Unit-1 Introduction of Network

 Network Concept:
• Networking is the practice of linking computing devices together with hardware
and software that supports data communications across these devices.
• A computer network is the infrastructure that allows two or more computers
(called hosts) to communicate with each other.
• A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share
resources (such as printers and CD-ROMs), exchange files, or allow electronic
communications.
• The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio
waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.
• A network is a communication system that allows users to access resources on
other computers and exchange messages with one another.

 Purpose of Networking:

• Facilitating communications.
• Sharing hardware.
• Sharing files, data, and information.
• Sharing software.

 Advantages of Network:

• Speed
• Cost
• Security
• Centralized Software Management
• Resource Sharing
• Electronic Mail
• Flexible Access
• Workgroup Computing

 Disadvantages of Network:

• Server faults stop applications being available.

• Network faults can cause loss of data.
• Network fault could lead to loss of resources.
• User work dependent upon network.
• System opens to hackers.
• Decisions tend to become centralized.
• Could become inefficient.
• Could degrade in performance.
• Resources could be located from users.
• Network management can become difficult.

 Services of Network:

• File Services
• Print Services
• Communication Services
• Database Services
• Security Services
• Application Services

 Types of Network:

• LAN - Local Area Network

• WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network
• WAN - Wide Area Network
• MAN - Metropolitan Area Network

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• SAN - Storage Area Network,

System Area Network,
Server Area Network,
Small Area Network
• CAN - Campus Area Network,
Controller Area Network,
Cluster Area Network
• PAN - Personal Area Network
• DAN - Desk Area Network

Major Types of Network

• LAN
• MAN
• WAN

LAN (Local Area Network):

• LAN means Local Area Network.

• A computer network is that spans a relatively small area.
• A LAN is a computer network covering a small physical area, like a home, office,
or small groups of buildings, such as a school, or an airport.
• A LAN is a group of computers and associated devices that share a common
communications line or wireless link.
• Typically, connected devices share the resources of a single processor or server
within a small geographic area. for example, within an office building.
• Usually, the server has applications and data storage that are shared in common by
multiple computer users.
• A LAN may serve as few as two or three users for example, in a home network or
as many as thousands of users for example, in an FDDI network.
• LAN to operating in a limited space
• LANs are also typically owned, controlled, and managed by a single person or
organization.
• LAN connectivity technologies:
• Ethernet
• Token Ring
• FDDI

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MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):

• MAN means Metropolitan Area Network.

• A network intermediate between LAN and WAN.
• The term was originally used to refer to a network serving a single town or
district.
• A MAN may either be operated as a joint activity by a number of separate
organizations.
• There are important features which discriminate MANs from LANs or WANs:
• The network size (5 to 50 Km)
• The network Owner
• The network User.
• The network Speed.

WAN (Wide Area Network):

• WAN means Wide Area Network.

• As “word” Wide implies WAN.
• WAN cover large distance for communication between computers.
• The Internet it self is the biggest example of Wide area network.
• WAN, which is covering the entire earth.
• WAN is distributed collection of geographically LANs.
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• A network connecting device router connects LANs to WANs.

• WAN used network protocols like ATM, X.25, and Frame Relay for long distance
connectivity.

 Network Model (Network O.S.)

• Peer – to – Peer
• Client – server

1. Peer to Peer:
• Peer-to-peer network allow users to share resources and files located on their
computers and to access shared resources found on other computers.
• However, they do not have a file server or a centralized management source.

• In a peer-to-peer network, all computers are considered equal;

• They all have the same abilities to use the resources available on the network.
• Peer-to-peer networks are designed primarily for small to medium local area
networks

Advantages of Peer to Peer:

• Easy to install and configure.

• No dedicated server required.
• Users control their own resources.
• Inexpensive to purchase and operate.
• No specialist software required.
• No dedicated administrator to run the network required.

Disadvantages of Peer to Peer:

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• Difficult to employ security.

• Too many passwords for shared resources.
• Backups difficult to manage.
• No centralisation.
• Limited users.

2. Client/Server:

Client/server network model allow the network to centralize functions and

applications in one or more dedicated file servers.

• The file servers become the heart of the system, providing access to resources and
providing security.
• Individual workstations (clients) have access to the resources available on the file
servers.
• The network operating system provides the mechanism to integrate all the
components of the network and allow multiple users to simultaneously share the
same resources irrespective of physical location.
• Novell Netware and Windows 2000, Windows 2003 Server are examples of
client/server network operating systems

Advantages of a client/server network:

• Centralised user accounts, security and access controls simplify network

administration.
• More powerful equipment means more efficient access network resources.
• Single password login, means access to all resources.
• Supports greater numbers of users, or networks where resources are heavily used.

Disadvantages of a client/server network:

• More costly to install and maintain.

• Single point of failure, server goes down, the network goes down.
• Complex special-purpose software requires appointment of expert staff,
increasing costs.
• Dedicated hardware and software increases costs.

 Network Topology:

• Logical topology refers to the fact that how data actually transfers in a network as
opposed to its physical design.
• Topology can be considered as a virtual shape or structure of a network.
• This shape actually does not correspond to the actual physical design of the
devices on the computer network.
• The computers on the home network can be arranged in a circle shape but it does
not necessarily mean that it presents a ring topology.
Types of Network Topology

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• BUS
• RING
• STAR
• MESH
• TREE

BUS:

• Bus consists of a single linear cable called a trunk.

• Data is sent to all computers on the trunk.
• Each computer examines EVERY packet on the wire to determine who the packet
is for and accepts only messages addressed to them.
• Bus is a passive topology.
• Performance degrades as more computers are added to the bus.
• Signal bounce is eliminated by a terminator at each end of the bus.
• Repeaters can be used to regenerate signals.
• Usually uses Thinnet or Thicknet and both of these require 50 ohm terminator.
• Good for a temporary, small (fewer than 10 people) network
• But its difficult to isolate malfunctions and if the backbone goes down, the entire
network goes down
• Terminators should be applied to both ends of the longest path
• Nodes connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps
1. Drop lines – connection between a node and the main cable
2. Taps – connector either splices into the main cable or punctures the

Advantages of BUS:

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1. Relatively inexpensive compared to other topologies

2. Easy to connect computers and peripherals to a linear bus
3. Requires less cable length than a star topology.
4. A bus is cheap and easy to implement.
5. Does not use any specialized network equipment.

Disadvantages of BUS:

1. If there's a break anywhere in the cable, the entire network goes down.
2. Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone.
3. A bad network card can produce enough noise on the bus to cause the entire
network to function.
4. If the entire network goes down, it can be difficult troubleshooting the problem.
5. Hard to reconfigure once it's set up.

RING:

• In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication
purposes.
• Computers are connected on a single circle of cable.
• Each computer acts as a repeater and keeps the signal strong =>no need for
repeaters on a ring topology
• No termination required => because its a ring
• All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or
"counterclockwise").
• A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire
network.
• To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET or Token Ring
technology.
• The ring topology is actually a logical ring, meaning that the data travels in
circular fashion from one computer to another on the network.
• It is not a physical ring topology.
• Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or school campuses.

Advantages of Ring:
1. Cable faults are easily located, making troubleshooting easier
2. Requires less cable length than a star topology.
3. A ring is cheap and easy to implement.
4. Terminators are not required.
Disadvantages of Ring:
1. Expansion to the network can cause network disruption.

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2. A single break in the cable can disrupt the entire network.

3. Adding and removing devices disrupts the network
4. Difficult to troubleshoot.
5. Failure of one device can affect the whole network

Token Ring:

• Computers are connected on a single circle of cable.

• Each computer acts as a repeater and keeps the signal strong =>no need for
repeaters on a ring topology
• No termination required => because its a ring
• Token passing is used in Token Ring networks.
• The token is passed from one computer to the next, only the computer with the
token can transmit.
• The receiving computer strips the data from the token and sends the token back to
the sending computer with an acknowledgment. After verification, the token is
regenerated.
• relatively easy to install, requiring ;minimal hardware

Advantages of Token Ring:

1. Cable faults are easily located, making troubleshooting easier

2. Requires less cable length than a star topology.
3. A token ring is cheap and easy to implement.
4. Terminators are not required.
5. No network traffic.

Disadvantages of Token Ring:

1. Expansion to the network can cause network disruption.

2. A single break in the cable can disrupt the entire network.
3. Adding and removing devices disrupts the network
4. Difficult to troubleshoot.
5. Failure of one device can affect the whole network
6. A node have token then send massage in entire network.
7. If node have long time keep the token, to generate a new token.

STAR:
• Computers are connected by cable segments to a centralized hub.
• Signal travels through the hub to all other computers.
• Requires more cable.
• If hub goes down, entire network goes down.
• If a computer goes down, the network functions normally.

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• Most scalable and reconfigurable of all topologies

Advantages of a Star Topology:

1. Easy to install and wire.

2. No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
3. Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology:

1. Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
2. If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
3. More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the connecters.

MESH:

• Each computer connects to every other.

• Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can take
any of several possible paths from source to destination. (Recall that even in a
ring, although two cable paths exist, messages can only travel in one direction.)
• Some WANs, most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing.
• A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full
mesh.
• As shown in the illustration below, partial mesh networks also exist in which
some devices connect only indirectly to others.
• High level of redundancy.
• Rarely used.
– Wiring is very complicated
– Cabling cost is high
– Troubleshooting a failed cable is tricky
– A variation hybrid mesh

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Figure: Full Mesh topology

Figure: Partial Mesh Topology

Advantages of Mesh Topology:

1. Provides redundant paths between nodes

2. The network can be expanded without disruption to current uses.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology:

1. Requires more cable than the other LAN topologies.

2. Complicated implementation.

Tree Topology:
• A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies.
• It consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus
backbone cable.
• Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable
schools to configure a network to meet their needs.

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Advantages of a Tree Topology:

1. Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

2. Supported by several hardware and software venders.

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology:

1. Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

2. If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
3. More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

 Network Access Method:

• CSMA/CD
• CSMA/CA
• Polling
• Token Passing

CSMA/CD:

• Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection

• A set of rules determining how network devices respond when two devices
attempt to use a data channel simultaneously (called a collision).
• Standard Ethernet networks use CSMA/CD to physically monitor the traffic on
the line at participating stations.
• If no transmission is taking place at the time, the particular station can transmit.
• If two stations attempt to transmit simultaneously, this causes a collision, which is
detected by all participating stations.
• After a random time interval, the stations that collided attempt to transmit again.
• If another collision occurs, the time intervals from which the random waiting time
is selected are increased step by step.
• This is known as exponential back off.
• CSMA/CD is a type of contention protocol.
• Networks using the CSMA/CD procedure are simple to implement but do not
have deterministic transmission characteristics.
• The CSMA/CD method is internationally standardized in IEEE 802.3 and ISO
8802.3.

CSMA/CA:

• Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Avoidance

• CSMA/CA is a protocol for carrier transmission in 802.11 networks.
• Unlike CSMA/CD which deals with transmissions after a collision has occurred,
CSMA/CA acts to prevent collisions before they happen.
• CSMA/CA, as soon as a node receives a packet that is to be sent, it checks to be
sure the channel is clear (no other node is transmitting at the time).
• If the channel is clear, then the packet is sent.
• If the channel is not clear, the node waits for a randomly chosen period of time,
and then checks again to see if the channel is clear.
• This period of time is called the back off factor, and is counted down by a back
off counter.
• If the channel is clear when the back off counter reaches zero, the node transmits
the packet.
• If the channel is not clear when the back off counter reaches zero, the back off
factor is set again, and the process is repeated.

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Polling:

• A polling network is a computer communications network that uses polling to

control access to the network.
• Each node or station on the network is given exclusive access to the network in a
predetermined order.
• Permission to transmit on the network is passed from station to station using a
special message called a poll.
• Polling may be centralized often called hub polling and decentralized often called
distributed polling.
• In hub polling, the polling order is maintained by a single central station or hub.
• When a station finishes its turn transmitting, it sends a message to the hub, which
then forwards the poll to the next station in the polling sequence.
• In a decentralized polling scheme, each station knows its successor in the polling
sequence and sends the poll directly to that station.
• To simplify matters, we will assume a distributed polling scheme.

Token passing:

• Token passing is types of CAM (Channel Access Method).

• Token passing uses a token, or series of bits, to grant a device permission to
transmit over the network.
• Which ever device has the token can put data into the network.
• When its transmission is complete, the device passes the token along to the next
device in the topology.
• System rules in the protocol specifications mandate how long a device may keep
the token, how long it can transmit for and how to generate a new token if there
isn't one circulating.

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