Native to South and mainland Middle America, cane toads were introduced to Australia from

Hawaii in June 1935 by the Bureau of Sugar Experiment Stations, now the Sugar Research
Australia, in an attempt to control the native grey-backed cane beetle (Dermolepida albohirtum)
and Frenchi beetle (Lepidiota frenchi).[3] These beetles are native to Australia and they are
detrimental to sugar cane crops, which are a major source of income for Australia. Adult cane
beetles eat the crop's leaves, but the main problem is the larvae, who feed on the roots. Adult
cane beetles have a heavy exoskeleton and their eggs and larva are often buried underground,
making them difficult to exterminate. Furthermore, conventional methods of pest control, such as
pesticide use, would eradicate harmless species of insects as well, making it an unsatisfactory
method.[4] Cane toads were to replace the use of pesticides like arsenic, pitch and copper. The
success of using the moth Cactoblastis cactorum in controlling prickly pears in Australia also
contributed to hopes for the cane toad.[5]
The cane toads bred immediately in captivity, and by August 1935 more than 102 young toads
were released in areas around Cairns, Gordonvale and Innisfail in northern Queensland. More
toads were released around Ingham, Ayr, Mackay and Bundaberg. Releases were temporarily
limited because of environmental concerns but resumed in other areas after September 1936.
Since their release, toads have rapidly multiplied in population and now number over 200 million
and have been known to spread diseases affecting local biodiversity.[6] Unfortunately, the
introduction of the toads has not only caused large environmental detriment, but there is no
evidence that they have affected the cane beetles they were introduced to predate. The toads
have steadily expanded their range through Queensland, reaching the border with New South
Wales in 1978 and the Northern Territory in 1984. The toads on the western frontier of their
advance have evolved larger legs;[7] this is thought to be related to their ability to travel farther. As
a consequence of their longer legs, larger bodies, and faster movement, about 10% of the
leading edge cane toads have also developed arthritis.[8] It was estimated that cane toads
migrate at an average of 40 kilometres (25 miles) per year as of 1994,[9] but new research in
2014 indicated that the migration rate had increased to 60 km per year on the western front.[10]

Ecological effects[edit]

The spread of cane toads in Australia from 1940 to 1980 in five year intervals.

The long-term effects of toads on the Australian environment are difficult to determine, however
some effects include "the depletion of native species that die eating cane toads; the poisoning of
pets and humans; depletion of native fauna preyed on by cane toads; and reduced prey
populations for native insectivores, such as skinks." [11]
Precipitous declines in populations of the northern quoll (Dasyurus hallucatus) have been
observed after toads have invaded an area. There are a number of reports of declines
in goanna and snake populations after the arrival of toads.[12] For example, local populations
of Varanus panoptes dropped by up to 90% when their habitat was invaded by cane toads.[13] The
preliminary risk assessment of cane toads in Kakadu National Park stated that the predation of
the cane toad by native wildlife is the greatest risk to biodiversity. Other factors, such as
competition with native wildlife for resources, and the predation of the cane toad on native
wildlife, were considered much lower risk factors[14] but requiring further study.[15] In the Northern
Territory, goanna predation on cane toads has been linked to a rise in the amount of
undamaged salt water crocodile eggs.[16] Cane toads were present within a few days of the
crocodiles hatching in April 2007.[17]
Numerous native species have been reported as successfully preying on toads. Some birds,
such as the black kite (Milvus migrans),[18] have learned to attack the toad's belly, avoiding the
poison-producing glands on the back of the head. Anecdotal reports in the Northern Territory
suggest that a native frog, Dahl's aquatic frog (Litoria dahlii), is able to eat the tadpoles and live
young of the toad without being affected by the poison that often kills other predators.[19] This may
account for slower than expected infestations of toads in certain areas of the Northern Territory,
although later research carried out jointly by several Australian Universities casts doubt on these
reports.[20]Some snakes species have been reported to have adapted smaller jaws so that they
are unable to swallow large cane toads which have large quantities of poison.[21]
Another study, however, notes that the cane toad is adapting to a wider environmental range and
may in the future be spreading into habitats currently not available.[22]
In 2009 it was found that the native meat ant is immune to the toad's poison and can successfully
prey upon young cane toads. Whereas native frogs and toads have natural reflexes to avoid the
meat ants, the cane toads do not tend to try to escape the ants, rather standing still when
attacked waiting for the toxin to kill the attacker.[23]
New research has indicated that cane toads predate dung beetles by nestling in cowpats and
waiting for the beetles, eating up to 150 in one meal. In areas where cane toads have free
access to water in dams, there are 9.6 times fewer dung beetles. This indicates that the cane
toad has the potential to economically affect the cattle industry through increased disease in
cattle.[24]