the day expressed as a percent
6 of nominal. The voltage regulation was not described in terms plus or minus from nominal due to
7 difficulties of defining the nominal voltage at different points on the distribution system. However, the
8 results illustrate that almost all sites achieve a total variation level within 10%. The 95% for the entire
9 sample of sites is a voltage regulation range of 8.5%.
Distribution of Daily Range of RMS Voltage

40% 120%
35%
100%
Cumulative Frequency
30%
80%
25%
Frequency
20% 60%
15%
40%
10%
20%
5%
0% 0%
Daily RMS Voltage Range (% of Site Average Voltage)

10
11 Figure 7 Voltage regulation statistics (total daily voltage variation range) from DPQ
12 project (6/1/93-6/1/95).
13 5.2.2.3 Recommended limit and assessment method
14 Since the objective is to define minimum acceptable requirements based on an evaluation at point of
15 common coupling (realizing that the voltage variations inside a facility may be greater than the voltage
16 variations on the system or at the supply point), the recommended level is +/- 5% with an evaluation at the
17 95% probability level.
18 5.2.3 Voltage Unbalance
19 Voltage unbalance causes increased heating in motors and can result in unbalanced currents and non-
20 characteristic harmonics for electronic equipment like adjustable speed drives. High efficiency motors can
21 be more susceptible to problems with unbalanced voltages due to lower negative sequence reactance
22 values.
23
24 Voltage unbalance measured as the negative sequence component of the voltage divided by the positive
25 sequence component is most important for motor loads and is the basis of most international standards for
26 unbalance.
27

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
2 ANSI C84.1 recommends that voltage unbalance be limited to 3%. It is measured as the maximum
3 deviation divided by the average of the three phases. This value can be influenced by the zero sequence
4 voltage as well as the negative sequence voltage. When using this method, line to line voltage
5 measurements should be used to improve the accuracy and more closely match the sequence component
6 method of voltage unbalance determination.
7
8 IEC 61000-2-2 specifies a compatibility level of 2% for voltage unbalance, recognizing that systems with
9 large single phase loads may have voltage unbalance levels as high as 3%.
10
11 EN 50160 requires that utilities maintain voltage unbalance less than 2% for 95% of the 10 minute samples
12 in one week. For systems with significant single phase loads, the unbalance can be as high as 3%.
13
15 Negative sequence voltage unbalance statistics from the DPQ project are given in Figure 8. It shows that
16 the 95% level for negative sequence unbalance over all the sites in the project was about 1.3%.
17
18
19 Figure 8 Voltage unbalance statistics (entire data set for all sites) from DPQ project
20 (6/1/93-6/1/95).
21
22 The CIGRE C4.07/CIRED Working Group gathered survey data from around the world. Only a few
23 surveys actually compiled information about unbalance but the results are still informative for developing a
24 recommended minimum performance level. Figure 9 illustrates the results (95% probability level over one
25 week of measurements at each site) for the different system voltage levels. The MV results are most
26 interesting. In this case, none of the sites had an unbalance level exceeding 2% at the 95% probability
27 level.
28
29

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1
30%
Percentage of sites per voltage level
25% MV : 99 sites
20% HV : 76 sites
EHV: 25 sites
15%
10%
5%
0%
0-0,1
1-1,1
2-2,1
0,2-0,3
0,4-0,5
0,6-0,7
0,8-0,9
1,2-1,3
1,4-1,5
1,6-1,7
1,8-1,9
Uneg.sh95 weekly values
2
3 Figure 9 Measurement Data for Voltage Unbalance at MV, HV and EHV All Sites (CIGRE
4 C4.07/CIRED Report).
5
6 5.2.3.3 Recommended limit and assessment method
7 The CIGRE working group recommends that the 95% value for weekly measurements of the 10 minute
8 unbalance values be used for comparison with recommended unbalance limits (voltage characteristics).
9 The most commonly used value for this characteristic is 2%. It seems to be a value that is very achievable
10 and also has minimal consequences for customer equipment.
11
12 5.2.4 Voltage Distortion
13 Harmonic distortion in the supply voltage results in increased heating in transformers, motors, capacitors,
14 and conductors. This increased heating is usually the most important effect. However, voltage distortion in
15 the supply system can excite resonances and overload customer power factor correction equipment.
16 Sensitivity of customer equipment to voltage distortion may be dependent on both the magnitude of the
17 distortion levels and the specific harmonic components. For instance, transformer eddy current losses
18 increase with approximately the square of the frequency.
19
20 Very short term effects of harmonics can include mis-operation of electronic controls or operation of
21 uninterruptible power supplies. There may be a need for limits on the short term harmonics as well as the
22 long term levels that cause heating.
23

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 IEEE Std 519 [A4] recommends voltage distortion limits of 5% for the total harmonic distortion (THD) and
2 3% for individual harmonic components. Measurement procedures for evaluation of performance with
3 respect to these limits are not provided but it is generally considered that these limits would be applied at
4 the 95% probability level.
5
6 IEC 61000-2-2 specifies harmonic distortion compatibility levels that are dependent on the harmonic order.
7 The compatibility level for the voltage THD is 8%. Compatibility levels for individual harmonic voltages
8 in low voltage networks (rms values as percent of the rms value of the fundamental component) from IEC
9 61000-2-2 are shown in Table 2.
10
11 Table 2 Harmonic compatibility levels
12 These compatibility levels were used to develop the requirements for EN 50160. The EN 50160
13 requirements are applied for 95% of the 10 minute samples in a one week period with measurements
14 according to IEC 61000-4-7. The EN50160 limit for voltage THD is 8%.
15
16 Individual harmonic voltage distortion limits from EN 50160.
ODD HARMONICS EVEN HARMONICS

not multiple of 3 multiples of 3
Relative Relative Relative
Order h Voltage Order h Voltage Order h Voltage
5 6.0% 3 5.0% 2 2.0%

7 5.0% 9 1.5% 4 1.0%
11 3.5% 15 0.5% 6-24 0.5%
13 3.0% 21 0.5%
17 2.0%
19 1.5%
23 1.5%
17 25 1.5%
18
19 Table 3 Individual harmonic voltage limits

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 Comparison of the IEEE Std 519 limits with the limits from EN 50160 show that the harmonic distortion
2 limits in Europe are considerably relaxed compared to the IEEE limits. New revisions to IEEE Std 519 are
3 addressing this compatibility issue, at least at low voltage interface points. Even with the less severe limits
4 in Europe, few problems related to harmonics are reported.
5
7 Harmonic levels were monitored in the DPQ project based on single cycle samples rather than 10 minute
8 values. However, the statistics for large numbers of samples is likely to be similar to the statistics obtained
9 with 10 minute values at the system level because the changes in harmonic levels are gradual. Larger
10 differences could occur at individual locations with dynamic loads, such as arc furnaces.
11
12 Most of the DPQ results are reported as average harmonic levels. For instance, Figure 10 gives the
13 distribution of average voltage distortion levels for all the sites in the DPQ project. The average distortion
14 level across all the sites is 1.57%. No sites had an average voltage distortion level exceeding 5%.
15 However, this can be misleading because the voltage distortion limits are meant to be compared with the
16 95% probability level for the harmonic distortion, not the average value. Figure 11 gives the distribution of
17 95% probability level voltage distortion (CP95) values for all the sites in the DPQ project. In this case,
18 about 3% of the sites have distortion levels exceeding 5%. These cases usually involve resonance
19 conditions associated with power factor correction on the distribution system.
20
Average Voltage THD at Each Monitoring Site
18% 100%
16%
Mean (SATHD): 1.57% 80%
14%
Frequency of Sites
Standard Deviation: 0.0714%

12% 95% Confidence Interval:
1.43% to 1.71% 60%
10%
8%
40%
6%
4% 20%
2%
0% 0%
0.0
0.6
1.2
1.8
2.4
3.0
3.6
4.2
4.8
5.4
6.0
6.6
VTHD (%)
21
22
23 Figure 10 Distribution of average voltage distortion levels for all sites in the DPQ
24 project.

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
CP95 Voltage THD at Each Monitoring Site

14% 100%
90%
12%
80%
Frequency of Sites
Mean: 2.18%
10% CP95 (STHD95): 4.03% 70%
Standard Deviation: 0.101%
8% 60%
95% Confidence Interval:
1.99% to 2.38% 50%
6% 40%
4% 30%
20%
2%
10%
0% 0%
0.0
0.6
1.2
1.8
2.4
3.0
3.6
4.2
4.8
5.4
6.0
6.6
VTHD (%)
1
2 Figure 11 Distribution of CP95 voltage distortion values (level not exceeded 95% of the
3 time) for all sites in the DPQ project.
4
5 Limited survey results were collected from MV systems in the CIGRE C4.07/CIRED effort. The results
6 from two surveys are summarized in Table 3. These give the most important individual harmonic
7 distortion levels and are very consistent with the DPQ survey results.
8
9
10 MV harmonic survey results from two surveys totaling 178 sites reported in CIGRE C4.07/CIRED
11 Working Group Report, are shown in Table 4.
12
Measurement Results Measurement Results
Planning
Harmonic Order 95%-Site for Uh,sh95 Max-Site for Uh,sh95
Levels
Min Max Mean Min Max Mean
3 1,5 2,8 2,15 2 3,7 2,85 4
5 2,56 4,5 3,53 4,2 5 4,6 5
7 1,3 1,5 1,4 1,5 3,4 2,4 4
11 0,5 0,95 0,75 1 3,8 2,4 3
13 Table 4 CIGRE/C4.07 Survey Results
14
15 A survey of harmonic levels was conducted at residential locations in eight (8) different countries in
16 Europe [A59]. Figure 12 gives the consolidated results from all 74 sites combined from this survey. Note
17 that the results are actually very consistent with the results from the DPQ project. The 95% probability
18 level for voltage THD across all the sites in the European survey project was 3.8%. This compares to a
19 voltage THD level of 4.0% at the aggregate 95% level in the EPRI DPQ project. Overall harmonic
20 distortion levels are very similar in the United States and Europe.

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1
2 Figure 12 Results of harmonic survey at European residential locations.
3
4 5.2.4.3 Recommended limits and assessment method
5 The IEEE Std 519 recommended limit for harmonic voltage distortion levels at medium voltage is 5% for
6 the total harmonic distortion. Problems are not expected when voltage distortion levels are below 6%. At
7 low voltage IEEE Std 519 recommends a limit of 8% for total harmonic distortion.
8
9 Individual harmonic limits are also important, especially at higher frequencies. Higher frequency voltage
10 harmonic components need to be limited to lower levels because of the potential duty on capacitor banks
11 (both on the utility distribution system and in customer systems). Also, higher voltage harmonic
12 components can cause mis-operations of customer equipment because of the tendency to introduce multiple
13 zero crossings into the voltage waveform. Specific limits for higher voltage components are not proposed
14 here these will be addressed in future revisions of IEEE Std 519. The individual harmonic limits in IEEE
15 Std 519 and in IEC Standards provide some guidance.
16
17 The recommended limit is compared to the 95% probability level of the 10 minute voltage distortion values
18 measured over at least a one week period.
19
20 5.2.5 Voltage Fluctuations
21 Humans can be very susceptible to light flicker that is caused by voltage fluctuations. Human perception of
22 light flicker is almost always the limiting criteria for controlling small voltage fluctuations. Figure 13
23 illustrates the level of perception of light flicker from an incandescent bulb for rectangular variations. The
24 sensitivity is a function of the frequency of the fluctuations and it is also dependent on the voltage level of
25 the lighting.
26
27 Perception of flicker depends on the physiology of the eye-brain of the person subjected to the luminance
28 fluctuation (flicker is a subjective perception).
29
30 Flicker was originally related to the behavior of a 230 V, 60 W incandescent light bulb when subjected to
31 voltage fluctuations. Other types of lighting may provide different fluctuation of the luminance and flicker
32 perception problems when subjected to the same voltage fluctuations. EPRI PEAC testing illustrated the

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 different characteristics of other types of lighting and developed the concept of a gain factor for the lighting
2 for comparison of susceptibility with that of a 60 W incandescent bulb. In this context, a lower gain factor
3 means that the fluctuation of light output from a light source is less susceptible to a given voltage
4 fluctuation. See Figure 14 for an example.
5
6 Figure 13 Curves illustrating the level of rectangular voltage
7 fluctuations that will result in a Pst value of 1.0 when measured with the IEC flickermeter.
8
9
10 Figure 14 Lamp Gain Versus Flicker Frequency for Fluorescent Electronic and
11 Incandescent Lamps

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
2 5.2.5.1 Basic EMC concepts related to voltage fluctuations
3 Flicker levels in IEC standards and IEEE Standard 1453 [A10] are characterized by two parameters which
4 are:
5 10-minute short-term flicker severity - Pst. This value is obtained from a statistical analysis of
6 the instantaneous flicker value in a way which models incandescent lamps and the observation
7 of light intensity variations.
8 2-hour long-term flicker severity - Plt. This is calculated by combining 12 successive Pst
9 measurements using a cubic relationship.
10
11 Both of these parameters are defined along with the equipment to measure them in IEC 61000-4-15 [A9].
12 A human observer can tolerate a certain amount of light flicker before becoming annoyed. IEC 61000-2-2
13 defines this level of flicker as the compatibility level. It is important to note that compatibility levels are
14 defined for LV systems only [A16] where:
15
16 short term flicker level (Pst) is 1.0, and
17 long term flicker level (Plt) is 0.8.
18
19 Flicker planning levels are utilized so that the overall flicker level at MV, HV and EHV buses due to all
20 global flicker emissions does not result in an LV flicker level that is above the compatibility level; thereby,
21 greatly reducing the probability of having customer complaints. Suggested planning levels for flicker are
22 provided in [A16] and [A10]. In order to maintain proper coordination, it is suggested that flicker planning
23 levels be based on 99th percentile values.
24
25 Note that individual step changes in the voltage, such as would be caused by motor starting or switching a
26 capacitor bank, are often limited separately from the continuous flicker limits. IEC 61000-2-2 specifies a
27 compatibility level of 3% for the individual voltage variations. EN 50160 specifies a limit of 5% for these
28 variations but mentions that more significant variations (up to 10%) can occur for some switching events.
29 Specific recommendations are not provided in IEEE but individual utilities usually have their own
30 guidelines in the range 4-7%.
31
33 Survey results for flicker are very limited. Most measurement campaigns evaluating flicker are performed
34 when there is a specific problem and the results are, therefore, not representative of the power system in
35 general (most sites have very low flicker levels).
36
37 Survey results suggest that flicker levels in excess of the compatibility level have been measured at MV,
38 HV and EHV without corresponding customer complaints. Research [A61-A63] has shown that when
39 flicker is transferred from the point of emission (i.e. flicker source) to other parts of a network the flicker
40 level tends to be reduced when going from HV or EHV towards MV; thus, explaining why EHV and HV
41 flicker levels above 1.0 do not necessarily correspond to customer complaints. Great care should be
42 exercised whenever flicker planning levels in excess of those specified in [A16] are used. To determine
43 such planning levels, the effects of flicker transfer coefficients should be carefully taken into account [A61,
44 A62].
45
46 5.2.5.3 Recommended limits and assessment method
47 The recommended limit for flicker is Pst=1.0 at the 95% probability level. This is consistent with the
48 compatibility levels in IEC 61000-2-2 and is based on the actual design of the flicker meter. In other
49 words, this flicker limit should prevent customer complaints associated with light flicker.

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1
2 The limit is lower than the limit specified in EN50160. However, it is an appropriate limit when
3 considering the philosophy of establishing a limit to prevent customer complaints rather than a limit that is
4 a legal requirement for the utility to meet.
5 The Pst level is measured with a flicker meter that complies with IEC 61000-4-15 requirements. The Pst
6 values are calculated for 10 minute intervals. 95% of these values should be below the limit in a one week
7 measurement period.
8
9 5.2.6 Voltage frequency
10 Frequency of the voltage experienced in interconnected power systems in developed nations is tightly
11 controlled. Because of historic dependency of power system synchronized clocks (such as common alarm
12 clocks) on frequency, small deviations in this frequency are accumulated, and this accumulation is
13 periodically balanced back to zero. For example, at all times except during disturbances the frequency
14 deviation of the voltage in the Western United States has been found to not exceed 0.015 Hertz.
15
16
17 5.2.7 Summary of Steady State Voltage Quality Performance Levels
18 Table 4 summarizes the recommended steady state power quality characteristics (planning levels). All of
19 these are based on 10 minute samples calculated according to IEC Standard 61000-4-30. They are
20 evaluated based on the 95% probability level. In other words, the system should be designed so that these
21 levels are expected to be exceeded less than 5% of the time. Ideally, all locations on the power system
22 should meet these power quality levels. However, there will always be some locations that have power
23 quality characteristics that may exceed these levels in one or more categories. When a situation such as this
24 is identified, the utility should work to solve the problem (that may be caused by one or more customers or
25 may be related to a system condition).
26
27 It is important to remember that the voltage quality levels indicated in Table 5 can be considered normal.
28 A customer should not assume that the voltage quality levels will be significantly better than the levels
29 indicated. For instance, when applying power factor correction, it is reasonable to assume that the
30 background harmonic distortion levels on the supply system could be as high as 3% for individual
31 harmonics and 5% for the total distortion. This could influence the design requirements for power factor
32 correction equipment within a facility.
33
Power Quality
Planning Levels
Category
+/- 5% of nominal for normal conditions
Voltage Regulation
+/- 10% of nominal for unusual* conditions
Voltage Unbalance 2% negative sequence
5% total harmonic distortion

Voltage Distortion
3% individual harmonic components
**
Voltage Pst less than 1.0
Fluctuation/Flicker individual step changes less than 4%
Voltage Frequency +/- 0.015 Hz***
34
35 * Unusual conditions are conditions of abnormal stress for the electric supplier such as when an essential transmission line is out of
36 service during a period of exceptionally heavy system loading. Such conditions are typically unplanned, rare and brief.
37

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 ** Pst is a measure of flicker where a value of 1.0 indicates that 50% of the people are likely to be able to notice flicker in a 60W
2 incandescent lamp. Measurement procedures are defined in IEC Standard 61000-4-15 and have been adopted by IEEE 1453.
3
4 *** Typical steady-state maximum frequency deviation in an interconnected power system in North America.
5 Table 5 Summary of Typical Voltage Quality Performance Expectations (e.g. Planning

6 Levels) at the Point of Common Coupling with Customer Facilities (note that minimum
7 requirements can vary significantly from one location to another and minimum
8 requirements may not be defined for many of these voltage quality characteristics).
9
10
11 5.3 Disturbances
12 Disturbances are voltage quality variations that cannot be characterized with the same time trends and
13 statistical distributions that are used for the steady state voltage quality characteristics. These are variations
14 that occur randomly and each event could have an effect on customer facilities.
15
16 5.3.1 Reliability
17 The most commonly discussed type of disturbance is the interruption. Most utilities around the world
18 report on the reliability performance of the power system. A common index used to track reliability for
19 power systems is the System Average Interruption Frequency Index, or SAIFI. For power systems in most
20 developed countries (like the United States), average SAIFI levels are in the range of 0.5-5.0 interruptions
21 per year (depending on factors such as weather, underground vs. overhead systems, networked systems vs.
22 radial systems, etc.). This is the number of times that customers experience an actual power interruption
23 each year (usually defined as an interruption lasting more than five minutes). The average SAIFI across the
24 US is about 1.3 interruptions per year. Typically, this index is also adjusted so that it does not include
25 major events that affect a significant portion of the system (the index is used to evaluate the performance
26 of the system for events that could possibly be avoided through system investments, maintenance, etc.).
27
28 While reliability indices are useful for regulators and for establishing company goals they have limited use
29 to a specific customer because these are based on the entire system. It would be much more important to
30 get information about the expected number of interruptions where that specific customer is actually
31 connected to the system. The utility may be able to provide location-specific historical data about
32 reliability that would be more useful for evaluating the need for UPS or backup generation to protect
33 critical operations.
34
35 Detailed information about calculating reliability indices and characterizing reliability performance are
36 provided in the IEEE 1366 standard [A11].
37 5.3.2 Voltage sags and momentary interruptions
38 Facility operations can be affected by more than just long duration interruptions. Momentary voltage sags,
39 lasting less than 100 msec, are often sufficient to cause disruptions to susceptible equipment and operations
40 (see example in Figure 15). Even though the effect of these disturbances can be the same as long duration
41 interruptions, they can be more important because they occur much more frequently. These disturbances
42 are caused by faults on distribution circuits and transmission circuits. The interconnected nature of the
43 system means that faults remote from a facility can still cause a momentary voltage sag that could be
44 sufficient to affect operations.
45
46

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
E x a m p le o f S h o r t D u r a tio n V o lta g e S a g A ffe c tin g O n e P h a s e

Va Vb Vc
600
400
V o lt a g e ( V )
200
-200
-400
-600
0 .0 0 0 .0 5 0 .1 0 0 .1 5 0 .2 0
T im e ( s)
1 E le ctr o te k C o n ce p ts T O P , T h e O u tp u t P r o ce sso r
2
3 Figure 15 Example of a short duration voltage sag caused by a remote fault. This
4 voltage sag caused tripping of a plastics production line.
5
6 Many utilities cannot provide information to customers about the expected number of voltage sags that a
7 customer is likely to experience. EPRI conducted a benchmarking project that provided an estimate for the
8 average number of voltage sags that customers experience on distribution systems across the US. In order
9 to present the results of this extensive benchmarking project, a new index to describe voltage sag
10 performance was developed. It is called SARFI, or the System Average RMS (Variation) Frequency Index.
11 This index represents the average number of voltage sags experienced by a customer each year with a
12 specified characteristic. For SARFIx, the index would include all of the voltage dips where the minimum
13 voltage was less than x. For example, SARFI70 represents the expected number of voltage sags where the
14 minimum voltage is less than 70% of nominal.
15
16 SARFI indices become a very important consideration for many process industry customers because the
17 indices represent events that impact the reliability of the process. There are typically very few actual
18 interruptions. Therefore, voltage sags represent the most important power quality variation affecting
19 industrial and commercial customers. The IEEE Gold Book (IEEE Standard 493) describes how to
20 consider the impact of voltage sags as part of the economic evaluation of plant reliability:
21
22 Economic evaluation of reliability begins with the establishment of an interruption definition. Such a
23 definition specifies the magnitude of the voltage sag and the minimum duration of such a reduced- voltage
24 period that results in a loss of production or other function of the plant process.
25
26 The SARFI index that is appropriate for a facility will depend on the sensitivity of the equipment in the
27 facility to these voltage variations. This information may not be available without extensive monitoring
28 and evaluation of equipment response to actual disturbances. Figure 16, from the EPRI benchmarking
29 project, illustrates how the voltage sag performance is dependent on the minimum voltage level being
30 considered. For instance, the average for the number of voltage sags per year with a minimum voltage less
31 than 70% is about 18 events per year in the United States. However, if equipment could be affected by a

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 voltage sag with a minimum voltage of 90% (very minor voltage sag), then the number of events per year is
2 about 50. Obviously, the equipment sensitivity is a critical factor in the importance of these disturbances.
3
4
5
Average Voltage Sag Statistics for US Distribution Systems - EPRI DPQ Project
60
50
Average Number of Events per Year
40
30
20
10
0
SARFI-70 SARFI-80 SARFI-90
6
7 Figure 16 Average SARFI statistics from nationwide EPRI benchmarking project. These
8 show the average number of voltage sags that can be expected for a distribution system
9 customer in the United States as a function of the voltage sag severity (minimum voltage
10 magnitude).
11 Another way to use the SARFI index is to count all the voltage sag events that are below a specified
12 compatibility curve. This is referred to as the SARFI-curve approach. For example SARFI-CBEMA
13 considers voltage sags and interruptions that are below the lower CBEMA curve. SARF-ITIC considers
14 voltage sags and interruptions that are below the lower ITIC curve. SARFI-SEMI considers voltage sags
15 and interruptions that are below the lower SEMI F47 curve. An example is shown in Figure 17, where each
16 recorded sag is indicated as one point in the magnitude-duration plot (note that magnitude is used here as
17 a synonym to retained voltage). The SARFI-90 value is 87 in this case; SARFI-CBEMA is 43; SARFI-ITIC
18 is 26 and SARFI-SEMI is 12.

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1
2 Figure 17 Scatter plot of voltage sag events superimposed with compatibility curves for
3 calculation of SARFI indices.
4
5 Time aggregation is important with voltage sag events (and momentary interruption events). Time
6 aggregation avoids counting multiple events that are associated with the same physical event (fault). The
7 procedures for time aggregation and for other approaches for characterizing system voltage sag
8 performance are described in draft IEEE Standard P1564 [A14].
9
10 Again, the average statistics (especially nationwide statistics) are not very useful for an individual facility
11 trying to determine if investment in power conditioning is needed or economically justified. Expected
12 voltage sag performance at the individual plant location is needed. Some utilities calculate the expected
13 voltage sag performance throughout its system. UI monitors at all of its substations and maintains
14 performance statistics for all substations that are updated quarterly. Figure 18 is an example of the voltage
15 sag performance (SARFI-70) across all of its substations [A64]. The chart shows the three year average
16 voltage sag performance compared with the voltage sag performance in the last year. This helps identify
17 systems with significant changes that could warrant investigation. The voltage sag performance is also
18 broken down into events caused by distribution faults and events caused by transmission faults because the
19 transmission faults cannot be prevented by maintenance and improvements on the distribution system and
20 have to be addressed separately. This information can be provided to any customer to help them
21 understand the power quality that can be expected where they are connected to the system.
22

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
Comparison of UI Substation's SARFI 70 performance of the last 12 months vs. their 3 year average
Number of times when Substation's Bus Voltage was less 16
14
than 70% of Nominal per 365 days
12
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SARFI70 from Distribution Events 3 years average SARFI70 from Trasmission Events 3 years average
Substation Name
SARFI70 from Distribution Events during the last four Quarters SARFI70 from Trasmission Events during the last four Quarters
1
2
3 Figure 18 Example voltage sag statistics (SARFI-70) at utility substations.
4
5 5.3.3 Capacitor Switching Transients
6 Voltage transients can also be an important consideration for the quality of supply. Transients can be
7 caused by lightning during storms or by almost any switching event on the power system. It is a good
8 practice to include surge protection for a facility or at least critical equipment to avoid failures due to
9 excessive transient voltages, such as the transients that can be caused by lightning strokes on the supply
10 system.
11
12 Even with transient protection for high magnitude transients, there can still be transient voltages that may
13 affect equipment. For instance, adjustable speed drives can sometimes be affected by capacitor switching
14 transients (see Figure 19) because these transients can have enough energy to charge up the dc capacitor in
15 the drives to levels that will cause tripping on the dc overvoltage setting. Capacitor switching transients
16 can also cause problems with low voltage power factor correction equipment, electronic ballasts for
17 fluorescent lighting, and other electronic equipment. Understanding that transients like the one in Figure
18 17 are a normal part of the supply can help in developing appropriate specifications for adjustable speed
19 drives and other critical equipment.
20
21

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
Capacitor Switching Transient

2
0
Voltage (V pu)
-1
-2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
1 Time (ms)
2
3 Figure 19 Example of a typical transient voltage characteristic that could be occur when a
4 substation capacitor bank is energized.
5 5.3.4 Frequency Deviations
6 Frequency is normally very tightly controlled in interconnected utilities. However, when major
7 disturbances occur on the transmission system the frequency can temporarily deviate from normal steady-
8 state performance. These deviations are of two types: large generation/load imbalances and major
9 blackouts.
10
11 5.3.4.1 Large Generation/Load Imbalances
12 When large generators or large loads, sized at several hundred megawatts, suddenly trip offline the
13 interconnected power system is left with an imbalance of active power. It compensates for this by
14 adjusting its frequency. For example, in the interconnected Western United States power system this
15 frequency deviation has been measured during such disturbances and found not to exceed 0.10 Hertz and to
16 last for no more than a few seconds. Corrective action is taken by generator governors and usually lasts no
17 more than a few minutes. Such an event occurs somewhere in a large interconnected power system several
18 times per month.
19
20 5.3.4.2 Major Blackouts
21 When a large portion of an interconnected power system trips offline the balance of the system may be left
22 with an enormous active power imbalance. Remedial action schemes are usually put in place to prevent
23 such a disturbance from blacking out the entire interconnected system. When this happens the portion of
24 the power system that remains with power can deviate in frequency by as much as 0.75 Hertz. This kind of
25 disturbance is rare in developed countries, occurring perhaps once every ten years.
26 5.4 Conclusions

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 There are a wide range of power quality variations that can be important to a facility engineer.
2 Understanding the power quality that can be expected from the supply system is a critical part of
3 developing the best design for equipment specifications and for the facility protection. In general,
4 equipment should be designed to withstand the normal steady state power quality variations that can be
5 expected as part of the normal operation of the power system. However, it is unrealistic to expect the
6 equipment to handle all disturbances that occur. Understanding the expected disturbances and how often
7 they can occur is necessary to optimize investments in equipment protection.
8
9

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 6. Electric Utilities and Voltage Quality
2 6.1 Introduction
3 Electric utilities have several reasons for taking actions to maintain voltage quality. First, limiting
4 disturbances and distortion that affect power quality minimizes damage and the costs to maintain the
5 network. Second, there are statutory guidelines, generally put forward by regulatory agencies that provide
6 limits for frequency, voltage, and sometimes reliability (interruptions). Finally, utilities must strive to meet
7 their customers need for reliability and power quality.
8 6.2 Steady State Voltage Quality in Utilities
9 As was mentioned in Section 5.2, voltage quality can be divided into two broad categories that differentiate
10 between steady state characteristics and non steady state or disturbance characteristics. The present section
11 focuses on how electric utilities affect and attempt to maintain voltage quality in the steady state when the
12 power system is not experiencing a disturbance.
13 6.2.1 Frequency Regulation
14 Frequency is directly related to the rotational speed of the generators in the network. The frequency of the
15 electrical supply is the one variable that is the same value in steady state at every point within an
16 interconnected network. In other words, during steady state conditions the rotors of all generators have the
17 same rotational speed. Variation in frequency is determined by the variation of the active power
18 requirements of the customers on the network. As the active power requirements of the network increase
19 or decrease, the frequency of the generators would tend to decrease or increase respectively. However,
20 generators have automated speed regulators (ASR) that react to changing load requirements and maintain
21 the system frequency by continuously adjusting the speed of the rotor. This acts to continuously create a
22 continuous balance between the generated power output and the active power requirements on the system.
23 Utilities must maintain a substantial level of spinning reserve to be able to always maintain that balance
24 when power requirements increase.
25 6.2.2 Voltage Regulation
26 Unlike frequency, which will be the same at different points along the electric supply network, steady state
27 voltage will vary at different points. As load current flows through the lines and transformers, voltage
28 drops are caused by the impedances. Utilities use various design strategies and equipment to control or
29 regulate the voltage levels on the network to provide the end users with suitable voltage levels.
30
31 Voltage regulation of a system is affected by the electrical equipment from the generators to the end user.
32 However, voltage regulation is most closely tied with the distribution system. The distribution system will
33 typically have voltage regulating transformers that can either increase or decrease the voltage that is
34 supplied to the high voltage input of service transformers. These voltage regulating transformers are
35 commonly capable of increasing or decreasing the distribution voltage up to 10%, usually in multiple steps
36 of either 5/8% or 1 % per step. The wide operating range allows the distribution voltage to automatically
37 correct for the varying load conditions and voltage variations on the system. The voltage regulating feature
38 can either be built into the substation distribution transformer itself or be separate regulating transformers
39 located downstream of the substation transformer. Substation transformers with regulating capabilities are
40 called either tap changing under load (TCUL) or load tap changing (LTC) transformers. They have
41 multi-tapped transformer windings designed into the low-voltage winding of the transformer. All three
42 phases will change steps simultaneously to either raise or lower the voltage by changing the transformation
43 ratio. Single phase voltage regulators are also used extensively on distribution systems. Like TCULs,

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 they can be installed at the substation. However, they are often installed at strategic points along
2 distribution lines to maintain proper voltage levels.
3
4 The current that flows to provide the reactive power requirements of motor loads on the network is a
5 significant cause of line voltage drop. It is the magnetizing current required by motors. A phase angle
6 relationship exists between the reactive power of a motor and the reactive power of a capacitor such that
7 they compensate each other. In other words, a properly sized capacitor located near a motor load will
8 supply the reactive power requirements of a motor and vice versa. By using capacitor banks to provide
9 reactive power for motors, the total current flowing from the substation is reduced and so the voltage drop
10 along the distribution line is also reduced. Utilities use capacitor banks located on distribution lines or in
11 substations to help control voltage by controlling reactive power flow. Utility capacitor banks will either
12 be switched by automatic controls or will be manually switched seasonally. Automatic capacitor switching
13 controls use such things as voltage level, temperature, time of day, or reactive power flow to determine
14 whether to close or open a particular capacitor bank.
15 6.2.3 Voltage Balance
16 Balanced voltage depends on each phase of a three-phase feeder having a similar magnitude of current with
17 a similar power factor. As a result, the most common cause of voltage imbalance on utility distribution
18 lines is single phase loads being served on the system. The number and type of single phase customers per
19 phase must be similar along the length of a distribution line in order to maintain balanced voltages along
20 the line. Also, if capacitor banks are installed along a distribution line, it is important that any blown fuses
21 are replaced promptly.
22
23 6.2.4 Voltage Distortion
24 Utility generators produce voltage with almost no harmonic distortion. The voltage harmonic distortion on
25 the system is ultimately due to the non-linear customer loads that are served. These loads draw harmonic
26 currents that interact with the system impedance to create voltage distortion. Because of this, voltage
27 harmonic distortion is usually a local phenomenon related to serving loads with high harmonic current
28 content.
29
30 IEEE Std 519 establishes current harmonic limits for customers and voltage harmonic limits for electrical
31 utilities. The harmonic current limits are designed to prevent voltage distortion from reaching excessive
32 levels. The relative size of a customer load compared to the supply network serving the load determines
33 the amount of harmonic current the user is allowed to inject into the utility system. There is no guarantee
34 that harmonic voltage distortion limits will not be exceeded even though each customer on a given line
35 conforms to the current injection limits. Since voltage distortion is created by the voltage drops that occur
36 due to current distortion and system impedance, one method to reduce voltage distortion is to reduce
37 system impedance.
38
39 An unintended consequence of the use of capacitors, by either the utility or by customers, is their affect on
40 harmonics. Capacitors cause a change in system impedance and voltage distortion is directly related to the
41 system impedance. Their capacitive reactance will create a resonant impedance at some frequency or at
42 multiple frequencies. If a harmonic current exists having the same frequency as a resonant impedance,
43 there will be increased voltage distortion. In some cases this distortion will be in excess of the
44 recommended limits of IEEE Std 519. In those cases, the utility may have to change the size of the
45 capacitor bank, relocate it, or install a tuned filter.
46
47 6.2.5 Voltage Fluctuations
48 Voltage fluctuations are generally considered to be cyclic variations of voltage where the changes in
49 amplitude do not exceed 10%. The magnitude variation is typically less than the sensitivity threshold of all

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 but the most sensitive end use equipment. The main disturbing effect of these voltage fluctuations is
2 changes in the illumination intensity of light sources. When the illumination intensity fluctuates
3 periodically, it can produce an unpleasant visual sensation to people that is called flicker. Even though
4 flicker implies that there is a physiological relationship involved because of its relation to human visual
5 perception and a periodic time element, many utilities will use the term flicker when referring to repetitive
6 fluctuations as well as a single step voltage change.
7 As load current flows through the wires and transformers of the electrical system, it produces voltage drop
8 proportional to the impedance of the wires and transformers. Typically, voltage fluctuations on utility
9 systems are caused by sudden large changes in the amount of load current. Common causes of sudden load
10 current changes include:
11
12 large motors starting
13 large loads being switched on or off
14 switching to isolate sections of the network for maintenance
15 variable loads such as metal shredders and wood chippers
16 arc furnace operation
17 large or multiple welders
18
19 Utilities usually place limits on the amount of starting current allowed for large motors. The limits are
20 typically established based on the allowable percentage voltage drop at the Point of Common Coupling
21 (PCC). If the customer PCC is located far from the substation, the system impedance will be larger than
22 the impedance of a PCC located close to the substation. Therefore, allowable inrush current is lowest for
23 motors located far from a substation.
24
25 When responding to voltage fluctuation concerns, utilities often focus on the impedance of the local
26 electrical system. Lowering the system impedance by changing wire size or transformer size is a common
27 solution. Other less commonly used options used by utilities include compensating reactive power flow by
28 installing shunt connected var compensation on the electrical grid. Typical switched capacitors will not
29 provide a solution to the voltage fluctuations discussed here. Instead, an advanced var support system
30 capable of quickly responding to the dynamic var requirements of the system is needed.
31
32 These systems are commonly referred to as static var compensators (SVC) or Synchronous Static
33 Compensators (STATCOM). SVC systems combine electronic switching with capacitors and reactors to
34 provide leading and lagging var compensation. STATCOM systems combine electronic switching with
35 electronic voltage source converters to provide dynamic leading or lagging var compensation. Both types
36 of systems are costly and often include negotiations with the customer that is deemed to be creating the
37 voltage fluctuations. However, when compared against the much larger cost of building a new
38 transmission line to solve a light flicker problem, the cost is occasionally justified.
39
40 Additional information is available in IEEE 1453 Recommended Practice for Measurement and Limits of
41 Voltage Fluctuations and Associated Light Flicker on AC Power Systems.
42
43
44 6.3 Utility System Disturbances
45 Electric utility system disturbances are typically caused either by a fault or by a switching transient. A fault
46 usually involves a short circuit between an energized phase conductor and ground or between two
47 energized phase conductors. The time duration of a fault is usually between one cycle and one second. An
48 interruption is what occurs after a protective device senses and isolates a fault.
49
50 A switching transient may occur when large inductive loads, capacitor banks, or line sections are switched.
51 The electrical system reaction to adding or removing components and loads often creates a short duration

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 change in the voltage waveform. The time duration of a switching event is usually between one half cycle
2 and three cycles.
3
4 6.3.1 Fault Disturbances
5 Power system faults cause interruptions and voltage sags on the electric system. During a fault, very high
6 current levels flow until protective devices isolate the fault. The many causes of faults include: lightning,
7 animal contacts, tree contact, underground cable dig-ins, and equipment failures. While fault current is
8 flowing, a voltage sag impacts the involved electrical system. Just what constitutes the involved electrical
9 system varies depending on where the fault occurs. A fault on a high voltage transmission line may
10 impact several substations and affect voltage quality a hundred or more miles from the fault. A fault on a
11 medium voltage distribution line will typically only impact voltage quality of the feeders on a common
12 substation bus, or perhaps 10 miles or so from the fault. Figure 20 is an example of percent remaining
13 voltage possible due to a fault on the transmission system.
14
15
16
17 Figure 20 Percent Remaining Voltage
18
19
20 Industrial facilities are often impacted by the incompatibility of their equipment to voltage sags. The
21 impacts are most significant where the automated industrial process is difficult and time consuming to re-
22 start. The point of common coupling of an industrial plant is a key factor in minimizing the number of
23 voltage sag disturbances that will be experienced due to faults on the utility. Usually, because of the
24 system impedance characteristics, the transmission system will not be significantly impacted by faults on

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 distribution lines. However, distribution lines will be impacted by faults on the transmission system.
2 Because of the lower incidence of faults on the transmission system, customers sometimes request service
3 from dedicated substations.
4
5 Figure 21, below is an example of the types of faults experienced by a typical distribution-fed customer.
6
7
8
9
10 Figure 21 Faults Experienced by Typical Distribution Customer
11
12
13
14 Electric utilities typically direct maintenance activities towards minimizing fault rates. Reducing the
15 number of faults on the system improves the system reliability, reduces voltage sags, and minimizes
16 equipment failure. Typical fault reduction activities include tree trimming, lightning arrestor installation,
17 grounding improvements, and animal guard installation.
18
19 Premium power solutions are sometimes offered by an electrical utility at an extra cost. These solutions
20 can be managed by the end user seeking to reduce production disruptions from voltage quality problems
21 such as voltage sags. Often, premium power solutions utilize a third party solution provider for
22 maintenance, operation, and even capital investment. They typically employ technology (power electronics
23 equipment, devices, circuit configurations, etc.) at 1 kV through 38 KV to mitigate voltage quality
24 problems upstream of a facility.. Generally, these solutions are more attractive if the economics are
25 considered on a long term model. Some examples of premium power solutions are covered in more detail
26 in Section 8.2
27
28
29
30
31
32

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 6.3.2 Transients
2 Transients can occur from any type of switching activity and from lightning. Capacitor bank switching is a
3 daily activity for many utilities and most customer equipment is not affected by the transients. However, as
4 mentioned in section 5.3.3, some adjustable speed drives can trip off due to the voltage transient. Usually,
5 the logical mitigation in such cases will be the addition of line reactors or isolation transformers for the
6 affected equipment. Utilities do employ various measures to limit the capacitor switching transient due to
7 capacitor bank switching at the transmission voltage level. These measures may include the use of pre-
8 insertion resistors or inductors in the switching device or even synchronous closing control schemes.
9 However, most utilities do not employ any transient limiting measures for distribution line capacitor banks.
10
11 MOV arrestors installed by utilities are designed to protect high voltage equipment by limiting the transient
12 voltage levels on the system. However, the arrestors installed at MV and HV are not adequate to protect
13 customers facilities from transient activity.
14
15 6.4 Conclusions
16 Electrical power is a product that is generated, delivered, and used practically instantaneously. As a result,
17 there are some unique challenges when it comes to quality control. The use of the product, the sine wave
18 of electricity, is ultimately affected by both how it is delivered and how it is used. Understanding the
19 normal variability of the steady state parameters and the characteristics of disturbances is important when
20 trying to identify and improve voltage quality issues for particular customers. Electric utilities must design
21 for electric systems that provide a balance between cost, quality and reliability of the electricity delivered
22 to the majority of users. Designing for near-perfect voltage quality is seldom justifiable and rarely
23 necessary. The sections that follow, concerning susceptible loads and end user power conditioning, explain
24 why some customer loads are more susceptible to voltage disturbances than others and the range of
25 measures available to help address the needs of the sensitive equipment.
26
27

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 7. Susceptibility of power system loads

2 Digital electronic devices, particularly those with a memory, are extremely susceptible to very short-
3 duration power disturbances. These disturbances may result in customer complaints unless adequate ride-
4 through capability is provided. This clause discusses some common devices that can be included in the
5 category of susceptible loads.
6 7.1 Types of susceptible loads
7 Minicomputers, electronic cash registers, and data terminals are a few examples of susceptible loads that
8 often fall victim to momentary voltage disturbances. These disturbances can interrupt the operation of
9 susceptible circuitry and cause memory loss, system malfunction, or component failure.
10 7.1.1 Computers
11 It is reasonable to expect that quality computer equipment will generally meet the requirements of the
12 conceptual voltage tolerance curve shown in Figure 22, and specifically the ITIC curve shown in Figure 17.
13 The curve is actually an envelope that defines the transient and steady-state limits within which the input
14 voltage can vary without either affecting the proper performance of the computer equipment or damaging
15 it.
16
17 Note that the curve allows a complete loss of voltage for only 0.5 cycles (8.3 ms), but permits 80% voltage
18 for 0.5 s. In addition to rms voltage tolerance, such susceptible loads typically require the frequency to be
19 within 0.5 Hz; the rate of change of frequency, less than 1 Hz/s; voltage THD under 5%; and voltage
20 unbalance on three-phase systems, less than 3% [A12]. For specific applications, the electric service
21 requirements should be obtained from the equipment manufacturer prior to installation; however, this
22 information may be difficult to obtain.
23
24 Computers generate harmonic distortion and typically are not very susceptible to it unless the voltage
25 waveform is very distorted. Distortion of the voltage near the zero-crossings can cause timing errors.
26 7.1.2 Process control
27 The microprocessor and microcomputer have fostered the emergence of a new family of commercial and
28 industrial process automation techniques, referred to as facility management systems (for commercial build-
29 ings) and flexible manufacturing systems (for industrial applications). Commercial facility management
30 systems typically include sensors for input data, remote terminal units, the central processor, and man-
31 machine interface devices. Functions managed can include heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning;
32 security; access control; and energy management. Industrial flexible manufacturing systems are assemblies
33 of machine tools, cutting tools, and workpiece-handling devices employed to process a variety of finished
34 parts.

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1
2 Source: IEEE Std 446-1987 [A12]
3 Figure 22 Computer Voltage Tolerance Conceptual Curve
4
5
6 The previous discussion on computer sensitivity likewise applies to process control. In addition, motor
7 starters, contactors, relays, and other devices held closed by a coil and magnetic structure are especially
8 susceptible to short-time interruptions and voltage sags. As a guide, a voltage sag to 60 or 70% of rated
9 voltage for 0.5 s will de-energize many of these devices. Many control relays, sealed-in by their own
10 contacts, will drop out if voltage is lost for 0.5 cycle or more [A12].
11 7.1.3 Telecommunications
12 When considering the susceptibility of telecommunications equipment, a distinction should be made

13 between common equipment in the public telecommunications network and individual terminal equipment
14 that connects to the network. Most of the critical common equipment uses batteries to buffer disturbances
15 and interruptions of the electric utility service, so short-term transients normally have little or no effect on
16 the power supply, but a transient can couple in through the phone or network connections and cause
17 significant damage if unprotected. Also, the individual terminals that connect to the public
18 telecommunication networks often connect directly to the electric utility service and are subjected to
19 disturbances.
20 7.1.4 Electric arc lighting

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 High-intensity discharge (HID) lighting includes mercury, metal halide, and high-pressure sodium lamps
2 used for security and street lighting applications. In the event of a power interruption or voltage sag lasting
3 more than 1 cycle, HID lamps extinguish and do not restart for several minutes. The exact magnitude of the
4 voltage drop causing this condition depends on the lamp ballast.
5 7.1.5 Consumer electronics
6 An ever-increasing variety and number of digital electronics are found in digital video recorders, micro-
7 wave ovens, stereos, televisions, and clocks. Some of these have back-up systems (e.g., batteries) that pre-
8 vent disruption to timer/clock functions when power is lost for short periods of time. Others do not.
9 7.1.6 Adjustable speed drives
10 Adjustable speed drives (ASDs) are used to control the speed, torque, acceleration, and direction of rotation
11 of a motor. Unlike constant speed systems, the ASD permits the selection of an infinite number of speeds
12 within its operating range. The two basic types of ASDs commonly used today are dc drives and adjustable
13 ac frequency drives.
14
15 DC drives utilize a power converter to convert the fixed ac voltage to an adjustable dc output for
16 controlling a dc motor. Adjustable-frequency ac drives convert three-phase 60 Hz input power to an
17 adjustable frequency source for controlling the speed of squirrel-cage induction motors or other ac motors.
18
19 Problems have been documented involving nuisance tripping of some manufacturers ac drives due to
20 switching transients associated with capacitors on the customers or utilitys system.
21 7.2 Ride-through capability
22 As was mentioned in Clause 6, the practice of removing temporary faults on utility systems calls for
23 tripping the circuit breaker (or recloser), reclosing, and repeating these steps a number of times if the initial
24 trip and reclose operation is not successful in clearing the fault.
25
26 If reclosing is successful on the initial attempt, customer loads on the faulted circuit would have
27 experienced a complete loss of voltage for a duration ranging from approximately 0.5 s to several seconds,
28 depending on the characteristics of the protective device as well as the reclosing cycle used by the
29 particular utility. For adjacent circuits connected to the same substation bus, a voltage sag is experienced
30 for the duration of the fault; although this sag may last for only a few cycles, the voltage can be low enough
31 to cause susceptible equipment to reset or ASDs to trip.
32
33 Subsequent reclosing attempts commonly involve durations of 15 s or more during which the circuit
34 voltage supply is interrupted. Figure 8 shows that most computer equipment can tolerate a complete loss of
35 voltage for 0.5 cycle (60 Hz basis) or less. Thus, a single reclosing operation would cause this equipment to
36 malfunction.
37
38 Momentary power interruptions can result in a wide variety of user equipment problems, ranging in
39 severity from blinking clocks to the shutdown of a factory process. Most of the momentary interruptions
40 result from circuit breakers (or reclosers) tripping and reclosing to clear temporary faults and thus to avoid
41 long-term interruptions.
42
43 Power supplies found in susceptible equipment have some inherent ride-through capability. Typical ride-
44 through capabilities of power supplies range from 10 to 25 ms. This time is too short to be of much help in
45 averting problems associated with utility momentary interruptions; it may, however, be sufficient to allow
46 the operation of static switches or other high-speed source transfer devices used to assure the supply of
47 power to susceptible equipment.
48

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 A study of electronically controlled consumer electronic equipment [A41] indicates that, without battery
2 backup, loss of memory occurs for relatively short interruptions of supply power. Digital clocks,
3 microwave ovens, and video-cassette recorders (VCRs) were tested for susceptibility to voltage
4 abnormalities. Although there were significant differences between the models studied, the average data
5 indicates that 40% of all clocks malfunctioned for a 120-cycle (2 s) interruption, and all malfunctioned at
6 1000 cycles. All microwave ovens malfunctioned at 120 cycles; 62% of the VCRs malfunctioned at 120
7 cycles and all malfunctioned at 1000 cycles, except two VCRs that had battery backup (these withstood all
8 momentary interruptions). An extension of this study to personal computers and printers [A42] showed that
9 all these devices malfunctioned with a 6-cycle interruption, with four computers malfunctioning for
10 interruption durations of 1 cycle or less.
11
12 Based on a survey of 95 companies, 90% of all first reclosur operations used by electric utilities occur
13 within 10 s. [A47]
14
15
16
17

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 8. Power Quality Improvements for End Users
2 Given the rapid growth in the utilization of computers, adjustable speed drives, programmable logic
3 controllers, and other susceptible loads that are vulnerable to miss-operation from voltage disturbances, it is
4 useful to consider the range of measures that is available to help address the special electrical needs of this
5 type of equipment. Optimizing power quality is a process of weighing the costs of mitigating actions
6 against the benefits of improved productivity.
7 As an alternative to modifying their electrical systems, customers may attempt to specify and purchase less
8 susceptible or more tolerant load equipment. IEEE-1346 is an important reference on equipment sensitivity
9 issues. It is also important to assure that equipment ratings match the voltage that is being supplied to the
10 equipment. For example 220V equipment is not well served by 208V.
11
12
13 8.1 End user wiring and grounding
14 On the end user side, building wiring problems, such as poor connections, open neutrals, overloads, faults,
15 or locally generated switching transients need to be considered before the addition of power conditioning.
16 Also, grounding techniques may affect the performance of equipment and, most importantly, may amplify
17 load equipment sensitivity and the adverse effects of voltage disturbances.
18
19 8.1.1 Grounding, noise elimination, and circuit design
20 Before considering power conditioning equipment, it is important that the installation be thoroughly
21 checked to determine if there are other problems that might adversely affect susceptible equipment. Often
22 it is found that very simple actions, such as the tightening of a loose connection, can correct a problem that
23 is perceived as bad power quality. Obviously, such problems should be addressed before more costly
24 measures are considered. Overloads or bad electrical connections often appear as localized hot spots in
25 energized electrical equipment. Infrared heat scans for location of such hot spots are widely accepted in
26 today's industry for monitoring the health of electrical equipment. These scans save millions of dollars
27 each year in reduced unscheduled downtime and lower capital costs relating to repair of failed equipment.
28 [A60]
29 Where appropriate, the susceptible equipment should be fed with a separate dedicated circuit, which con-
30 nects as close as possible to the utility source to minimize effects of other customer loads that could other-
31 wise cause voltage disturbances. This may require the use of extra transformers, circuits, conduit, and
32 equipment. Exposure to overvoltage transients may be limited by appropriate application of low-voltage
33 surge-protection equipment.
34 Noise problems in susceptible-equipment installations most often result from improper grounding practices.
35 Proper grounding techniques are outside the scope of this guide. Refer to IEEE Std. 1100 Recommended
36 Practice for Power and Grounding for extensive information on this subject.
37 8.2 Premium Power Solutions
38 Premium power solutions employ technology (devices, circuit configurations, power electronics equipment,
39 etc.) at 1 kV through 38 KV for the purpose of mitigating power quality problems. These solutions can be

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 managed by the end user seeking to reduce production disruptions, sometimes utilizing a third party
2 solution provider for maintenance, operation, and even capital investment. Premium power solutions are
3 sometimes offered by an electrical utility at an extra cost. Generally these solutions are more attractive if
4 the economics are considered on a long term model.
5 8.2.1 Static transfer switch (with dual feed)
6 If a facility has access to two independent utility power feeds, a static line transfer switch can be
7 considered. The capability to rapidly switch power to an alternate supply can address a high percentage of
8 power problems, depending upon how separate the two sources are. Static switches, of course, are not
9 effective in the event of a common disturbance, as might be the case for a fault on the utility transmission
10 system.
11
12
13 Figure 23 Static transfer switch
14 A typical static switch power circuit consists of two pairs of thyristors per phase connected as shown in the
15 upper portion of Figure 23. When the preferred source is of proper voltage, control logic turns on its
16 thyristors. Power can then flow from the preferred source to the load. The control logic is typically
17 equipped with three preferred source voltage sensors, which monitor overvoltage, undervoltage, and loss
18 of voltage, as shown in the lower portion of Figure 23.

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 The static switch can automatically transfer susceptible loads when power is suddenly lost on either one of
2 the two synchronized incoming utility lines without disturbance. Total sensing and transfer time is within a
3 quarter of a cycle (<5msec) and should not affect most susceptible-equipment operations.
4 Figure 24 illustrates the trip and reclose sequence of a typical substation circuit breaker that would
5 coordinate with the automatic transfer of a typical switch. Deviations outside the preset limits (set points)
6 shown in Figure 23 cause the static switch to transfer to the alternate source. Transfer is prevented,
7 however, if the alternate source voltage is not present.
8
9 Upon restoration of preferred voltage above the return to preferred level and below the overvoltage level
10 for a timed period, the control logic checks for synchronism of the phase and voltage balance between the
11 preferred and alternate sources and then initiates re-transfer to preferred.
12 If, during normal operation, a malfunction of the static switch occurs that would otherwise cause a distur-
13 bance to the load, automatic transfer and latch to the alternate source takes place to maintain load power
14 continuity.
15 Properly made static switches are dependable and inherently maintenance-free with no periodic exercising
16 requirements to maintain high-speed operation and no contacts to clean.
17
18
19 Figure 24 Typical substation breaker trip and reclose sequence

20
21 8.2.2 Dynamic voltage restorer
22 Another option for protecting plant intake from voltage sags is the Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) that
23 can be applied at the medium voltage level. The DVR is a custom power technology for power quality
24 improvement on distribution circuits.
25
26 The DVR works on the principle of supplying the missing voltage as shown in Figure 25. The unit does
27 this utilizing a series connected transformer to the load, through which the power electronics can boost the
28 voltage. The voltage boost obtained is the ratio of the device size to the load. Generally DVRs have been
29 applied most commonly at 30%-40% boost.
30
31 The basic DVR configuration is illustrated in the figure below. The system injects a compensation voltage
32 in series with the line by connection of fast switching inverter on the secondary of a transformer in the line.
33 The inverter can create compensation voltages to correct for some transients, as well as voltage sags.
34
35

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1
2
Vinjected Iload
LINE
Insertion Transformer
Iload AC Terminal
DC-AC
Inverter
Vdc DC Terminal
Idc + -
Energy
Storage
3
4 Figure 25 One line diagram illustrating DVR operation
5 8.3 End User Power Conditioning (Within the Facility)
6 On the customer side, equipment operation, circuit design, and power-conditioning measures can be used to
7 mitigate or protect against voltage disturbances. The source of these voltage disturbances may be from the
8 customer as well as from the utility side of the meter.
9 8.3.1 Overview of power conditioners
10 Many types of conditioners are available, ranging from the very inexpensive, which protect against only the
11 least significant types of voltage disturbances, to the expensive, which protect against almost all eventuali-
12 ties. Table 6 is a summary and comparison of power conditioners.
13
14

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
Outage
Power Relative Sag or Under Over Harmonic Conducted
Surge ride-
conditioner cost swell voltage Voltage distortion Noise
protection through
type (%)a protection (Sustained) (Sustained) protection protection
capability
Surge
<1 X nil
suppressors
Filters <1 SP X nil
Low-voltage
<1 X nil
line reactors
Constant
voltage 35 X X X A X 1 cycle
transformers
Motor
45 X X X P X A 0.3 s a
generators
High-speed
75 X X X X X A 60 s
flywheel
Dual feeders b
Static
25 A X X continuous
transfer
UPS 60
Standby A X A X A A 15 min
On-line X X X X X X 15 min
UPS and
engine 100 X X X X X X continuous
generator
2
3 KEY: X = protection provided SP = special distortion-correction filters are available
4 A = available or provided P = very short periods only
5 NOTES:
a
6 1 s with flywheel
b
7 Requires two or more independent sources
8
9 Table 6Power conditioner comparison
10

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 8.3.2 High reliability power backup systems
2 In most susceptible-equipment sites, operation of the susceptible equipment without cooling can extend to
3 about 15 minutes. Beyond that time, even with susceptible-equipment power available, the system should
4 be shut down if both the susceptible equipment and its cooling system are not both on backup power. To
5 provide for indefinite interruptions of both, a combination of UPS and engine generator is added.
6
7 Figure 26 illustrates such a system. The UPS operates normally, conditioning the power to the susceptible
8 equipment with the engine generator at rest. Upon loss of power, the battery continues to supply the
9 susceptible equipment, while the cooling and lighting loads go out.
10
11 Figure 26 Combination UPS and engine generator

12 After a preset period intended to prevent nuisance starts (typically 1530 seconds), the engine generator
13 automatically starts and restores power to the cooling and lighting systems and to the UPS. Normal UPS
14 operation resumes when the UPS battery is no longer discharged. The presence of the generator permits the
15 use of smaller batteries that may have about 5 minutes of storage. While operating in this mode, the engine
16 generator may be subjected to sudden load changes, such as the starting of a compressor motor in the air
17 conditioning system. This situation can cause a momentary frequency excursion, due to engine-speed
18 change, until corrected by the governor. The frequency (and/or its rate of change) can exceed the tolerance
19 of the susceptible equipment causing malfunctions. However, with the interposing UPS, the frequency can
20 be maintained within tolerance, eliminating possible problems.

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1
2 Engine generators increase the cost and maintenance of an installation and should be added only if long
3 interruptions are anticipated and if these losses create a significant problem.
4 8.3.3 Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
5 UPS systems are an important solution to provide the continuous operation of computer or other susceptible
6 systems when line voltage interruptions last approximately 0.5 second or longer (a common event for
7 utility fault clearing). A UPS can provide continuous regulated power under all normal and abnormal
8 utility power conditions, including interruptions.
9 UPS systems are typically solid-state, although some are currently made using rotating machinery in
10 combination with solid-state conversion. UPS systems have three general configurations, as illustrated in
11 simplified form in Figure 27. Most systems contain a storage battery, though some systems use high-speed
12 flywheels or other technologies for energy storage.
13 8.3.3.1 Standby UPS systems
14 A standby UPS system includes a rectifier/battery charger, a static inverter, and a static automatic-transfer
15 switch. The normal flow of power is directly from the line to the load through the transfer switch. In some
16 versions, however, a regulator is included on the line side or on the load side of the transfer switch to
17 provide output regulation to susceptible loads. In the event of incoming power loss, the transfer switch is
18 actuated to pick up the inverter output, which delivers phase-synchronized power to susceptible loads,
19 usually resulting in less than a 0.25 cycle interruption.
20

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 Figure 27 UPS configurations

2 During ac line failure, a standby UPS supplies susceptible-equipment power from the battery through the
3 inverter.
4 8.3.3.2 On-line UPS systems
5 An on-line UPS system, which includes a larger rectifier/battery charger than the other systems, provides
6 power to the load through the rectifier and inverter. During a line failure, the inverter operates from the bat-
7 tery to provide phase-synchronized power to the susceptible load. In the event of inverter output failure or
8 overload, phase synchronized transfer to the bypass line results in an interruption of less than 0.25 cycles.
9 8.3.3.3 Rotary UPS systems
10 Rotary UPSs are gaining in popularity for very large size applications. These units are available, up to
11 10,000 kVA. Figure 28 is a block diagram of a rotary UPS. It is similar in concept to a conventional M-G
12 set, where the main difference is that a rotary UPS system utilizes a battery bank for energy storage. This
13 enables a rotary UPS to provide a ride though time of several minutes, depending on the battery bank
14 sizing. During normal operation the motor turns the generator, while the battery bank is charged by a
15 separate d.c. generator. During a power failure, the d.c. motor turns the a.c. generator, using battery power.
16 The transition to and from battery power is accomplished by motor controls without the use of contactors or
17 switches so that the a.c. generator output is totally uninterrupted. This type of design completely eliminates
18 the rectifier/charger, inverter, and static bypass switch of conventional UPS systems.
Utility Supply Output to Load
DC
AC AC
Motor
Generator Motor Generator
Battery
Bank
19
20 Figure 28 Rotary UPS
21 8.3.4 Power Distribution Units (PDU)
22 Many grounding problems for large data processing rooms can be avoided and safer installations provided
23 by the use of properly designed PDUs, usually arranged for installation on a computer room floor close to
24 the loads that they serve (see Figure 29).
25 These units generally contain input isolating (and usually step-down) transformers with electrostatic shield-
26 ing to minimize the effects of potential line-to-ground noise. They include a main circuit breaker that pro-
27 vides isolation and emergency power-off by pushbutton. The transformers feed panel boards that are
28 equipped with multiple circuit breakers (and sometimes fuses). Each circuit breaker is connected to a
29 properly wired and properly grounded flexible under-floor cable with plug-compatible receptacle for the
30 susceptible equipment it serves (see Figure 30, which illustrates a typical PDU circuit, several of which
31 might be used in a large installation). PDUs can also be equipped with power monitoring and alarm
32 functions, as well as some of the simple forms of power conditioning discussed in 6.2.3. Note that typical

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 utility distribution transformers are not shielded and, hence, cannot be relied on to provide such shielding in
2 situations where no power-distribution unit exists.
4 Figure 29 Power distribution unit

5
6
7 8.3.5 Voltage Sag Correctors
8 As voltage sags are much more common than complete interruptions, voltage sag correctors provide for an
9 important need, particularly in industrial applications. Generally these devices do not provide backup
10 power to the load; rather they simply seek to restore the missing voltage. In this way voltage sag correctors
11 can be smaller and much less expensive than UPS systems.
12
13 8.3.5.1 Constant voltage transformers
14 Ferroresonant regulators consist of a linear and a nonlinear inductor and a capacitor in a parallel resonant
15 circuit with the nonlinear inductor (see Figure 30).
16 These elements are generally incorporated into an isolation transformer configuration together with addi-
17 tional filtering to eliminate self-induced harmonics. This filtering can handle a reasonable level of harmonic
18 distortion at the output induced by nonlinear computer load, but excess harmonics can produce overheating
19 of the regulator. The circuit is tuned to the rated output voltage and frequency.
20
21

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
4 Figure 30 Ferroresonant regulator

5 Ferroresonant regulators maintain a constant output voltage for a wide range of input voltage, particularly
6 at light load. Their inherent current-limiting characteristic, which limits maximum current at full voltage,
7 can be a limitation when starting motors or computer central processing units (CPUs). Because of this
8 characteristic, they are generally operated at a considerably underrated condition. Some short-term
9 overvoltages occur at the output ferroresonant regulator upon recovery from an interruption.
10
11 The tuned circuit has a small amount of stored energy and will ride through interruptions of about one
12 cycle, provided the interruption is not a fault close to the input, which would drain the stored energy. It will
13 not ride through a 0.5 s interruption typical of the automatic reclosure on a utility circuit; however, many
14 will ride through up to 50% voltage sag for 0.5 s, which would probably be sufficient to handle fault
15 clearing on a nearby circuit. Ferroresonant regulators are large and heavy due to the magnetics involved,
16 but are simple and reliable.
17 8.3.5.2 Motor-generator sets
18 Motor-generator sets consist of electric motors driving ac generators. The load is supplied by the generator
19 and is electrically isolated from the utility supply. Motor-generators can isolate the load from impulses and
20 from voltage sags and swells. For power-line voltage changes of 20% or more, voltage to the load is
21 maintained at nominal.
22 A useful feature of the motor-generator is its ability to bridge severe short-term sags or interruptions. The
23 inertia of the rotating elements permits the motor-generator to span interruptions of up to about 0.3 s. This
24 is mainly limited by the drop in frequency (speed) as energy is removed. This period can be extended by
25 adding inertia via a flywheel as shown in Figure 31. This amount of time provides protection for the
26 common case of fault clearing and reclosing on a utility distribution system. Some systems use variable-
27 speed constant frequency or quick-starting engine generator techniques to get more advantage from the
28 flywheel inertia. The cost is considerably higher than conventional motor-generators. The motor-generator

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 set with flywheel is sometimes classified as UPS equipment.
3 Figure 31 Motor-generator set with flywheel

4 The problems with motor-generators are mostly on the output or load side. High generator output
5 impedance can cause substantial voltage sags in response to sudden load changes, such as resulting from
6 large motor-starting current, and response to load changes can be sluggish. Also, unless it is oversized, the
7 drive motor may overheat under long-term low-line voltage conditions.
8 Motor-generator efficiency is typically relatively low, so that electrical energy costs over its lifetime may
9 be substantial. Heat dissipation, equipment weight and bulk, and the potential for audible noise are factors
10 that should be considered in motor-generator installations. Essentially silent machines are available at extra
11 cost. Bearings should be inspected and periodically replaced and/or lubricated in many cases, particularly
12 when flywheels are used. Reliability potential, however, is very high.
13
14 8.3.5.3 Active Voltage Conditioner
15 Active voltage conditioners are low voltage, inverter based power conditioners. These devices are
16 designed to provide voltage sag ride through capability to industrial, three-phase equipment. They are
17 often applied to machining centers and extrusion process, in order to prevent costly shut downs and
18 equipment failures. Smaller units (10 200 kVA units) generally depend on electronics, while larger units
19 (200 10,000kVA) may employ an injection transformer in a similar manner to the dynamic voltage
20 restorer.
21
22 The key specifications for an active voltage conditioner are the efficiency, power rating, allowable voltage
23 sag depth (provided voltage correction), and the duration of the correction. Often these units are sized to
24 provide correction for the most common voltage sags (30% of depth). This sizing realizes that it would
25 take a much more expensive unit to correct for deeper voltage sag events that are not as common. An
26 economic model is usually developed, in conjunction with the annual voltage sag profile of the facility, to
27 determine the optimal sizing and expenditure required.
28
29
30 8.4 Controlling Harmonics
31 In general, electrical and electronic equipment, such as rectifier power supplies, are not greatly affected by
32 small amounts of harmonic distortion. Problems may occur where there is enough harmonic current distor-

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 tion to adversely affect the supply voltage. High levels of reactive harmonic current injection may overload
2 building wiring and service transformers and may cause abnormal rms voltage or very distorted waveshape.
3 8.4.1 Harmonics at point of use
4 IEEE Std 519 recommends TDD limits at the point of common coupling to other users, including the effect
5 of customer load-induced harmonics. In actual practice, the utility system distortion is usually less than the
6 proposed limits, but the customer load-induced harmonics often cause voltage THD to exceed 5% at the
7 point of use. Also, current distortion in three-phase, 4-wire systems feeding multiple nonlinear single-phase
8 loads, such as computer power supplies, often creates excessive neutral current. The result may be wiring
9 overloads and fire hazards or damage to the delta-wye supply transformer typically provided (Figure 9).
10 It is recommended that the harmonic current limits be followed to protect the facility power system, which
11 is probably more vulnerable to adverse harmonic effects than the facility loads.
12 The following are actions that help reduce the effects of load-induced waveform distortion (see [A22] for
13 more detail):
14 Reduce the impedance of the power source. A larger source transformer (or generator) of the same
15 type will have a lower impedance and will reduce voltage distortion proportionally. This may also
16 be necessary to accommodate the extra heating because of third harmonics (and odd multiples of
17 third) circulating in the delta winding [A44]. This is typically an expensive solution.
18
19 Move the symptomatic load to a lower impedance circuit. Best results occur when a dedicated
20 circuit is run from the main service transformer to the load, or to a step down transformer adjacent
21 to the load.
22
23 Move the harmonic-producing loads to other circuits. The best results occur when the harmonic-
24 producing loads are moved to a circuit that is on a separate power source, thereby providing some
25 degree of electrical isolation.
26
27 For the special case of third harmonics and their odd multiples, a properly sized delta-connected
28 transformer will provide a circulating path for these harmonics, reducing their effect upstream
29 from the transformer (toward the power source and other loads common to it). Single phase
30 rectified input switching power supplies are rich in third harmonic current, but also contain
31 significant higher-order harmonics.
32
33 Provide harmonic filters in lieu of capacitors to control harmonic current flow.
34
35 In three-phase systems, harmonics can also be mitigated by special transformer circuitry. One
36 example is the use of a zigzag transformer or a Scott- or T-connected transformer.
37
38 In three-phase systems supplying separate single-phase loads with non-sinusoidal current input,
39 the shared neutral circuit should be increased in current rating to about twice the phase rating
40 [A44]. The capability of the supply transformer should be checked for the nonsinusoidal load by
41 consulting to IEEE Std C57.110-1986 [A6].
42 8.4.2 Harmonic filters
43 Harmonic filters are designed to control the level of voltage and current distortion generated by all of the
44 elements of the equipment to which they are connected, including susceptible equipment, which often
45 generates distortion by itself. Filters consist of active or passive circuit elements. Most such filters in use
46 today are passive and provide a short-circuit path for the harmonics generated by the load using one or
47 more series-tuned traps.

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 Problems in application include excessive voltage or current due to resonance with other elements in the
2 power system and excessive power frequency current drawn by the filter. In addition, because of their low
3 impedance to specific harmonics, they attract currents of the same harmonic if they exist elsewhere on the
4 power system, potentially overloading the filter. For these reasons, such filters are generally applied on an
5 engineered or special basis. However, some filters come with isolating and/or power-factor-correcting
6 circuitry as a standard feature that can mitigate these problems.
8 8.5 Surge Protective Devices (SPDs)
9 SPDs protect susceptible electronic equipment from surges. These devices usually contain component(s)
10 that provide a voltage-dependent diversion of surge current. Some units also contain passive filter
11 components, such as series inductors and parallel capacitors.
12
13 Two of the most common voltage-dependent components that are used in these devices are metal oxide
14 varistors (MOVs) and large junction avalanche diodes that are specifically designed for surge diversion.
15 Components exhibiting surge-protection characteristics are often integrated into the PDUs, UPSs, power
16 supplies, and power-conditioning equipment. However, these provide a level of surge protection that may
17 not be adequate for all conditions. Additional surge protection may be needed, depending upon the severity
18 of the environment.
19 The proper application of an SPD requires a coordinated approach based upon the expected energy deposi-
20 tion into the candidate device at the applied location. Typically, a building service entrance or main panel
21 device would be expected to divert a greater part of the surge current than a device installed at a secondary
22 panel, a receptacle, or within equipment. If two SPDs are installed in cascade, coordination of the opera-
23 tionthat is, energy deposition commensurate with the respective ratings of the two devicesdepends on
24 the relative clamping voltages of the devices, on the distance separating them, and on the waveform (postu-
25 lated in the absence of known specifics about the installation) of the impinging surge [A48].
26 The selection of the appropriate voltage rating is based upon the nominal service voltage, including normal
27 and abnormal upward deviations (ANSI C84.1) and the maximum continuous operating voltage (MCOV)
28 of the SPD. The MCOV rating of the SPD should be selected to be at least 120% of the nominal rms
29 service voltage [A25], [A58]. Specifying the MCOV to be between 150% and 200% of the nominal rms
30 service voltage provides additional protection against degradation of the SPD by swells or relatively low-
31 level transient overvoltages [A52].
32
33
34 8.6 Special Considerations for VFDs
35 8.6.1 Input line reactors
36 Low-voltage line reactors (inductors) provide an alternative to isolation transformers for attenuating
37 voltage disturbances on susceptible circuits. They have been successfully applied to three-phase ac ASDs to
38 prevent nuisance overvoltage tripping during capacitor switching. The additional series inductance of the
39 reactor reduces the current surge into the ASD, thereby limiting the dc overvoltage.

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 8.6.2 Effect of VFD inverter switching pulses on motors
2 Variable frequency drives (VFD) most commonly utilize insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) to
3 invert the dc bus voltage to the variable voltage and frequency required to control the speed of the AC
4 motor. However, the pulse width modulated (PWM) output of the drive unit also generates a voltage rise
5 (dv/dt) on the output waveform. It is not uncommon for the voltage rise to approach 10kV/ s.
6
7 When the motor is separated from the VFD by more than a critical length of cable, these pulses reflect back
8 upon themselves at the motor, and can be damaging to the motor insulation. The critical length is
9 determined by the pulse rise time (to 50% value) and the travel time of the cable. The velocity of a
10 traveling wave in a cable can be estimated at 1 x 10 8 m/sec. With most VFDs the critical length will be
11 longer than 25 feet.
12
13 Inverter duty motors can be employed to address this concern, which is highlighted in the IEEE 841 and
14 NEMA MG.1 standards. Also, line terminators can be installed at the motors, or line reactors can be
15 installed on the output of the VFD to address this concern.
16 8.7 Special Considerations for Residential Loads
17 The trend toward home office results in more office workers relying upon their home for their workplace.
18 Office buildings where people traditionally work are generally in urban locations where there is a high
19 concentration of electrical load. Commercial buildings are often served by power distribution networks
20 that are shorter and very reliable. Peoples home are in suburban or rural locations, where utility loads are
21 not as concentrated, and so the distribution networks necessarily are longer. The power distribution to
22 suburban and rural locations has more exposure to incidents from weather, accidents, animal contacts, etc.
23 It will be less reliable than the system supplying power to the urban office.
24
25 The home office would do well to consider the need for power conditioning. Computers may require
26 UPS systems, while expensive electronic displays and entertainment centers justify surge protection
27 devices for both power and telecommunications circuits. Some residences, particularly if there are
28 extenuating medical circumstances, may require back up power generators.
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40 Figure 32 Approach to the application of power conditioning equipment.

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
2 8.8 Economic Analysis of Power Conditioning Alternatives
3 Figure 32 illustrates a general approach to power conditioning. The usual approach is to place the power
4 conditioner in front of the susceptible load. Figure 33 shows that this location can be interpreted in several
5 different physical locations: anywhere from inside the plant to out on the utility system. It also shows that
6 the cost of this protection increases as the location moves toward the utility system.
7
INCREASING COST
INCREASING COMPLEXITY
Utility Solutions Customer Solutions Equipment Specifications
3 - Overall 2 - Control
Protection Protection
Inside Plant
Feeder or
1
Group of
Machines
Utility Source
2 Controls
3
Motors
4
Other Loads
Sensitive Process Machine

8
9 Figure 33 Four locations for power conditioning equipment, showing the relative economic
10 cost and complexity.
11 The cost of protecting equipment from disturbances increases dramatically as one progresses out from the
12 critical load locations. For example, a power conditioner that can be used to protect process controls as
13 opposed to the entire process, is smaller and much more economical. Therefore it is very important to first
14 understand the process completely before any power conditioning equipment is applied. Protection of an
15 entire plant, for instance, is often very costly and generally not required. A site survey should always be
16 done which characterizes susceptible and critical loads. Many plant loads may not be critical and,
17 therefore, may not need power conditioning equipment.
18 8.8.1 Cost/Benefit Considerations
19 Another key factor in the application of power conditioning equipment is cost/benefit. This refers to the
20 economic justification and payback of applying power conditioning equipment. Some customers may have
21 processes very critical in nature, losing a tremendous amount of money every time a power quality event
22 occurs. This can be attributed to production downtime and/or lost product. Some industries are much more
23 vulnerable to power quality variations, and therefore, tend to have a quicker payback when applying power
24 conditioning equipment. This type of cost/benefit analysis should be done as part of any power
25 conditioning application project. The table below provides an example of cost/benefit analysis of power
26 quality solutions.
27 Table 3. Example of Cost/Benefit Analysis
28

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1
2
3
4 9.
5 Table 7Example Results from Cost/Benefit Analysis

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 Annex A
2 (informative)
3 A.1 Glossary
4 Note: Numbers in parentheses align with definition numbers in IEEE Std. 100.
5
6 Current Transformer (CT).
7 (2) (metering) An instrument transformer designed for use in the measurement or control of
8 current.
9
10 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC).
11 (1) (supervisory control, data acquisition, and automatic control)(station control and data
12 acquisition) A measure of equipment tolerance to external electromagnetic fields.
13 (2) (control of system electromagnetic compatibility) The ability of a device, equipment or system
14 to function satisfactorily in its electromagnetic environment without introducing intolerable
15 electromagnetic disturbances to anything in that environment.
16
17 Electromagnetic Disturbance.
18 (1) An electromagnetic phenomenon that may be superimposed on a wanted signal.
19 (2) (overhead power lines) Any electromagnetic phenomenon that may degrade the performance
20 of a device, a piece of equipment, or a system.
21
22 Equipment Grounding Conductor.
23 (2) The conductor used to connect the noncurrent-carrying parts of conduits, raceways, and
24 equipment enclosures to the grounding electrode at the service equipment (main panel) or
25 secondary of a separately derived system.
26
27 Frequency Deviation.
28 (5) An increase or decrease in the power frequency from nominal. The duration of a frequency
29 deviation can be from several cycles to several hours.
30
31 Ground.
32 (3) (A) A conducting connection, whether intentional or accidental, by which an electric circuit or
33 equipment is connected to the earth, or to some conducting body of relatively large extent that
34 serves in place of the earth. (B) High frequency reference. Note: Grounds are used for
35 establishing and maintaining the potential of the earth (or of the conducting body) or
36 approximately that potential, on conductors connected to it, and for conducting ground currents to
37 and from earth (or the conducting body).
38
39 Ground Loop.
40 (2) A potentially detrimental loop formed when two or more points in an electrical system that are
41 nominally at ground potential are connected by a conducting path such that either or both points
42 are not at the same ground potential.
43
44 Harmonic.
45 A sinusoidal component of a periodic wave or quantity having a frequency that is an integral
46 multiple of the fundamental frequency. Note: For example, a component, the frequency of which
47 is twice the fundamental frequency, is called a second harmonic.
48
49 Harmonic Components.
50 The components of the harmonic content expressed in terms of the order and rms (root-mean-
51 square) values of the Fourier series terms describing the periodic function.

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1
2 Harmonic Content.
3 (1) The function obtained by subtracting the dc (direct current) and fundamental components from
4 a nonsinusoidal periodic function.
5 (2) The deviation from the sinusoidal form, expressed in terms of the order and magnitude of the
6 Fourier series terms describing the wave.
7 (3) Distortion of a sinusoidal waveform characterized by indication of the magnitude and order of
8 the Fourier series terms describing the wave.
9
10 Immunity (to a disturbance).
11 The ability of a device, equipment or system to perform without degradation in the presence of an
12 electromagnetic disturbance.
13
14 Isolated Equipment Ground.
15 An isolated equipment grounding conductor run in the same conduit or raceway as the supply
16 conductors. This conductor may be insulated from the metallic raceway and all ground points
17 throughout its length. It originates at an isolated ground-type receptacle or equipment input
18 terminal block and terminates at the point where neutral and ground are bonded at the power
19 source.
20
21 Isolation.
22 (3) Separation of one section of a system from undesired influences of other sections.
23
24 Maximum Demand.
25 (1) (power operations) The largest of a particular type of demand occurring within a specified
26 period.
27
28 Momentary.
29 When used as a modifier to quantify the duration of a short duration variation, refers to a time
30 range at the power frequency from 30 cycles to 3 seconds.
31
32 Momentary Interruption.
33 A type of short duration variation. The complete loss of voltage (<0.1 pu) on one or more phase
34 conductors for a time period between 0.5 cycles and 3 seconds.
35
36
37 Noise.
38 (11) Electrical noise is unwanted electrical signals that produce undesirable effects in the circuits
39 of the control systems in which they occur.
40
41 Nominal Voltage.
42 (3) A nominal value assigned to a circuit or system for the purpose of conveniently designating its
43 voltage class (as 208/120, 480/277, 600).
44
45 Nonlinear Load.
46 A load that draws a non-sinusoidal current wave when supplied by a sinusoidal voltage source.
47
48 Notch.
49 (2) A switching (or other) disturbance of the normal power voltage waveform, lasting less than a
50 half cycle, which is initially of opposite polarity than the waveform and is thus subtracted from the
51 normal waveform in terms of the peak value of the disturbance voltage. This includes complete
52 loss of voltage for up to a half cycle.
53
54 Oscillatory Transient.
55 A sudden, non-power frequency change in the steady state condition of voltage or current that
56 includes both positive or negative polarity value.

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1
2 Overvoltage.
3 (9) When used to describe a specific type of long duration variation, refers to a measured voltage
4 having a value greater than the nominal voltage for a period of time greater than 1 minute.
5 Typical values are 1.1 to 1.2 pu.
6
7 Potential Transformer (PT); also, voltage transformer.
8 (1) (voltage transformer). An instrument transformer that is intended to have its primary winding
9 connected in shunt with a power-supply circuit, the voltage of which is to be measured or
10 controlled.
11
12 Power Disturbance.
13 Any deviation from the nominal value (or from some selected thresholds based on load tolerance)
14 of the input ac power characteristics.
15
16 Power Quality.
17 The concept of powering and grounding electronic equipment in a manner that is suitable to the
18 operation of that equipment and compatible with the premise wiring system and other connected
19 equipment.
20
21 Pulse.
22 (4) A wave that departs from a initial level for a limited duration of time and ultimately returns to
23 the original level.
24
25 Sag.
26 (2) A decrease in rms voltage or current at the power frequency for durations of 0.5 cycles to 1
27 minute. Typical values are 0.1 to 0.9 pu.
28
29 Shield.
30 (7) (instrumentation cables) (cable systems). A metallic sheath, usually copper or aluminum,
31 applied over the insulation of a conductor or conductors for the purpose of providing means for
32 reducing electrostatic coupling between the conductors so shielded and others which may be
33 susceptible to or which may be generating unwanted (noise) electrostatic fields.
34
35 Shielding.
36 (3) The process of applying a conducting barrier between a potentially disturbing noise source and
37 electronic circuitry. Shields are used to protect cables (data and power) and electronic circuits.
38 Shielding may be accomplished by the use of metal barriers, enclosures, or wrappings around
39 source circuits and receiving circuits.
40
41
42 Sustained.
43 When used to quantify the duration of a voltage interruption, refers to the time frame associated
44 with a long duration variation (i.e., greater than 1 minute).
45
46 Sustained Interruption.
47 A type of long duration variation. The complete loss of voltage (<0.1 pu) on one of more phase
48 conductors for a time greater than 1 minute.
49
50 Swell.
51 (3) An increase in rms voltage or current at the power frequency for durations from 0.5 cycles to 1
52 minute. Typical values are 1.1 to 1.8 pu.
53
54 Temporary Interruption.
55 A type of short duration variation. The complete loss of voltage (<0.1 pu) on one or more phase
56 conductors for a time period between 3 seconds and 1 minute.

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1
2 Total Demand Distortion (TDD).
3 (1) The total root-sum-square harmonic current distortion, in percent of the maximum demand
4 load current (15 or 30 min demand).
5
6 Point of Common Coupling (PCC).
7 (3) The point at which the electric utility and the customer interface occurs. Typically this point is
8 the customer side of the utility revenue meter.
9
10 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD); also distortion factor.
11 (harmonic factor) The ratio of the root-mean-square of the harmonic content to the root-mean-
12 square value of the fundamental quantity, expressed as a percent of the fundamental.
13
14 Transient.
15 (7) Pertaining to or designating a phenomenon or a quantity which varies between two consecutive
16 steady states during a time interval that is short compared to the time scale of interest. A transient
17 can be a unidirectional impulse of either polarity or a damped oscillatory wave with the first peak
18 occurring in either polarity.
19
20 Undervoltage.
21 (1) When used to describe a specific type of long duration variation, refers to a measured voltage
22 having a value less than the nominal voltage for a period of time greater than one minute. Typical
23 values are 0.8 - 0.9 pu.
24
25 Voltage Distortion.
26 Any deviation from the nominal sine waveform of the ac line voltage.
27
28 Voltage Imbalance (Unbalance), Polyphase Systems.
29 The ratio of the negative or zero sequence component to the positive sequence component, usually
30 expressed as a percentage.
31
32 Voltage Regulation.
33 (6) The degree of control or stability of the rms voltage at the load. Often specified in relation to
34 other parameters, such as input-voltage changes, load changes, or temperature changes.
35
36
37
38
39

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 A.2 Bibliography
2 A.2.1 Standards
3 [A1] EN 50160 Voltage characteristic of electricity supplied by public distribution systems.

4
5 [A2] IEC1 Std 61000-4-30 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) Part 4-30: Testing and measurement
6 techniquesPower quality measurement methods.
7
8 [A3] IEEE2 Std 1159 IEEE Recommended Practice for Monitoring Electric Power Quality.
9
10 [A4] IEEE Std 519, IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electric
11 Power Systems (ANSI).
12 [A5] IEEE Std 1100, IEEE Recommended Practice for Powering and Grounding Sensitive Electronic
13 Equipment (IEEE Emerald Book) (ANSI).
14 [A6] IEEE Std C57.110, IEEE Recommended Practice for Establishing Transformer Capability When
15 Supplying Nonsinusoidal Load Currents (ANSI).
16 [A7] EPRI, "An Assessment of Distribution System Power Quality," (May 1996), EPRI TR-106294-V2.
17
18 [A8] IEC 61000-2-2 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Part 2-2: Environment - Compatibility
19 Levels for Low-Frequency Conducted Disturbances and Signalling in Public Low-Voltage Power Supply
20 Systems
21
22 [A9] IEC 61000-4-15 Electromagnetic Compatibility Part 4:15 Testing and measurement techniques
23 FlickermeterFunctional and design specifications.
24
25 [A10] IEEE Std 1453, IEEE Recommended Practice for Measurement and Limits of Voltage Fluctuations
26 and Associated Light Flicker on AC Power Systems.
27
28 [A11] IEEE Std 1366, IEEE Guide for Electric Power Distribution Reliability Indices.
29
30 [A12] IEEE Std 446, IEEE Recommended Practice for Emergency and Standby Power Systems for
31 Industrial and Commercial Applications (IEEE Orange Book).
32
33 [A13] SEMI F47-0706 Specification for Semiconductor Processing Equipment Voltage Sag Immunity
34
35 [A14] IEEE draft Std P1564/D12, IEEE Guide for Voltage Sag Indices
36
1
IEC publications are available from IEC Sales Department, Case Postale 131, 3 rue de Varembe, CH
1211, Geneve 20, Switzerland/Suisse. IEC publications are also available in the United States from the
Sales Department, American National Standards Institute, 11 West 42nd Street, 13th Floor, New York, NY
10036. Telephone: +1-212- 642-4900.
2
IEEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Service Center,
445 Hoes Lane, Post Office Box 1331, Piscataway, NJ 08855-1331, USA. Telephone: +1-212-705-7900.
ANSI publications are available from the Sales Department, American National Standards Institute, 11
West 42nd Street, 13th Floor, New York, NY 10036, USA. Telephone: +1-212-642-4900.

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 [A15] ANSI C84.1, American National Standard For Electric Power Systems and EquipmentVoltage
2 Ratings (60 Hertz).
3
4 [A16] IEC Std 61000-3-7 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) Part 3-7: Limits - Assessment of
5 emission limits for the connection of fluctuating installations to MV, HV and EHV power systems.
6
7 A.2.2 Texts
8 [A21] The Dranetz Field Handbook for Power Quality Analysis. Edison, NJ: Dranetz Technologies, Inc.,
9 1991.
10 [A22] Griffith, D. C., Uninterruptible Power Supplies and Other Power Conditioners for Critical Equip-
11 ment. Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1989.
12
13 [A23] McEachern, A., Handbook of Power Signatures. Foster City, CA: Basic Measuring Instruments,
14 1988.
15
16 [A24] Morrison, R., and Lewis, W. H., Grounding and Shielding in Facilities. New York: Wiley
17 Interscience, 1990.
18
19 [A25] Standler, R. B., Protection of Electronic Circuits from Overvoltages. New York: Wiley Interscience,
20 1989.
21
22 [A26] Bollen, M.H.J., Understanding Power Quality Problems. New York: IEEE Press, 2000.
23
24 [A27] Dugan, R.C., Electrical Power Systems Quality. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional, 2002.
25
26 [A28] Mohan, N., Power Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design. New Jersey: John Wiley &
27 Sons, 2003.
28
29 [A29] Soares Book on Grounding and Bonding, 10E. International Association of Electrical Inspectors,
30 2008.
31
32
33 A.2.3 Technical papers
34 [A41] Anderson, L. M., and Bowes, K. B., The Effects of Power-Line Disturbances on Consumer Elec-
35 tronic Equipment, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 10621065, April 1990.
36 [A42] Bowes, K. B., The Effects of Power Line Disturbances on Electronic Products, Official
37 Proceedings of the First International Power Quality Conference, Long Beach, CA, p. 216, Oct. 1520,
38 1989.
39 [A43] Burke, J. J., Griffith, D. C., and Ward, D. J., Power QualityTwo Different Perspectives, IEEE
40 Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 15011513, July 1990.
41 [A44] CBEMA (Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturers Association) Information Letter,
42 Three Phase Power Source Overloading Caused by Small Computers and Electronic Office Equipment,
43 1988. Change to ITIC
44 [A45] Chamberlin, D. M., and Pidcock, D. J., The Northeast Utilities Distribution Disturbance and Inter-

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 ruption Monitoring System, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 267274, Jan. 1991.
2 [A46] Davidson, R., Suppression Voltage Ratings on UL Listed Transient Voltage Surge Suppressors
3 (TVSS), Proceedings, Open Forum on Surge Protection Application, National Institute of Standards and
4 Technology Special Publication, pp. 8992, 1991.
5 [A47] Distribution Line Protection PracticesIndustry Survey Results, IEEE Transactions on Power
6 Delivery, vol. 3, no. 2, Apr. 1988.
7 [A48] Lai, J. S., and Martzloff, F. D., Coordinating Cascaded Surge-Protective Devices: High-Low versus
8 Low-High, Conference Proceeding, Vol. 2, IEEE/IAS Annual Meeting, Oct. 1991.
9 [A49] Martzloff, F. D., and Gauper, H. G., Surge and High-Frequency Propagation in Industrial Power
10 Lines, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. IA-22, no. 4, July/Aug. 1986.
11 [A50] Martzloff, F. D., and Gruzs, T. M., Power Quality Site Surveys: Facts, Fiction, and Fallacies, IEEE
12 Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 24, no. 6, Nov./Dec. 1988.
13 [A51] Martzloff, F. D., and Hahn, G. J., Surge Voltages in Residential and Industrial Power Circuits,
14 IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-89, no. 6, July/Aug. 1970.
15 [A52] Martzloff, F. D., and Leedy, T. F., Selecting Varistor Clamping Voltage: Lower is not Better!,
16 Proceedings, Zrich EMC Symposium, pp. 137142, 1989.
17 [A53] Key, T. S., Diagnosing Power Quality-Related Computer Problems, IEEE Transactions on
18 Industry Applications, vol. IA-15, no. 4, July/Aug. 1979.
19 [A54] Key, T. S., Evaluation of Grid-Connected Power Systems: The Utility Interface, Transactions on
20 Industry Applications, vol. IA-20, no. 4, pp. 735741, July/Aug. 1984.
21 [A55] Power System Reliability Analysis: Application Guide Report, prepared by CIGRE Working
22 Group 03 of Study Committee 38, 1987.
23 [A56] Smith, S. B, and Standler, R. B., The Effects of Surges on Electronic Appliances, IEEE Transac-
24 tions on Power Delivery, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 12751281, July 1992.
25 [A57] Standler, R. B., Coordination of Surge Arresters and Suppressors for Use on Low-Voltage Mains,
26 Proceedings, Zrich EMC Symposium, pp. 517524, 1991.
27 [A58] Standler, R. B., Development of a Performance Standard for Surge Arresters and Suppressors,
28 IEEE 1991 Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility, Cherry Hill, NJ, pp. 458463, Aug. 15, 1991.
29
30 [A58] CIGRE C4.7/CIRED Joint Working Group report. Power Quality Indices and Objectives, 2004.
31
32 [A59] Technical Coordination and Data Analysis for Measuring Voltage Distortion Level On the
33 European Low-Voltage Residential Network: Final Report Revision 1, The Low Frequency Emission
34 Industry Coalition (LFEIC) and EMC Consultant: November 2003, prepared by EPRI PEAC.
35
36 [A60] Holliday, A.J.; Kay, J.A., The use of infrared viewing systems in electrical control equipment,
37 Pulp and Paper Industry Technical Conference, 2005. 23-23 June 2005 Page(s):291 - 295
38 [A61] H. Renner, M. Sakulin, Flicker Propagation in Meshed High Voltage Networks, Harmonics and
39 Quality of Power, 2000, Proceedings, Ninth International Conference on, Vol. 3, 1-4 Oct. 2000 Page(s):
40 1023-1028.
41

IEEE P1250 /D11, May 2010
1 [A62] R. Horton, T. Haskew, Determination of Flicker Transfer Coefficients Near Large Synchronous
2 Generators, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. X, X 2010.
3
4 [A63] R. Horton, T. Haskew, Effect of Transfer Coefficients on MV and LV Flicker Levels, IEEE
5 Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. X, X 2010.
6
7 [A64] Infrastructure Quality and Reliability, EPRI Report issued to members Sep 22, 2003.


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IEEE 1250 /D11 May 2010

1 IEEE P1250 /D11

4 Prepared by the Voltage Quality Working Group of the

5 Power Quality Subcommittee of the Transmission and Distribution Committee

6 Copyright 2010 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. i

Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. ii

44 Secretary, IEEE-SA Standards Board

Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. iii

10 Laws and regulations

22 Updating of IEEE documents

Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. iv

1 Current interpretations can be accessed at the following URL: http://standards.ieee.org/reading/ieee/interp/

Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. v

Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. vi

3 1.1 Scope ................................................................................................................................................... 1

5 2. Normative references .................................................................................................................................. 2

7 4. The power system ....................................................................................................................................... 2

8 4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 2

10 5. Identifying voltage quality in power systems ............................................................................................. 7

11 5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 7

15 6. Electric Utilities and Voltage Quality........................................................................................................28

16 6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................28

20 7. Susceptibility of power system loads ........................................................................................................34

21 7.1 Types of susceptible loads ..................................................................................................................34

23 8. Power Quality Improvements for End Users .............................................................................................38

24 8.1 End user wiring and grounding ...........................................................................................................38

33 Table 7Example Results from Cost/Benefit Analysis ...............................................................................53

Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. ii

1 A.1 Glossary .............................................................................................................................................54

Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. iii

1 Draft Guide for Identifying and Improving Voltage

Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. 1

13 4. The power system

20 4.2 Overview of power systems

Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. 2

Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. 3

Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. 4

Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. 5

Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. 6

1 5. Identifying voltage quality in power systems

7 5.2 Basic types of voltage quality variations

8 It is useful to divide voltage quality characteristics into two basic categories:

27 5.2.1 Steady state (continuous) voltage quality characteristics

Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. 7

Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. 8

Utility planning levels

Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. 9

2 5.2.2 Voltage Regulation

9 5.2.2.1 Example limits

Service Voltage > 600 V

Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. 10

3 5.2.2.2 Survey results

Distribution of Daily Range of RMS Voltage

Daily RMS Voltage Range (% of Site Average Voltage)

13 5.2.2.3 Recommended limit and assessment method

18 5.2.3 Voltage Unbalance

Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. 11

1 5.2.3.1 Example limits

14 5.2.3.2 Survey results

Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. 12

6 5.2.3.3 Recommended limit and assessment method

24 5.2.4.1 Example limits

Copyright 2010 IEEE. All rights reserved. 13