Introduction To Structured Query Language (SQL) Part 1

Topics

Structured Query Language (SQL) - general concept

SQL commands:

Data definition language (DDL)

Data manipulation language (DML)

Basic SELECT queries

Queries using DDL and DML commands

References:

General, online: http://sqlzoo.net (A Gentle Introduction to SQL)

(Interactive tutorials, across-database comparisons)

General, books:

The Practical SQL Handbook, 4th Ed., Judith Bowman, Sandra Emerson, and Marcy
Darnovsky; Addison Wesley

SQL in a Nutshell, Kevin Kline; OReilly

SQL for Smarties, 2nd Ed., Joe Celko; Morgan Kaufmann

Database-specific:

Oracle: http://otn.oracle.com
 SQL Server: http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?
URL=/library/psdk/sql/portal_7ap1.htm

MySQL: http://www.mysql.com/documentation/mysql/bychapter/

Tutorial:
http://www.mysql.com/documentation/mysql/bychapter/manual_Tutorial.html#Tutorial

MS Access: Help (Contents) / MS Jet SQL

Online glossary:

http://www.prenhall.com/divisions/bp/app/mcfadden/student/glossaryfull.html

Relational databases

Relational database: (Practical definition.) Organized collection of data stored in logically related
tables.

===================

Example:

1. Open the Northwind training database (C:\TEMP\NorthwindTraining.mdb in 116 PHTC).

(NOTE: For practice on your own computer, make a copy of the Northwind database before
starting; or start in a blank new database and import the Northwind tables you need.)

2. Close the splash screen and the Main Switchboard form.

3. Open the Products table in Datasheet view.

4. Change to Design view (View button) and find the primary key.

5. Check for any other indexed columns (fields): View / Indexes.

6. Close the table

===================
Referential integrity constraints: Primary / foreign key relationships or rules defined using SQL or
vendor extensions that ensure data integrity and consistency throughout all tables in the database.

===================

Example: Relationships diagram in the Northwind database

1. Click the Relationships button or choose Tools / Relationships.

2. Find the Products table and its related table or tables.

3. Note the primary key and two foreign keys in the Products table.

===================

Structured Query Language (SQL)

Non-procedural (declarative) language common to most relational database systems.

Used by the database system internally and by users to manipulate and query the data.

Uses set theory (as opposed to row processing) to process requests.

Limited but flexible set of commands.

Free-form, but helpful to adopt a consistent style.

Knowledge of SQL should enable

moving easily from one database system to another

writing queries that cannot be represented in the graphical user interface

troubleshooting

analyzing queries for performance (tuning)

Commands classified by function:

 Data definition language (DDL) - define or change database structure(s)

CREATE

ALTER

DROP

Data manipulation language (DML) - select or change data

INSERT

UPDATE

DELETE

SELECT

Data control language (DCL) - control user access (e.g., GRANT, REVOKE)

Transactions (e.g., COMMIT)

=====================================================================

For practice using SQL commands in MS Access:

Unless otherwise indicated:

1. Under Objects, select Queries.

2. Select "Create query in Design view" (double-click to open).

3. Close the Show Table dialogue box.

4. Click the SQL view button (leftmost button under the menu bar) or choose View / SQL View from
the menu bar.

5. In the window called "Query1: Select Query", type the SQL statement, replacing SELECT with the
appropriate SQL command. Be sure to keep the semi-colon statement terminator.

6. To execute the command, click the Run button (!) or by choosing Query / Run from the menu bar.
(Note: For queries that modify data, you can usually see which records or how many records will be
modified without actually executing the query by changing the "view" to Datasheet View: Use the
View button or choose View / Datasheet.)

7. Save the query and close the SQL design window.

====================================================================
Data retrieval - Introduction to the SELECT statement.

One of the DML commands, used for retrieving specific data from one or more tables, reporting
calculated results based on the data retrieved, or displaying the results of what if? type calculations.

(For my notes only: E.g.: Which products are available from a particular supplier and at what price?
How many orders has each employee processed this year and what is the total $ amount for each? At
what price would we have to sell particular products to make a 10% profit?)

=======

Example:

1. Run the query Current Product List.

2. Change to SQL view to see the SELECT statement

3. Close the query.

=======

Exercise: Create a list of all product categories

1. Type the following statement in the SQL window:

SELECT *

FROM Categories

2. View the results without saving by clicking the View button (switches to Datasheet view).

3. Change back to SQL view and run the statement by clicking the Run ( ! ) button.

4. Save the query (e.g., AllCategories) and close it.

========
Exercise: Create a phone list of customer contacts (just company and contact names with phone
and FAX numbers) sorted by company name.

1. Type the following statement in the SQL window:

SELECT CompanyName, ContactName, Phone, Fax

FROM Customers

ORDER BY CompanyName

2. View the results; then run and save the query as AllCustomers. You should see 91 customers.

3. Modify the list to include only customers from the United Kingdom and at the same time, change
the first two column headers to Company and Customer:

SELECT CompanyName AS Company, ContactName AS Customer, Phone, Fax

FROM Customers

WHERE Country = UK

ORDER BY CompanyName

4. View the results; then run and save the query as UKCustomers (7 customers)

5. Close the query.

=============

Basic syntax for the SELECT command:

SELECT column list

FROM tablename
 WHERE criteria

ORDER BY column list

Criteria for the WHERE clause:

Comparison operators: = > < <= >= <> (or !=)

WHERE Country <> UK

Between ... and ....

WHERE Price BETWEEN 10 and 20

Like (with wildcard: * ? in Access; and % _ in most other

databases)

WHERE ContactTitle LIKE Sales%

In (list)

WHERE State IN (OR, WA, CA)

AND, NOT, OR with any of the above

Is [not] null

=======

Exercise: Create alphabetically sorted product lists showing product name (ProductName), supplier
(SupplierID), and unit price (UnitPrice) for the following:

- All products (result: 77 products)

- Products that cost no more than $10 (14)

 - Products in the $10 to $20 price range (29)

- Chocolates (2 or 3)

SQL for each of the above:

SELECT ProductName, SupplierID, UnitPrice

FROM Products

ORDER BY ProductName;

SELECT ProductName, SupplierID, UnitPrice

FROM Products

WHERE UnitPrice <= 10

ORDER BY ProductName;

SELECT ProductName, SupplierID, UnitPrice

FROM Products

WHERE UnitPrice BETWEEN 10 AND 20

ORDER BY ProductName;

SELECT ProductName, SupplierID, UnitPrice

FROM Products

WHERE ProductName LIKE "*Choc*"

OR ProductName LIKE "*Schok*"

ORDER BY ProductName;

Exercise: Modify the AllCustomers phone list to make separate lists for customers with and without
an assigned region (two separate queries). Use is null or is not null to make the distinction.

To find customers assigned to a region (should give 31 customers):

 SELECT CompanyName, ContactName, Phone, Fax, Region

FROM Customers

WHERE Region is not null

ORDER BY CompanyName;

To find customers not assigned to a region (60 customers):

SELECT CompanyName, ContactName, Phone, Fax

FROM Customers

WHERE Region is null

ORDER BY CompanyName;

NOTE: Not showing region in the select list we know it is blank.

=====================================================================

Data Definition Language DDL

CREATE

database (not in all database systems; can be complex when available)

table (varying degrees of complexity)

index

Also available in other database systems: CREATE trigger, procedure, function, role, user)

CREATE TABLE
Used to create the tables where data will be stored.

=========

Example:

1. Open the Orders table in design view.

2. Data type specified for each field (column)

Autonumber (Other databases: identity)

Text (char(n), varchar(n))

Number

Date/Time

Currency (money)

Additional data types not used in this table:

Memo (long (Oracle, up to 2 GB text)

Yes/No (boolean)

OLE Object (blob, clob, raw)

Some additional data types in other database systems:

Timestamp

Interval

Enum

Set

3. Select each field and notice its properties in the Field Properties grid.
 To view table structure and column properties in other databases:

describe tablename

and select [properties] from [system tables]

4. Close the Orders table.

=======

Exercise: Create a table to store personnel data, with a StaffID column as primary key

1. Type this SQL statement in the SQL query design window:

CREATE TABLE Personnel (

StaffID text(9) CONSTRAINT StaffPK PRIMARY KEY,

LastName text(15) not null,

FirstName text(15) not null,

Birthday date,

Department text(12) null);

2. Execute the statement. If Access reports syntax errors, find and correct them.

3. Save the query as DefinePersonnel and close it.

4. Run a query to select all records from the new table:

SELECT * FROM Personnel;

 The query returns one blank record (in other databases: 0 rows). Close the query.

4. Open the new table in datasheet view it is empty and ready for data entry.

5. Change to design view and compare with the SQL statement.

6. Choose View / Indexes and compare with the constraint created on StaffID.

=====================================================================

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE tablename (

column1name datatype(size) [NOT NULL] [index1],

column2name datatype(size)[NOT NULL] [index2],

...

[,]CONSTRAINT multifieldindex [, ...]])

Single-field constraint:

CONSTRAINT constraintname {

PRIMARY KEY |

UNIQUE |

NOT NULL |

REFERENCES foreigntablename [(foreigncol1, foreigncol2), ...]

Multifield constraint:
 CONSTRAINT constraintname (

PRIMARY KEY (primary1, primary2 , ...) |

UNIQUE (unique1, unique2 , ...) |

NOT NULL (notnull1, notnull2 , ...) |

FOREIGN KEY (ref1, ref2 , ...) REFERENCES foreigntable [(foreigncol1, foreigncol2, ...)

=====================================================================

Another Method For Creating Tables

Select data from an existing table into a new table.

Useful for the following:

Creating tables and entering data at the same time

Making backups or partial backups

Creating archive tables

=========

Exercise: Create a copy of the Suppliers table and call it MySuppliers.

1. Type the following SQL statement in the SQL design window:

SELECT * INTO MySuppliers

FROM Suppliers;

2. Click the View button (Datasheet View) to see the results without actually executing the statement.
The query header should be "Query1: Make Table Query" and the results should show 29 rows.
3. Change to SQL view (not Design view) and execute the statement. Click Yes when asked
whether you want to continue (only Access gives this kind of warning!).

4. Save the query as "DefineMySuppliers" and close it.

5. Compare the new table with the original in Datasheet and Design view. What, if any, differences
do you find?

Exercise: Create an extract of the Categories table without pictures and call it CategoriesNoPix.

(1. Optional: Open the Categories table in design view and note the field names. Close the table
before running the SELECT ... INTO ... FROM query.)

2. Type the following SQL statement in the SQL design window:

SELECT CategoryID, CategoryName, Description INTO CategoriesNoPix

FROM Categories;

3. Switch to Datasheet View to see the results without executing the statement.

4. Switch to SQL view (not Design view) and execute the statement. Click Yes when asked about
continuing.

5. Save the statement as "DefineCategoriesNoPix" and close the SQL window.

6. Compare the new table with the original.

=======================================================================

Syntax:
 SELECT column1, column2, ...

INTO newtable

FROM existingtable

=======================================================================

DDL - CREATE INDEX

Used to create an index on an existing table. The ALTER TABLE: statement can also be used to
create (or drop) an index on a table.

Uses (apart from speeding up searches in large tables and in multitable queries):

PRIMARY uniquely identifies the row (UNIQUE and NOT NULL by definition)

UNIQUE prevents entry of duplicate values

DISALLOW NULLS prevents null values in the indexed field

=========

Exercise: Create the missing primary key on MySuppliers.

1. Type the following SQL statement in the SQL design window:

CREATE INDEX MySuppPK

ON MySuppliers (SupplierID)

WITH PRIMARY;

2. Execute the statement.

3. Save the query as DefineSupplierPK and close it.

4. Open the table MySuppliers in Design view to check the result.

=====================================================================

Syntax

CREATE [ UNIQUE ] INDEX indexname

ON tablename (column1 [ASC|DESC], column2 [ASC|DESC], ...)

[WITH { PRIMARY | DISALLOW NULL | IGNORE NULL }]

==========================================================================

DDL - ALTER TABLE

Used to add or remove columns or constraints.

=========

Exercise: Add a column to CategoriesNoPix for a short description and then remove it.

1. Type the following SQL statement in the SQL design window:

ALTER TABLE CategoriesNoPix

ADD COLUMN ShortDesc Text(25);

2. Execute the statement.. Open the table in Datasheet or Design view to check the results; close
the table.

4. Save as "AddColCategoriesNoPix".
4. Without closing the SQL design window, change the statement to read

ALTER TABLE CategoriesNoPix

DROP COLUMN ShortDesc;

5. Execute the statement. Open the table to check the result.

6. Save as "DropColCategoriesNoPix".

Exercise: Drop the referential integrity constraint on the Products table that does not allow a product
to be added if it is not in an existing category; then add the constraint back again.

1. Open the Relationships window and note the relationship between Categories and Products.
Close the Relationships window.

2. Type the following statement in the SQL window:

ALTER TABLE Products

DROP CONSTRAINT CategoriesProducts;

3. Execute the statement. Open the Relationships window and check the result.

4. Save the statement as DropProductConstraint.

5. Modify the statement to add the constraint back again:

ALTER TABLE Products

 ADD CONSTRAINT CategoriesProducts

FOREIGN KEY (CategoryID) REFERENCES Categories(CategoryID);

6. Execute the statement. Open the Relationships window and check the result.

7. Save as AddProductConstraint.

=====================================================================

Syntax:

ALTER TABLE tablename

ADD COLUMN colname datatype(size) [NOT NULL][CONSTRAINT indexname]

or

ADD CONSTRAINT multicolumnindex

or

DROP COLUMN colname

or

DROP CONSTRAINT indexname

======================================================================

DDL - DROP

Use DROP objectname to remove from the database any object that was CREATEd. In MS
Access, can only DROP tables and indexes.

=========

Exercise: Remove the CategoriesNoPix table from the database - we no longer need it.
1. Type the following statement in the SQL window:

DROP TABLE CategoriesNoPix;

2. Execute the statement.

3. Check the table list - the table should be gone.

4. Save and close the DROP query (optional).

=====================================================================

Syntax

DROP {TABLE tablename |

INDEX indexname ON tablename}

Data modification language statements (DML) INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE

=====================================================================

MS Access denotes these as "action queries" and warns the user any time data will be modified.

| Exercise steps abbreviated from here on. In general:

| 1. Type the statement in the SQL window.

| 2. Check results without executing by switching to Datasheet view.

| 3. Execute the statement (click Yes when prompted about continuing).

| 4. Check the results in the appropriate table.

| 5. Save the statement and close it.

| Access may change the SQL in non-standard ways when you leave the SQL window.

| This does not change how the statement works.

=====================================================================

DML - INSERT

Use the INSERT command to enter data into a table. You may insert one row at a time, or select
several rows from an existing table and insert them all at once.

=========

NOTE: Be sure to save the next three queries - you may need them again!

Exercise: Add two records to the Personnel table, one with all the data, the other with required
columns only (two separate queries). Try to add a third record using one of the StaffIDs already in the
table. What happens? Use these SQL statements for the first two staff members:

INSERT INTO Personnel

VALUES("7777777", "Vagabond", "Johnny", #7/17/1950#, "Chemistry");

INSERT INTO Personnel (StaffID, LastName, FirstName)

VALUES ("5555555", "Miller", "Dusty");

NOTE: Date/time data type delimited with # in Access; with quotes in other databases.

Exercise: Add several employees from the Northwind database to the Personnel table. Here is an
SQL statement that should add 5 staff members:

INSERT INTO Personnel (StaffID, LastName, FirstName, Birthday)

 SELECT EmployeeID, LastName, FirstName, BirthDate

FROM Employees

WHERE Country = "USA";

=====================================================================

Syntax

Single-row INSERT:

INSERT INTO tablename (column list)

VALUES (value list)

Multi-row INSERT:

INSERT INTO tablename (column list)

SELECT column list

FROM othertable

WHERE criteria

Column and value lists are comma-separated lists in both cases.

=======================================================================

DML UPDATE

Use the UPDATE statement to change data values in one or more columns, usually based on specific
criteria.
========

Exercise: Assign suppliers from London and Manchester in the MySuppliers table to the UK region.
Check the table before and after running this update query:

UPDATE MySuppliers

SET Region = "UK"

WHERE City IN ("London", "Manchester");

Exercise: Where no region has been entered in the MySuppliers table, change the value to
Unassigned. Check the table before and after running the query:

UPDATE MySuppliers

SET Region = "Unassigned"

WHERE Region is null;

==========================================================================

Syntax

UPDATE tablename

SET col1 = value1, col2 = value2, ...

WHERE criteria

===========================================================================

DML - DELETE

Used to remove whole rows from a table. Use with caution!

Check the Personnel table before and after running each of the following DELETE statements.
=======

Exercise: Delete the Chemistry staff member from the Personnel table:

DELETE * FROM Personnel

WHERE Department = "Chemistry";

Exercise: Delete all staff members (no conditions):

DELETE * FROM Personnel;

===========================================================================

Syntax

DELETE * FROM tablename

WHERE criteria

NOTE: MS Access requires the * to designate all columns; other databases use DELETE FROM ...