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CAPTULO III
NDICE
CAPTULO III
LEY DE COMPORTAMIENTO
3.1 Introduccin.
En los captulos anteriores se ha realizado un modelo matemtico del slido de tal forma
que el efecto que provocan las cargas externas se caracteriza mediante un tensor de
tensiones y los desplazamientos relativos entre partculas a travs de un tensor de
pequeas deformaciones. Es importante notar que la obtencin del tensor de tensiones y
el de pequeas deformaciones ha sido independiente uno del otro. Sin embargo tanto las
tensiones como las deformaciones son causa y efecto, por lo que lgicamente debern
existir ecuaciones que las relacionen entre s, denominndose a tales relaciones leyes de
comportamiento.
Este ensayo se realiza en una prensa hidrulica y consiste en llevar (o no) hasta la rotura
a una probeta de un material determinado. Las probetas se suelen construir de forma
cilndrica y normalmente se recrecen en sus extremos para que pueda ser aprisionada
por las mordazas de la mquina (aunque los modelos actuales permiten obviar esa
forma). Al ser introducida en la Prensa la probeta es sometida a un estado de carga axil
pura hasta llevarla (o no) a la rotura (figura 3-1). Lgicamente hay que instrumentar
adecuadamente la probeta para obtener medidas conforme el ensayo se est realizando.
F
Probeta
Extensmetro
Mordazas
Figura 3-1
L fin Lini
= 3-1
Lini
La fuerza F que acta sobre la probeta es un dato que proporcionan los equipos y
normalmente es obtenido a travs de un medidor de presin del aceite P. Conocida la
presin P la fuerza F se calcula simplemente multiplicando la presin del aceite P por el
rea del pistn.
Figura 3-2
=F/A
Figura 3-3
Para analizar con detalle los resultados de un ensayo tpico de tensin - deformacin con
una probeta de acero es necesario subdividirlo en tramos y estudiar detenidamente cada
una de ellos.
CAPTULO III 5
G E
D
B
F
A
C
O O
Figura 3-4
Tramo CDE : Tramo de endurecimiento por deformacin. Una vez que acaba la fluencia
el material necesita o requiere que la tensin aumente para que la deformacin tambin
lo haga. La relacin entre la tensin y la deformacin no es lineal y la pendiente de la
curva va disminuyendo progresivamente. El comportamiento del cuerpo ya no es
elstico y se produce una deformacin permanente de tal forma que si en un instante
determinado se para el ensayo y se descarga, la probeta no vuelve a su posicin original
sino a una posicin deformada. Por ejemplo, si se realiza el ensayo siguiendo la lnea O-
A-B-C-D-G. Si llegado a este punto se descarga, la probeta no volver al punto O sino
al O siguiendo el camino G O, la distancia O-O es una deformacin permanente que
se ha inducido a la probeta.
Una vez definidos los tramos y puntos importantes es conveniente separar y analizar los
resultados en dos grandes zonas: una antes del Lmite Elstico y otra despus del Lmite
elstico.
= 0.002
Figura 3-5
= E E = = Tag 3-2
- Hay que tener en cuenta que existen algunos materiales que vuelven a su
posicin original sin hacer el mismo recorrido que realizaron durante el perodo de
carga, fenmeno al que se le denomina histresis. Los materiales que poseen ciclos de
histresis significativos se les denomina Materiales Aneslsticos, de acuerdo con la
figura 3-6.
CAPTULO III 7
Figura 3-6
- Existe un fenmeno natural que ocurre durante todo el proceso de ensayo, tanto
en la zona anterior como posterior al Lmite Elstico que consiste en un decremento
gradual del rea transversal inicial de la probeta conforme aumenta la carga, tal
fenmeno es conocido como efecto Poissn. En la zona elstica o prxima al punto del
lmite elstico el rea transversal inicial de la probeta A0 y la que tiene en ese momento
(rea instantnea) At prcticamente coinciden y por ello es indiferente trabajar con una u
otra. Ahora bien, si se sobrepasa el Lmite Elstico el rea transversal inicial disminuye
rpidamente (consecuente con un rpido aumento de la deformacin) y es la causa de
que la tensin calculada con el rea inicial ( = F / A0 ) y la tensin calculada con el
rea actual ( = F / At ) sean diferentes. Esto se esquematiza en la figura 3-7.
= F / At
= F / A0
Figura 3-7
F
Tensin euleriana a: ( zz )Euleriana =
Aactual
F
Tensin Lagrangiana: ( zz )Lagrangiana =
Ainicial
B
YB
YA A
O C
p e
Figura 3-8
B = p + e 3-3
A la vista de lo expuesto y con la ayuda del ensayo de traccin se puede realizar una
clasificacin de materiales. As materiales que exhiben un pobre comportamiento
plstico (poca o nada deformacin plstica) se suelen denominar Materiales Frgiles (
Ej. Cristal, Hierro fundido, etc). Al contrario materiales que presentan una deformacin
plstica apreciable se les denomina Materiales Dctiles (Ej. Acero con bajo contenido
en carbono, Aluminio, etc). Lgicamente hay un amplio margen entre poca deformacin
plstica y mucha deformacin plstica, pero hay dos caractersticas importantes que
ayudan a diferenciar: a) Los materiales frgiles presentan un comportamiento bastante
diferente si el ensayo es a traccin o a compresin; los dctiles poco b) los materiales
frgiles presentan una gran dispersin de resultados en el punto de rotura; los dctiles
no.
CAPTULO III 9
Que usualmente suele adoptar valores comprendidos entre 0.2 y 0.4, y que se
comprende mejor realizando una representacin grfica en el plano (figura 3-9)
F
(LLat ) ini (L Lat) fin
LAxil
Figura 3-9
Figura 3-10
En este tipo de ensayos se observa una notable reduccin del lmite de rotura de los
materiales.
CAPTULO III 10
Este tipo de ensayo, conocido en la terminologa anglosajona como Creep Test, consiste
en someter a la probeta a una carga instantnea y luego mantenerla en el tiempo. El
ensayo se denomina de igual forma si incluye o no aumento de temperatura, y es crucial
en materiales que van a estar sometidos a temperatura y carga, por Ej Reactores,
Turbinas de gas, etc, o materiales que van ser sometidos a una carga permanente durante
un perodo grande de tiempo, por Ej. Hormign, Acero etc.
T (Horas),
(das),(sema
nas),etc
Figura 3-11
(t ) = i + p + f (t ) 3-5
i = Deformacin instantnea
CAPTULO III 11
=E 3-6
III
II
= +
II
+
I I
III
Figura 3-15
CAPTULO III 13
Figura 3-16
I
I ( I ) = 3-7
E
I I
II ( I ) = ; III ( I ) = 3-8
E E
II
Figura 3-17
CAPTULO III 14
II
II ( II ) = 3-9
E
II II
I ( II ) = ; III ( II ) = 3-10
E E
III
III ( III ) = 3-11
E
III III
I ( III ) = ; II ( III ) = 3-12
E E
1
I = [ I ( II + III ) ]
E
1
II = [ II ( I + III ) ] 3-13
E
1
III = [ III ( II + I ) ]
E
Las ecuaciones 3-13 constituyen la ley de Hooke generalizada en ejes principales para
materiales istropos y homogneos. Istropo porque se supone que tanto el Mdulo de
Elasticidad como el de Poisson no varan con la direccin. Homogneo porque las
propiedades en un punto determinado son independientes de la posicin del mismo en el
slido.
1 +
i = i kk 3-14
E E
(l3 , m3 , n3 ) III
3
2 (l 2 , m2 , n2 )
II
I 1
(l1 , m1 , n1 )
Figura 3-18
Desarrollando se obtiene:
l m1 n1 I 0 0 l1 l2 l3
1
ij = l2 m2 n2 0 II 0 m1 m2 m3 3-15
l
3 m3 n3 0 0 III n1 n2 n3
l m1 n1 I 0 0 l1 l2 l3
1
ij = l2 m2 n2 0 II 0 m1 m2 m3 3-16
l
3 m3 n3 0 0 III n1 n2 n3
l 2 + m2 + n2 I l1 l2 + II m1 m2 + III n1 n2 A
I 1 II 1 III 1
ij = I l1 l2 + II m1 m2 + III n1 n2 B C 3-17
A C D
Donde las letras A, B, C y D son trminos del tensor de deformaciones cuya estructura
es parecida a 11 o 12
De forma paralela se puede escribir para las tensiones una expresin similar:
l 2 + m2 + n2 I l1 l2 + II m1 m2 + III n1 n2 A *
I 1 II 1 III 1
ij = I l1 l2 + II m1 m2 + III n1 n2 B* C * 3-18
A* C* D *
1 l1 I + m1 II + n1 III
2 2 2
11 = 3-19
1
{ (
E l 2 +
II III
) ( )
+ m12 I + III + n12 I + II( )}
Comparando 3-19 con 3-18 puede observarse que los tres primeros sumandos de 3-19 se
corresponden con 11 . Por otra parte si a los sumandos encerrados entre llaves de 3-19
se les suma y resta la cantidad siguiente:
Se obtiene definitivamente:
11 =
1
E
[
11 {( l2
1 ) (
+ m12 + n12 ( I + II + III ) l12 I + m12 II + n12 III )}]
finalmente, haciendo uso del primer invariante, 11 + 22 + 33 = I + II + III , de
que la suma de los cuadrados de los cosenos directores es la unidad, y de que el ltimo
parntesis vuelve a ser 11 se obtiene:
11 =
1
[
E 11
{ (11 + 22 + 33 ) 11} ] 3-21
operando:
1
11 = [ 11 ( 22 + 33 ) ] 3-22
E
1
22 = [ 22 ( 11 + 33 ) ] 3-23
E
1
33 = [ 33 ( 22 + 11 ) ] 3-24
E
Para ver la forma que adoptan los trminos que no pertenecen a la diagonal principal, se
elige de 3-17 12 resultando:
12 = I l1 l 2 + II m1 m2 + III n1 n2 3-25
12 =
1
E
[
] (
I l1 l2 + II m1 m2 + III n1 n2 l1 l2 II + III
E
)
3-26
E
(
m1 m2 I + III ) E n1 n2 ( II + I )
Si se compara 3-26 con 3-18 se observa que el primer corchete es precisamente 12 y
para el resto de sumandos, si se suma y resta la siguiente cantidad:
E
( l1 l2 I + m1 m2 II + n1 n2 III )
se obtiene:
1
12 = [12 { ( l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 ) ( I + II + III ) 12 } ] 3-27
E
12 =
( 1 + ) 12 3-28
E
E
G= 3-29
2 (1 + )
12 xy
12 = o bien xy = 3-30
2G 2G
12 xy
12 = xy = 3-31
G G
12 = 2 12 xy = 2 xy 3-32
Por tanto las deformaciones en funcin de las tensiones o bien la ley de Hooke
generalizada a ejes cualesquiera es la siguiente:
CAPTULO III 18
11 =
1
[
( 22 + 33 )
E 11
]
22 =
1
[
( 11 + 33 )
E 22
] 3-33
11 =
1
[
( 22 + 11 )
E 33
]
12 13 23
12 = ; 13 = ; 23 = 3-34
2G 2G 2G
1 +
ij = ij kk ij 3-35
E E
I = [
1
E I
(
II + III )]
II = [
1
(
I + III
E II
)] 12 = 13 = 23 = 0
III =
1
[
II + I
E III
( )]
y del ensayo de torsin se obtiene:
CAPTULO III 19
12 13 23
12 = ; 13 = ; 23 = 11 = 22 = 33 = 0
G G G
11 = 2 G 11 + ( 11 + 22 + 33 )
22 = 2 G 22 + ( 11 + 22 + 33 )
33 = 2 G 33 + ( 11 + 22 + 33 )
3-36
12 = 12 2 G
13 = 13 2 G
23 = 23 2 G
ij = 2 G ij + kk ij 3-37
E
=
( 1 + ) ( 1 2 )
La relacin ms general que se puede expresar entre las tensiones y las deformaciones
es:
ij = Cijkl kl 3-38
Donde Cijkl es un tensor de cuarto orden (81 constantes). Otra forma de expresar la
relacin 3-38 es escribiendo tanto el tensor de tensiones como el de deformaciones en
forma de vector columna, es decir:
i = Cij j 3-39
CAPTULO III 20
Siendo Cij una matriz de 9 x 9. Ahora bien debido que el tensor de tensiones y el de
deformaciones son simtricos se considerar tanto para i como para j nicamente los
seis trminos significativos:
( 11 , 22 , 33 , 12 , 13 , 23 ) y ( 11 , 22 , 33 , 12 , 13 , 23 ) .
Con ello la matriz Cij se reduce a una de 6 x 6 y por tanto es necesario definir 36
constantes (en principio) para que la relacin tensin - deformacin quede explcita (los
coeficientes de la matriz Cij son constantes nicamente cuando la densidad del cuerpo
es constante y adems es homogneo).
Sin embargo no todos los materiales necesitan el mismo nmero de constantes para que
la relacin tensin - deformacin quede totalmente definida y en adelante se tratar
sobre el tema.
Todos los materiales que admitan la existencia de una funcin escalar de deformaciones
U (en captulos posteriores se ver que la funcin U se denomina Densidad de Energa
de Deformacin y su existencia es general en sistemas conservativos, que es el caso de
la Elasticidad) tal que:
U = ij ij = Cijkl ij kl 3-40
U
= ij = Cijkl kl 3-41
ij
U
= k = Ck j j 3-42
k
2U
= Ck 3-43
k j j
U
= =C 3-44
j j jk k
2U
=C 3-45
j k jk
Ci j = C ji
3-46
Hasta ahora se han estudiado los dos casos extremos: Materiales Istropos y
Anistropos. Un material Istropo es aquel en que la direccin de estudio es
independiente de la aplicacin de la carga, dicho en palabras de simetra: es un material
que tiene infinitos planos de simetra elstica. Un material anistropo es el que no tiene
ninguna direccin especial y por tanto no tiene ningn plano de simetra elstica.
Entre ambos lmites, existen una serie de materiales que poseen simetra respecto a un
plano (material monoclnico), respecto a tres planos (material orttropo), y los que
tienen una simetra de revolucin respecto a una direccin dada (material
transversalmente istropo).
3
2
3*
Figura 3-19
Supngase un material con un plano de simetra tal y como muestra la figura anterior, se
cumple que:
[ ] = [L] [ ] [L]
* T
Es decir:
CAPTULO III 23
* * * * * *
11 = 11 ; 22 = 22 ; 33 = 33 ; 12 = 12 ; 13 = 13 ; 23 = 23 3-50
* * * * * *
11 = 11 ; 22 = 22 ; 33 = 33 ; 12 = 12 ; 13 = 13 ; 23 = 23 3-51
* * * * * * *
11 = C11 11 + C12 22 + C13 33 + C14 23 + C15 13 + C16 12 3-53
*
11 = C11 11 + C12 22 + C13 33 C14 23 C15 13 + C16 12 3-54
*
y puesto que 11 = 11 comparando 3-52 y 3-54 se obtiene como conclusin que
necesariamente C14 y C15 han de ser nulas.
22
*
= C21 11* + C22 22
*
+ C23 33
*
C24 23
*
C25 13* + C26 12* 3-56
C24 = C25 = 0
C34 = C35 = 0
*
Y por ltimo con 12 y 12 se obtendra:
C64 = C65 = 0
Que como puede comprobarse necesita 13 constantes para poder definir la relacin
tensin - deformacin.
* *
12 *
13 12 13
11 1 0 0 1 0 0
* 11
*
21
*
22 23 = 0 1 0 21 22 23 0 1 0
* * 0 0 1 0 0 1
*
32 33 31 32 33
31
12 13
11
= 21 22 23
31 32 33
* *
12 *
13 12 13
*11 1 0 0 1 0 0
* 11
21
*
22 23 = 0 1 0 21 22 23 0 1 0
* * 0 0 1 0 0 1
*
32 33 31 32 33
31
12 13
11
= 21 22 23
31 32 33
CAPTULO III 25
3 3*
2*
2
1
1*
Figura 3-20
Para = 90 =>
Para = 45 =>
C11 C12
C66 =
2
Que como puede observarse es necesario definir 5 constantes: C11 , C33 , C44 , C12 , C23
Que como puede observarse slo es necesario definir dos constantes: C11 y C12
3-61
Por ltimo si se comparan estas ecuaciones con las de Lam se observa que:
A tal fin sean los seis estados de carga elementales que se muestran a continuacin:
CAPTULO III 27
Figura 3-21
Figura 3-22
X3
X2
X1
Figura 3-23
Basndonos en que estados de carga simtricos deben tener una respuesta simtrica de
deformacin, se plantea la relacin tensin deformacin y se marcan con un asterisco
los estados de tensin y deformacin elementales simtricos respecto al plano X2 X3 .
As:
Efectivamente:
22 y 22 son simtricos porque son paralelos plano al igual que 33 y 33. Este asunto
trata de aclararse en la figura siguiente, en que se marcan 4 puntos A y A ; B y B y
se dibujan las correspondientes tensiones:
Plano de A
3
simetra
B
2
A B
1
Plano de A
simetra Deformaciones 23 Simtricas respecto al plano
B
A B
1
Figura 3-24
Es fcil darse cuenta que para que se mantenga la simetra forzosamente C14 y C15 han
de ser nulos, pues de lo contrario el estado resultante no sera simtrico. Dicho en otras
palabras, si se aplica una tensin 11 los posibles estados elementales de deformaciones
CAPTULO III 29
=
12 C44 C45 0 12
13 C55 0 13
* *
23 C66 23
Si el material tiene dos planos de simetra elstica, por ejemplo el X1X2 y el X2X3
X3
X2
X1
Figura 3-25
Donde los superndices indican los planos a los que son simtricos las tensiones o
deformaciones. Escribiendo la primera ecuacin resulta:
11X X
1 2 ; X2X3
= C1111X 1 X 2 ; X 2 X 3 + C1212X 1 X 2 ; X 2 X 3 + C1313X 1 X 2 ; X 2 X 3 + C1616X 2 X 3
De donde se deduce que C16 es nula. Efectivamente, supngase que C11 = C12 = C13 = 0
que C16 0 y que 16 0, ello implicara que 11X 1 X 2 ; X 2 X 3 slo es simtrica respecto al
plano X2X3 pero no respecto al plano X1X2 lo que contradice la hiptesis de simetra.
Otra forma de llegar a la misma conclusin es la siguiente:
C1111X 1 X 2 ; X 2 X 3 + C1212X 1 X 2 ; X 2 X 3 + C1313X 1 X 2 ; X 2 X 3 es una cantidad simtrica respecto a dos
planos, si C16 0 implica que el resultado de la suma es una cantidad que slo es
simtrica respecto al plano X2X3 pero no respecto al plano X1X2, luego contradice la
hiptesis inicial.
Aplicando igual razonamiento a las otras dos tensiones normales se concluye que:
Inmediatamente se concluye que C45 es nula por las razones de simetra anteriormente
mencionadas.
Luego un material que tenga dos planos de simetra necesita 9 Constantes elsticas para
que la relacin Tensin Deformacin quede definida. Es interesante notar que una
carga dirigida en la direccin de simetra no provoca deformaciones tangenciales, y que
una carga tangencial slo provoca deformaciones tangenciales asociadas a dicha carga.
CAPTULO III 31
Si el material tiene tres planos de simetra (el tercero perpendicular a los dos anteriores),
no introduce ninguna simplificacin respecto al nmero de constantes elsticas
necesarias, por lo que tambin necesitan 9 constantes elsticas para definir la relacin
tensin deformacin. A este tipo de materiales se les denomina orttropos (madera,
titanio, polmeros reforzados con tejidos, y los cristales del sistema rmbico).
Direccin de anisotropa
X1
X1
Figura 3-26
CAPTULO III 32
X1 Eje de anisotropa
Plano
X1
Figura 3-27
Est claro que el cuerpo debe responder de la misma manera ante un estado tensional en
direccin 2 que en direccin 3, luego C22 = C33. Ante un estado tensional en direccin 1
el cuerpo responde de forma diferente a como lo hizo en direccin 2 y 3, luego C11
existe y es diferente a las dos anteriores. Cuando se carga el cuerpo en direccin 1 se
producen deformaciones en las direcciones 2 y 3. Estas deformaciones deberan ser
iguales por razones de isotropa luego C12 = C13. Cuando se carga el cuerpo en direccin
2 se producen acortamientos en direccin 1 y 3, ambos no tiene que ser iguales, luego
C23 0. Por ltimo, C66 es independiente de la direccin 1 y por tanto est relacionado
con C22 y C23, y C44 y C55 deben ser iguales pero distintas al resto de constantes luego:
CAPTULO III 33
Segn se vio, en la deduccin de la ley de Hooke en ejes principales fue necesario hacer
uso de dos constantes: E y o bien Modulo de Elasticidad y Mdulo de Poissn
respectivamente. Posteriormente, en la deduccin de la ley de Hooke generalizada a ejes
cualesquiera se us el Mdulo de Rigidez G que era simplemente una combinacin de
las dos anteriores, es decir:
E
G=
2 ( 1 + )
Luego al invertir la ley de Hooke para obtener las ecuaciones de Lam se obtuvo la
constante de Lam como combinacin de E y .
E ; ; G ;
Figura 3-28
CAPTULO III 34
Si se parte de las ecuaciones 3-36 y se suman las tres primeras (las tres ltimas no
existen en este tipo de ensayo) se obtiene:
(11 + 22 + 33 ) = kk = ( 3 + 2 G ) ( 11 + 22 + 33 ) = ( 3 + 2 G ) kk 3-62
V
Recordando que kk = y sustituyendo:
V
kk = ( 3 + 2 G ) V 3-63
V
V
Sustituyendo valores: 11 = 22 = 33 = p , y teniendo en cuenta que tambin es
V
negativa, resulta:
3+2G V V
p= =K 3-64
3 V V
3 + 2G E
K= = 3-65
3 3 ( 1 2 )
Lgicamente todas las constantes estn relacionadas y a continuacin se expresan
algunas de las posibles combinaciones:
2Gv G (E 2G ) 2
= = =K G
1 2v 3G E 3
E (1 2v ) 3
G= = = (K )
2(1 + v) ) 2v 2
E
v= = = 1 3-66
2( + G ) 3K 2G
G (3 + 2G ) (1 + v )(1 2v ) 9 K (K )
E= = =
+G v 3K
2 (1 + v ) 2G (1 + v ) E
K =+ G= = =
3 3v 3(1 2v ) 3(1 2v )
Aparte es interesante resear las siguientes dos relaciones que suelen aparecer en ciertos
casos de resolucin de problemas de Elasticidad:
G
= 1 2 ; = 3-67
+G + 2G 1
A la vista de lo expuesto y sabiendo que todas las constantes son reales y positivas es
fcil ver que necesariamente existen lmites en sus valores. As
CAPTULO III 35
1
( 1 2 ) 0
2
Ren Descartes
Ren Descartes was a philosopher whose work, La gomtrie, includes his application
of algebra to geometry from which we now have Cartesian geometry.
Descartes was educated at the Jesuit college of La Flche in Anjou. He entered the
college at the age of eight years, just a few months after the opening of the college in
January 1604. He studied there until 1612, studying classics, logic and traditional
Aristotelian philosophy. He also learnt mathematics from the books of Clavius. While
in the school his health was poor and he was granted permission to remain in bed until
11 o'clock in the morning, a custom he maintained until the year of his death.
School had made Descartes understand how little he knew, the only subject which was
satisfactory in his eyes was mathematics. This idea became the foundation for his way
of thinking, and was to form the basis for all his works.
Descartes spent a while in Paris, apparently keeping very much to himself, then he
studied at the University of Poitiers. He received a law degree from Poitiers in 1616
then enlisted in the military school at Breda. In 1618 he started studying mathematics
and mechanics under the Dutch scientist Isaac Beeckman, and began to seek a unified
science of nature. After two years in Holland he travelled through Europe. Then in 1619
he joined the Bavarian army.
From 1620 to 1628 Descartes travelled through Europe, spending time in Bohemia
(1620), Hungary (1621), Germany, Holland and France (1622-23). He spent time in
1623 in Paris where he made contact with Mersenne, an important contact which kept
him in touch with the scientific world for many years. From Paris he travelled to Italy
where he spent some time in Venice, then he returned to France again (1625).
By 1628 Descartes tired of the continual travelling and decided to settle down. He gave
much thought to choosing a country suited to his nature and chose Holland. It was a
good decision which he did not seem to regret over the next twenty years.
Soon after he settled in Holland Descartes began work on his first major treatise on
physics, Le Monde, ou Trait de la Lumire. This work was near completion when news
that Galileo was condemned to house arrest reached him. He, perhaps wisely, decided
not to risk publication and the work was published, only in part, after his death. He
explained later his change of direction saying:-
... in order to express my judgement more freely, without being called upon to assent to,
or to refute the opinions of the learned, I resolved to leave all this world to them and to
CAPTULO III 37
speak solely of what would happen in a new world, if God were now to create ... and
allow her to act in accordance with the laws He had established.
In Holland Descartes had a number of scientific friends as well as continued contact
with Mersenne. His friendship with Beeckman continued and he also had contact with
Mydorge, Hortensius, Huygens and Frans van Schooten (the elder).
Descartes was pressed by his friends to publish his ideas and, although he was adamant
in not publishing Le Monde, he wrote a treatise on science under the title Discours de la
mthod pour bien conduire sa raison et chercher la vrit dans les sciences. Three
appendices to this work were La Dioptrique, Les Mtores, and La Gomtrie. The
treatise was published at Leiden in 1637 and Descartes wrote to Mersenne saying:-
I have tried in my Dioptrique and my Mtores to show that my Mthod is better than
the vulgar, and in my Gomtrie to have demonstrated it.
The work describes what Descartes considers is a more satisfactory means of acquiring
knowledge than that presented by Aristotle's logic. Only mathematics, Descartes feels,
is certain, so all must be based on mathematics.
La Dioptrique is a work on optics and, although Descartes does not cite previous
scientists for the ideas he puts forward, in fact there is little new. However his approach
through experiment was an important contribution.
Les Mtores is a work on meteorology and is important in being the first work which
attempts to put the study of weather on a scientific basis. However many of Descartes'
claims are not only wrong but could have easily been seen to be wrong if he had done
some easy experiments. For example Roger Bacon had demonstrated the error in the
commonly held belief that water which has been boiled freezes more quickly. However
Descartes claims:-
... and we see by experience that water which has been kept on a fire for some time
freezes more quickly than otherwise, the reason being that those of its parts which can
be most easily folded and bent are driven off during the heating, leaving only those
which are rigid.
Despite its many faults, the subject of meteorology was set on course after publication
of Les Mtores particularly through the work of Boyle, Hooke and Halley.
La Gomtrie is by far the most important part of this work. In [17] Scott summarises
the importance of this work in four points:-
He makes the first step towards a theory of invariants, which at later stages derelativises
the system of reference and removes arbitrariness.
Algebra makes it possible to recognise the typical problems in geometry and to bring
together problems which in geometrical dress would not appear to be related at all.
Algebra imports into geometry the most natural principles of division and the most
natural hierarchy of method.
Not only can questions of solvability and geometrical possibility be decided elegantly,
quickly and fully from the parallel algebra, without it they cannot be decided at all.
Some ideas in La Gomtrie may have come from earlier work of Oresme but in
Oresme's work there is no evidence of linking algebra and geometry. Wallis in Algebra
(1685) strongly argues the the ideas of La Gomtrie were copied from Harriot. Wallis
writes:-
... the Praxis was read by Descartes, and every line of Descartes' analysis bears token of
the impression.
There seems little to justify Wallis's claim, which was probably made partly through
partiotism but also through his just desires to give Harriot more credit for his work.
Harriot's work on equations, however, may indeed have influenced Descartes who
CAPTULO III 38
always claimed, clearly falsely, that nothing in his work was influenced by the work of
others.
Descartes' Meditations on First Philosophy, was published in 1641, designed for the
philosopher and for the theologian. It consists of six meditations, Of the Things that we
may doubt, Of the Nature of the Human Mind, Of God: that He exists, Of Truth and
Error, Of the Essence of Material Things, Of the Existence of Material Things and of
the Real Distinction between the Mind and the Body of Man. However many scientists
were opposed to Descartes' ideas including Arnauld, Hobbes and Gassendi.
The most comprehensive of Descartes' works, Principia Philosophiae was published in
Amsterdam in 1644. In four parts, The Principles of Human Knowledge, The Principles
of Material Things, Of the Visible World and The Earth, it attempts to put the whole
universe on a mathematical foundation reducing the study to one of mechanics.
This is an important point of view and was to point the way forward. Descartes did not
believe in action at a distance. Therefore, given this, there could be no vacuum around
the Earth otherwise there was way that forces could be transferred. In many ways
Descartes's theory, where forces work through contact, is more satisfactory than the
mysterious effect of gravity acting at a distance.
However Descartes' mechanics leaves much to be desired. He assumes that the universe
is filled with matter which, due to some initial motion, has settled down into a system of
vortices which carry the sun, the stars, the planets and comets in their paths. Despite the
problems with the vortex theory it was championed in France for nearly one hundred
years even after Newton showed it was impossible as a dynamical system. As Brewster,
one of Newton's 19th century biographers, puts it:-
Thus entrenched as the Cartesian system was ... it was not to be wondered at that the
pure and sublime doctrines of the Principia were distrustfully received ... The
uninstructed mind could not readily admit the idea that the great masses of the planets
were suspended in empty space, and retained their orbits by an invisible influence...
Pleasing as Descartes's theory was even the supporters of his natural philosophy, such
as the Cambridge metaphysical theologian Henry More, found objections. Certainly
More admired Descartes, writing:-
I should look upon Des-Cartes as a man most truly inspired in the knowledge of Nature,
than any that have professed themselves so these sixteen hundred years...
However between 1648 and 1649 they exchanged a number of letters in which More
made some telling objections, Descartes however in his replies making no concessions
to More's points. More went on to ask:-
Why are not your vortices in the form of columns or cylinders rather than ellipses, since
any point of the axis of a vortex is as it were a centre from which the celestial matter
recedes with, as far as I can see, a wholly constant impetus? ... Who causes all the
planets not to revolve in one plane (the plane of the ecliptic)? ... And the Moon itself,
neither in the plane of the Earth's equator nor in a plane parallel to this?
In 1644, the year his Meditations were published, Descartes visited France. He returned
again in 1647, when he met Pascal and argued with him that a vacuum could not exist,
and then again in 1648.
In 1649 Queen Christina of Sweden persuaded Descartes to go to Stockholm. However
the Queen wanted to draw tangents at 5 a.m. and Descartes broke the habit of his
lifetime of getting up at 11 o'clock. After only a few months in the cold northern
climate, walking to the palace for 5 o'clock every morning, he died of pneumonia.
CAPTULO III 39
At the age of seven, Carl Friedrich Gauss started elementary school, and his potential
was noticed almost immediately. His teacher, Bttner, and his assistant, Martin Bartels,
were amazed when Gauss summed the integers from 1 to 100 instantly by spotting that
the sum was 50 pairs of numbers each pair summing to 101.
In 1788 Gauss began his education at the Gymnasium with the help of Bttner and
Bartels, where he learnt High German and Latin. After receiving a stipend from the
Duke of Brunswick- Wolfenbttel, Gauss entered Brunswick Collegium Carolinum in
1792. At the academy Gauss independently discovered Bode's law, the binomial
theorem and the arithmetic- geometric mean, as well as the law of quadratic reciprocity
and the prime number theorem.
In 1795 Gauss left Brunswick to study at Gttingen University. Gauss's teacher there
was Kaestner, whom Gauss often ridiculed. His only known friend amongst the students
was Farkas Bolyai. They met in 1799 and corresponded with each other for many years.
Gauss left Gttingen in 1798 without a diploma, but by this time he had made one of his
most important discoveries - the construction of a regular 17-gon by ruler and
compasses This was the most major advance in this field since the time of Greek
mathematics and was published as Section VII of Gauss's famous work, Disquisitiones
Arithmeticae.
Gauss returned to Brunswick where he received a degree in 1799. After the Duke of
Brunswick had agreed to continue Gauss's stipend, he requested that Gauss submit a
doctoral dissertation to the University of Helmstedt. He already knew Pfaff, who was
chosen to be his advisor. Gauss's dissertation was a discussion of the fundamental
theorem of algebra.
With his stipend to support him, Gauss did not need to find a job so devoted himself to
research. He published the book Disquisitiones Arithmeticae in the summer of 1801.
There were seven sections, all but the last section, referred to above, being devoted to
number theory.
CAPTULO III 40
In June 1801, Zach, an astronomer whom Gauss had come to know two or three years
previously, published the orbital positions of Ceres, a new "small planet" which was
discovered by G Piazzi, an Italian astronomer on 1 January, 1801. Unfortunately, Piazzi
had only been able to observe 9 degrees of its orbit before it disappeared behind the
Sun. Zach published several predictions of its position, including one by Gauss which
differed greatly from the others. When Ceres was rediscovered by Zach on 7 December
1801 it was almost exactly where Gauss had predicted. Although he did not disclose his
methods at the time, Gauss had used his least squares approximation method.
In June 1802 Gauss visited Olbers who had discovered Pallas in March of that year and
Gauss investigated its orbit. Olbers requested that Gauss be made director of the
proposed new observatory in Gttingen, but no action was taken. Gauss began
corresponding with Bessel, whom he did not meet until 1825, and with Sophie Germain.
Gauss married Johanna Ostoff on 9 October, 1805. Despite having a happy personal life
for the first time, his benefactor, the Duke of Brunswick, was killed fighting for the
Prussian army. In 1807 Gauss left Brunswick to take up the position of director of the
Gttingen observatory.
Gauss arrived in Gttingen in late 1807. In 1808 his father died, and a year later Gauss's
wife Johanna died after giving birth to their second son, who was to die soon after her.
Gauss was shattered and wrote to Olbers asking him to give him a home for a few
weeks,
to gather new strength in the arms of your friendship - strength for a life which is only
valuable because it belongs to my three small children.
Gauss was married for a second time the next year, to Minna the best friend of Johanna,
and although they had three children, this marriage seemed to be one of convenience for
Gauss.
Gauss's work never seemed to suffer from his personal tragedy. He published his second
book, Theoria motus corporum coelestium in sectionibus conicis Solem ambientium, in
1809, a major two volume treatise on the motion of celestial bodies. In the first volume
he discussed differential equations, conic sections and elliptic orbits, while in the
second volume, the main part of the work, he showed how to estimate and then to refine
the estimation of a planet's orbit. Gauss's contributions to theoretical astronomy stopped
after 1817, although he went on making observations until the age of 70.
Much of Gauss's time was spent on a new observatory, completed in 1816, but he still
found the time to work on other subjects. His publications during this time include
Disquisitiones generales circa seriem infinitam, a rigorous treatment of series and an
introduction of the hypergeometric function, Methodus nova integralium valores per
approximationem inveniendi, a practical essay on approximate integration, Bestimmung
der Genauigkeit der Beobachtungen, a discussion of statistical estimators, and Theoria
attractionis corporum sphaeroidicorum ellipticorum homogeneorum methodus nova
tractata. The latter work was inspired by geodesic problems and was principally
concerned with potential theory. In fact, Gauss found himself more and more interested
in geodesy in the 1820s.
Gauss had been asked in 1818 to carry out a geodesic survey of the state of Hanover to
link up with the existing Danish grid. Gauss was pleased to accept and took personal
charge of the survey, making measurements during the day and reducing them at night,
using his extraordinary mental capacity for calculations. He regularly wrote to
Schumacher, Olbers and Bessel, reporting on his progress and discussing problems.
Because of the survey, Gauss invented the heliotrope which worked by reflecting the
Sun's rays using a design of mirrors and a small telescope. However, inaccurate base
lines were used for the survey and an unsatisfactory network of triangles. Gauss often
CAPTULO III 41
wondered if he would have been better advised to have pursued some other occupation
but he published over 70 papers between 1820 and 1830.
In 1822 Gauss won the Copenhagen University Prize with Theoria attractionis...
together with the idea of mapping one surface onto another so that the two are similar in
their smallest parts. This paper was published in 1825 and led to the much later
publication of Untersuchungen ber Gegenstnde der Hheren Geodsie (1843 and
1846). The paper Theoria combinationis observationum erroribus minimis obnoxiae
(1823), with its supplement (1828), was devoted to mathematical statistics, in particular
to the least squares method.
From the early 1800s Gauss had an interest in the question of the possible existence of a
non-Euclidean geometry. He discussed this topic at length with Farkas Bolyai and in his
correspondence with Gerling and Schumacher. In a book review in 1816 he discussed
proofs which deduced the axiom of parallels from the other Euclidean axioms,
suggesting that he believed in the existence of non-Euclidean geometry, although he
was rather vague. Gauss confided in Schumacher, telling him that he believed his
reputation would suffer if he admitted in public that he believed in the existence of such
a geometry.
In 1831 Farkas Bolyai sent to Gauss his son Jnos Bolyai's work on the subject. Gauss
replied
to praise it would mean to praise myself .
Again, a decade later, when he was informed of Lobachevsky's work on the subject, he
praised its "genuinely geometric" character, while in a letter to Schumacher in 1846,
states that he
had the same convictions for 54 years
indicating that he had known of the existence of a non-Euclidean geometry since he was
15 years of age (this seems unlikely).
Gauss had a major interest in differential geometry, and published many papers on the
subject. Disquisitiones generales circa superficies curva (1828) was his most renowned
work in this field. In fact, this paper rose from his geodesic interests, but it contained
such geometrical ideas as Gaussian curvature. The paper also includes Gauss's famous
theorema egregrium:
If an area in E3 can be developed (i.e. mapped isometrically) into another area of E3,
the values of the Gaussian curvatures are identical in corresponding points.
The period 1817-1832 was a particularly distressing time for Gauss. He took in his sick
mother in 1817, who stayed until her death in 1839, while he was arguing with his wife
and her family about whether they should go to Berlin. He had been offered a position
at Berlin University and Minna and her family were keen to move there. Gauss,
however, never liked change and decided to stay in Gttingen. In 1831 Gauss's second
wife died after a long illness.
In 1831, Wilhelm Weber arrived in Gttingen as physics professor filling Tobias
Mayer's chair. Gauss had known Weber since 1828 and supported his appointment.
Gauss had worked on physics before 1831, publishing ber ein neues allgemeines
Grundgesetz der Mechanik, which contained the principle of least constraint, and
Principia generalia theoriae figurae fluidorum in statu aequilibrii which discussed forces
of attraction. These papers were based on Gauss's potential theory, which proved of
great importance in his work on physics. He later came to believe his potential theory
and his method of least squares provided vital links between science and nature.
In 1832, Gauss and Weber began investigating the theory of terrestrial magnetism after
Alexander von Humboldt attempted to obtain Gauss's assistance in making a grid of
magnetic observation points around the Earth. Gauss was excited by this prospect and
CAPTULO III 42
by 1840 he had written three important papers on the subject: Intensitas vis magneticae
terrestris ad mensuram absolutam revocata (1832), Allgemeine Theorie des
Erdmagnetismus (1839) and Allgemeine Lehrstze in Beziehung auf die im verkehrten
Verhltnisse des Quadrats der Entfernung wirkenden Anziehungs- und
Abstossungskrfte (1840). These papers all dealt with the current theories on terrestrial
magnetism, including Poisson's ideas, absolute measure for magnetic force and an
empirical definition of terrestrial magnetism. Dirichlet's principle was mentioned
without proof.
Allgemeine Theorie... showed that there can only be two poles in the globe and went on
to prove an important theorem, which concerned the determination of the intensity of
the horizontal component of the magnetic force along with the angle of inclination.
Gauss used the Laplace equation to aid him with his calculations, and ended up
specifying a location for the magnetic South pole.
Humboldt had devised a calendar for observations of magnetic declination. However,
once Gauss's new magnetic observatory (completed in 1833 - free of all magnetic
metals) had been built, he proceeded to alter many of Humboldt's procedures, not
pleasing Humboldt greatly. However, Gauss's changes obtained more accurate results
with less effort.
Gauss and Weber achieved much in their six years together. They discovered
Kirchhoff's laws, as well as building a primitive telegraph device which could send
messages over a distance of 5000 ft. However, this was just an enjoyable pastime for
Gauss. He was more interested in the task of establishing a world-wide net of magnetic
observation points. This occupation produced many concrete results. The Magnetischer
Verein and its journal were founded, and the atlas of geomagnetism was published,
while Gauss and Weber's own journal in which their results were published ran from
1836 to 1841.
In 1837, Weber was forced to leave Gttingen when he became involved in a political
dispute and, from this time, Gauss's activity gradually decreased. He still produced
letters in response to fellow scientists' discoveries usually remarking that he had known
the methods for years but had never felt the need to publish. Sometimes he seemed
extremely pleased with advances made by other mathematicians, particularly that of
Eisenstein and of Lobachevsky.
Gauss spent the years from 1845 to 1851 updating the Gttingen University widow's
fund. This work gave him practical experience in financial matters, and he went on to
make his fortune through shrewd investments in bonds issued by private companies.
Two of Gauss's last doctoral students were Moritz Cantor and Dedekind. Dedekind
wrote a fine description of his supervisor
... usually he sat in a comfortable attitude, looking down, slightly stooped, with hands
folded above his lap. He spoke quite freely, very clearly, simply and plainly: but when
he wanted to emphasise a new viewpoint ... then he lifted his head, turned to one of
those sitting next to him, and gazed at him with his beautiful, penetrating blue eyes
during the emphatic speech. ... If he proceeded from an explanation of principles to the
development of mathematical formulas, then he got up, and in a stately very upright
posture he wrote on a blackboard beside him in his peculiarly beautiful handwriting: he
always succeeded through economy and deliberate arrangement in making do with a
rather small space. For numerical examples, on whose careful completion he placed
special value, he brought along the requisite data on little slips of paper.
Gauss presented his golden jubilee lecture in 1849, fifty years after his diploma had
been granted by Helmstedt University. It was appropriately a variation on his
CAPTULO III 43
dissertation of 1799. From the mathematical community only Jacobi and Dirichlet were
present, but Gauss received many messages and honours.
From 1850 onwards Gauss's work was again nearly all of a practical nature although he
did approve Riemann's doctoral thesis and heard his probationary lecture. His last
known scientific exchange was with Gerling. He discussed a modified Foucault
pendulum in 1854. He was also able to attend the opening of the new railway link
between Hanover and Gttingen, but this proved to be his last outing. His health
deteriorated slowly, and Gauss died in his sleep early in the morning of 23 February,
1855.
Eugne Cosserat was educated first in Amiens, then at the age of 17, he entered the
cole Normale Suprieure in Paris. After graduating he was appointed to the
Observatory in Toulouse in 1886. Ten years later he became professor of differential
calculus at the Faculty of Science at Toulouse.
In 1908 Cosserat was appointed to the chair of astronomy at Toulouse, becoming
director of the Observatory there for the rest of his life.
Although he was not living in Paris, Cosserat was elected to the Acadmie des Sciences
in 1919 and, four years later, to the Bureau de Longitude. Because he was in Toulouse
he was made a non-resident, corresponding member of these organisations.
In [1] Cosserat is described as follows:-
A reserved, kindly man and a diligent worker, Cosserat was one of the
moving forces in the University of Toulouse for thirty five years.
Cosserat worked on astronomy and mathematics. In the first part of his career he made
observations of double stars, observed planets and comets and did research in geometry.
His doctoral dissertation extended Plcker's concept of generation by means of straight
lines. He considered infinitesimal properties of space generated by circles.
In his later work, Cosserat studied the deformation of surfaces which led him to a
theory of elasticity. This work was carried out in collaboration with his brother
who was an engineer. He studied functional equations of the sphere and ellipsoid
before Fredholm.
Cosserat also worked on mechanics based on euclidean laws and built into an original
and coherent theory. However his work in this area, although important at the time, was
overtaken by the theory of relativity and other advances in theoretical physics.
CAPTULO III 44
This diagram shows the distribution of strain measured in the torsion of a prismatic
specimen of bone, of square cross section. Shown for comparison is the theoretical
strain distribution according to classical elasticity. That strain vanishes at the corner of
the cross section. Also shown is the theoretical strain distribution according to Cosserat
elasticity. The elastic constants used for the calculation were determined in independent
measurements of size effects on wet bone. The predictive power of Cosserat elasticity is
illustrated. Wet bone follows the Cosserat curve. Strain is redistributed from peak
CAPTULO III 45
(i) A size-effect [see experimental figure] is predicted in the torsion of circular cylinders
and of square section bars of Cosserat elastic materials. Slender cylinders appear more
stiff then expected classically. A similar size effect is also predicted in the bending of
plates and of beams. No size effect is predicted in tension.
(ii) The stress concentration factor for a circular hole, is smaller than the classical value,
and small holes exhibit less stress concentration than larger ones.
(iii) The wave speed of plane shear waves and dilatational waves in an unbounded
CAPTULO III 46
Cosserat elastic medium is independent of frequency as in the classical case. The speed
of shear waves depends on frequency in a Cosserat solid. A new kind of wave
associated with the micro- rotation is predicted to occur in Cosserat solids. (iv) The
range in Poisson's ratio is from -1 to +0.5, the same as in the classical case .