CHAPTER

2
Analysis of Stress

2.1 INTRODUCTION
A body under the action of external forces, undergoes distortion and the effect due to this system of
forces is transmitted throughout the body developing internal forces in it. To examine these internal
forces at a point O in Figure 2.1 (a), inside the body, consider a plane MN passing through the point
O. If the plane is divided into a number of small areas, as in Figure 2.1 (b), and the forces acting on
each of these measured, it will be observed that these forces vary from one small area to the next.
On the small area DA at point O, there will be acting a force of DF as shown in Figure 2.1 (b). From
this, it can be understood that the concept of stress is the internal force per unit area. Assuming the
material is continuous, the term stress at any point across a small area DA can be defined by the
limiting equation (2.1).

DF
Stress = lim (2.1)
DA0 DA
where DF is the internal force on the area DA surrounding the given point. Stress is sometimes referred
to as force intensity.

F3 F4 F3
y M y M
Fi DF
n
O
O
F2 F2
N N
F1 Fn
F1

x x

z z
(a)
(b)

Figure 2.1 Forces acting on a body

 Analysis of Stress 7

The above stress components are illustrated in Figure 2.3.

F3
Y M
txy

o
txz sx
F2

F1

Figure 2.3 Stress components at point O

2.4 STRESS TENSOR

Let O be the point in a body shown in Figure 2.1 (a). Passing through that points infinitely, many
planes may be drawn. As the resultant forces acting on these planes are the same, the stresses on these
planes are different because the areas and the inclinations of these planes are different. Therefore,
for a complete description of stress, we have to specify not only its magnitude, direction and sense
but also the surface on which it acts. For this reason, the stress is called a tensor.
Figure 2.4 depicts three orthogonal coordinate planes representing a parallelopiped on
which are nine components of stress. Of these three are direct stresses and six shear stresses. In
tensor notation, these can be expressed by the tensor tij, where i = x, y, z and j = x, y, z. In matrix
notation, it is often written as

txx txy txz

t ij = tyx tyy tyz (2.3)
tzx tzy tzz

otherwise it is written as

sx txy txz

S = tyx sy tyz (2.4)
tzx tzy sz

if we use ordinary expression in matrix form.

8 Elasticity for Engineers

tyy sy

tyx
tyz
txy

sx sz
tzy txx sx
tzx txz
X

tzz sz
sy

Figure 2.4 Stress components acting on parallelopiped

2.5 SPHERICAL AND DEVIATORIAL STRESS TENSORS

A general stress tensor can be conveniently divided into two parts as shown above. Let us now define
a new stress term (s m) as the mean stress, so that
sx + sy + sz
sm = (2.5)
3
Imagine a hydrostatic type of stress having all the normal stresses equal to s m, and all the shear
stresses are zero. We can divide the stress tensor into two parts, one having only the hydrostatic
stress and the other, deviatorial stress. The hydrostatic type of stress is given by

sm 0 0
0 sm 0
(2.6)
0 0 sm
The deviatorial type of stress is given by

sx - sm txy txz

txy sy - sm tyz (2.7)
txz tyz sz - sm

Here, the hydrostatic type of stress is known as spherical stress tensor and the other is known
as the deviatorial stress tensor.
It will be seen later that the deviatorial part produces changes in shape of the body and finally
causes failure. The spherical part is rather harmless, produces only uniform volume changes without
any change of shape, and does not necessarily cause failure.
 Analysis of Stress 9

2.6 INDICIAL NOTATION

An alternate notation called index or indicial notation for stress is more convenient for general
discussions in elasticity. In indicial notation, the coordinate axes x, y and z are replaced by numbered
axes x1, x2 and x3 respectively. The components of the force DF of Figure 2.1 (a) are written as DF1,
DF2 and DF3, where the numerical subscript indicates the component with respect to the numbered
coordinate axes.
The definitions of the components of stress acting on the x1 face can be written in indicial form
as follows:

D F1
s 11 = lim
DA1 0 D A1
D F2
s 12 = lim (2.8)
DA1 0 D A1
D F3
s 13 = lim
DA1 0 D A1
Here, the symbol s is used for both normal and shear stresses.
In general, all components of stress can now be defined by a single equation:
D Fj
s ij = lim (2.9)
D Ai 0 D Ai

Here i and j take on the values 1, 2 and 3.

2.7 TYPES OF STRESS

Stresses may be classified in two ways, i.e., according to the type of body on which they act, or
the nature of the stress itself. Thus, stresses could be one-dimensional, two-dimensional or three-
dimensional as shown in Figure 2.5.

P
(a) One-dimensional stress P2
P2 P3

P1 P1
P1

P3
P2
(b) Two-dimensional stress (c) Three-dimensional stress

Figure 2.5 Types of stress

10 Elasticity for Engineers

2.8 TWO-DIMENSIONAL STRESS AT A POINT

A two-dimensional state-of-stress exists when the stresses and body forces are independent of one of
the coordinates. Such a state is described by stresses sx , sy and txy and the x and y body forces. (Here
z is taken as the independent coordinate axis.)
We shall now determine the equations for transformation of the stress components sx , sy and txy at
any point of a body represented by infinitesimal element as shown in the Figure 2.6.

Y Y y

Y q F3 X
F2
M tx y
sx q sx
t x y X q
sx F4 O
q txy
F1 txy
Fn P Dz
N
sy

X X
Z Z

Figure 2.6 Thin body subjected to Figure 2.7 Stress components acting on faces of a small
stresses in xy plane wedge cut from the body of Figure 2.6

Consider an infinitesimal wedge cut from the loaded body shown in Figure 2.6. It is required to
determine the stresses sx and tx y , that refer to axes x , y making an angle q with axes x, y as shown
in Figure 2.7. Let side MN be normal to the x axis.
Considering sx and tx y as positive and area of side MN as unity, the sides MP and PN have areas
cos q and sin q, respectively.
Equilibrium of the forces in the x and y directions requires that
Tx = sx cosq + txy sinq
Ty = txy cosq + sy sinq (2.10)
where Tx and Ty are the components of stress resultant acting on MN in the x and y directions
respectively. The normal and shear stresses on the x plane (MN plane) are obtained by projecting
Tx and Ty in the x and y directions.
sx = Tx cosq + Ty sinq (2.11)
tx y = Ty cosq Tx sinq
Upon substitution of stress resultants from Equation (2.9), Equation (2.10) become
sx = s x cos2q + s y sin 2q + 2t xy sinq cos q
tx y = txy (cos2q sin 2q) + (s y s x ) sinq cos q (2.12)
p
The stress sy is obtained by substituting q + for q in the expression for sx .
2
By means of trigonometric identities
1 1
cos2q = (1+ cos 2 q), sinq cosq = sin2q, (2.13)
2 2
2 1
sin q = (1cos2q)
2
 Analysis of Stress 11

The transformation equations for stresses are now written in the following form:
1 1
sx = (
2
) ( )
sx + sy + sx - sy cos 2q + txy sin 2q
2
(2.13a)

1 1
( ) ( )
sy = sx + sy - sx - sy cos 2q - txy sin 2q
2 2
(2.13b)

1
( )
tx y = - sx - sy sin 2q + txy cos 2q
2
(2.13c)

2.9 PRINCIPAL STRESSES IN TWO DIMENSIONS

To ascertain the orientation of x y corresponding to maximum or minimum sx , the necessary
d sx
condition = 0 , is applied to Equation (2.12a), yielding
dq
(sx sy) sin 2q + 2txy cos 2q = 0 (2.14)
2txy
Therefore, tanq = (2.15)
sx - sy
As 2q = tan (p + 2q), two directions, mutually perpendicular, are found to satisfy Equation (2.14).
These are the principal directions, along which the principal or maximum and minimum normal
stresses act.
When Equation (2.13c) is compared with Equation (2.14), it becomes clear that tx y = 0 on a
principal plane. A principal plane is thus a plane of zero shear. The principal stresses are determined
by substituting Equation (2.15) into Equation (2.13a)
2
sx + sy sx -sy 2
s 1,2 = + t xy (2.16)
2 2
Algebraically, larger stress given above is the maximum principal stress, denoted by s 1.
The minimum principal stress is represented by s 2.
Similarly, by using the above approach and employing Equation (2.13c), an expression for the
maximum shear stress can be expressed as:

sx -sy
Maximum shear stress, t max = (2.17)
2

2.10 CAUCHYS STRESS PRINCIPLE

According to the general theory of stress by Cauchy (1823), the stress principle can be stated as
follows:
Consider any closed surface S within a continuum of region R that separates the region R into
subregions R1 and R2. The interaction between these subregions can be represented by a field of
stress vectors T (n ) defined on S. By combining this principle with Eulers equations that express
balance of linear momentum and moment of momentum in any kind of body, Cauchy derived the
following relationship.
12 Elasticity for Engineers

T (n ) = T(-n )
T (n ) = s T (n ) (2.18)
where (n ) is the unit normal to S and s is the stress matrix. Further, in the regions where the field
variables have sufficiently smooth variations to allow spatial derivatives up to any order, we have
rA = div s + f (2.19)
where r = material mass density
A = acceleration field
f = body force per unit volume.
This result expresses a necessary and sufficient condition for the balance of linear momentum.
When Equation (2.18) is satisfied,
s = sT (2.20)
which is equivalent to the balance of moment of momentum with respect to an arbitrary point. In
deriving (2.19), it is implied that there are no body couples. If body couples and/or couple stresses
are present, Equation (2.20) is modified but Equation (2.19) remains unchanged.
Cauchys stress principle has four essential ingradients
1. The physical dimensions of stress are (force)/(area).
2. Stress is defined on an imaginary surface that separates the region under consideration into two
parts.
3. Stress is a vector or vector field equipollent to the action of one part of the material on the
other.
4. The direction of the stress vector is not restricted.

2.11 DIRECTION COSINES

Consider a plane ABC having an outward normal n as shown in Figure 2.8. The direction of this
normal can be defined in terms of direction cosines. Let the angle of inclinations of the normal with x,
y and z axes be a, b and g respectively. Let P ( x, y, z ) be a point on the normal at a radial distance
r from the origin O.
Y

B
n

b
P
g a
X
O C

Figure 2.8 Tetrahedron with arbitrary plane

 Analysis of Stress 13

From Figure 2.8,

x y z
cos a = , cos b = and cos g =
r r r
or x = r cos a, y = r cos b and z = r cos g

Let cos a = l , cos b = m and cos g = n

x y z
Therefore, = l, = m and = n
r r r
Here, l, m and n are known as direction cosines of the line OP. Also, it can be written as
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2 (since r is the polar coordinate of P)
x2 y2 z2
or 2
+ 2
+ =1
r r r2
l 2 + m2 + n2 = 1 (This is well known in coordinate geometry)

2.12 STRESS COMPONENTS ON AN ARBITRARY PLANE

Consider a small tetrahedron isolated from a continuous medium (Figure 2.9) subjected to a general
state of stress. The body forces are taken to be negligible. Let the arbitrary plane ABC be identified
by its outward normal n whose direction cosines are l, m and n.
Y

B n

Ty
dy

Tx
Tz dx
P X
C
dz

Figure 2.9 Stresses acting on face of the tetrahedron

In Figure 2.9, Tx , Ty , Tz are the Cartesian components of stress resultant T, acting on oblique plane
ABC. It is required to relate the stresses on the perpendicular planes intersecting at the origin to the
normal and shear stresses acting on ABC.
The orientation of the plane ABC may be defined in terms of the angle between a unit normal n
to the plane and the x, y, z directions. The direction cosines associated with these angles are
14 Elasticity for Engineers

cos (n, x) = l
cos (n, y) = m and (2.21)
cos (n, z) = n
But the three direction cosines are related by
l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 (2.22)
The area of the perpendicular plane PAB, PAC, PBC may now be expressed in terms of A, the area
of ABC, and the direction cosines.
Therefore, area of PAB = APAB = Ax = A . i
= A (li + mj + nk) . i
Hence, APAB = Al
The other two areas are similarly obtained. In doing so, we have altogether
APAB = Al, APAC = Am and APBC = An
Here, i, j and k are unit vectors in x, y and z directions, respectively.
Now, for equilibrium of the tetrahedron, the sum of forces in x, y and z directions must
be zero.
Therefore, Tx A = sx Al + txy Am + txz An (2.23)
Dividing throughout by A, we get
Tx = sx l + txy m + txz n (2.23a)
Similarly, for equilibrium in y and z directions,
Ty = txy l + sy m + tyz n (2.23b)
and Tz = txz l + tyz m + sz n (2.23c)
The stress resultant on A is thus determined on the basis of known stresses sx , sy , sz , txy , tyz , tzx
and a knowledge of the orientation of A.
Equations (2.23a), (2.23b) and (2.23c) are known as Cauchys stress formula. These equations
show that the nine rectangular stress components at point P will enable one to determine the stress
components on any arbitrary plane passing through point P.

2.13 STRESS COMPONENTS ON OBLIQUE PLANE (STRESS

TRANSFORMATION)
When the state or stress at a point is specified in terms of the six components with reference to a
given coordinate system, then for the same point, the stress components with reference to another
coordinate system obtained by rotating the original axes can be determined using the direction cosines.
Consider a Cartesian coordinate system x, y and z as shown in Figure 2.10. Let this given coordinate
system be rotated to a new coordinate system X , Y , Z wherein X lie on an oblique plane. The
X , Y , Z and X , Y , Z systems are related by the direction cosines.
l1 = cos (X, X)
m1 = cos (X , Y )
n1 = cos (X , Z) (2.24)
(The notation corresponding to a complete set of direction cosines is shown in Table 2.1).
 Analysis of Stress 15

X
n
Y
s x

txy

txz
X

Figure 2.10 Transformation of coordinates

Table 2.1 Direction cosines for transformed coordinates

X Y Z

X l1 m1 n1

Y l2 m2 n2

Z l3 m3 n3

'
Normal stress sx is found by projecting Tx , Ty and Tz in the X direction and adding:
sx = Tx l1 + Ty m1 + Tz n1 (2.25)
Equations (2.23a), (2.23b), (2.23c) and (2.25) are combined to yield
sx = sx l12 + sy m12 + sz n12 + 2(Txy l1 m1 +tyz m1 n1 + txz l1 n1) (2.26)
Similarly, by projecting Tx , Ty , Tz in the y and z directions, we obtain, respectively
tx y = sx l1 l2+sy m1 m2+sz n1 n2+txy (l1 m2 + m1l2)+tyz(m1 n2 + n1 m2) + txz (n1l2 + l1n2) (2.26a)
tx z = sx l1 l3 +sy m1 m3+sz n1 n3 +txy (l1 m3 + m1 l3)+tyz (m1 n3 + n1 m3)+txz (n1 l3+ l1 n3) (2.26b)

Recalling that the stresses on three mutually perpendicular planes are required to specify the stress
at a point (one of these planes being the oblique plane in question), the remaining components are
found by considering those planes perpendicular to the oblique plane. For one such plane n would
now coincide with y direction, and expressions for the stresses sy , ty , ty z would be derived. In
a similar manner the stresses sz , tz x , tz y are determined when n coincides with the z direction.
16 Elasticity for Engineers

Owing to the symmetry of stress tensor, only six of the nine stress components thus developed are
unique. The remaining stress components are as follows:
sy = sx l 22 + sy m 22 + sz n 22 + 2 (txy l2 m2 + tyz m2 n2 + txz l2 n2) (2.26c)
2 2 2
sz = sx l 3 + sy m 3
+ sz n 3
+ 2 (txy l3 m3 + tyz m3 n3 + txz l3 n3) (2.26d)
ty z = sx l2 l3 +sy m2 m3 +sz n2 n3+txy (m2 l3 + l2 m3)+tyz (n2 m3 + m2 n3)+txz (l2 n3 + n2 l3) (2.26e)
Equations (2.26 to 2.26e) represent expressions transforming the quantities sx , sy , txy , tyz , txz to
completely define the state of stress.
It is to be noted that, because, X , Y , and Z are orthogonal, the nine direction cosines must satisfy
trigonometric relations of the following form.
2 2 2
li + mi + ni =1 (i = 1,2,3)
and l1 l 2 + m 1 m 2 + n 1 n2 =0
l2 l3 + m 2 m 3 + n 2 n3 =0 (2.26f)
l1 l3 + m 1 m 3 + n 1 n3 =0
If we denote the expressions for direction cosines given in Table 2.1 by the matrix [ a ], then the nine
stress components in the new coordinate system X , Y , Z can be written as
s' = [ a ] [s] [ a ]T (2.26g)

In other words, in an expanded form:

s x t x y t x z 1 s t xy t xz
m1 n1 x 1 2 3

t y x s y t y z =  2 m2 n2 t yx sy t yz m m2 m3 (2.26h)
1
t z x t z y s z  3 m3 n3 t t zy s z n1 n2 n3
zx

2.14 PRINCIPAL STRESS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

For the three-dimensional case, it is required that three planes of zero shear stress exist, that these
planes are mutually perpendicular, and that on these planes the normal stresses have maximum or
minimum values. As discussed earlier, these normal stresses are referred to as principal stresses,
usually denoted by s 1, s 2 and s 3. The largest stress is represented by s 1 and the smallest by s 3.
Again considering an oblique plane X , the normal stress acting on this plane is given by
Equation (2.26).
sx = sx l2 + sy m2 + sz n2 + 2 (txy lm + tyz mn + txz ln) (2.27)
The problem here is to determine the extreme or stationary values of sx . To accomplish this, we
examine the variation of sx relative to the direction cosines. As l, m and n are not independent, but
connected by l2 + m2 + n 2 = 1, only l and m may be regarded as independent variables.
Thus,
s x s x
= 0, =0 (2.27a)
l m
Differentiating Equation (2.27), in terms of the quantities in Equations (2.23a), (2.23b) and (2.23c),
we obtain
 Analysis of Stress 17

n n
T x+ T z = 0, Ty + Tz =0 (2.27b)
l m

From n2 = 1 l2 m2, we have

n l n m
=- and =-
l n m n
Introducing the above into Equation (2.27b), the following relationship between the components
of T and n is determined

Tx Ty Tz
= = (2.27c)
l m n
These proportionalities indicate that the stress resultant must be parallel to the unit normal and
therefore contains no shear component. Therefore, from Equations (2.23a), (2.23b) and (2.23c), we
can write as below denoting the principal stress by sP
Tx = s P l Ty = sP m Tz = s P n (2.27d)
These expressions together with Equations (2.23a), (2.23b) and (2.23c) lead to
(s x s P)l + txy m + txz n = 0
txy l+(s y s P) m + tyz n = 0 (2.28)
txz l + tyz m + (s z s P) n = 0
A non-trivial solution for the direction cosines requires that the characteristic determinant should
vanish.

(sx - sP ) txy txz

txy (sy - sP ) tyz = 0 (2.29)
txz tyz (sz - sP )

Expanding (2.29) leads to s P3 - I1s 2P + I 2s P - I 3 = 0 (2.30)

where I1 = s x + s y + s z (2.30a)
2 2 2
I2 = s x s y + s y s z + s zs x t xy t yz t xz (2.30b)

sx txy txz
I3 = txy sy tyz (2.30c)
txz tyz sz
The three roots of Equation (2.30) are the principal stresses, corresponding to which are three
sets of direction cosines that establish the relationship of the principal planes to the origin of the
non-principal axes.

2.15 STRESS INVARIANT

Invariant means those quantities that are permanent, unexchangeable and do not vary under different
conditions. In the context of stress tensor, invariants are such quantities that do not change with
rotation of axes or which remain unaffected under transformation, from one set of axes to another.
18 Elasticity for Engineers

Therefore, the combination of stresses at a point that do not change with the orientation of coordinate
axes is called stress-invariants. Hence, the definition from Equation (2.30)
s x + s y + s z = I1 = First invariant of stress
2 2 2
s xs y + s ys z + s zs x t xy t yz t zx = I2 = Second invariant of stress
2 2 2
s xs ys z s xt yz s yt xz s zt xy + 2txy tyz txz = I3 = Third invariant of stress

2.16 EQUILIBRIUM OF A TWO-DIMENSIONAL PLANE ELEMENT

When a body is in equilibrium, any isolated part of the body is acted upon by an equilibrium set of
forces. The small element with unit thickness shown in Figure 2.11 represents part of a body and
therefore must be in equilibrium if the entire body is to be in equilibrium.
Y
s y
sy + Dy
y
t yx
t yx + Dy
y
t xy
tx y + Dx
y
sx Dy s x
sx + Dx
x
txy Dx

tyx

sy
X

Figure 2.11 Stress components acting on element

It is to be noted that the components of stress generally vary from point to point in a stressed
body. These variations are governed by the conditions of equilibrium of statics. Fulfilment of these
conditions establishes certain relationships, known as the differential equations of equilibrium. These
involve the derivatives of the stress components.
Assume that s x, s y, txy, tyx are functions of x, y but do not vary throughout the thickness
(are independent of z) and that the other stress components are zero.
Also assume that the x and y components of the body forces per unit volume, Fx and Fy, are
independent of z, and that the z component of the body force Fz = 0. As the element is very small,
the stress components may be considered to be distributed uniformly over each face.
Now, taking moments of force about the lower left corner and equating to zero,

Dy 1 sy Dx tyx
- (sx Dy )
2
( 2
)
+ txy Dy - sy +
y
Dy Dx

+ tyx +
2 y
Dy Dx Dy

txy s Dy Dx 1
- txy + Dx Dx Dy + sx + x Dx Dy + sy Dx - tyx Dx +
x x 2 2 2
Dy Dx
( Fx Dy Dx ) - Fy Dx Dy =0
2 2
 Analysis of Stress 19

Neglecting the higher terms involving Dx, and Dy and simplifying the above expression is reduced
to
txy Dx Dy = tyx Dx Dy
or txy = tyx
In a like manner, it may be shown that
tyz = tzy and txz = tzx
Now, from the equilibrium of forces in x-direction, we obtain

sx tyx
s x Dy + sx + Dx Dy + tyx + Dy Dx - tyx Dx + Fx Dx Dy = 0
x y
Simplifying, we get
sx tyx
+ + Fx = 0
x y
sx txy
or + + Fx = 0
x y
A similar expression is written to describe the equilibrium of y forces. The x and y equations yield
the following differential equations of equilibrium.

sx txy
+ + Fx = 0 (2.31a)
x y
sy txy
or + Fy = 0 since txy = tyx
+ (2.31b)
y x
Differential equations of equilibrium for the case of three-dimensional stress may be generalized
from the above expressions as follows [Figure 2.12].

Y t yx
t yx + y
s y y
sy +
t yz y y s z
t yz + y sz + Dz
y z

t xz t xy
t xz + z t xy + Dx
y y
xz
s x
x zy sx + Dx
x
xy zx
X
z
yz z


yx t xz
y
t xz + Dx
x
x y
t yz
t yz + Dz
Z z

Figure 2.12 Stress components acting on parallelopiped

20 Elasticity for Engineers

sx txy txz
+ + + Fx = 0 (2.32a)
x y z

sy txy tyz
+ + + Fy = 0 (2.32b)
y x z

sz txz tyz
+ + + Fz = 0 (2.32c)
z x y

2.17 OCTAHEDRAL STRESSES

A plane which is equally inclined to the three axes of reference, is called the octahedral plane and its
1 1 1
direction cosines are  = , m = , n= . The normal and shearing stresses acting on this
3 3 3
plane are called the octahedral normal stress and octahedral shearing stress respectively. In Figure
2.13 x, y, z axes are parallel to the principal axes and the octahedral planes defined with respect to
the principal axes and not with reference to an arbitrary frame of reference. Now, denoting the
direction cosines of the plane ABC by l, m, and n, the Equations (2.23a), (2.23b) and (2.23c) with
s x = s 1, t xy = t xz = 0 etc. reduce to

Tx = s 1 l, Ty = s2 m and Tz = s3 n (2.33)

Y 2

B n B Octahedral plane

 oct
1 3 1
C

A
A C
3
Z X
2

Figure 2.13 Octahedral plane and octahedral stresses

The resultant stress on the oblique plane is thus

T 2 = s 12 l 2 + s 22 m 2 + s 32 n 2 = s 2 + t 2
\ T 2 = s2 + t 2
(2.34)
The normal stress on this plane is given by
s = s 1 l 2 + s 2 m 2 + s 3 n2 (2.35)
22 Elasticity for Engineers

1 +

2 2 +
1 2 

1

(b)

+
zy
zy
zy +
2 1 
yz

(c)

Figure 2.14 Simple biaxial stress systems: (a) compression, (b) tension/compression, (c) pure shear

Biaxial Compression/Tension (Figure 2.14b)

Here, the stress circle extends into both positive and negative s space. The centre of the circle is
1 1
located on the t = 0 axis at stress point (s1 + s 2 ) and has radius 2 (s1 - s 2 ) . This is also the
2
maximum value of shear stress, which occurs in a direction at 45o to the s1 direction. The normal
stress is zero in directions q to the direction of s1, where
s1 + s 2
cos 2q =
s1 - s 2

Biaxial Pure Shear (Figure 2.14c)

Here, the circle has a radius equal to tzy, which is equal in magnitude to tyz , but opposite in sign.
The centre of circle is at s = 0, t = 0. The principal stresses s1 , s2 are equal in magnitude, but
opposite in sign, and are equal in magnitude to tzy. The directions of s1, s2 are at 45o to the directions
of tzy and tyz.

2.20 CONSTRUCTION OF MOHRS CIRCLE FOR TWO-

DIMENSIONAL STRESS SYSTEM
Sign Convention
For constructing and reading values of stress from Mohrs circle, the sign convention for shear stress
is as follows.
If the shearing stresses on opposite faces of an element would produce shearing forces that result
in a clockwise couple, these stresses are regarded as positive.
 Analysis of Stress 23

Procedure for Obtaining Mohrs Circle

1. Establish a rectangular coordinate system, indicating +t and +s. Both stress scales must be
identical.
1
2. Locate the centre C of the circle on the horizontal axis a distance (sX + sY ) from the origin
as shown in the figure above. 2
3. Locate point A by coordinates sx , - txy
4. Locate the point B by coordinates sy , txy
5. Draw a circle with centre C and of radius equal to CA.
6. Draw a line AB through C.
sy

B
txy Ty
txy
y sx x

sx Tx
sx sx

q
q
A C
txy

sy sy
t 1
s = (sx + sy )
2
y D
B(sy , txy )

s2 tmax
y B
A1 s
O B1 C
2q
A x
tmax

A(sx , txy )
E
x
s1

Figure 2.15 Construction of Mohrs circle

An angle of 2q on the circle corresponds to an angle of q on the element. The state of stress
associated with the original x and y planes corresponds to points A and B on the circle respectively.
Points lying on the diameter other than AB, such as A and B , define state of stress with respect to
any other set of x and y planes rotated relative to the original set through an angle q.
 Analysis of Stress 25

on dividing throughout by rdq dr, we have

sr 1 trq sr - sq
+ + + Fr = 0 (2.44)
r r q r
Similarly, resolving all the forces in the q-direction at right angles to r-direction, we have

dq sq dq dq trq
-sq dr cos + sq + dq dr cos + trq dr sin + trq + dq dr
2 q 2 2 q
dq trq
sin - trq rdq + ( r + dr ) dq trq + dr + Fq = 0
2 r
On simplification, we get
sq trq
q + trq + trq + r r dq dr = 0

Dividing throughout by rdq dr, we get

1 sq trq 2trq
. + + + Fq = 0 (2.45)
r q dr r
In the absence of body forces, the equilibrium equations can be represented as:
sr 1 trq sr - sq
+ + =0 (2.46)
r r q r
1 sq trq 2trq
+ + =0
r q r r

2.22 GENERAL STATE OF STRESS Z

IN THREE DIMENSIONS IN A sz + s z dz
z
CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE
t q z t zr
SYSTEM tqz +
z
dz tzr +
z
dz

The equilibrium equations for three-dimensional state

are given by
trq trq
sr 1 trq tzr sr - sq sr
+ + r = 0 (2.47) trq sq
r r q z rd trq
q
dq
r
trq 1 sq tq z 2trq
+ + =0 (2.48) q
r r q z r sz

tzr 1 tq z sz tzr
+ + + = 0` (2.49)
r r q z r Figure 2.17 Stresses acting on the
three-dimensional element
26 Elasticity for Engineers

2.23 NUMERICAL EXAMPLES Y

EXAMPLE 2.1 At a point in a material, a resultant stress of 151

MN/m2 acts in a direction making angles of 52, 79 and 40.13
with coordinate axes x, y and z respectively. Find the normal and
TR
shearing stresses on the plane whose normal makes angles of 33, Ty
65 and 69.91 with the same axes.
52
Solution: X
Tx
Resultant stress, TR = Tx2 + Ty2 + Tz2 Tz
Tx = TR cos q1 = 151 cos 52 = 92.96 MN/m2
Ty = TR cos q2 = 151 cos 79 = 28.81 MN/m2 Z

Tz = TR cos q 3 = 151 cos 40.13 = 115.45 MN/m2

Normal stress, sN = T x l + Ty m + Tz n
= 92.96 (cos 33) + 28.81 (cos 65) + 115.45 (cos 69.91)
\ s N = 129.8 MN/m2
Shear stress, t = TR2 - s N2 = (151) 2 - (129.8) 2 = 77.2 MN/m2

EXAMPLE 2.2 The state of stress at a point relative to xyz coordinate system is given by the stress
matrix
15 10 -10
s ij = 10 10 0 MPa
-10 0 40
Determine the normal stress and magnitude of shear stress on a surface intersecting the point and
parallel to the plane given by the equation 2x y + 3z = 9.
Solution: The direction cosines of the normal to the plane are
i 2 2 2
l = = = =
i2 + j2 + k 2 (2) 2 + (-1) 2 + (3) 2 4 +1+ 9 14
j -1
m = =
2
l + j +k 2 2 14
k 3
n = =
i2 + j2 + k 2 14
Tx = s x l + t x y m + t xz n

= 15 2 ( ) (
14 + 10 -1 14 + (-10) 3 ) ( 14 )
\ Tx = 2.67 MPa
Ty = t xy l + s y m + t yz n
-1
= 10 2 ( )
14 + 10 + 0 3
14
( 14 )
28 Elasticity for Engineers

1
0 = [c2 + c3 + 1]
3
\ 1 + c2 + c3 = 0 (2.52)
Solving equations (2.50), (2.51), and (2.52), we get
c1 = 1/2, c2 = 1/2 and c3 = 1/2

EXAMPLE 2.4 The state of stress at a point in a body is given by the matrix shown below.

s 2 1
s ij = 2
0 1
1 2 0
Determine s such that there is at least one plane passing through the point in such a way that the
resultant stress on that plane is zero.
Solution:
Since the resultant stress on the plane is zero,
Tx = Ty = Tz = 0
Hence,
Tx = sl + 2m + n = 0 (2.53)
Ty = 2l + 0 + 2n = 0 (2.54)
Tz = l + 2m + 0 = 0 (2.55)
From equation (2.55), l = 2m
From (2.54), 2l = 2n
2 (2m) = 2n
\ n = 2m
From equation (2.53), s ( 2m) + 2m + 2m = 0
2s m + 4m = 0
2sm = 4m
\ s = 2

EXAMPLE 2.5 The state of stress at a point in a material is defined by the components
109 -22 47
Tij = -22 -54 63 MPa
Z
47 63 83
N
Find the normal and shear stress on the plane parallel to z-axis and
equally inclined to the x and y-axes.
45

Solution:
Since the plane is parallel to z-axis, the normal to the plane is
X Y
perpendicular to the z-axis. Hence, the direction cosines of the normal
to the plane are
30 Elasticity for Engineers

The direction cosines for the transformation are given by

x y z

1 1
x 0
2 2
1 1
y 0
2 2

z 0 0 1

Using Equations (2.26), (2.26a), (2.26b), (2.26c), (2.26d) and (2.26e), we get
1 1 1
s x = 4 + 6 + 0 + 2 1 + 0 + 0
2 2 2
= 6 MPa
1 1 1
s y = 4 + 6 + 0 - 2 1 + 0 + 0
2 2 2
= 4 MPa
s z = 0 + 0 + 8 1 + 0 + 0 + 0
= 8 MPa
1 1 1 1
t xy = -4 + 6 + 0 + 1 - + 0 + 0
2 2 2 2
= 1 MPa
1
t yz = 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 2 -
2
= - 2 MPa
1
t x z = 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 2
2
= 2 MPa
Hence, the new stress tensor becomes
6 1 2

1 4 - 2 MPa

2 - 2 8
Now, the new invariants are
I1 = 6 + 4 + 8 = 18
I 2 = 6 4 + 4 8 + 6 8 - 1 - 2 - 2 = 99
5
I 3 = 6 30 - 1 10 + 2 - = 160
2
which remains unchanged. Hence proved.
 Analysis of Stress 31

EXAMPLE 2.7 The state-of-stress at a point is given by the following array of terms
9 6 3
6 5 2 MPa

3 2 4
Determine the principal stresses and principal directions.

Solution: The principal stresses are the roots of the cubic equation
s 3 I1 s 2 + I2 s I 3 = 0
Here, I1 = 9 + 5 + 4 = 18
I 2 = 9 5 + 5 4 + 9 4 - (6) - ( 2) - (3) = 52
2 2 2

I 3 = 9 5 4 - 9 4 - 5 9 - 4 36 + 2 6 2 3 = 27
\ The cubic equation becomes
s 3 18s 2 + 52s 27 = 0
The roots of the cubic equation are the principal stresses. Hence, the three principal stresses are
s1 = 14.554 MPa; s2 = 2.776 MPa and s3 = 0.669 MPa
Now to find principal directions for s1 stress:

(9 - 14.554) 6 3
6 (5 - 14.554) 2
3 2 (4 - 14.554)

-5.554 6 3
= 6 -9.554 2
3 2 -10.554

-9.554 2
A = =100.83 4 = 96.83
2 - 10.554

6 2
B = - = (63.324 6) = 69.324
3 -10.554

6 -9.554
C = = 12 + 28.662 = 40.662
3 2

A2 + B 2 + C 2

= (96.83)2 + (69.324)2 + (40.662)2

= 125.83
 Analysis of Stress 33

The planes on which these stresses act are represented by

q s = 28.15 + 45 = 73.15
and q s = 163.15

y x

y
x 73.15

28.15

s1 = 66.3 tmax = 24.9 s = 41.4

s2 = 16.5 s

t
s = 41.4
D
Y

B(27.6, 20.7) 2q s

F s
O B1 C A1
2q p
A(55.2, 20.7)

E X

Figure 2.19 Mohrs stress circle

EXAMPLE 2.9 The stress (in N/m2) acting on an element of a loaded body is shown in Figure 2.20.
Apply Mohrs circle to determine the normal and shear stresses acting on a plane defined by q = 30.
Y
Solution: Mohrs circle drawn below describes the state of sy = 14 106
stress for the given element. Points A1 and B1 represent the
stress components on the x and y faces, respectively. The radius
106
of the circle is (14 + 28) = 21 106 . Corresponding to the sx = 28 106
2 30
30 plane within the element, it is necessary to rotate through X
60 counterclockwise on the circle to locate point A. A 240
counterclockwise rotation locates point B .
Figure 2.20
 Analysis of Stress 35

Substituting the above in (a), we get

240
Tx = 0, Ty = sym = , Tz = 0
2
Substituting in (b), we get

240 1 2
s=0+ + 0 = 120 N/mm
2 2
Resultant stress on the plane is

T = Tx2 + Ty2 + Tz2

2
240
= 0+ +0
2
T = 169.706 N/mm 2
But shear stress t can be determined from the relation

T2 = s 2 + t 2

or t = T2 -s2

= (169.706) 2 - (120) 2
t = 120 N/mm2
1
Case (ii) For l = m = n =
3

Again from (a),

240
Tx = 0, Ty = s y m = , Tz = 0
3
240 1 2
Normal stress = s = 0 + + 0 = 80.00 N/mm
3 3
Resultant stress on the plane is

T= Tx2 + Ty2 + Tz2

2
240
T = 0+ +0
3
T = 138.56 N/mm 2

Shear stress = t = (138.56) 2 - (80) 2

t = 113.13 N/mm2
36 Elasticity for Engineers

EXAMPLE 2.11 A body is subjected to three-dimensional forces and the state of stress at a point
in it is represented as
200 200 200
200 -100 200 MPa

200 200 -100
Determine the normal stress, shearing stress and resultant stress on the octahedral plane.
Solution: For the octahedral plane, the direction cosines are
1
l=m=n=
3
Here s x = 200 MPa
s y = 100 MPa
s z = 100 MPa
txy = tyz = tzx = 200 MPa
Substituting the above in Cauchys formula, we get
1 1 1
Tx = 200 + 200 + 200 = 346.41 MPa
3 3 3

1 1 1
Ty = 200 - 100 + 200 = 173.20 MPa
3 3 3

1 1 1
Tz = 200 + 200 - 100 = 173.20 MPa
3 3 3
Normal stress on the plane is given by

s = Tx . l + Ty . m + Tz n
1 1 1
= 346.41 + 173.20 + 173.20
3 3 3
s = 400 MPa
Resultant stress = T = Tx2 + Ty2 + Tz2

= (346.41) 2 + (173.20) 2 + (173.20) 2

T = 424.26 MPa

Also, tangential stress = t = (424.26) 2 - (400) 2

= 141.41 MPa

EXAMPLE 2.12 The state of stress at a point is given as follows:

sx = 800 kPa, sy = 1200 kPa, sz = 400 kPa
txy = 400 kPa, t yz = 600 kPa, t zx = 500 kPa
 Analysis of Stress 39

1 1 1
Ty = -20 + 20 + 10 = 0.858 kPa
2 2 2
1 1 1
Tz = 40 + 10 + 30 = 48.28 kPa
2 2 2
Now, resultant stress is given by

( )
T = 45.35 i + 0.858 j + 48.28 k kPa

EXAMPLE 2.15 The stress tensor at a point is given by the following array

40 20 30
20 30 40 (kPa )
kPa
30 40 20

Calculate the deviator and spherical stress tensors.

1
(
Solution: Mean stress = sm = sx + sy + sz
3
)
1
= ( 40 + 30 + 20)
3
= 30 kPa
(sx - sm ) txy txz

Deviator stress tensor = txy sy - sm tyz
txz
tyz (sz - sm )

( 40 - 30) 20 30

= 20 (30 - 30) 40
30 40 (20 - 30)

10 20 30

= 20 0 40 kPa
30 40 -10

sm 0 0
sm 0
Spherical stress tensor = 0
0 0 sm

30 0 0
= 0 30 0 kPa
0 0 30
40 Elasticity for Engineers

EXAMPLE 2.16 The stress components at a point in a body are given by

sx = 3 xy 2 z + 2 x, txy = 0
sy = 5 xyz + 3 y tyz = txz = 3 xy 2 z + 2 xy
sz = x 2 y + y 2 z
Determine whether these components of stress satisfy the equilibrium equations or not as the point
(1, 1, 2). If not then determine the suitable body force required at this point so that these stress
components are under equilibrium.
Solution: The equations of equilibrium are given by
sx txy txz
+ + =0 (a)
x y z
txy sy tyz
+ + =0 (b)
x y z
txz tyz sz
+ + =0 (c)
x y z
Differentiating the stress components with respective axes, we get
sx txy txz
= 3 y 2 z + 2, = 0, = 3 xy 2
x y z
2 2
Substituting in (a), 3 y z + 2 + 0 + 3 xy

At point (1, 1, 2), we get 3 1 2 + 2 + 3 1 1 = 11 which is not equal to zero

Similarly,
sy tyz
= 5 xz + 3, = 3 xy 2 + 0
y z

\ (ii) becomes 0 + 5 xz + 3 + 3 xy 2

At point (1, 1, 2), we get 5 1 2 + 3 + 3 1 1 = 16 which is not equal to zero

sz tyz txz
and = y2 , = 6 xyz + 2 x, = 3y2 z + 2 y
z y x
2 2
\ (iii) becomes 3 y z + 2 y + 6 xyz + 2 x + y
At the point (1, 1, 2), we get 3 1 2 + 2 ( -1) + 6 1 ( -1) 2 + 2 1 + ( -1) = 5 which is not equal
2

to zero.
Hence, the given stress components do not satisfy the equilibrium equations.
Recalling (a), (b) and (c) with body forces, the equations can be modified as below.
sx txy txz
+ + + Fx = 0 (d)
x y z
42 Elasticity for Engineers

I 3 = s xs ys z - s xt 2yz - s yt 2zx - s z t 2xy + 2t xyt yz t xz

= 20(40)(80)(20)(60)2(-40)(20)280(40)2+2(40)(60)(20)
= 344000
Therefore, cubic equation becomes
s 3 - 60s 2 - 8000s + 344000 = 0 (a)
Solving the cubic equation for the principal stresses (See Appendix 2)
s 1 = 104.98 N/mm 2
s 2 = -83.99 N/mm 2
s 3 = 39.01 N/mm 2

EXAMPLE 2.18 At a point in a given material, the three-dimensional state of stress is given by
s x = s y = s z = 10 N/mm 2 , t xy = 20 N/mm 2 and t yz = t zx = 10 N/mm 2
Compute the principal planes if the corresponding principal stresses are
s 1 = 37.3 N/mm 2 , s 2 = -10 N/mm 2 , s 3 = 2.7 N/mm 2
Solution: The principal planes can be obtained by their direction cosines l, m and n associated with
each of the three principal stresses, s 1, s 2 and s 3.
(a) To find principal plane for stress s1
(10 - 37.3) 20 10 -27.3 20 10
20 (10 - 37.3) 10 = 20 -27.3 10
10 10 (10 - 37.3) 10 10 -27.3

-27.3 10
Now, A= = 745.29100
10 -27.3
A = 645.29
20 10
B=-
10 -27.3
= -(-546 - 100)
B = 646
20 -27.3
C=
10 10
= 200 + 270.3
C = 470.3

A2 + B 2 + C 2 = (645.29)2 + (646)2 + (470.3)2

= 1027.08
A 645.29
\ l1 = = = 0.628
2 2
A + B +C 2 1027.08
B 646
\ m1 = = = 0.628
2 2
A + B +C 2 1027 .08
44 Elasticity for Engineers

A2 + B 2 + C 2 = (-46.71)2 + (46)2 + (127)2 = 142.92

A -46.71
l3 = = = -0.326
2
A + B +C 2 2 142.92

B -46
m3 = = = -0.322
2
A + B +C 2 2 142.92
C 127
n3 = = = 0.888
2
A + B +C 2 2 142.92

EXERCISES
1. Define stress at a point in a body under the action of external forces.
2. Derive the differential equation of equilibrium in two dimensions.
3. Explain (a) invariants of stress and (b) octahedral stresses.
4. What is meant by octahedral shear stress. Arrive at its value in terms of principal stress.
5. Given the following stress matrix (in kN/m2), obtain the principal stresses and their direction
cosines.
10 20 - 40
20 - 20 - 20

-40 - 20 10

6. Explain spherical and deviatoric stress tensor components.

7. If the stress field is given by

sx =
w
10 I
(
5 x 2 + 2c 2 y -
w 3
3I
y )
sy = -
w
6I
(
2c3 + 3c 2 y - y 3 )
txy =
w
2I
x c2 - y 2 ( )
Find the body forces required to satisfy the equilibrium conditions.
8. The components of stress at a point are
s x = 2 MPa s y = 1.5 MPa t xy = t yz = 1 MPa t zx = -1 MPa
Determine the normal and shearing stresses on the octahedral plane and the direction of the
shearing stress.
9. The state of stress at a point is given by the following array of terms in the x,y,z coordinates
system

10 15 20
t ij = 15 25 15 MPa
20 15 30
46 Elasticity for Engineers

if a new set of axis x y z is formed by rotating x y z axes through 60 about the z-axis in the
anticlockwise direction, determine the components of stress for the new axes. Also prove that
the invariants remain unchanged.
17. The components of stress at a point are:
s x = 10 kPa t xy = 20 kPa
s y = -20 kPa t yz = 30 kPa
s z = -20 kPa t xz = 30 kPa
Determine
(a) The principal stresses at the point
(b) Deviatoric and spherical stress tensors.
18. The stress components at a point in cylindrical coordinates are:
sr = r 3q + r trq = r 2q
sq = r 2 z + q 2 tq z = q z + q 2
2 2
sz = r z + q z trz = rz 2
p
Determine the body force distributions at the point (3, , 5) for the body to be in equilibrium.
3
19. The state of stress at a point in a body is specified by the following stress components:
s x = 110 MPa t xy = 60 MPa
s y = -86 MPa t yz = t zx = 0
s z = 55 MPa
Determine the principal stresses, direction cosines of the principal stress directions and the
maximum shearing stress.