Vezi Pag. 72 - Cil-Nr-1-18-2012

1
COMMUNICATION
INTERCULTURELLE
ET LITTRATURE
NR. 1 (18) / 2012
La paradigme
du discours
idologique
La dinamique des terminologies
et le (re)modelages des systmes d'ides
4 me dition, Galai, 31 mai 1 er juin 2012
Coordination:
Gina Necula, Ionel Apostolatu
Institutul European
2012
2 Communication interculturelle et littrature
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Interferene i conexiuni lingvistice 3
Cuprins
A existat o terminologie politic n limba romn la cumpna 10

veacurilor al XVIII-lea i al XIX-lea?
Gheorghe Chivu
Paliere terminologice din perspectiva barierelor lingvistice: 21

ncifrare i transparen n terminologia medico-
farmaceutic
Stelian Dumistrcel, Doina Hreapc, Luminia Botoineanu
Fenomenul analogiei i lingvistica contemporan: de la 44

incriminare la reabilitare
Ionel Apostolatu
On the Dynamics of Mytho-Folkloric Vocabulary: 58

Linguistic and Spiritual Implications
Valeriu Blteanu
Inovaiile lingvistice din discursul public - form de stabilire 66

a comuniunii fatice. Discursul publicitii (I)
Gina Necula
La gastrolittrature comme discours identitaire de la 72

modernit. Deux exemples
Florina-Elena Prjol
O nou perspectiv de nelegere a pragmaticii discursului 89

publicitar
Adriana Maria Robu
Literatur i interculturalitate 105
De la ideologia revoltei la inovaie n discursul plastic i 106

poetic american
Simona Antofi, Petrica Pailea Crngan
Lucrare n cuvnt i rolul sugestiei estetice la Grigore Vieru 120

Florentina Narcisa Boldeanu
Kazuo Ishiguros Nocturnes of these days 127

Ruxanda Bontil
Influena ideologiei politice asupra romanului postbelic de 144

inspiraie rural
Ramona Buruian
Discursul intelectualilor central-europeni. Reflectare 157

poliedric
Georgiana Ciobotaru
Culturalit et inter-culturalit littraire dans les crits du 162

XIXe sicle
Elena Costandache
Victor Hugo et lidologie humaniste: le cas de Notre-Dame 169

de Paris
Mirela Drgoi
Rsfrngeri ale personalismului n Paracliserul, de Marin 179

Sorescu
Luminia Crihan
Revizionismul, o anti-ideologie postdecembrist a 206

recuperrii est-etice a valorilor. De la mirajul
integraionist la sindromul auto-distructiv n discursul critic
post-totalitar romnesc
Nicoleta Ifrim, Carmen Nane
Despre intelectuali, politic i cultur n spaiul romnesc 216

totalitar i posttotalitar. Adrian Marino - Viaa unui om singur
Doinia Milea
Kurt Vonneguts Stylistic Inventiveness in His Use of 221

Telegraphic Schizophrenic Black Humour
Iulia Veronica Neagu
Rewriting the Past: John Fowless The French Lieutenants 236

Woman, A Maggot and Mantissa
Cristina Mlinoiu Ptracu
Istoria mentalitilor, comunicare intercultural i 245

cultura media
Early Modern Body Politics: From Effacement to 246

Celebration through Costume
Andreea-Roxana Constantinescu
Die sozialistische Ideologie im Spannungsfeld der DDR 259

Rezeption in der BRD
Oana Vieru Gorbnescu
Nazism in Recent Alternate Histories 266

Petru Iamandi
Une anamnse du concept didologie dans les mdias 274

Ioan Marian Petru
Mediating Filmic Discourse. The Case of Subtitling 289

Alexandru Praisler
The Cultural Model of British Theatre. The Influence of the 310

In-Yer-Face Theatre Paradigm
Florin Toma
Mass-media Readiness to Biasing Gendered Narratives 325

about Criminals
Cristina Vlcea
Recenzii 333
Textyles nr. 41/2012, Bruxelles, ditions du Cri, 225p, Le 334

Monde de Maeterlinck [Lumea lui Maeterlinck], dosar
dirigat de Michel Otten i Fabrixe Van de Kerckhove.
Carmen Andrei
Isabela Nedelcu, 101 greeli gramaticale, Editura 338

Humanitas, Bucureti, 2012, 192 p.
Ionel Apostolatu
Petronela Savin, Universul din lingur. Despre terminologia 346

alimentar romneasc, Institutul European, Iai, 2012
Oana Cenac
Despre Caragiale, n post(post)modernism Gelu Negrea, 349

Dicionar subiectiv al personajelor lui I.L. Caragiale (A-Z)
Oana Contoman
Repere critice actuale n problematica discursului identitar 351

Lexil et la diffrence, textes runis par Danile Sabbah
(Eidlon, no. 90), Bordeaux, Presses Universitaires de
Bordeaux, 2011
Alina Crihan
Dominique Maingueneau, Discursul literar. Paratopie i 355

scen de enunare (Traducere de Nicoleta Loredana
Moroan, Prefa de Mihaela Mru), Iai, Institutul
European, 2007
Laureniu Ichim
Marius Velic, Aspects of Aspect, Galai, Zigotto, 2012 359

Iulia Neagu
Ioana Vintil Rdulescu, Dicionarul normativ al limbii 361

romne, Editura Corint, 2009
Gina Necula
Le livre des mtaphores Essai sur la mmoire de la 364

langue franaise de Marc Fumaroli
Angelica Vlcu
Date despre autori 367

Interferene i conexiuni lingvistice

A existat o terminologie politic

n limba romn la cumpna veacurilor al
XVIII-lea i al XIX-lea ?
Gh. Chivu
Abstract: In an era marked by a well known cultural and political

circumstance, in which language reflects the change of the South-Eastern
European social and political patterns with the Western ones, the analysis of
some of the components of the literary vocabulary shows the emergence of
some incipient terminological specializations for designating the activity in
the different areas of the Romanian political life.
Keywords: political terminology, Old Literary Romanian, literary Romanian
vocabulary, terminological specialization
1. L imba romn literar veche i chiar

limba romn literar modern n perioada ei de nceput (anterioar
mijlocului veacului al XIX-lea) sunt considerate insuficient de
dezvoltate pentru a avea terminologii de specialitate [1].
Se afirm, de regul, c n aceste etape ale istoriei limbii noastre,
precedente constituirii vocabularului neologic modern i structurrii
actuale a variantelor culturale ale romnei literare, exist cel mult
rudimente ale unor terminologii tiinifice sau tehnice [2], ntruct nu
sunt asigurate specializarea i univocitatea, caracteristici considerate
definitorii pentru o terminologie tiinific sau tehnic autentic [3].
Stilurile, variante funcionale ale limbii, sunt ns realiti deter-
minate istoric, ale cror constituire i mod de manifestare se afl n
strns relaie cu evoluia exprimrii literare n ansamblu. Trsturile
distinctive i locul ocupat de o anumit variant funcional n
diasistem sunt astfel strict dependente de nivelul de dezvoltare i de
caracteristicile oricrei limbii de cultur. Exist de asemenea o strns
corelare cu obiectul ilustrat, respectiv cu locul ocupat de acesta ntr-o
anumit perioad de timp n cadrul tiinelor, respectiv n cadrul
practicii sociale (geometria a aparinut astfel, dup cum se tie, pn n
epoca modern, nu matematicii, ci geografiei, ilustrnd aa-numita
gheografie matematiceasc, iar fizica i chimia s-au desprins de
asemenea trziu, ca tiine independente, din rndul tiinelor naturii
[4]). La fel cum exist o relaie greu de contestat a structurii, respectiv

a componenei unei terminologii cu nivelul de dezvoltare a lexicului
literar sau cu modul n care este gndit maniera de dezvoltare i de
nnoire a acestuia de ctre intelectualii ce i-au asumat sarcina
coordonrii procesului de nnoire a exprimrii elevate. (Dac nu ar fi
astfel, n toate limbile naturale ar trebui s gsim exclusiv terminologii
formate din neologisme latino-romanice sau englezeti, iar calcurilor,
deopotriv semantice sau de structur, ar trebui s le fie exclus din
principiu posibilitatea de a deveni sau de a funciona ca termeni
tiinifici sau tehnici).
2. A existat, desigur, politic i n perioadele vechi ale istoriei

teritoriilor romneti sau, mai precis, au existat aciuni politice,
administrative sau sociale ce au vizat statutul rilor romneti, sta-
tutul unor provincii subordonate acestora, relaiile lor cu uniti statale
corespunztoare, regimul i modul de organizare a puterii i, nu n
ultimul rnd, a existat, n spaiul nostru cultural i istoric, diplomaie.
nsi schimbarea n timp a sensului etimologic al cuvntului ar,
de la teren arabil, destinat sau prielnic cultivrii; es, cmpie la
teritoriu bine individualizat din perspectiv politic i administrativ;
stat [5] i a sensului cuvintelor ce indic existena unei organizri
statale bine individualizate, precum inut sau cetate de scaun, i ele
difereniate semantic i funcional de cuvintele corespunztoare ale
limbii comune (ultima sintagm terminologic, creat dup modelul
oferit de slavonul , nici nu exist, de fapt, n vorbirea
comun) pare s spun acelai lucru. Conduce la o concluzie identic
poziia avut n lexicul romnesc de numele unor funcii, ranguri sau
instituii, precum vod, voievod() sau capuchehaie, ultimul lexem
nsemnnd, cum se tie, reprezentant sau agent diplomatic al
domnilor romni la Poarta otoman (semnificativ pentru poziia
avut n vocabularul vechi romnesc de acest cuvnt, n Micul
dicionar academic [6], capuchehaie este considerat variant, desigur
de tip popular, integrat n structura morfologic a limbii noastre,
pentru capuchehai, form mai apropiat de etimon, uzual exclusiv
n vorbirea cultivat a vremii [7]).
Au existat ns, alturi de aciunile de tip politic, incontestabile i
necesare pentru orice unitate statal cu drept de existen, cuvinte
diverse ale limbii comune sau mprumuturi de tip neologic care s fi
devenit, circumstanial, sau care s fi funcionat constant ca elemente
specializate ale unei posibile terminologii politice i diplomatice? A
existat astfel o terminologie corespunztoare, fie i incipient, o

structur lexical funcionnd independent sau una ce aparinea, ca un
cmp lexical insuficient individualizat, mai cuprinztoarei termi-
nologii juridico-administrative?
Voi ncerca s rspund la aceste ntrebri prin analiza mai multor
cuvinte utilizate pentru ilustrarea unor domenii diverse ale vieii
politice n scrieri pstrate dintr-o epoc de rscruce a spaiului
romnesc, deceniile aflate la cumpna veacurilor al XVIII-lea i al
XIX-lea, decenii n care limba romn literar a reflectat schimbarea
radical i rapid a modelelor sociale, culturale i de organizare statal
dinspre sud-estul spre vestul Europei, dinspre spaiul fanariot spre cel
occidental, ntr-o conjunctur militar i politic bine cunoscut,
avnd ca puncte limit conveniile de pace ce au urmat unor repetate
rzboaie ruso-turce, anume ntre pacea de la Kuciuk Kainargi din 1787
i pacea de la Adrianopole din 1827.
Exist, desigur, o cunoscut dificultate n ncercarea de identificare
a unei eventuale terminologii politice, att n aceast epoc, ct i mai
trziu, din cauza caracterului de grani al politicului, sfer a acti-
vitii sociale avnd mari apropieri i coincidene cu domeniul juridic-
administrativ, cruia i-a fost (i cred c i mai este nc) subordonat.
Iar acestei dificulti i se altur o alta, generat de imposibilitatea de
a cunoate efectiv realitatea lingvistic, textele studiate pn n
prezent fiind cel mai adesea traduceri, ilustrative n primul rnd pentru
ceea ce Ion Gheie numea inspirat vocabular neologic de cultur
general [8].
3. n texte diverse traduse, adaptate sau redactate la cumpna

veacurilor al XVIII-lea i al XIX-lea (mai precis ntre 1760, cnd
ncepe efectiv modernizarea culturii romneti, i 1830, cnd procesul
cptase consisten sub influen latino-romanic) apar numeroase
cuvinte ce ilustreaz aciuni politice, administrative sau sociale ce au
vizat statutul celor trei ri romneti sau al unei provincii subordonate
acestora, relaile cu uniti statale corespunztoare, regimul politice i
modul de organizare a puterii sau diplomaia vremii. Studii i inven-
tare lexicale remarcabile, elaborate n primul rnd de Neculai i
Despina Ursu timp de o jumtate de secol [9], pun n eviden, alturi
de mprumuturi neologice rmase pn astzi actuale, existena unor
mai vechi termeni neogreceti, turceti sau slavoni, respectiv a unor
calcuri, a unor derivate sau a unor cuvinte ce au aparinut cndva, cel
puin ca form, dac nu i ca funcie, vocabularului uzual.
Aceste cuvinte ilustrau cteva cmpuri semantice relativ bine

individualizate (desigur, att ct de bine pot fi individualizate din
punct de vedere lexical domenii de activitate uman aflate, de regul,
n contact permanent i n interferen obligatorie).
M refer n primul rnd la statutul politic al rilor romneti fa
de marile puteri ale vremii i la modul de percepere sau de ilustrare a
acestuia: gubernium (i gubernie, guberniu, provinie, inut),
independen (i indepanden, independan, independenie, inde-
pendin, indipenden, ndependin, nedependin, neatrnare,
nespnzurare), libertate (i liberta, elefterie, lefterie, slobozenie,
slobozie, volnicie), naional (i naionalnic, naionalnicesc, naiunal,
neamnic, neamnicesc), naionalicesc (i naionalnic), naionalitate (i
naionalita, naiunalitate), naiune (i naie, naion, naioane), patrie
(frecvent n perioada 1760-1800, i patrid), patriot compatriot;
iubitor de patrie (i patriot s. m., simpatriot, mpreun-patriot, de-o-
patrie-lcuitor), patriotic (i patriotesc, patrioesc, patrioticesc),
patriotism (i patriotismos), prinipat principat, provincie
provincie, ar (i provinie, provensie, eparhie, inut), stat (i tat,
statu, inerea sau biruirea), suveranitate (i suverenitate,
suverinitate; aprut dup 1829).
Am apoi n vedere modul de organizare a puterii n noua
perspectiv politic: guvern (i gubern, guberniu, oblduire,
otcrmuire), guverna (i guberna), guvernator (i gubernat,
gubernator, guverntoriu, guvernor, otcrmuitor), guvernmnt
administraie; unitate administrativ (i gubernament,
guvernement), ministeriu minister; guvern (i ministerie),
mitropolie capital, metropol (i mitropolis, capital, catedr,
stoli), parlament (i parlement, judecata cea mare, dublat uneori de
divan), senat (i snat, sinat, gherusie, btrnime, divan, sfat; pe la
1825 era frecvent).
Sunt foarte numeroase cuvintele ce ilustreaz regimul politic ntr-
un teritoriu, dovad a interesului suscitat de acest subiect n epoc:
autocrat s., adj. (i nsui domnitor, singur stpnitor, de sine singur
stpnitor, nsui stpnitor, sinoblduitor, nsodomnitor, aftocrator,
autocrator, avtocrator), autocratic (i aftocratoricesc, avtocrato-
ricesc, autocratoricesc, nsui domnitor), autocraie (i avtocratorie,
aftocratorie, avtocratie, autocratorie), autoritate (i autorita,
auctoritate, avtoritate), democraie (i democrati, democratie,
dimocratie), despot, despotic (i despotesc, despoticesc), despotism (i
despotismos), dictator (i dectator), dictatur (i dictatorie, dublat
ntr-un text de un calc rar i interesant, zictur), heghemon (i

eghemon, ighemon), heghemonie (i eghemonie, ighemonie),
imperator (i imperatore, impertor, mperator, mprator),
imperatri, monarh (i monarc), imperiu (i imperium, imperie),
monarhic (i monaric, monaresc, monarhicesc, monaricesc),
monarhicete, monarhie (i monarchie, monarie), oligarh, oligarhic
(i oligaric, oligarhicesc), oligarhie (i stpnire de puini), politic s.
om politic, politician (i politec, politicos), politic adj. care are o
comportare diplomatic, abil (i politicesc), politic (i politec),
politicete, politici vb. a conduce din punct de vedere politic, a
guverna (i politefsi, politevsi), prinep principe (i prinip,
prinep), prinipeas (i prinipes), republic (i respublic,
rspublic, republec, rpublic), suveran adj. (i suveren; pe la 1840
era frecvent).
Apar de asemenea cuvinte privitoare la aciuni cu caracter politic
ce urmreau schimbarea regimului sau a structurilor de stat: partid (i
partid, partit, partit, partai, partie, facie, taraf), rebel (i rebelant,
rebelist), reform (i reformaie), revoluie (i rebelie, rebelione,
ribelione, revuluie, revoluciune, revoluiune, eterie, rscoal,
rzmiri, rzvrtire, zaver), revoluionar (i revoluioner; atestat la
1830, dar la 1840 era deja frecvent).
i, nu n ultimul rnd, sunt nregistrate n texte cuvinte specifice
activitilor diplomatice: ambasador (i ambasadore), consul (i
consulus, consula, consola, conzul, consol, ipat, ipatos), consulat (i
conzulat), diplomat s. (i diplomaticos), diplomat adj. (i diplomatic,
diplomaticesc), diplomatic diplomaie; frnicie (n texte de
nceput de secol XIX, dublndu-l apoi pe diplomaie, ajuns frecvent
pe la 1845), plenipotent adj., s. (i pleniputent, pleniputente, plini-
potent, plinopotint, plin-puternic, vichil), plenipoten (i plene-
poten, plenipotenie, plinipotenie, vichilic, pleniputere, plin pu-
tere, deplin putere, plin putin), plenipoteniar (i plenipo-
teniariu, plenipoteniare, pleniputernicit, cu deplin putere, deplin
puternicit, deplin mputernicit, plin mputernicit, plin puternic, vichil),
tratat s. n. (i tractat, tractatus, trahtat), trtlui a trata (i trctlui,
tractarisi, tracta).
4. n selecia operat pentru a alctui listele precedente am urmrit

n primul rnd neologismele latineti, greco-latine sau romanice deve-
nite uzuale nu numai n lexicul literar modern, ci i n terminologia
politic romneasc.
Aceste neologisme sunt cele mai numeroase n cadrul cmpurilor

lexicale avute n vedere, etimonului greco-latin sau latino-romanic
alturndu-i-se ns frecvent un etimon german, aflat i el n legtur
cu spaiul cultural greco-latino-romanic sub influena cruia se mo-
derniza n epoc ntreaga Europ. Indic aceast origine multipl
deopotriv aspectul fonetic al cuvintelor analizate, ct i structura
multora dintre calcurile cu care coexist adesea mprumuturile.
Elementele neogreceti, consemnate adesea ca variante ale ter-
menilor cu origine latino-romanic, sunt mai puin numeroase. Ne
referim la: aftocrat, aftonomie, anarhie, despotismos, elefterie liber-
tate, eparhie provincie, ipat(os) consul, ighemon, patrid
partid, politie ora. Aflate adesea, pn spre 1820, n concuren
cu mprumuturile din latin, respectiv din italian sau, ulterior, din
francez (n primele dou decenii ale veacului al XIX-lea mpru-
muturile neogreceti depeau nu o dat ca frecven neologismele
latino-romanice), cuvintele preluate direct din neogreac ies rapid din
uz, fie din cauza schimbrii modelului cultural, fie pentru a fi evitate
confuziile create de omonimia cu neologismul ptruns din francez i /
sau din italian. (Este, spre exemplu, cazul vechilor substantive
terminate n -ic, de tipul politic, devenite acum omonime cu adjective
de origine romanic; aceste substantive aveau alturi, pn spre 1830,
adjective terminate n icesc, adaptri la structura limbii romne a
mprumuturilor din latin terminate n icus, sau din greac, terminate
n .)
Cuvintele de alte origini sunt ns i ele prezente n inventarul avut
n vedere, chiar dac n numr mult mai mic. Apar n liste lexeme
vechi, precum rscoal, rzvrtire, inut, o serie de vechi mprumuturi
slavone: oblduire, otcrmuire, rzmiri, sfat, stoli, volnicie sau
cteva cuvinte cu origine turceasc: divan parlament, taraf partid,
vichil plenipotent, mputernicit, cele mai multe asemenea lexeme
fiind utilizate, de regul, ca glose, mijloc uzual de asigurare a
nelegerii textului, i devenind astfel dovezi ale stratificrii lexicale i
indicii indirecte ale uzului, deci ale normei lexicale (sau posibil
terminologice).
Desigur, nu lipsesc din texte creaiile interne: autocratorie autocra-
ie, slobozenie, slobozie libertate; btrnime senat; neamnic,
neamnicesc naional, sintagmele terminologice: judecata cea mare
parlament i, fapt specific unei epoci n care intelectualii ncercau s
romnizeze mprumuturile neologice, calcurile, att cele de structur:
nsui domnitor, de sine singur stpnitor, nsui stpnitor autocrat;
neatrnare, nespnzurare independen; mpreun-patriot compa-

triot; plin-puternic plenipotent, ct i cele semantice: zictur
dictatur.
5. n contextul scrisului literar romnesc de la cumpna veacurilor

al XVIII-lea i al XIX-lea, formeaz cuvintele anterior prezentate un
vocabular de specialitate, posibil de echivalat cu o terminologie
politic, incipient modern ?
Prezena acestor cuvinte n scrieri cu alt destinaie dect politicul,
neles n jurul anului 1800 ca sfer de activitate larg cuprinztoare,
pare s sugereze un rspuns negativ. Absena din texte a unor cuvinte-
test (politician persoan care activeaz ca profesionist n politic,
politiza, politizare, politolog, politologie, ptrunse n scrisul literar
mai trziu [10]) sugereaz i ea un rspuns de acelai tip.
Iar nregistrrile fcute n Dicionarul tezaur al limbii romne
pentru ilustrarea istoriei i a uzului ctorva dintre cuvintele anterior
prezentate arat apoi absena specializrii i a univocitii, multe
dintre lexemele grupate n jurul cuvntului politic (politic s. i adj.,
politicesc, politicete, politici, politicit) fiind dublate constant de nu-
meroase sinonime, n structura lor semantic sensurile principale
coexistnd cu multe semnificaii secundare, iar sensurile proprii avnd
uneori alturi multe sensuri figurate. Iat cteva ilustrri.
Substantivul politic om politic, persoan care ocup un loc impor-
tant n activitatea politic, politician, prezent n scrisul nostru literar
nc de la nceputul secolului al XVIII-lea: A celor nelepi politici
chiverniseal (n Hronicul lui Dimitrie Cantemir) i continund s
aib sensul politician pn spre 1860, alterneaz cu politicos, utili-
zat adesea i el ca substantiv, dar avnd constant, fapt greu de acceptat
ntr-o terminologie autentic, sensurile, pn astzi uzuale, care are o
atitudine sau o comportare amabil i civilizat, manierat.
Adjectivul politic, -, frecvent pe la 1840, dup ce o vreme
alternase, ca variant lexical mai nou, cu politicesc, nsemna nu
numai referitor la politic sau care are o comportare diplomatic,
abil, ci avea nc din secolul al XVIII-lea i semnificaia iscusit,
iret, cum probeaz un citat extras din manuscrisul Istoriei rii
Romneti: Mai vrtos fiind politic cu turcii.
Substantivul-test politic, frecvent utilizat n diplomaie cu sensul
form de organizare i de conducere a unei societi: El se mira de
buna politic a acestor ceti (ntr-o traducere din Telemah), Curtea
Parisului cu a sa politic l-au ndeprtat (la Leon Asachi), avea n
mod curent i nelesurile ceremonial, etichet; rnduial stator-

nicit: Cnd vine domnul n scaun, cu ce politic i rnduial se
cinstete (n manuscrisul lui Gheorgachi logoftul), Cu politic mare
l-a heretisit cinstit (la Anton Pann) i comportare civilizat; gentilee,
politee: La mintea i bunul gust unir o politic drgstoas (ntr-un
text al lui Grigore Pleoianu).
Adjectivul politicesc, -easc, utilizat nc nainte de 1700 cu
sensurile politic, care aparine sau care se refer la politic: Iaste
neamul mriei tale slvit i la politicetile stpniri ludat i la
dumnezeiasca credin vestit (n Biblia de la Bucureti), tiina
politicetilor otcrmuiri (n Istoria lui Ianache Vcrescu), Fusese
trimis la dnsul ... pentru nite trebi politiceti (n Hronicul lui
incai), respectiv civil, cetenesc; public; juridic Dup politicetile
legi, nu s cade omului grec a nu ti legile grecilor (n Biblia de la
Bucureti), Atuncea greate mpotriva pravilii politiceti (ntr-o
Pravil din 1814), nsemna i care aparine ceremonialului, eti-
chetei: Dup politicescul obicei nchinndu-se (n Istoria ieroglific),
respectiv laic, lumesc, profan: mpreunnd via shstreasc cu
nelepciunea politiceasc orasc (la Dosoftei, n Vieile sfinilor),
Altmintrea scriu crile ceale de besearec, altmintrea cele politiceti
(n Istoria lui Petru Maior).
Adverbul politicete, cu semnificaia de baz din punct de vedere
politic, n ceea ce privete politica: Un om ca acesta ... iaste acum
mort politicete (n Legiuitoarea condic a Ecaterinei a II-a tradus
n 1773), avea frecvent sensul pentru etichet, n mod politicos
(consemnat n mai multe texte de ctre Neculai Ursu [11]).
Iar verbul a politici, prezent n texte nc de la sfritul secolului al
XVII-lea cu sensul a conduce din punct de vedere politic, a guverna:
Aceastea fcnd i negutorind i politicind cu nlepciunea (la
Dosoftei, n Vieile Sfinilor), Arta prieteug i ctr Antohi Vod i
ctr partea lui Mihai Vod. i ae politicie lucrurili de mbe prili (n
Letopiseul lui Ion Neculce), era utilizat constant imediat dup 1800, ca
i n veacul anterior, drept sinonim pentru a se obinui, a se practica:
N-am fost numai eu episcop i mitropolit strein n eara Romneasc,
ci au fost i alii muli, precum se vd n condice i precum se politicete
n toat biserica (n scrisul lui Antim Ivireanul), Numrul arpesc ... s
politicete acum mpreun cu numrul moldovenesc (la Amfilohie
Hotiniul), dar i mai frecvent pentru a (se) civiliza, a (se) cultiva, a face
s progreseze: Au trimes al su fiiu dimpreun cu soru-sa ca s
politiceasc a lui lcuitori (ntr-un manuscris din 1795 al Istoriei
Americi), politici aflndu-se astfel n alternan cu verbele de origine

evident neogreceasc politefsi, politevsi, ce vor iei din uz sub presiunea
influenei latino-romanice.
Sensurile cuvintelor mai sus analizate, necunoscute n romna
literar actual i, cel puin aparent, greu de corelat cu domeniul poli-
tic, erau desigur legate etimologic de politie cetate, ora; societate,
guvernare; stat; comportare civilizat, politee.
6. n scrieri diverse alctuite la cumpna veacurilor al XVIII-lea i al

XIX-lea apar deci, ca efect al modernizrii culturii noastre, numeroase
cuvinte ce ilustreaz statutul politic al celor trei ri romneti, relaile
lor cu uniti statale corespunztoare, regimul i modul de organizare a
puterii sau diplomaia vremii. Sunt predominant mprumuturi latino-
romanice, dar, consecin a unei rapide schimbri de model cultural i
politic, neologismelor i astzi uzuale le stau alturi, ntr-o stratificare
lexical specific unei epoci de tranziie, cuvinte neogreceti sau
turceti, mai vechi mprumuturi slavone, cuvinte aparinnd cndva
lexicului uzual, calcuri i mai multe derivate.
Analiza acestui inventar lexical, divers i cuprinztor, pune n
eviden existena a numeroase oscilaii ntre variante lexicale i
morfologice, ca i prezena n uzul literar a unor serii adesea foarte
bogate de sinonime, constatri ce arat c, n ciuda existenei unor
mprumuturi i calcuri deja specializate, n limba romn nu exista nc,
nainte de 1830, o terminologie politic autentic.
Politicul era (i va rmne, de altfel, mult timp dup aceea) parte a
domeniului juridic-administrativ, iar lexemele ce numeau diverse
aciuni politice, autorii acestora, regimul politic, modul de organizare
a puterii sau diplomaia vor ilustra nc o jumtate de secol cmpuri
lexicale subordonate terminologiei juridico-administrative.
Note
[1] Vezi comentarile sintetizate n Gh. Chivu, Limba romn de la primele texte pn
la sfritul secolului al XVIII-lea, Bucureti, 2000, pp. 21-24.
[2] Ion Coteanu, Romna literar i problemele ei principale, Bucureti, 1961, pp. 55-
56; idem, Structura i evoluia limbii romne (De la origini pn la 1860),
Bucureti, 1981, p. 182.
[3] Dumitru Irimia, Structura stilistic a limbii romne contemporane, Bucureti,
1986, p. 135.
[4] Gh. Chivu, Stilul celor mai vechi texte tiinifice romneti (1640-1780), n LR,
XXIX, 1980. nr. 2, p. 118, XXX, 1981, nr. 3, p. 225.
[5] Grigore Brncu, Istoria cuvintelor, Bucureti, 2004, pp. 186-192.

[6] Micul dicionar academic, volumul I, A-C, Bucureti, 2001, p. 381.
[7] Vezi i Emil Suciu, Influena turc asupra limbii romne, II. Dicionarul
cuvintelor romneti de origine turc, Bucureti, 2010, p. 156.
[8] Ion Gheie, Istoria limbii romne literare. Privire sintetic, Bucureti, 1978, p.
121.
[9] Prima lucrare important avut n vedere este Formarea terminologiei tiinifice
romneti, aprut la Editura tiinific, sub semntura lui Neculai Ursu, n 1962, iar
n ultimii ani lucrrile, extrem de laborioase, au fost finalizate prin publicarea altor
patru volume, semnate de N.A. Ursu i Despina Ursu (mprumutul lexical n
procesul modernizrii limbii romne literare (1760-1860), I. Studiu lingvistic i de
istorie cultural, Cronica. Iai, 2004; II. Repertoriu de cuvinte i forme, Cronica,
Iai, 2006; III. Repertoriu de cuvinte i forme, Supliment. Partea I (literele A-M),
Cronica, Iai, 2011 i III. Repertoriu de cuvinte i forme, Supliment. Partea a II-a
(literele N-Z), Cronica, Iai, 2011).
[10] n texte nu sunt consemnate, nainte de 1830, potrivit nregistrrilor fcute de N.A.
Ursu i celor incluse n Dicionarul limbii romne (Tomul VIII, Partea a 4-a, Litera
P, pogrijenie-presimire, Bucureti, 1980), nici cuvintele politic problem,
chestiune politic, politicastru (peiorativ) om politic lipsit de orizont, politicrie
(peiorativ) politicianism, politichie purtare diplomatic; diplomaie, politician
(peiorativ) persoan care desfoar o activitate politic mai ales n folos propriu,
politicianist, politicianism, politicianist, politicianiza, politicianizat, -.
[11] N.A. Ursu, Despina Ursu, mprumutul lexical n procesul modernizrii limbii
romne literare (1760-1860), III. Repertoriu de cuvinte i forme, Supliment. Partea
a II-a (literele N-Z), Cronica, Iai, 2011, p. 146.
Bibliografie
Brncu, Grigore, Istoria cuvintelor, Bucureti, 2004.

Chivu, Gh., Limba romn de la primele texte pn la sfritul secolului al XVIII-lea,
Bucureti, 2000.
Chivu, Gh., Stilul celor mai vechi texte tiinifice romneti (1640-1780), n LR,
XXIX, nr.2/1980 i XXX, nr.3/1981.
Coteanu, Ion, Romna literar i problemele ei principale, Bucureti, 1961. Coteanu,
Ion, Structura i evoluia limbii romne (De la origini pn la 1860), Bucureti,
1981.
Irimia, Dumitru, Structura stilistic a limbii romne contemporane, Bucureti,1986.
Suciu, Emil, Influena turc asupra limbii romne, II. Dicionarul cuvintelor
romneti de origine turc, Bucureti, 2010.
xxx Micul dicionar academic, volumul I, A-C, Bucureti, 2001.
Ursu, N.A.; Ursu, Despina, mprumutul lexical n procesul modernizrii limbii romne
literare (1760-1860), I. Studiu lingvistic i de istorie cultural, Cronica. Iai, 2004.
literare (1760-1860), II. Repertoriu de cuvinte i forme, Cronica, Iai, 2006.
Ursu, N.A.; Ursu, Despina, mprumutul lexical n procesul modernizrii limbii
romne literare (1760-1860), III. Repertoriu de cuvinte i forme, Supliment.
Partea I (literele A-M), Cronica, Iai, 2011.
literare (1760-1860), III. Repertoriu de cuvinte i forme, Supliment. Partea a II-a
(literele N-Z), Cronica, Iai, 2011.
xxx Dicionarul limbii romne, Tomul VIII, Partea a 4-a, Bucureti, 1980
Paliere terminologice din perspectiva barierelor
lingvistice: ncifrare i transparen n
terminologia medico-farmaceutic
Stelian Dumistrcel
Doina Hreapc
Luminia Botoineanu
Abstract: In the first part of the article we review some landmarks of the
development of medical-pharmaceutical terminology in Romanian, by
focusing on two stages: [a] the beginnings, characterized by the concern in
translation in order to make the technical terms explicit for the masses, and
[b] the contemporary phase placed in the globalization context, when we
witness a highly encrypted terminology of the medico-pharmaceutical
products as far as the endogenous discourse is concerned, in compliance
with the international law and regulations imposed by The WHO Regional
Office for Europe. In the second part we analyze the multitude of linguistic
means and resources used on local market by professional companies that
exert a real seduction upon the patients-buyers by means of transparent,
attractive names mainly attributed to the herbal remedies or to the so-called
dietary supplements. This influencing activity occurs mainly through the
so-called "texts of contact": lettering on the packaging, leaflets and
advertising materials.
Keywords: medico-pharmaceutical terminology, language barriers,
pragmalinguistics, discursive spaces, endogenous discourse, exogenous
discourse, terminological transparency, texts of contact, verbal message,
iconic message.

0.1. n cteva articole i studii publicate
anterior (cf. Dumistrcel 2000; Dumistrcel 2006; Dumistrcel et alii
2011a), dar mai ales n comunicri, realizate cu noi colaboratori,
prezentate la diferite manifestri tiinifice n ultimul timp (cf.
Dumistrcel et alii 2011b; Dumistrcel et alii 2011c) am lansat
conceptul de paliere terminologice i am dezvoltat cteva implicaii
ale studierii acestuia, cu referire special la comunicarea n domeniul
medical i farmaceutic, raportndu-ne la perspectiva stilurilor i a
limbajelor funcionale, la conceptul de discurs endogen i la variaia
diastratic, respectiv la variaia diafazic n comunicarea specializat.
21
O problem asupra creia am struit, de asemenea, i la care revenim

acum, a fost aceea a barierelor lingvistice, abordate anterior n ceea
ce privete nivelul comunicrii n domenii de impact sociocultural
deosebit (medico-farmaceutic, juridic i al cultului), ca i referitor la
conceptul de complian farmaceutic (o adaptare pentru engl.
Pharmaceutical Compliance).
Problemei barierelor lingvistice i este consacrat i comunicarea
de fa, cu observaii generale asupra unui nu doar aparent paradox,
anume asupra procesului de ncifrare, pe un anumit segment al
comunicrii, privitor la terminologia medico-farmaceutic (n conti-
nuare: TMF), n pofida a ceea ce s-ar impune din perspectiva logicii
lucrurilor, dar mai ales a performanei, anume transparena n materie
de folosire a termenilor n diferite tipuri de texte.
Dei s-ar putea obiecta c, de regul, ncifrarea (extrem) se
produce la nivelul a ceea ce putem numi inventare (terminologii),
interesul pentru studiu rmne, cci nu este mai puin adevrat c
rezultatele sunt, n diferite proporii, reflectate, apoi, n discursuri.
0.2. Dat fiind utilizarea termenului de ncifrare, simim obligaia

s-l prevenim pe cititor c nu ne referim (direct) la aa-numita funcie
criptic a limbajului, un aspect al comunicrii pentru care, n litera-
tura de specialitate n limba romn, abordarea cea mai cunoscut este
aceea din capitolul Limbajul medical, parte a unui excelent studiu
intitulat chiar Comunicarea, al lui Christian Baylon i Xavier Mignot
(La Communication, Nathan, Paris, 1994, tradus n limba romn n
2000, text la care trimitem, n continuare, prin sigla Baylon Mignot
2000).
De fapt, asupra acestei probleme Baylon i Mignot revin, nuanat, din
diferite unghiuri, n diferite capitole din seciunea a X-a (Limbaj i
comunicare medical) a monografiei lor, capitole intitulate semnificativ
Comunicarea medic bolnav, Informaia medical i Comunicarea scris
ntre medici.
Precizm, n plus, c, n cele ce urmeaz, n pofida a numeroase
aspecte ale domeniului pe care autorii citai le trateaz, deosebit de
interesante socio- i psiholingvistic, trebuie s renunm la discutarea
ncercrii acestora de a diagnostica, n principiu, funcia criptic prin
raportare la glisarea, n interrelaionarea lingvistic din mediul
medical, la diferite niveluri, de la argou, ca limbaj profesional, la
jargon, ca strategie de comunicare, n general urmrind ocultarea:
dorina de a ascunde o informaie ne-iniiailor ntr-o situaie de

comunicare propriu-zis; practicianul evit, prin intermediul
argoului, s spun direct pacientului un adevr prea dur, prin
intermediul unor termeni pe care acesta nu-i nelege (Baylon
Mignot 2000: 351, 352); dup autorii citai, exist, ns, i o sfer mai
larg a nelesului pentru conceptul funcie criptic: nsi
tehnicitatea unui limbaj oarecare i confer acestuia o funcie criptic
virtual, iar utilizatorilor o potenial putere (op. cit., p. 351).
Totodat, precizm faptul c tnrul nostru coleg Cristinel Munteanu
este principalul critic al punctului de vedere Baylon Mignot n ceea
ce privete aspecte de teoria limbii, n primul rnd cu privire la
plasarea discuiei respective, n special la nivelul analizei discur-
sului medical, iar nu al limbajului medical propriu-zis (cf. Munteanu
2010: 120; vezi i p. 123). Dar, evident, este vorba doar de o precizare
la care oblig redactarea unui text din perspectiva exigenelor, stricte,
ale lingvisticii de orientare coerian, ntruct celor doi autori nu le
este strin realitatea discursului medical; vezi, de exemplu, Baylon
Mignot 2000: 374375; ne confruntm cu analiza a dou tipuri de
discurs medical, n funcie de transmiterea informaiei.
0.3. Totui, desigur, dei avem n vedere mai ales un alt aspect i
un alt nivel al TMF (dat fiind faptul c ncifrarea funcioneaz pre-
ponderent la nivelul terminologiei specialitilor, iar transparena este
un aspect ce intervine n ceea ce privete redactarea aa-numitelor
texte de contact, aadar la nivelul discursului exogen), discuia
noastr se plaseaz n sfera general att a diferenelor de limbaj, ct i
a celor de discurs n domeniul respectiv.
1. Statutul lexicului specializat n spaii

discursive tipice (generaliti)
Din aceast perspectiv, relum o discuie privind comunicarea
endogen i exogen i din punctul de vedere al barierelor
lingvistice.
1.1. Discursul endogen. Cea mai larg perspectiv de abordare a

problemei anunate, cu raportare la tipul de comunicare respectiv, o
putem considera pe cea formulat ntr-o sentin, privind, n egal

msur, limitele limbajului, ct i cele ale facultii umane de cunoa-
tere, sentin devenit celebr, aparinndu-i lui Ludwig Wittgenstein,
din prima lui perioad: Die Grenzen meiner Sprache bedeuten die
Grenzen meiner Welt (Tractatus logico-philosophicus, 5.6). Aadar, n
termenii unei particularizri ad-hoc, ceea ce nu pot eu numi din
domeniul medical i farmaceutic, ca persoan, nici nu exist n lumea
mea i, astfel, diferite tipuri de bariere existente (sociale, de statut, de
rol, strategice i chiar emoionale) se manifest n plan lingvistic. n
consecin, s-ar prea c specialitii din domeniul respectiv i vorbitorii
limbii comune triesc n dou lumi virtuale diferite, dar, aa cum putem
uor admite, ntre acestea exist corespondene, datorit interferenelor
din realitate.
Lumea realiilor specialitilor este aceea reflectat prin discursul
endogen, cel care funcioneaz, perfect motivat, la nivelul cunoaterii
tiinifice, la cel al unei anumite circulaii interne a rezultatelor
cercetrii, al proiectrii producerii de bunuri de profil i al asigurrii
circulaiei primare a acestora. Discursul respectiv cunoate, n prin-
cipiu, trei ipostaze: discurs intra-disciplinar (de exemplu, enunuri ale
unui biolog ce exprim judeci i relaii, respectiv prin care acesta
face cunoscute rezultatele investigaiilor sale altor biologi), inter-
disciplinar (discurs care i pune n contact pe reprezentanii a diferite
domenii tiinifice cointeresate; n cazul de fa biologi, medici, chi-
miti, farmaciti) i trans-tiinific (un specialist aduce la cunotina
publicului fapte de interes general din domeniul tiinific; cf. Vron
1997: 2931).
Putem vorbi de comunicarea ce se plaseaz ntr-un cmp discursiv
sau, mai puin pretenios, ntr-un spaiu discursiv al specialitilor,
utiliznd vocabularul propriu unui mediu profesional.
Rezerva noastr terminologic din fraza precedent are n vedere faptul c
specialitii care au lansat conceptul de champ discursif, Dominique
Maingueneau i Pierre Bourdieu, au gndit aplicarea termenului mai ales
la domenii ale ideologicului; de exemplu, cu privire la coli filozofice sau
la curente politice (cf. Charaudeau Maingueneau 2002: 97; se trimite
ns la conceptul de champ scientifique, al lui Bourdieu; pornind de la
acelai sociolog, pentru conceptul simbolic de champ littraire, cf.
Joseph Jurt, La thorie du champ littraire et linternationalisation de la
littrature; /www.freidok.uni-freiburg.de.).
Numai n treact, trebuie s observm c, n pofida unor asemnri
privind discursul trans-tiinific i discursul exogen, ntre acestea
exist diferene de principiu: discursul trans-tiinific abordeaz teme

de interes general, ce nu au n vedere interesul de informare al unui
anumit consumator i atinge numai accidental parametrii unui text de
contact. Oricum, discursul trans-tiinific poate fi interpretat ca o
zon de tranziie ntre spaiul comunicrii endogene i cel al
comunicrii exogene.
Excurs. Iat, de exemplu, un caz privind riscurile asumrii, involuntare, n
mass-media, a unui discurs endogen intra- sau inter-disciplinar: un ziarist a
semnalat folosirea greit, n buletinul de tiri al canalului de televiziune
X..., a substantivului colposcopie, cu referire la un examen medical la care a
fost supus preedintele George W. Bush. Or, observ cronicarul tv,
colposcopie numete controlul medical al vaginului, pe cnd preedintele
SUA fusese supus unui examen al colonului (colonoscopie; C. R., n
Evenimentul zilei, 2.06.02, p. 15, sub titlul Vaginul lui Bush). Desigur,
observarea funciei metalingvistice a limbajului, de obligatorie decodare n
textul jurnalistic a termenilor tehnici de strict specialitate (ceea ce
presupune ns cunoaterea lor), l putea scuti pe jurnalist de impostura
involuntar.
1.2. Discursul exogen din perspectiv istoric. Faptul c n do-
meniile, conexe, ale medicinei i farmaciei, activitatea creatoare este
implicit o comand social, una chiar extrem de profitabil financiar
(n clasamente neoficiale, piaa medicamentelor ocupnd, alturi de
cea a alimentelor, a armamentului i a energiei, una din cele mai
importante poziii n economia mondial), constituie un motiv pentru
care performana comunicrii n spaiul discursiv propriu consu-
matorului prezint o necesitate vital. Aceast necesitate urmeaz, din
perspectiv antropologic, drumul de la tratamentul prin magie, secre-
tizat ca practici i ca limbaj, la tratamentul n care se recurge la cola-
borarea pacientului, respectiv n care este atent urmrit funcionarea
i explicarea ofertei n ceea ce privete remediile.
Avnd ca obiectiv principal preocuparea pentru sntatea public,
ncepnd, n linii generale mai ales din secolul al XIX-lea, fa de
consumatorii de produse farmaceutice, o mas neomogen economic,
social i cultural, numai parial instruit, s-a instituit o politic lingvis-
tic a accesibilitii TMF i de explicare a acesteia; o anumit preo-
cupare, n sfera cea mai larg a terminologiei farmaceutice, exist i n
contemporaneitate, dar n forme i din raiuni diverse.
1.2.1. Ca punct de plecare pentru explicarea terminologiilor
tiinifice, n general, trebuie s avem n vedere manifestri trzii ale
curentului iluminist, de cultivare, pe toate planurile, a unei populaii,
pentru asimilarea de cunotine din domenii ale tiinelor, atitudine

democratic continuat n epoca modern. Acestei orientri generale i
se datoreaz, printre altele, rspndirea tiinei de carte, iar, n pro-
vinciile romneti, traducerea de publicaii avnd ca obiectiv populari-
zarea de cunotine practice n cele mai variate domenii (pentru o
caracterizare general, cf. Ursu Ursu 2004: 11-12 i passim). Dat
fiind finalitatea cunoaterii, ptrunderea mprumutului neologic la
nivelul limbii literare este adesea nsoit, n textele respective, fie de
calchierea neologismului, fie de indicarea unor corespondente apro-
ximative, compuse pe terenul limbii romne, devenite, cu timpul,
denumiri comerciale, oferite uneori ca explicaii pentru cititor. Inten-
iile lmuritoare ale adaptrilor romneti, pentru un anumit public,
dar dup modelul originalelor din limbile francez, german, dar i din
alte limbi, sunt declarate chiar prin titlul crilor respective.
Cteva exemple: tefan Vasilie Episcupescul, Practica doctorului de
cas. Cunotina aprri a tmduiri boalelor brbteti, femeeti i
copilreti. C-o prescurtare de hirurgie, de materie medical i de
veterinerie, pentru doctor i norod, Bucureti, 1846; Dr. Pagliano, Arta
vindecrii, pentru prini, sau doctorul de cas, traducere din limba
german de S. Botez, Iai, 1861; B. Raspail, Manualul sntii sau
medicina i farmacia domestice, traducere de I. B[rezoianu], Bucureti,
1852 (apud Ursu Ursu 2004: 374, 395, 402; evidenierile grafice ne
aparin). n ceea ce privete ultimul titlu, acesta s-ar putea s se refere, de
fapt, la un alt autor, Franois Vincent Raspail, care a publicat, la
Bruxelles, n 1845, un Manuel annuaire de la sant ou Mdecine et
pharmacie domestiques).
Modelele generale sunt, aadar, lucrri de acelai profil aprute n
Frana, n Germania, sau n alte ri din Occident; spre informare
general, notm titluri de volume tiprite n Frana, n ultimele decenii
ale secolului al XIX-lea, ba chiar i la nceputul celui urmtor:
Auguste Corlieu de Saint-Vincent, Nouvelle mdecine des familles la
ville et la campagne..., Paris, 1866; vezi o nou ediie, Paris, 1894 (J.-B.
Baillire et fils diteurs); F. Siebert, Le Conseiller Mdical des Familles,
trait pratique de mdecine domestique, Paris, 1907 (Librairie J. - B.
Baillire & Fils; aadar, pare a fi un program de apariii al editurii
respective).
Iat numai cteva exemple, din adaptri n limba romn ale unor
texte dup originale de limb greac, ilustrnd comunicarea specia-
listului cu cititorul n ceea ce privete zona general a TMF: apar mai
ales nume de materii prime din compoziia medicamentelor, dar i

nume de boli:
[] Vrsatul spuzos scarlatina.... Ia floare de pucioas [pulbere de sulf,
obinut prin volatilizare sau sublimare], magnesie alb [oxid de
magneziu, folosit n medicin ca purgativ] i zahar, din cte trele cte do
dramuri... (Episcupescul 1846: 243, 246);
[] Boala sngerturii matchii menoraghia [varianta de origine
greceasc pentru menoragie afeciune a uterului...]... se ntmpin... i
cu luarea picturilor de scorioar, cte 30 de picturi ... ntr-o lingur cu
ap, sau de elicsir de vitriol [acid sulfuric] anglican [!]... ntr-o lingur cu
ap sau n ceaiu de mueel sau de coada oricelului rece... (ibidem, p.
271, 273).
Termeni populari, sinonime pentru denumirile tiinifice, sau alter-
nnd cu acestea, ca manifestri ale variaiei diastratice i chiar diato-
pice, apar i n texte care se adreseaz exclusiv specialitilor, dar,
aspect important, nu sunt prezente nume propriu-zise de medicamente,
ci textele cuprind, frecvent, denumiri de substane ce intrau n
compoziia acestora, sau nume de semipreparate de cas. Este ceea ce
putem constata, de exemplu, i n cazul seciunii (a VI-a) intitulate
Materia doctorilor, din volumul al doilea, cuprinznd preparaia
(facerea) a 500 reete, din repertoriul Encolpiul doctorilor seau
Medicina practic, traducere a postelnicului D. Cornea, tiprit la Iai
n 1849, dup un original grecesc avndu-l ca autor pe Dionisie Piru
Tesalianul. Prezentm textul ctorva reete [reproducem grafia
originalului]:
[] 468. Elisir cordial sau de inim. Metodul preparaiei. Ia ap
lambicat de melis (mtciune) i de scorioar, cte 24 dramuri, licor
anodin 5 dramuri, dulcea (mangiun) alchermes [?] 5 dramuri [...] sirup
de stevie (Rumecs acetosa) 25 dramuri; unete-le la un loc i ia la fie care
giumtate de ceas cu ap. Caracterul, fluid (curgtori) i mirositori. [...]
Doza (luarea), cte 10 dramuri luate n ap la fie-care ceas (Cornea 1849
/II/: 4);
[] 780. Beutur calmant (alintoare). Iea ap prefcut de mint 8
dramuri, de scorioar 16 dramuri, zeam de alme 8 dramuri, laudanu
(picturi de afion) 20 de picturi, sirop de mint 4 dramuri; punele n 50
dramuri ap i le ntrebuete. Puterea. Alintoare i opritoare vrsturei
(aptemetic). ntrebuinare. La vrstur (vomit), la rgitur, la colic
spasmodic (crceitoare) i la colica de care ptimesc zugravii. Doza. S
se iae cte puin i adese (Cornea 1849 /II/: 127).
n legtur cu prezena termenilor populari, de tipul vrstur

(glosat prin neologism), rgitur (rmas neglosat), sau adjectivele
alintoare (folosit ca glos pentru neologismul calmant), respectiv
crceitoare (folosit ca glos pentru spasmodic), ca i n legtur cu
denumirile unor boli ori resurse (substane solide sau lichide), trebuie s
observm c ei reprezint registrul normal al spaiului discursiv al
textului, cci autorii recurg la termeni de aceeai factur i n ceea ce
privete verbele sau adjectivele; vezi mai sus (a se) ntmpina a se
trata; (ap) prefcut (cu mint) preparat. Nu putem strui asupra
multiplelor probleme de lingvistica textului pe care cele dou reete le
pun n eviden, dar trebuie s ne oprim asupra unui caz privind statutul
neologismului; adjectivul cordial, explicat imediat prin de inim, este
translat din grecete (limba originalului) i din italian, cci numele
medicamentelor este dat n trei limbi, dup formula:

Elisire cordiale
Elisir cordial sau de inim.
Menionm c sensul referitor la inim, ca organ al corpului ome-
nesc al adjectivului n discuie nu apare n dicionarele limbii romne;
explicaia ntremtor, cu trimitere la domeniul medicinii i cu
precizarea ieit din uz, dat ca prim sens pentru adjectivul cordial, -
n MDA 2010: s.v., rezum o tratare (dezvoltat) dup DA 1940:
s.v.; citm, de aici, doar valoarea substantivat a adjectivului, avnd
sensul poiune cordial, cu trimitere la Piscupescu 1829: 230 (Cor-
dialuri cu miroase de cuioare). Cci sensul de baz al adjectivului n
DA este dat prin parafrazarea explicaiei din volumul Doctorul de
cas, sau Dicionarul sntii, al lui Vasile Bianu (prima ediie a
crii, din 1910), un text preluat aproape identic, n ediia a doua a
acesteia, ntr-un articol ce merit s fie citat (chiar fragmentar) pentru
exemplificarea discursului medical din lucrrile pentru publicul larg:
Cordial (butur) se zice de o poiune, sau butur, c este cordial,
atunci cnd ea are nsuirea de a ridica repede cldura general a corpului,
de a mri puterea inimii i a stomacului. ntre buturile cordiale se
numr toate vinurile bune i vechi (Cotnari, Drgani, Malaga, Madera,
Marsala, etc.), alcoolice (rom, rachiu, coniac, kirsch, diferite licoruri)
eterul, apele i licorurile de ment, melis, scorioar, ntr-un cuvnt
toate lichidele stimulente [...]. Sunt bune s se dea ca leac n toate cazurile
de slbiciune i sfreal, cum se ntmpl n urma unei emoiuni morale
foarte vii, dup un sdruncin mare fizic, la necai, la asfixiai, la rnii
(mai ales cei prin arm de foc), la ari, cnd sunt ameninai de lein
(sincop) (Bianu Glvan 1929: s.v.).
Iat i titlul unui manual de educaie medical de la sfritul
secolului al XVIII-lea, tiprit n Saxonia, cu formulri tipice n ceea ce
privete fenomenul de studiu:
Immanuel Stange, Der Hausarzt oder Anzeige der bewhrtesten

Hausmittel, und Anweisung sie zur Verhtung oder Heilung der
Krankheiten gehrig zu gebrauchen. Ein Handbuch fr Landgeistliche,
Hausvter und andere Personen, die an Orten leben, wo kein Arzt ist
(Leipzig, Liebeskind, 1797);
adic:
Doctorul de cas sau sfaturi asupra celor mai recunoscute leacuri i
ndrumri cu privire la prentmpinarea i vindecarea cuvenit a bolilor.
Un ndreptar pentru preoi de ar, capi de familie i pentru alte persoane
care triesc n locuri unde nu se afl doctor.
1.2.2. Pentru analiza pragmalingvistic a comunicrii n domeniul
medico-farmaceutic ntr-o etap mai veche, trebuie luat n consi-
derare, consecvent, problematica plurivalent a relaiilor, obligatorii n
practic, ntre specialist (practicnd un discurs endogen) i pacient
(fa de care este uzual discursul exogen, ca una dintre ipostazele
complianei farmaceutice). Principala problem de studiu privind
eficiena comunicrii privitoare la TMF o reprezint denominaia pro-
duselor farmaceutice, obiect, dintotdeauna, al unor cutume i uzane
de breasl (prezena unei terminologii puternic specializate, fatal
ncifrat). Pentru eficiena relaiilor ntre cei doi factori ai comu-
nicrii, a funcionat, ns, permanent, preocuparea pentru decodare,
ntr-un limbaj popular; la acest de al doilea nivel exist termeni
corespunztori, mai mult sau mai puin proprii, pentru a numi cele mai
multe boli i remedii; apropierea s-a realizat anterior, treptat, prin
ptrunderea termenilor tiinifici n limbajul popular. Persist ns
dou spaii discursive: cel al experienei comune i cel al tiinei.
Pe baza unor surse credibile, cum sunt dicionarele de tipul celor
intitulate Doctorul de cas (cf., de exemplu, Bianu Glvan 1929),
ne putem propune o comparaie ntre elementele de performan
comunicativ din etapa anterioar globalizrii i cea actual, pentru a
schia direcii i soluii de atenuare treptat a barierelor lingvistice
existente astzi.
Faza genuin a nelegerii denumirii calcul lingvistic i creaia pe

teren romnesc. Pentru a ilustra aceste procese lingvistice, ne limitm
la prezentarea unor exemple de echivalene terminologice din tradu-
ceri aparinnd celei de a doua jumti a secolului al XVIII-lea i
primei jumti a secolului al XIX-lea, dup monografia n care N.A.
Ursu studiaz formarea terminologiei tiinifice romneti, cu rapor-
tare la terminologia din dicionarul Bianu Glvan; prezentm ter-
menii pentru noiunile PURGATIV [I] i ANTIDOT [II]:
[I]
[A] Ursu 1962: 264
curenie; dohtorii curitoare; leacuri deerttoare
(purgative)
purgative (curenii); purgativ
Cf. lat. purgativus, germ. Purgativ, fr. purgatif.
[B] Bianu Glvan 1929: 228, 616
curenie caut la purgativ
purgativ, de la lat. purgare a curi, curenie.
[II]
[A] Ursu 1962: 148
antidoton, antidota, mineral antifarmc
anti-farmace (mpotriva otrvirei)
antifarmac, contra-otrav
Cf. ngr. , ; lat. antidotum, fr. antidote.
[B] Bianu Glvan 1929: 61
antidot (< gr. anti contra i dotos dat)
o substan este antidotul altei substane cnd nimicete
efectele acesteia....
2. Pragmatica studierii terminologiei

medico-farmaceutice din perspectiva
comunicrii specializate i ncifrarea
denumirii
2.1. Abordarea temei se nscrie ntr-o proiecie de studiu ce
consider TMF drept un domeniu lexical al limbii romne literare ca
instrument de comunicare specializat. Acest scop, ce poate fi atins

pornind de la investigarea discursurilor selectate din corpusuri de texte
de specialitate, din perspectiva elementelor de lingvistic a textului,
are ca obiectiv referirea la cele dou niveluri, din punctul de vedere al
pragmalingvisticii, la care ne-am referit anterior, i pe care le marcm,
n continuare, pentru a facilita trimiterile: [I] discursul endogen,
intradisciplinar (I1) i interdisciplinar (I2), de exemplu, cel dintre
farmaciti i medici (= I1), respectiv dintre acetia i chimiti sau
biologi (= I2), i [II] discursul exogen, cel al relaiilor dintre
farmaciti/medici i pacieni (II2).
Fa de rezerve care se manifest, cu oarecare insisten, n legtur cu
acest tip de analiz, inem s reamintim o definiie de factur general a
pragmaticii, considerat a fi studiul capacitii vorbitorilor de a comunica
mai mult dect ceea ce este explicit! De altfel, este interesant nsi
evoluia, n limba romn, a mprumutului aflat n relaie cu numele
domeniului respectiv; ngr. nseamn produs comercial,
marf i, cu sensul de lucrare, oper, pstrnd aadar sensul etimo-
nului, a fost nregistrat la Dimitrie Cantemir (DLR 1980, s.v. pragmate).
Dar, din acelai etimon (probabil n contexte din care substantivul a
absorbit semnificaii ale unor determinante depreciative disprute cu
timpul), se explic i pramatie, termen care, alturi de semnificaia neutr
fel, soi de om, are, prin extensie, valoarea peiorativ de persoan fr
caracter, cu purtri i apucturi rele, imoral etc., canalie, lichea (DLR
1980, s.v.; la un scriitor cu nalte studii teologice, probabil cunosctor de
greac, Mihai Lungianu, s-a notat o variant cu fonetismul din neogreac:
Pragmatia noastr [...] i urmeaz calea apucturilor din vechime, dnd
ctig celor care se scoal mai de diminea). De altfel, familia
neologismului a fost alimentat, periodic, prin elemente cu semnificaii
variate. De la nceputul secolului al XIX-lea dateaz adj. pragmatic care
privete sau urmrete aciunea, succesul, aspectul practic, utilitatea (cu
alunecare spre peiorativ, care judec, acioneaz n funcie de conside-
rente de conjunctur), mprumut cu etimologie multipl (origine neo-
greac, francez, german); ct despre pragmatism (subst.) i pragmatist
(adj. i subst.), acestea sunt nouti de origine francez; pe de alt parte,
este interesant de notat c n DLR 1980 nc nu era nregistrat subst.
pragmatic disciplin al crei obiect l constituie limba, privit nu ca
sistem de semne, ci ca aciune i interaciune comunicativ; ... lingvistic
a uzului (Bidu-Vrnceanu et alii 2001: s.v.), acesta mprumutat din
englez, respectiv din german.
Lsnd la o parte, pentru moment, diferitele categorii de medica-
mente, avantajate sau dezavantajate n grade diferite din perspectiva
nelegerii semnificaiei denumirii, din punctul de vedere al evoluiei
sistemului general de comunicare specialist public, trebuie s con-

semnm un fenomen de cel mai mare interes pentru contempo-
raneitate: n condiiile legiferrilor impuse de globalizarea economic,
exist reguli de opacizare a denumirilor noilor produse farmaceutice,
cu referire la indicii care, ntr-un fel sau altul, recomandau un anumit
medicament (scopul utilizrii, modalitatea administrrii etc.).
2.2. Putem constata c, n domeniul medico-farmaceutic, prin
legislaie i prin demersul practic, se manifest un important decalaj
ntre profilul terminologiei de specialitate i uzul comun, decalaj al
crui studiu poate contribui la optimizarea comunicrii; este o viziune
care impune ca obiectiv de cercetare comparaia limbaj pentru tiin /
limbaj pentru cunoatere, adic abordarea studierii limbajelor
specializate n raport cu utilizarea acestora n vorbirea comun, aa
cum este reflectat n interrelaionarea specialist vorbitor al limbii
comune, reprezentnd:
a) texte/discursuri de specialitate, la nivelul discursului endogen
(de tip I1 i I2) i
b) texte/discursuri prin care se transmit informaii din partea
specialitilor ctre vorbitorii limbii comune direct interesai (virtuali
pacieni), ca discurs exogen.
Fa de celelalte dou domenii terminologice la care ne-am referit
anterior (cf. 0.1), domeniul juridico-administrativ i al cultului reli-
gios, de asemenea de mare impact sociocultural, domeniul medico-far-
maceutic este cel n care funcioneaz constant, din imperativul efici-
enei n comunicarea public, cele dou paliere ale comunicrii repre-
zentate prin discursul endogen i cel exogen.
2.3. Specificul actual al denominaiei medicamentului; cadrul ge-
neral de reglementare a ncifrrii
Pentru studiul barierelor lingvistice care au aprut, n ultimele de-
cenii, prin mondializarea industriei i a pieei farmaceutice, ca rezultat
al legiferrilor internaionale, adoptate i n Romnia i producnd
efecte lingvistice importante, se impune investigat problematica a trei
categorii de nume:
[a] problematica denominaiei din perspectiva inventrii
medicamentului (= M);
[b] problematica denominaiei n faza prescrierii M n relaia
medic pacient;
[c] problematica denumirilor utilizate la nivelul desfacerii M n

farmacii.
Pentru determinarea nivelului de performan comunicativ, a
categoriei [a] de texte, reprezentnd inventarea i lansarea M,
analiza lingvistic presupune s fie luate n considerare efectele
reglementrilor terminologice, referitoare la criteriile:
M inovatoare []
M generice [], pentru care o problem de studiu de interes
deosebit este aceea a aa-numitelor denumiri-umbrel.
Studiul performanei denumirii dup criteriile interne ale dome-
niului impune considerarea textului legilor privind testele de vizi-
bilitate iar, pe de alt parte, a textelor oficiale de tipul Ghid privind
denumirea medicamentelor de uz uman (2008) etc. Constrngerile
ncifrrii pentru denumirea inventat pot fi urmrite pe baza inter-
pretrii interdiciilor cuprinse n schemele din Fig. 1 i Fig. 2, refe-
ritoare la Arborele de decizie, dup instruciuni ale Organizaiei
Mondiale a Sntii (WHO), pe care le publicm ca anexe.
Se poate constata c denumirea este respins, pe de o parte, dac exist
posibilitatea identificrii, cu privire la medicamente similare, a unei
asemnri n ceea ce privete forma scris i/sau verbal, innd cont de
contextul medical i/sau condiiile de utilizare i/sau calea de administrare,
iar, pe de alt parte, dac, n ceea ce privete remediile din aceeai clas
terapeutic sau dintr-o clas terapeutic diferit, denumirea inventat d
indicaii asupra unei probleme de sntate public, respectiv, iari, dac
exist posibilitatea identificrii unei asemnri innd cont de contextul
medical i/sau condiiile de utilizare sau calea de administrare! (atragem
atenia asupra formulrilor evideniate grafic prin italice).
Pentru faza [b], cercetarea terminologiei respective are n vedere
existena i funcionarea practic a reglementrilor impuse medicului
de familie, privitoare la conceptul Brand vs. DCI [= Denumire
Comun Internaional], cuprinse n documente care vizeaz:
prescrierea reetelor dup normele DCI;
prescrierea medicamentelor conform Contractului Cadru 2011;
regulile de bun practic farmaceutic etc.
Dat fiind faptul c studierea legislaiei referitoare la denumirile
medicamentului conduce spre constatarea c aceasta, fr s i se poat
imputa direct exacerbarea unei funcii criptice a limbajului, impune
folosirea unei terminologii strine i chiar rebarbative consumatorului
din Romnia; problematica investigrii, din perspectiva cunoaterii

spaiilor discursive, i poate propune ca obiective:
modul concret cum funcioneaz n plan social legislaia actual
referitoare la denominaia internaional a medicamentului;
procedeele decodrii termenilor din discursul endogen n
funcionarea relaiei denumire comercial vs. DCI.
2.4. Nu ne propunem s ne oprim, acum, asupra analizei nomen-
clatoarelor de specialitate strict actuale; o trecere n revist am fcut
pe baza unui Vademecum medicamentorum, publicat de Gheorghe
Dnil (Polirom, 1999): parcurgerea unui inventar ce cuprinde n jur
de 4500 de intrri (cuvinte i sigle-simboluri) conduce la constatarea
c cititorii cu o formaie tiinific medie i de oarecare cultur pot
recunoate, dup diferii indici, semnificaia a aproximativ 1% dintre
termenii de specialitate (Dumistrcel 2000; Dumistrcel et alii 2011a:
passim). n contemporaneitate, procentul este chiar inferior, cci TMF
romneasc se afl ntr-un proces radical de schimbare, ntr-o manier
caracteristic mondializrii domeniului n zona produciei i a pieei
medicamentului, accentundu-se existena i funcionarea a dou
paliere terminologice distincte n ceea ce privete comunicarea dintre
emitor i receptor; referina este la discursul endogen, devenit unul
internaionalizat, i la cel exogen, practicat de specialiti n comuni-
carea, obligatorie, cu beneficiarii obinuii ai tratamentului medica-
mentos. Prezint interes, pe de alt parte, studierea efectelor utilizrii
unei aa-numite lingua franca a farmaciei (avnd la baz denumirile
tiinifice ale principiilor active ale medicamentelor), care instituie,
pentru comunicarea uzual, bariere lingvistice insurmontabile.
Interesul nostru, ntr-o faz de proiectare a unei investigaii de
ansamblu, se ndreapt spre diversiunea pe care o reprezint, pentru
medicamentele propriu-zise [M], adevrata concuren, n ceea ce
privete contactul cu utilizatorii tratamentelor alternative [TA], repre-
zentate de aa-numitele produse naturiste, suplimentele nutritive sau
suplimentele alimentare, prezente n farmacii, un mediu comercial
n care se produce un transfer de imagine n favoarea produselor din
clasa TA.
n zona la care ne referim, transparena nu este oficial prohibit,
nici n ceea ce privete mesajul verbal, nici mesajul iconic, cu aciune
direct n ceea ce privete n primul rnd textele de contact repre-
zentate de ambalaje, prospecte i de publicitate (n cazul de fa
nefiind vorba de reete, un tip de texte de contact din spaiul discursiv
strict interdisciplinar, dat fiind faptul c n reete sunt nscrise numele

substanelor principii active, iar nu denumiri comerciale).
2.5. De la Anti-age la Hapciu!; scurt aplicaie pe texte de
contact
Dei descifrarea, la diferite niveluri ale competenei idiomatice,
este (mai precis: a fost) avut n vedere i favorizat i prin denumiri
ale produselor farmaceutice propriu-zise (de tipul Antinevralgic, No-
spa, Rytmonorm, Triferment etc.; cf. Dumistrcel 2000; Dumistrcel et
alii 2011a), iar o oarecare transparen poate fi identificat i la alte
medicamente de sintez (de tipul Fluimucil, Hemorzon, Torvacard,
Ascord, Cordarone; menionm faptul c toate denumirile citate n
continuare pot fi gsite pe internet), aceast trstur, manifestat
uneori chiar prin agresivitate verbal i iconic, este o dimensiune
esenial a denumirilor pentru remediile fitoterapeutice, naturiste, i
pentru aa-numitele suplimente.
Pentru produsele de diferite categorii, se contureaz trei situaii/
etaje ale explicitului, n funcie de receptor (de nivelul cultural al aces-
tuia), n discuie fiind, aadar, elemente ce in de variaia diastratic a
limbajului:
- : primul strat, hiperspecializat, care vizeaz un destinatar fami-
liarizat (sau numai presupus familiarizat) cu terminologia medico-
farmaceutic; cteva astfel de denumiri:
a) Helminon (antihelmintic; vezi elementul de compunere helmi-,
cu sensul referitor la helmini, denumire tiinific generic
pentru viermii parazii intestinali);
b) Colonhelp (detoxifiant; compusul este rezultatul sudrii a dou
cuvinte, din dou sfere lexicale diferite: colon-, care face parte din
terminologia de specialitate, cu sensul cunoscut, i un cuvnt
englezesc, din limbajul curent, -help ajutor);
c) Torvacard, Calmocard (ambele cu formantul -card [referitor
la] inim);
c) Ascord, Cordarone (ambele cu formantul cord inim).
n aceast categorie, ns din domeniul cosmeticelor, situndu-se n zona
apelului la competena expresiv bazat pe cunoaterea englezei, pot fi
plasate denumiri de studiat virtuozitate lingvistic: Anti-age (cf. Anti-
age, cosmetice anti-age, tratamente anti-age, dar i Anti-imbatranire;
/icosmetice.ro/ sau Anti-Hair Loss (cf. Intragen Anti Hair Loss Shampoo
/jurnalul de estetica.ro/; Wella Professionals Anti Hair Loss Serum

/beautybay.com/).
- : al doilea strat, intermediar (median), presupune un destinatar
mediu ca orizont socio-cultural, care poate decripta anumite elemente
de compunere aflate la baza denumirii comerciale a produsului,
acestuia fiindu-i accesibile numele tiinifice ale anumitor afeciuni
(implicarea competenei idiomatice):
a) artroz: Artrostop;
b) boli cardiovasculare: CardioBor, Hyper-cardio;
c) scleroz: Passisclerotin;
d) diabet: Fitodiab, Hyper-Diab, Normodiab;
e) boli ale aparatului urinar: Hyper-uro-renal, Urinal, Urinal Akut,
Urinal hot drink, Urisan, Uro-Magic;
f) afeciuni dermatologice: Viaderm complete, Viaderm skin
beauty, n special acnee: Acneogel, Acneon.
g) afeciuni ale ficatului: Hepastim, Hepatobil (ambele denumiri
fiind compuse care conin elementul hepa(to)- referitor la ficat;
n al doilea caz, avem i formantul bil, care trimite la bil);
- : nivelul elementar, cu trimitere la un utilizator fr studii (mai
mult sau mai puin aprofundate, care poate reine nume/neolo-
gisme/strinisme dup ureche); acest nivel este caracterizat de un
grad maxim de accesibilitate (se pot observa interferene cu denumiri
din [], n ceea ce privete competena expresiv):
a) cuvinte compuse, cu formani transpareni: Antistres, Artrostop,
Chelstop (pentru combaterea cheliei!), Calmoplant, Larvalbina,
Memoplus, Supliform, Tutunstop (n anii 30 din secolul al XX-lea se
difuzau reclame pentru un produs cu numele Lasfuma Vorel);
b) sintagme diverse explicite (Articulaii sntoase, Cartilaj de
rechin, Curarea ficatului, Mldie de rozmarin, Muguri de pin,
Protector hepatic, Silueta perfect, Tinctur de nalb);
c) cuvinte (sau mbinri) expresive, n care funcia fatic se
realizeaz prin apelul la dimensiunea ludic: Hapciu!, respectiv prin
plasarea n spaiul discursiv intim: Somn uor.
Dac majoritatea elementelor de compunere sugereaz afeciunea
pentru care se recomand respectivul remediu, ceilali formani, care
se preteaz la multiple combinaii cu cei din prima categorie, sunt de
multe ori cuvinte scurte (n limba romn sau n englez, eventual
francez) sau elemente de compunere (uneori create ad-hoc), toate

trimind la obiectivul vizat, care poate fi:
1. ncetarea/combaterea/tratarea strii patologice: anti- (Antistres),
-stop (Artrostop, Chelstop, Tutunstop), -non (Helminon [?]);
2. susinerea/ameliorarea strii de bine, optimizarea i stimularea
funciilor organismului: -stim- (Hepastim), plus (Memoplus),
normo- (Normodiab), help (Silhouette Help);
3. restabilirea echilibrului funcional: re- (Redigest), regl-
(Reglacid).
Uneori, n denumirea comercial a suplimentului alimentar poate fi
recunoscut numele firmei productoare sau un fragment din acesta:
Hyper(icum) (Hyper-cardio, Hyper-Diab, Hyper-uro-renal),
(Planta)Vorel (Tonic Vorel).
2.6. Virtuozitate privind funcia metalingvistic a limbajului;
funcia conativ
2.6.1. n textul de contact de pe ambalaj pot fi prezente pn la trei
niveluri de echivalare, tinznd spre transparen, a denumirii unuia i
aceluiai produs, ca n cazul Calmocard [1]. Calmant cardiac [2].
Contribuie la buna funcionare a inimii [3]:
[1]. Codarea uzual, semitransparent; termenul calmocard este
neles de un receptor avizat (prin formantul card-, element de
compunere care trimite la afeciunile cardiovasculare);
[2]. Explicitarea parial, constnd n completarea elementelor de
compunere (trunchiate) din denumirea comercial: calmant
cardiac;
[3]. Decriptarea complet, printr-o descriere n registru al vorbirii
curente (contribuie la buna funcionare a inimii).
2.6.2. Dac, n general, n ceea ce privete denumirile remediilor
fitoterapeutice seducia cumpartorilor-pacieni se bazeaz pe funcia
fatic a limbajului, de optimizare a contactului, se poate constata c,
frecvent, se apeleaz i la funcia conativ, ambiionndu-se, din
unghiul autoritii terapeutice, ptrunderea n spaiul discursiv
personal al utilizatorului, prin folosirea registrului adecvat: Amnai
moartea! (Tutunstop); S nvingem btrneea! (Passisclerotin).
2.6.3. Impactul iconicului. Mai mult dect n oricare alt domeniu al
discursului public, n zona publicitii pentru produsele farmaceutice
de tip naturist i a mesajelor de pe ambalajele acestora, este suveran
constatarea, din sfera semioticii empirice, dup care Mutu tie toate
limbile. Pentru spaiul discursiv n discuie, dintre cele trei sisteme
de semnalizare reprezentate de cuvnt, care ine de nivelul logic
(cognitivul), de imagine, care se adreseaz senzorialului (vizualul),
n legtur (dup I.P. Pavlov) cu nivelul artisticului (expresivitatea
figurilor, culoarea), acestea din urm au cel mai mare impact asupra
consumatorului de astfel de remedii pentru diferite tratamente mai la...
ndemn; ne referim la un consumator care nu apeleaz numaidect
la medic, ci se orienteaz n farmacie, influenat de mesajul subli-
minal transmis de textele de contact amintite, pentru produse creditate
i prin transferul de imagine pe care l reprezint nsi farmacia, ca
spaiu ce transmite siguran (se adaug, desigur, n unele cazuri, i
manipularea prin cuvnt; avem n vedere i un oarecare snobism,
ntreinut prin denumirile n limbi strine, de tipul Anti-age).
3. Concluzii de etap
3.1. Aciunile i activitile de politic lingvistic, pornind de la

considerarea problemei barierelor lingvistice i innd seama de exis-
tena i identificarea palierelor terminologice, la nivelul sistemelor de
idei, conduc spre constatarea unei deosebit de pronunate dinamici a
terminologiilor din domeniile de puternic impact sociocultural; situa-
iile i exemplele analizate ilustreaz poziionarea, pragmatic, ntre
ncifrare (paralel cu realitatea aa-numitei funcii criptice) i
transparen, aceasta din urm adesea de efect spectacular (cu feed-
back pur comercial).
Depirea barierelor lingvistice prin nsuirea sistematic, de ctre pa-
cieni, a codurilor specialitilor, adic a termenilor tiinifice pentru
afeciuni i tratamente (Marin-Omer: 2003), este o soluie iluzorie, de-a
dreptul fantezist.
3.2. Din perspectiv demografic i antropologic, putem constata,
de fapt, efecte lingvistice ale polarizrii populaiei, ca nivel socio-
cultural, dar mai ales economic: pturile defavorizate revin, ntr-un
cadru oarecum instituionalizat, la o practic obinuit, curent, aceea
a epocii tratamentelor primordiale, naturiste. Este, aceasta, o mani-
festare ce ne amintete, n fond, faza primordial a ngrijirii sntii,
pe baz de plante medicinale. n memoria limbii (romne) descoperim
exprimarea preuirii prin enunul frazeologic a umbla (dup ceva sau
dup cineva) ca dup iarba de leac, nsemnnd a cuta peste tot, cu

interes deosebit, imagine creia i putem aduga o meditaie a lui
Cantemir savantul, citat de Iuliu Zanne, n ale sale Proverbe ale
romnilor (V, p. 272): Doftorul bun tiina n cap, iar ierbile n cmp
le are. Pe de alt parte, aceste nceputuri ne sunt evocate de nsui
numele domeniului vieii sociale la care ne referim i al tiinei ce se
ocup de ngrijirea sntii: medicina. Termenul latinesc de la care
pornesc denumirile acesteia din limbile moderne, medica, era iniial
direct asociat cu plantele: sintagma medica herba nseamn iarb
[venit] din Media: este vorba de o regiune din zona Persiei, de unde
a fost adus n Grecia i lucerna (Medicago sativa), pe timpul lui
Alexandru cel Mare, zon din care s-a rspndit n Europa. Nu mai
puin semnificativ este, de altfel, un alt termen din memoria culturii
universale: lat. panacea (mprumut din grecete) a denumit o plant
imaginar, servind ca remediu universal; ca personificare, dup infor-
maii de profil enciclopedic, este nume al fiicei lui Esculap, o zei
atotvindectoare, ce folosea plantele.
Bibliografie
A. Surse
Encolpiul doctorilor seau Medicina practic (traducere de postelnicul D. Cornea/,
cuprinznd preparaia (facerea) a 500 reete, tomul II, Iaii, Tipografia: Institutul
Albinei, 1849.
Episcupescul, tefan Vasilie, Practica doctorului de cas. Cunotina aprri a
tmduiri boalelor brbteti, femeeti i copilreti. C-o prescurtare de hirurgie,
de materie medical i de veterinerie, pentru doctor i norod. n tipografia
Colegiului Sf. Sava, Bucureti [vezi i Piscupescu], 1846.
Piscupescu, tefan Vasilie, Oglinda sntii i a frumuseii omeneti.
Mijloace i leacuri de ocrotirea i de ndreptarea stricciunilor. Alctuit i
ntocmit spre folosul neamului romnesc, Tipografia de la Cimea, Bucureti,
1829.
B. Exegeze
Baylon, Christian; Mignot, Xavier, Comunicarea, traducere de Ioana Ocneanu i Ana
Zstroiu, Iai, Editura Universitii Alexandru Ioan Cuza, 2000.
Bianu, Vasile; Glvan, Ioan, Doctorul de cas sau Dicionarul sntii, mpodobit cu
500 chipuri i vorbind despre structura i funciunile organelor omului, []
medicamente, plante medicinale, pansamente [...], Cluj, Institutul de Arte Grafice
Cartea Romneasc S.A., 1929.
Bidu-Vrnceanu, Angela; Clrau, Cristina; Ionescu-Ruxndoiu, Liliana; Manca,
Mihaela; Pan-Dindelegan, Gabriela, Dicionar general de tiine tiine ale
limbii, Nemira, Bucureti, 2001.
Charaudeau, Patrick; Maingueneau, Dominique, Dictionnaire danalyse du discours,

ditions du Seuil, Paris, 2002.
Dicionarul limbii romne, tomul I, partea II: litera C, Tipografia ziarului
Universul, Bucureti, 1940.
Dicionarul limbii romne (DLR), Serie nou, Tomul VIII, Partea a 4-a, Litera P
/pogrijenie presimire, Editura Academiei, Bucureti, 1980.
Dumistrcel, Stelian, Paliere terminologice, n Cronica, XXV, 2000, nr. 1, 2000.
Dumistrcel, Stelian, Paliere terminologice din perspectiva stilurilor i a limbajelor
funcionale; discurs endogen, n vol. Limbajul publicistic romnesc din
perspectiva stilurilor funcionale, Iai, Institutul European, 2006.
Dumistrcel, Stelian; Stoica, Dan; Dumistrcel, Irina, Barrires linguistiques,
notamment au niveau terminologique, dans des domaines de communication
grand impact socio-culturel. Approche pragmalinguistique, comunicare la
Confrence internationale La formation en terminologie, organizat de
Academia de Studii Economice Bucureti, n colaborare cu Association
Europenne de Terminologie (3-4 noiembrie 2011), sub tipar n lucrrile
Conferinei.
Dumistrcel, Stelian; Hreapc, Doina; Botoineanu, Luminia, Variaia diastratic i
variaie diafazic n comunicarea specializat: paliere terminologice, comunicare
la Conferina Internaional Lexic comun / lexic specializat frazeologie,
stilistic, traductologie (Ediia a IV-a, Galai, 15-16 septembrie 2011); n curs de
publicare.
Dumistrcel, Stelian; Hreapc, Doina; Botoineanu, Luminia, Bariere lingvistice i
conceptul Pharmaceutical Compliance, comunicare la Al 11-lea Colocviu
Internaional al Departamentului de Limba Romn de la Universitatea Bucureti:
Limba romn: direcii actuale n cercetarea lingvistic (910 decembrie 2011).
Marin-Omer, Ioana, The Role of Medical Special Code and Slang in Communication
between Doctor and Patient in Oncology Departments, n vol. Limba i vorbitorii
(editat de Tatiana Slama-Cazacu), Editura Arvin-Press, Bucureti, 2003.
Micul dicionar academic, vol. I, literele A-Me, Editura Univers Enciclopedic Gold,
Bucureti, 2010.
Munteanu, Cristinel, Reflecii privind funcia criptic a limbajului medical, n
Limba romn (Chiinu), XX, nr. 1-2, 2010.
Ursu, N.A., Formarea terminologiei tiinifice romneti, Editura tiinific,
Bucureti, 1962.
Ursu, N.A; Ursu, Despina, mprumutul lexical n procesul modernizrii limbii romne
literare (17601860), [vol. I], Studiu lingvistic i de istorie cultural, Editura
Cronica, Iai, 2004.
Ursu, N.A.; Ursu, Despina, mprumutul lexical n procesul modernizrii limbii
romne literare (17601860), vol. II, Repertoriu de cuvinte i forme, Editura
Cronica, Iai, 2006.
Vron, liso, Entre l'pistmologie et la communication, CNRS Editions, Paris,
1997.
C. Reglementri, legislaie
Ghid privind exprimarea concentraiei n denumirea comercial a medicamentelor de
uz uman (2010).
Hotrrea Consiliului tiinific al Asociaiei Naionale a Medicamentului i Dispo-

zitive Medicale, nr. 2/29.02.2008: Ghidul privind denumirea medicamentelor de
uz uman.
Id., Anexa 1: abordarea problemelor referitoare la denumirile comune internaionale
(DCI) n cadrul denumirilor inventate propuse (DI).
Ordin nr. 75/2010 pentru aprobarea Regulilor de bun practic farmaceutic.
Ordinul Ministerului Sntii din 1 aprilie 2009 privind prescrierea reetelor pe DCI.
Reglementri privind modalitatea de gestionare a propunerilor de denumiri comerciale
tip umbrel i alte denumiri comerciale pentru medicamentele de uz uman n
raport cu denumiri ale suplimentelor alimentare, ale produselor cosmetice i ale
dispozitivelor medicale (2012).
Regulamentul de prescriere medicamente din Contractul Cadru 2011, anexa 30.
Figura 1. PROPUNERE DE ARBORE DE DECIZIE [1]
DI
[XXXXX]
Similaritate
DCI al medicamentului n DCI diferit

cauz
[YYYYY]
Identificarea unei asemnri a Identificarea unei asemnri a formei scrise

formei scrise i/sau verbale i/sau verbale innd cont de contextul
medical i/sau condiiile de utilizare i/sau
calea de administrare
Da NU Da NU
Respingere DI ACCEPTARE Respingere DI ACCEPTARE

Figura 2. PROPUNERE DE ARBORE DE DECIZIE [2]
Denumirea inventat care conine fraciune de DCI

XXX (DCI)
xxx
Recomandarea OMS de
amplasare a fraciunii
NU
DA
Aceeai clas terapeutic Clas terapeutic diferit
Identificarea unei probleme de Identificarea unei similariti de context

sntate public medical i/sau condiii de utilizare i/sau cale
de administrare
DA NU DA NU
Respingere DI Acceptare DI Respingere DI Acceptare DI Acceptare DI

Fenomenul analogiei i lingvistica
contemporan: de la incriminare la reabilitare
Ionel Apostolatu
Abstract: Starting from the remark that the whole linguistic tradition made
use of the "services" of analogy, in one way or another, explicitly or
implicitly, even if there were not always convergent views on the nature of
this phenomenon and on its effects within the language, our paper presents
the attitude of modern linguistics, in the second half of the 20th c., towards
analogy as a linguistic organizing and creative factor. We are interested
especially in analyzing the way in which the problem of analogy was handled
by the representatives of two important linguistic trends: generativism and
cognitivism. Thus, if in the first case we can speak of an attitude of rejection
and even denial of the importance of analogy in grammar, minimizing its
effects even within the processes of language change, in the second case, the
role and importance of the analogy phenomenon in the language functioning
and organization will be re-evaluated and positively appreciated.
Keywords: analogy, generativism, cognitivism, linguistic creativity.
Noiunea de analogie a jucat un rol foarte

important n gndirea lingvistic tradiional, att n cercetrile dia-
cronice, ct i n abordrile de tip sincronic, i, n special, sructuralist,
ale limbajului. n perspectiv diacronic, analogia este principiul (de
ordin psihic, spiritual) ce contrabalanseaz efectele, uneori nedo-
rite, ale factorilor (materiali, mecanici) de schimbare fonetic. Sub
aspect sincronic, analogia este fora centripet ce asigur coeziunea i
regularizarea structurilor paradigmatice (ale sunetelor, ale morfemelor
gramaticale, ale lexicului sau ale tiparelor enuniaive), constituind,
astfel, un factor de organizare i de ntrire a caracterului sistematic al
limbii, prin generalizarea unor tipare ce formeaz baza activitii vor-
birii ca activitate liber i creatoare. Un alt domeniu n care a fost
subliniat importana analogiei este cel al psiholingvisticii [1], n special
n latura sa ce are ca obiect de investigaie achiziia limbajului de ctre
copii, proces n cadrul cruia se poate observa cel mai bine ceea ce se
cheam creativitate analogic (vezi Itkonen, Analogy, p. 67).
Putem afirma, fr niciun fel de reinere, c istoria conceptului de

analogie, ne arat clar c ntreaga tradiie lingvistic s-a servit, ntr-un
fel sau altul, explicit sau implicit, de serviciile acestui fenomen,
chiar dac nu au existat ntotdeauna preri convergente cu privire la
natura acestui fenomen sau la efectele sale asupra limbii. Aproape toi
marii lingviti, ntemeietori de coal i metod sau lideri de curente i
direcii, de la Humboldt i Bopp, la Paul i Bral, de la Saussure i
Vossler, la Sapir i Bloomfield sau de la Bally i Vendryes la Martinet
i Kuryowicz, pentru a nu enumera dect civa dintre montrii
sacri ce au marcat istoria lingvisticii, toi s-au raportat la analogie ca
la un principiu fundamental n limb, evideniind (prin analiz
introspectiv sau empiric) o serie de trsturi ale acesteia [2].
O atitudine exact opus se manifest, n a doua jumtate a secolului
XX, n cadrul curentului cunoscut sub numele de generativism, al crui
fondator, lingvistul i filozoful american Noam Chomsky, neag impor-
tana analogiei n gramatic i minimalizeaz efectele acesteia chiar n
procesele de schimbare lingvistic (vezi Itkonen, Analogy, pp. 68-75;
Lepage, De lanalogie, pp. 70-78).
mbinnd metoda distribuional cu unele teorii din logica formal
i din cibernetic, i recupernd principiile de descriere universal-
logic a limbajului din gramaticile generale (de tipul Gramaticii de la
Port Royal), dar i ideile cu privire la caracterul creator al limbajului,
pe linia Humboldt Sapir Whorf, lingvistica chomskyan restabi-
lete direcia mentalist n lingvistic, intrat nt-un con de umbr
dup succesul structuralismului bloomfieldian (vezi Frncu, Curente
i tendine, p. 98).
Dei doctrina sa lingvistic a suferit, de-a lungul timpului, o serie
de revizuiri i re-formulri sau re-definiri, fundamental rmne ne-
legerea limbii ca proces generativ (deci dinamic). Chomsky pleac de
la distincia competen performan (oarecum echivalent distinc-
iei saussuriene langue parole), afirmnd c scopul oricrei analize
lingvistice este s descrie competena lingvistic a vorbitorului nativ
ideal i s gseasc mijloacele de a distinge enunurile gramaticale
(= corect formate) dintr-o limb de cele negramaticale (= incorecte
sau nereperabile). Gramatica unei limbi trebuie astfel conceput, nct
s cuprind totalitatea regulilor necesare i suficiente generrii tuturor
enunurilor gramaticale posibile n limba respectiv. Aceste reguli au
caracter inductiv i implic existena unor modele sau tipare de
enunare, pe care un vorbitor le poate recunoate ca aparinnd limbii
sale i n conformitate cu care poate, la rndul su, s genereze o
infinitate de enunuri gramatical corecte (= reperabile n limb).

Noiunea de competen este strns legat de aceea de creativitate a
limbajului, numai c, n realitate, aa cum remarc G. Mounin, ceea
ce Chomsky numete aspect creator al limbajului este aptitudinea
subiectului vorbitor de a genera un numr infinit de fraze pe care nu
le-a mai auzit vreodat (Mounin, Istoria, p. 289). Performana,
dimpotriv, este punerea n practic a competenei, respectiv materia-
lizarea sistemului limbii n acte de vorbire. n performan pot aprea
devieri de la regulile existente care duc la schimbri i n competen.
Prin importana acordat creativitii limbajului, corelat cu ideea
de model (engl. pattern), s-ar prea, la prima vedere, c Chomsky
apreciaz pozitiv rolul analogiei n procesul generativ ce st la baza
formrii competenei. Cel puin, acesta este punctul de vedere pe care
l susine n lucrarea sa de doctorat, Transformational Analysis (1955):
A primary motivation for this study is the remarkable ability of any

speaker of a language to produce utterances which are new both to him
and to other speakers, but which are immediately recognizable as
sentences of the language. We would like to reconstruct this ability within
linguistic theory by developing a method of analysis that will enable us to
abstract from a corpus of sentences a certain structural pattern, and to
construct, from the old materials, new sentences conforming to this
pattern, just as the speaker does (apud Itkonen, Analogy, p. 68; .a.).
(O prim motivaie a acestui studiu o constituie remarcabila capacitate a
oricrui vorbitor al unei limbi de a produce enunuri care se prezint ca noi att
pentru sine, ct i pentru oricare alt vorbitor, dar care sunt imediat recunoscute
ca aparinnd acelei limbi. Ne propunem s proiectm acest abilitate n cadrul
unei teorii lingvistice, prin elaborarea unei metode de analiz ce ne-ar permite
ca, pe baza unui corpus de propoziii, s degajm un anumit tipar structural, n
conformitate cu care s construim noi propoziii din materialul deja existent,
exact aa cum procedeaz i vorbitorul; trad. n., I.A.).
La scurt vreme ns, n prima sa lucrare care l-a consacrat,

Syntactic Structures (1957), Chomsky i clarific poziia fa de ana-
logie, afirmnd c gramatica unei limbi nu se descoper, n sensul
c nu putem furniza metode prin care s deducem gramatica din date
lingvistice, i, de vreme ce astfel de metode, dac ar exista, s-ar baza
pe analogie (sau inducie), rezult de aici c nu avem nevoie de ana-
logie pentru a oferi explicaii lingvistice (vezi Chomsky, Syntactic, p.
52-56). Aceast ideee a fost reluat mai trziu, att n Aspects of the
Theory of Syntax (1965), ct i n Knowledge of Language: Its Nature,
Origin, and Use (1986). n aceast din urm lucrare (tradus i n

romnete), Chomsky critic prerea standard care circulase pn
atunci cu privire la procesul de nsuire a limbii, vzut ca un caz clar
de analogie sau de supranvare. n replic, el propune teoria
inneist, respectiv a cunoaterii nnscute a limbii: copilul
dispune de la natere de un mecanism lingvistic nnscut numit
linguistic acquisition device (L.A.D.) acelai pentru toat lumea i
supus dezvoltrii, ns nu n baza analogiei, ci, mai degrab, ca o
consecin a maturizrii fizio-psihlogice. De altfel, ar fi dificil de
explicat n alt mod acest proces, de vreme ce copilul nu dispune nc
de suficiente date lingvistice care s-i asigure o baz pentru desf-
urarea operaiilor de generalizare analogic presupuse a sta la ori-
ginea nelegerii i producerii de enunuri complexe. n concluzie,
Par a exista slabe sperane de a explica cunotinele noastre n termenii

unor idei cum sunt analogia, inducia, asociaia, procedurile eficiente,
motivele ntemeiate sau justificate, luate n vreun sens general util, sau n
termeni de mecanisme generalizate de nvare (dac exist aa ceva)
[...]. S-ar prea c este bine s concepem cunoaterea limbii ca pe o anu-
mit stare minii/creierului, un element relativ stabil al strilor mentale
tranzitorii, odat ce este atins; mai mult, ca pe o stare a unei faculti dis-
tincte a minii facultatea de limbaj cu proprieti, structur i organiza-
re specifice, un modul al minii [3] (Chomsky, Cunoaterea, p. 25).
Aa cum remarc Itkonen (Analogy, p. 70 .u.), aversiunea genera-

tivismului chomskyan fa de analogie vine din interpretarea personal
pe care Chomsky a dat-o conceptului de creativitate a limbajului, con-
cept care, ntr-un fel sau altul, se afl la baza ntregii teorii a gramaticii
generativ-transformaionale. Aceast creativitate e limitat la sintax
i, mai mult dect att, se refer strict la aptitudinea vorbitorului de a
produce i a nelege instantaneu fraze noi, neasemntoare cu cele pe
care le-a mai auzit nainte, nici n sens fizic, nici n termeni de
patterns (cf. Mounin, Istoria, p. 285).
Se poate vedea clar c aceast creativitate n sens chomskyan vrea
s justifice, de fapt, legtura dintre sintaxa generativ i capacitatea
vorbitorului de a inova n limitele competenei sale. Chiar i aa, a fi
inovator n sensul propus de Chomsky nu reprezint altceva, i, deci,
nu intr n contradicie cu nelegerea tradiional a funcionrii ana-
logice a limbajului, de vreme ce capacitatea de a forma noi combinaii
dotate cu sens se bazeaz, n orice limb, pe tipare structurale
preexistente i, mai mult dect att, pe materialul de limb preexistent
(n sensul c nu poate fi inventat chiar totul, pn la morfemele

gramaticale, de pild [4]). Dac concedem totui s vorbim despre o
creativitate sintactic n sens generativist, atunci aceast creativitate
nu difer cu nimic de cea a sintaxei bloomfieldiene, or, n cazul lui
Bloomfield, este clar c avem a face cu fora analogiei.
n ultima perioad, rolul i importana fenomenului analogiei n
organizarea i funcionarea limbajului va fi reevaluat i apreciat pozitiv n
cadrul studiilor de lingvistic cognitiv fundamentate, n deceniile 7-8 ale
secolului trecut, de Wallace Chafe, Charles Fillmore, George Lakoff,
Ronald Langacker, Leonard Talmy sau Gilles Fauconnier.
Lingvistica cognitiv este o coal modern de lingvistic aprut
relativ recent ca reacie mpotriva abordrilor de tip formalist ale
limbajului ce au proliferat n a doua jumtate a secolului XX, mai ales
dup succesul nregistrat de gramatica generativ de tip chomskyan.
Descris adesea mai degrab ca o micare ori ca un proiect sau
program, dect ca o teorie lingvistic unitar i specific, lingvistica
cognitiv aaz n centrul preocuprilor sale ipoteza relaiei dintre
cunoaterea uman i limbaj, pornind de la premisa c limbajul
reflect structuri sau tipare (engl. patterns) ale gndirii umane.
Limbajul funcioneaz ca o cale de acces, o fereastr ctre meca-
nismele cunoaterii, oferind o imagine asupra naturii, structurii i
organizrii universului mental. Studiul limbajului devine, astfel,
studiul tiparelor de gndire i conceptualizare. O astfel de abordare
poate asigura o mai bun nelegere a unor realiti lingvistice, precum
funcionarea sau achiziia limbajului (n sensul nsuirii competenelor
de comunicare) sau creativitatea limbajului. Negnd ipoteza
chomskyan a cunoaterii nnscute a limbii, sau existena unor
module ale cunoaterii, lingvistica cognitiv postuleaz legtura
strns dintre cunoaterea limbii i uzul ei. Totodat, se afirm c nu
putem separa cunoaterea limbii de alte forme de cunoatere uman
care opereaz cu concepte. Prin urmare, gramatica unei limbi trebuie
neleas n termeni de conceptualizare, ceea ce nseamn c tiina
formelor i fenomenelor lingvistice (de tipul fonemelor, morfemelor,
enunurilor, sensul, metafora, metonimia etc.) are o natur conceptual
[5]. n msura n care limbajul este o facultate a cunoaterii,
lingvistica cognitiv i propune s caute corespondene ntre gndirea
conceptual, experien i structura lingvistic, n ncercarea de a
descoperi coninuturile reale ale cunoaterii (Croft & Cruise,
Cognitive Linguistics, p. 1).
O alt ipotez fundamental n multe concepii cognitiviste este

reprezentaionalismul (Reboul & Moeschler, Pragmatica, p.57), care
consider c procesele mentale sunt esenial bazate pe prelucrrile
simbolice. Se vorbete de stri mentale, care pot fi reproduse, re-pre-
zentate prin structuri simbolice i conceptuale. Limbajul folosete
structuri conceptuale mprtite, convenionalizate de vorbitorii unei
comuniti lingvistice.
Ca form de organizare a cunoaterii i modalitate de transfer a
cunotinelor umane, analogia a fost implicat, mai nti, n domeniul
semanticii cognitive. Aa-numita teorie a metaforei conceptuale,
fundamentat de George Lakoff i Mark Johnson n studiul Metaphors
We Live By (1980) i dezvoltat, ulterior, n numeroase alte studii,
postuleaz existena unor universalii ale procesului de metaforizare, n
sensul c la baza limbajului metaforic se situeaz un sistem con-
ceptual, ce reflect anumite tipare de gndire aflate n strns legtur
cu experiena uman de zi cu zi. Cei doi autori discut problemele
metaforizrii n legtur cu modelele cognitive, cu imaginile-
scheme preconceptuale care structureaz experiena noastr, imagini
care sunt de tipul conintor (engl. conteiner) coninut, parte
ntreg, centru periferie, n fa n spate, sus jos, surs cale
scop etc. Mai mult dect att, metaforele nu sunt arbitrare, ci motivate
de structuri care se bazeaz pe experien noastr, n nelegerea
conceptelor un rol fundamental revenind corpului uman (cf. engl.
embodiment), care focalizeaz experienele n lume. Astfel, alegerea
unui anumit domeniu conceptual pentru desemnarea unei realiti-
int (engl. target) nu se fac la ntmplare, ci potrivit unui anumit tip
de experien, care genereaz un anumit tip de transfer analogic (de
exemplu, metaforele corpului omenesc, metaforele spaiului, ale
timpului, ale relaiilor sociale etc.). Ca mecanism cognitiv, transferul
analogic se bazeaz pe similaritatea dintre o problem cunoscut, ale
crei strategii i proceduri rezolutive sunt stocate n memorie
(reprezentnd, deci, sursa de informaii), i o problem actual, nou,
ce se cere rezolvat (= inta).
Metafora este, prin urmare, nu doar o problem de limbaj,
respectiv de mnuire a cuvintelor, ci reprezint un proces cognitiv
complex, bazat pe experien i transfer analogic: The essence of
metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms
of another (Lakoff & Johnson, Metaphors, p. 5). Vzut astfel, meta-
fora nu mai constituie doar un simplu ornament, apanaj al retoricii i
al limbajului poetic figurativ, ci devine nsui fundamentul cunoaterii
umane, ntregul proces al gndirii opernd cu metafore conceptuale
[6]. Metaforele transcend, deci, zona lingvisticului (ca spaiu n care
dobndesc expresie material), fiind, de fapt, ipostazieri ale unor

concepte mentale fundamentale care ne permit s modelm realitatea
[7]. Metafora ca expresie lingvistic este posibil tocmai graie
existenei unei activiti metaforice la nivelul sistemului conceptual al
unui individ: In all aspects of life, ... we define our reality in terms of
metaphors and then proceed to act on the basis of the metaphors. We
draw inferences, set goals, make commitments, and execute plans, all
on the basis of how we in part structure our experience, consciously
and unconsciously, by means of metaphor (Ibid., p. 158). De aceea, a
spune c trim ntr-o lume a metaforelor, nu este doar o... metafor.
Aa-numitele metafore de zi cu zi, metaforele cotidiene, ale realitii
imediate, sunt nu doar mult mai numeroase dect metaforele izvorte
din imaginaia poetic, dar ofer, n plus, o cale de acces ctre
nelegerea naturii metaforice a conceptelor care structureaz acti-
vitile noastre zilnice: Since metaphorical expressions in our
language are tied to metaphorical concepts in a systematic way, we
can use metaphorical linguistic expressions to study the nature of
metaphorical concepts and to gain an understanding of the metaphorical
nature of our activities (Ibid., p. 7).
Categorie semantic fundamental, polisemia reflect, la rndul ei, o
organizare conceptual, n cadrul creia cuvintele reprezint categorii
radiale. O categorie radial este structurat n jurul unui prototip
complex, aflat n relaie cu o mulime de alte uniti de neles sau sensuri.
n concepia lui George Lakoff (Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things:
What Categories Reveal About the Mind, 1987), categoriile conceptuale
de tip lexical prezint urmtoarea organizare: sensurile cu caracter
prototipic mai pronunat se situeaz mai aproape de centru, n vreme ce
sensurile mai slab prototipice au o poziie periferic (apud Evans &
Green, Cognitive Linguistics, pp. 331-332):
Sensurile periferice deriv din sensurile prototipice prin intermediul

unor mecanisme cognitive ce asigur extensia semantic, incluznd aici
metafora conceptual i transformrile imaginilor-schem. Aceste meca-
nisme duc la extensia sistematic a categoriilor lexicale, rezultnd astfel o
nlnuire de sensuri. Aa ia natere polisemia: o reea semantic la
nivelul unei singure uniti lexicale, ce const din mai multe sensuri
legate ntre ele. O reea semantic poate fi alctuit dintr-un numr de
sensuri distincte, cu o poziie periferic, a cror relaie cu prototipul e mai
puin evident, dar a cror apariie nu e mai puin motivat de meca-
nismul cognitiv general, bazat pe transfer analogic.
n studiul The Body in the Mind (1987), pornind de la conceptul de
embodiment [8], Mark Johnson susine c experienele fizice n care este
implicat corpul nostru determin apariia unor imagini-schem n
cadrul sistemului conceptual. Aceste imagini-schem nu reprezint dect
un analogon al experienelor noastre perceptive i senzoriale. Ca
analogon, ele reflect experienele noastre imediate ntr-o manier
holistic, integratoare.
Pentru gramatic [9], aplicaiile analogiei se refer la existena unor
scheme mentale de construcie gramatical rezultate din experiena
individual de comunicare ce alctuiesc o reea complex de simboluri
i concepte gramaticale, raportate la situaiile care le-au creat i care
alctuiesc mpreun ceea ce se poate numi o gramatic mental (engl.
mental grammar). Schemele mentale sau tiparele de construcie cu caracter
general nu au o existen independent de modelele concrete care le-au
generat, ele regsindu-se n interiorul aceluiai inventar lingvistic. Singura
diferen ar consta n gradul de acoperire semantic. De exemplu, schema
pentru nume de agent se afl n legtur cu anumite exemple concrete,
precum i cu alte scheme (ca de pild cea pentru pluralul masculinelor,
cea a clasei substantivului n general etc.), mpreun alctuind o reea de
scheme, tipare i fapte concrete de limb:
a) Nume de agent (ex.: croitor, lupttor, vopsitor)
[obiect [PROCES/ ...] [TOR/-tor]]
b) Pluralul substantivelor masculine (iubitori, oameni, lupi)
[obiect [OBEICT/ ...] [MASCULIN PLURAL/ -i]
V-tor
V -tor
Schema numelui de agent adaptat dup Langacker (apud Evans & Green,
Cognitive Linguistics, p. 593).
Potrivit teoriilor din gramatica cognitiv, schemele de construcie

exercit o serie de constrngeri, care oblig la conformitate orice
creaie lingvistic. Dup Langacker, aceste scheme permit vorbitorului
s recunoasc un tipar, pentru ca, apoi, prin analogie cu acesta, s
evalueze corectitudinea formal a unei construcii noi. De exemplu,
urmtoarele uniti, pe care le recunoatem uor ca perechi, i care, la
nivelul gramaticii mentale, ca reea de scheme i de forme, se afl n
strns conexiune: asculta asculttor, boteza boteztor, cerceta
cercettor, demola demolator, evalua evaluator etc., au dat natere
schemei numelui de agent discutate anterior, schem care pune la
dispoziia vorbitorului un tipar de formare, astfel c, prin analogie, el
poate deriva i alte nume de agen similare, validate de schem,
precum brfitor, examinator, jefuitor etc. [10]. Desigur, ideea c orice
creaie lingvistic este supus restriciilor dictate de scheme i tipare
nu se limiteaz doar la domeniul construciilor lexicale, putnd fi, la
fel de bine, aplicat i construciilor propoziionale, n sintax.
Fora analogiei este la fel de mare n diacronie, ca i n sincronie.
n tradiia gramaticii istorice, lingvistica cognitiv recunoate rolul
important al analogiei n flexiune, acolo unde este responsabil, n
bun msur, de schimbrile care apar n paradigma cuvintelor, fie ca
urmare a unei presiuni intraparadigmatice, fie sub presiunea exercitat
de alte paradigme cu care prezint anumite puncte comune, scopul
fiind acela de a obine paradigme mai regulate i mai simple. Chiar
dac astfel de schimbri nu se produc cu necesitate (ca dovad c
unele neregulariti se transmit fr niciun fel de modificare, mai
ales dac e vorba de cuvinte cu frecven ridicat), atunci cnd au
totui loc, nu se realizeaz haotic, ci urmeaz o anumit tendin, o
anumit logic a organizrii structurii gramaticale dintr-o limb, i,
de aceea, spunem c astfel de schimbri se datoreaz analogiei, fiind o
consecin a unui proces pe care l-am putea numit nivelare
analogic (cf. Janda, Inflectional Morphology, p. 646). Perspectiva
istoric asupra limbii ofer astfel argumente suplimentare ideii c
structura i categoriile lingvistice nu sunt nnscute, ci, mai degrab,
se dezvolt, evolueaz n armonie cu sistemul conceptual i cu
experiena perceptiv a individului.
Analogical changes may be sporadic and appear to be random, but they

provide us with a valuable window on the cognitive representation of
morphologically complex forms. Since analogy works word by word, we
have evidence of the stored representation of morphologically complex
words organized into an associative network, rather than a rule-based

model. Since frequent words are less subject to analogical leveling, we
have evidence for the varying strength of representations. In addition, the
workings of analogical extension point to a prototypical organization for
classes of words that behave the same (Bybee, Diachronic Linguistics, p. 964).
(Schimbrile datorate analogiei pot fi sporadice i par s aib caracter
ntmpltor, ns acestea ne ofer o perspectiv deosebit de valoroas
asupra reprezentrii cognitive a formelor morfologic complexe. Din
moment ce analogia lucreaz cuvnt cu cuvnt, avem aici dovada c orga-
nizarea cuvintelor morfologic complexe sub form de reprezen-
tri/imagini se face n reele asociative, mai degrab dect n modele
bazate pe anumite reguli. ntruct cuvintele mai frecvente sunt mai puin
afectate de nivelarea analogic, rezult de aici c fora reprezentrilor
difer. n plus, efectele extinderii analogice tind ctre o organizare
prototipic pentru toate clasele de cuvinte avnd acelai comportament;
trad. n., I.A.).
n concluzie, ca proces cognitiv superior, analogia joac un rol

deosebit de important n abordrile cognitiviste ale limbajului, fiind
considerat uneori esena cunoaterii umane (engl. the core of
human cognition, Blevins & Blevins, Introduction, p. 1) sau, chiar
mai poetic, estura cunoaterii (engl. warp and woof of
cognition, Anttila, Analogy, p. 425) [11].
Cunotintele acumulate de-a lungul timpului joac un rol activ n
funcionarea cognitiv a universului mental individual, acestea fiind
conceptualizate n scheme, reele conceptuale sau modele mintale.
Schema rezid n reprezentarea unei categorii de obiecte, de situaii
sau fenomene. Reelele conceptuale sunt concepte legate ntre ele,
formnd reele semantice. Aceste reele reprezint cunotine declara-
tive i procedurale. Transformarea cunotinelor n proceduri presu-
pune nvaarea unor abiliti cognitive i apelarea la reprezentri
mnezice care se dezvolt progresiv sub forma unor componente ale
unor producii cognitive, nlnuindu-se ntre ele. Modelul mintal este
definit ca o analogie structural a lumii, ce reflect cunotinele,
experiena i scopurile individului.
The human mind is an inveterate pattern-seeker. Once found, patterns

are classified, related to other patterns, and used to predict yet further
patterns and correlations. Although these tasks are performed
automatically, they are far from trivial. The analogical reasoning that
underlies them requires the discovery of structural similarities between
perceptually dissimilar elements. Similarities may be highly abstract,
involving functional and causal relationships. And while the recognition

of analogical relations may seem like a passive process, it is in fact an
aggressive process, driven by a search for predictability. A systematic
structural similarity independent of perceptual similarity can be extended
to yield novel inferences about the world (Blevins & Blevins,
Introduction, p. 1).
(Mintea uman este un mptimit cuttor de tipare. Odat descoperite,
tiparele sunt clasificate, puse n relaie cu alte tipare i utilizate mai
departe n stabilirea altor corelaii i tipare. Cu toate c aceste operaii se
desfoar n mod automat, ele nu trebuie considerate lipsite de impor-
tan. Raionamentul prin analogie pe care aceste operaii se ntemeiaz
presupune identificarea asemnrilor formale dintre elemente perceptual
diferite. Asemnrile pot avea un caracter foarte abstract, implicnd
relaiile cauzale i funcionale. i chiar dac identificarea unor relaii
analogice poate prea un proces pasiv, aceasta reprezint, de fapt, un
proces foarte activ, guvernat de nevoia de previzibilitate. O asemnare
structural sistematic, independent de asemnarea perceptiv, poate fi
extins i utilizat n realizarea de noi inferene; trad. n., I.A.).
Aa cum afirma savantul Eugeniu Coeriu, limbajul este n mod

esenial activitate cognitiv, activitate de cunoatere care se realizeaz
prin simboluri (sau semne simbolice) (Coeriu, Creaia metaforic, p.
14; subl. a). Ca orice activitate cognitiv, activitatea lingvistic depinde
n mod fundamental de cunotinele individului, de ceea ce el tie
despre o situaie particular pe care o ntlnete, de maniera de
gestionare i de controlul derulrii activitii cognitive. Limbajul este o
form de cunoatere n orice moment, cci simbolurile se creeaz i re-
creeaz n permanen, n fiecare act concret de vorbire, ceea ce
presupune operaii complexe de natur cognitiv [12]. A afirma natura
cognitiv a limbajului nu nseamn ns a ignora sau a neglija celelalte
aspecte cu privire la un fenomen att de complex ca activitatea vorbirii,
i nici nu nseamn a reduce lingvistica la logic sau la teoria
cunoaterii, cci ceea ce numim cunoatere lingvistic difer n mod
esenial de cunoaterea logic (Ibid., p. 15), i asta pentru c limba nu
este un produs dect n msura n care produsul nu este altceva
dect schema abstract a activitilor deja realizate sau a unor activiti
virtuale (Ibid., p. 16). Pe baza elementelor comune (mai mult sau mai
puin asemntoare) ale unor acte lingvistice precedente constatabile n
memorie, care sunt acumulate n memoria unuia sau a mai multor
vorbitori, limba este activitate repetat sau repetabil, dei niciodat n
mod absolut identic. De aceea, cunoaterea lingvistic este mai degrab
o cunoatere creatoare, cunoatere care se desfoar nu prin inter-

mediul unor categorii ale raiunii, ci prin imagini i simboluri i n
prezena unor analogii stabilite nu dintr-un punct de vedere strict
formal, ntre cuvinte, ci ntre imagini. Pe de alt parte, este tot att de
adevrat c orice act lingvistic nou este, ntr-o msur oarecare,
tributar modelului unor acte lingvistice anterioare realizare nou a
elementelor virtuale care constituie sistemul , totalitatea activitilor
repetate anterior (Ibid., p. 16).
Note
[1] Ne referim aici inclusiv la perioada pre-emergenei acestei discipline tiinifice, avnd
n vedere c o serie de observaii cu privire la relaiile dintre limbaj i gndire,
ontogeneza i natura capacitilor lingvistice de comunicare, patologia limbajului etc.
s-au fcut ncepnd chiar cu sfritul secolului al XVIII-lea.
[2] S-a spus fie c analogia inoveaz, fie c renoveaz ori conserv, fie c regularizeaz i
simplific flexiunea, fie c reprezint principiul de funcionare a mecanismului de
formare a cuvintelor prin derivare etc.
[3] Ipoteza modularitii minii a fost lansat de J. Fodor (The Modulary of Mind,
1983), care susine c mintea uman cuprinde un sistem central, guvernat de
analogie, i un set de module n care se afl nmagazinat informaia: cel dinti,
inaccesibil cunoaterii tiinifice, reprezint un mister, n vreme ce informaia
modularizat constituie o problem a studiului limbii (vezi Itkonen, Analogy, p. 69).
[4] Ideea noutii absolute n limb, a creaiilor ex-nihilo este, dac nu o
imposibilitate, mcar de domeniul excepionalului.
[5] O expunere detaliat i sistematic a conceptelor de baz i a direciilor de interes
ale abordrilor lingvistice de tip cognitivist gsim n Evans & Green, Cognitive
linguistics (vezi i Geeraerts, ed., Cognitive linguistics; Geeraerts & Cuyckens,
eds., Cognitive Linguistics).
[6] Vezi Coeriu, Creaia metaforic, p. 20: ntr-adevr, cunoaterea lingvistic este de
multe ori o cunoatere metaforic, o cunoatere prin imagini, care, de altfel, se
orienteaz att de des n aceeai direcie nct ne face s ne gndim n mod serios la
o anumit unitate universal a imaginaiei umane, dincolo de diferenele lingvistice,
etnice sau culturale.
[7] Metaphors are not a mere linguistic matter; they belong to the province of
thought. Indeed, language is the territory where metaphors are expressed, but what
we see are just metaphorical expressions of some more fundamental mental
concepts that enable us to shape reality and offer us a compass to orient ourselves
within it" (Velic, Tendencies, p. 95).
[8] Una dintre ipotezele de lucru n tiinele cognitive se refer la aa-numita
ntrupare a minii sau ntrupare a cunoaterii (engl. embodied mind, embodied
cognition), ce postuleaz legtura strns dintre natura gndirii umane i
particularitile anatomo-fiziologice ale corpului uman, n sensul c toate
aspectele privind facultatea de a cunoate (ideile, gndurile, conceptele i
categoriile) sunt determinate i modelate de anumite caracteristici ale formei
fizice a corpului.
[9] Gramatica cognitiv, ca abordare, dup principiile cognitivismului, a structurii

gramaticale a limbii, s-a dezvoltat n principal pe baza studiilor lui Ronald
Langacker: Foundations of Cognitive Grammar, Volume 1, Theoretical
Prerequisites (1987) i Foundations of Cognitive Grammar, Volume 2,
Descriptive Application (1991). Vezi i Ronald Langacker, Concept, Image, and
Symbol: The Cognitive Basis of Grammar (1991).
[10] ntruct gramatica cognitiv, aa cum a fost ea conceput de Langacker, nu face
distincia ntre unitile lexicale i gramaticale, n sensul tradiional al termenilor,
formarea cuvintelor este privit ca parte a unei descrieri generale a sistemului
gramatical.
[11] Cf. i Itkonen, Analogy, p. XI: analogy plays a central role in human thinking
(Analogia joac un rol central n gndirea uman).
[12] Pornind de la Leibniz, care identific mai multe grade de cunoatere, E. Coeriu
afirm c limbajul, respectiv cunoaterea lingvistc, se situeaz la dou niveluri:
cognitio clara vel confusa (cunoaterea sigur, ns fr justficare: aa se spune ...
n limba romn, de exemplu) i cognitio clara distincta vel inadequata (cunoaterea
sigur, care poate da primele justificri imediate, dar fr justificarea pe care o poate
da specialistul, n spe lingvistul) (Coeriu, Lingvistica integral, p. 15-16).
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On the Dynamics of Mytho-Folkloric

Vocabulary: Linguistic and Spiritual
Implications
Valeriu Blteanu
Abstract: To the best of our knowledge, the mytho-folkloric terms

originating in the names of folk holydays have not represented the object of
an overview research thus far. The present paper aims to study the
abovementioned section of the folk vocabulary from an ethno-linguistic
perspective that includes both formal and ethnographic aspects (such as
beliefs, superstitions, etc.). The analysis of the terms belonging to the
abovementioned category shall help researchers acquire better insight into
the lexical relations established between folk terms and the dynamics
displayed by the Romanian folk vocabulary. Ultimately, the dynamics of the
folk vocabulary is closely connected to the evolution of folk mentality, which
it mirrors.
Keywords: dynamics, ethno-linguistic perspective, holyday, mentality
To the best of our knowledge, the mytho-

folkloric terms originating in the names of folk holydays have not
represented the object of an overview research thus far. Among the
researchers who have studied only specific aspects of the matter under
discussion, we mention I.A. Candrea, Gr. Brncu, P. Popescu, St.
Dumistrcel, O. Vduva etc. The present paper aims to study the
abovementioned section of the folk vocabulary, from an ethno-linguistic
perspective that includes both formal and ethnographic aspects (such as
beliefs, superstitions, etc.).
A holyday represents a sacred time rupture and it is characterized
by specific ritual, alimentary, behavioural, clothing, etc. aspects
manifested on such days. According to folk beliefs, evil spiritual
activities intensify during such periods, which entails the performance
of specific magical practices, as well as a more rigorous observance of
several interdictions. Likewise, during such days, witchcraft activities
are performed more than on regular days. It is precisely because the
aspects mentioned before are obviously linked to a certain time frame
(a holyday) that there usually is an easily noticeable connection
between the name of a particular holyday and the terms denoting the
elements of the said categories (mytho-folkloric beings, magical

practices, magical actants, etc.). There is a specific marking of the
latter terms.
Based on an analysis of the Romanian vocabulary, the following
categories of mytho-folkloric terms originating in the name of folk
holydays have been established:
terms that denote food items;
terms that denote elements of magical terminology;
terms that denote vegetal elements;
terms that denote elements belonging to the field of magical
medicine;
terms that denote imaginary beings.
The following section of the present paper shall present, in detail,
the terminological categories abovementioned:
terms that denote food items: moi, mooaie, moori, mucenici,
florii, pati, crciun.
Let us analyse the meanings of such terms in the field of ritual
food items:
moi objects or food items that are given away as alms on Soul
Saturday [1];
mooaie earthen mugs that are filled with wheat boiled in milk and
given away on the Saturday before Pentecost (one of the Soul
Saturdays celebrated by the Eastern Orthodox liturgical Calendar)
[2];
moori mooaie (used in Vlcea County) [3];
mucenic (formally identical with the Romanian word for martyr) a
type of bagel made of baked or boiled dough, with nuts and sugar,
or honey, eaten on the 9th of March [4];
florii (formally identical with the Romanian name for Palm Sunday)
small wheat bread rolls plaited in the form of spiral clock fingers,
that are given away to the poor boys of the neighbourhood, in
honour of the dead, on Palm Sunday [5];
pati (formally identical with the Romanian name for Easter) cake
made of sourdough and filled with sweet cottage cheese, sugar and
raisins [...] that is eaten on Easter [6];
crciun (formally identical with the Romanian name for Christmas)
ring biscuit made by women on Christmas Day, kept till spring
until after the censing of the oxen and the yoking of the oxen to the
plough, right before the beginning of ploughing and then eaten
by ploughmen when they are out in the field [7].
As noticeable, the food items abovementioned were used during

the time frame of some well-known holydays: Soul Saturday, Palm
Sunday, Christmas, Easter, and they echo the ancient ancestors cult.
A specific ritual action performed during such a time frame consisted
in offering food items as alms for the dead, as some phrases indicate:
a mpri moi (to give out moi), a aduce moi (to bring moi), a
cpta moi (to receive moi), a da moi (to give away moi) [8]. Let
us not forget that moi is the generic name given to mythical
ancestors [9]. It is also worth remarking that there are food items
(moi) that are given on specific days, for the purpose of obtaining the
protection of a specific sacred person: Moii de Sumedru (alms given
on Demetrius Saturday, the Saturday before the feast of Saint
Demetrius of Thessaloniki, one of the Soul Saturdays celebrated by
the Eastern Orthodox liturgical Calendar), Moii de Arhangheli (alms
given on the Saturday before the feast of Saint Michael the Archangel,
another Soul Saturday celebrated by the Eastern Orthodox liturgical
Calendar), Moii de Craciun (alms given on Christmas Eve or even on
Christmas Day, in honour of the dead), etc. Ultimately, the food items
given on such days (on Demetrius Saturday, on the Saturday before
the feast of Saint Michael the Archangel, on Christmas) have the
character of a sacrifice made in order to obtain the protection of the
sacred person. In some researchers opinion, this sacrifice replaces a
potential human sacrifice [10] originally made.
- elements of magical terminology:
barbura charms, spells, witchcraft [11]
a brbura to draw the sign of the cross on someones (children, in
particular) forehead, chin, and cheeks with sheepberry juice on
Saint Barbaras Day, in order to prevent the child from contracting
smallpox[12]
a mbrbura a brbura [13]
mnecatoare witchcraft [14]
a snvsia to perform witchcraft on New Years Eve; to predict, on
New Years night, whether a young couple is going to get married
or not next year, by using two alum stones placed on a hot stove
lid[15].
In order to reach an accurate understanding of the said aspects, we
shall mention the meanings of the names of folk holydays that helped
to create the words abovementioned, as well:
barbura Saint Barbaras or Varvaras Day [16]
mnecatoare folk holyday celebrated on the Eve of Saint Georges

Day [17]
snvsii the name of a Christian holyday celebrated on the 1st of
January, on New Years Day (Saint Basils Day) [18]
It is not an accident that the holydays abovementioned helped to
create terms that denote magical practices; the time frames in question
bear a powerful magical significance, as many ritual scenarios take
place during such holydays.
- terms that denote vegetal elements:
snjor green bough cut from the forest, and acting as a substitute for
a seasonal god of vegetation, [...] that is placed at door hinges on
Saint Georges night or morning, for protection[19].
arminden maypole (green bough) placed at door hinges on May Day [20].
It is easily noticeable that the two terms denote ritual
instruments that are used during holydays: Saint Georges Day, May
Day, folk holyday celebrated on the 1st of May, Prophet Jeremys
Day [21]. Let us add another fact: the two terms that denote the
holydays mentioned above have numerous variants, and one of the
variants for Saint Georges Day (snjor) is extremely useful for an
accurate understanding of the matter [22].
The vegetal elements listed in the present paper used to play
an essential part in the ritual scenario of the holydays
abovementioned, which basically explains the terminological transfer
that has occurred.
- terms that denote elements belonging to the field of magical
medicine:
mrin rib discomfort; abdominal cramps [23]
a se mrini to contract the disease called mrin [24].
The verb a brbura, a verb that we have presented in a different
section of the present paper, could be added to the list, as well. The
root of the terms mrin and a se mrini is the word Mrina, the name
of a holyday: a folk holyday that originates in the holyday of Saint
Marina (July 17th) [25]. The Christian holyday has apparently
replaced a pagan holyday with medical implications that was
celebrated during a period when a series of contagious diseases,
namely, skin diseases, reached their pinnacle [26]. Let us add that the
term mrin also refers to a healing herb used to treat the disease
bearing the same name [27] and that it is part of a terminological
category of folk medicine that proved extremely useful in the analysis
of the mechanisms of folk mentality [28].
- terms that denote mytho-folkloric beings:

Ciurica ,mytho-folkloric being who gave women the right to beat
their husbands, without consequences, on its celebration day, July
15th [29].
Ignat, character that belongs to Romanian folklore [], the patron
saint of pigs [30].
ntoarea (more recent variant of Igntoarea), greedy ugly woman
who eats people [31];
Ispas, a mythical character who is said to have been a witness of the
Ascension and the rise of the dead mens souls to heaven [32];
Joimaria, mythical being who looks like a hag [33];
Moi, imaginary beings that are believed to possess the power to
banish winter [34];
Rusalii, imaginary being similar to the iele, depicted as an evil fairy
who unleashes storms and cripples people or makes them mad
[35];
Sntoaderi, mythical beings belonging to Romanian folklore, shaped
as wonder horses or who display only some horse-like features,
that appear on Sntoader (Saint Theodores) evening and that are
dangerous, especially for women and girls [36];
Snziene, iele [37].
The terms that denote such imaginary beings are derived from the
names of some famous folk holydays: Ignatul (Saint Ignats day,
celebration held in midwinter, on the 20th of December), Ispasul (the
Ascension), Holy Thursday, Pentecost, Saint Theodores Day,
Midsummer Day, Soul Saturday. The term of Ciurica may be linked to
the name of a holyday (Ciurica) that is not very well-known today: It
is Saint Chiriacs Day, a holyday that is celebrated on the 15th of July,
especially by women [38]. We could add two more terms to the ones
already mentioned: Father Christmas and Father Eve (a
personification of Christmas Eve; Father Christmass brother).
Essentially, the abovementioned imaginary characters were named
after a certain holyday, as their time frame was considered. We should
also remark the powerful spiritual interference (between pagan and
Christian elements) displayed by such characters.
In addition to the mythico-magical terms of the categories
abovementioned, we have also found in the Romanian vocabulary a
series of folk terms that originate in the names of holydays, but have
no significance in the field of magic: ndrea (< Saint Andrew),
decembrie (December), sntiliesc (< Saint Elijah) de la Sf. Ilie

(related to Saint Elijahs Day), a crciuni, to murder someone by
spilling his blood, to cut someone as if he were a pig [39], ciurica
beating [40], a probjeni (< Probajen, holyday celebrated on a
specific calendar date August 6th the same day as the
Transfiguration, by the Orthodox calendar [41]); the latter term has
the following meaning: to turn yellow, to wither when fall comes,
with reference to leaves [42]. However, mention should be made of
the fact that the mythical relations between the words listed above and
their etymological roots are still noticeable, in some cases (a crciuni,
ciurica, etc.). In the case of the verb a probjeni, the existence of the
idea of transfiguration, that may be linked to the main significance
of its counterpart holyday (the Transfiguration), is obvious. In some
cases, establishing the original mythical significances of such terms
has led to phenomena of semantic degradation: ciurica, beating, a
mbrbura, to soil [43], a proora, to soak, to splash with water
[44]. In the case of the latter verb, we need to remember the fact that
the action that this term refers to is a magical action, an action
performed by the proor on the Eve of Saint Georges Day [45]
thus, during a sacred time frame, as the eve of a holyday is considered
to be a sacred time, as well.
The analysis of the mytho-folkloric terms that originate in the
names of folk holydays helps researchers acquire better insight into
the lexical relations established between folk terms and the dynamics
displayed by the Romanian folk vocabulary. The connections between
folk holydays and other areas of mytho-folkloric terminology (the
vocabulary of magic, the vocabulary of traditional food items; the
vocabulary of imaginary beings, etc.) are easily noticeable.
In addition to mytho-magical terms, other folklore terms that
originate in the names of folk holydays were recorded, such as: a
crciuni, a probjeni, sntiliesc, etc. The fading away or even the loss
of the initial meanings of some of these terms is of interest for the
study of some mechanisms of traditional mentality. Ultimately, the
phenomena of semantic degradation recorded in the case of some
terms are an indicator of the significant changes that have occurred at
the level of folk mentality, which have eventually led to an actual
reassessment of the meanings of some elements of folk vocabulary.
Notes
[1] DLR, new series, M-Z, Editura Academiei Romne, volume VI, fasc. 12-13, p.
896, Bucureti, 1968.
[2] Vduva, Ofelia, Magia darului, Editura Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1997, p. 187.
[3] Idem
[4] DLR, new series, M-Z, Editura Academiei Romne, volume VI, fasc. 12-13, p.
940, Bucureti, 1968.
[5] DA, volume II, part I, p. 142.
[6] DLR, volume VIII, part I, p. 180.
[7] DA, volume I, part II, pp. 866-867.
[8] Vduva, Ofelia, Op. cit., p. 187.
[9] DMDMR, p. 286.
[10] Vduva, Ofelia, Op. cit., p. 188.
[11] DA, volume I, part I, p. 617.
[12] Ibidem, p. 496.
[13] DULR, p. 305.
[14] Fochi, Adrian, Datini i eresuri populare de la sfritul secolului al XIX-lea, Ed.
Minerva, Bucureti, 1976, p. 296.
[15] DLR, volume X, part 3, p. 1028.
[16] Blteanu, Valeriu, Dicionar de magie popular romneasc, Ed. Paideia,
Bucureti, 2003, p. 35.
[17] DULR, p. 381.
[18] Blteanu, Valeriu, Dicionar de mitologie romneasc, Editura Fundaiei
Universitare Dunrea de Jos, Galai, 2001, p. 187.
[19] Udrescu, Dumitru, Glosar regional Arge, Editura Academiei, Bucureti, 1967,
p. 186.
[20] Fochi, Adrian, Op. cit., pp. 21-22.
[21] DMDMR, p. 36.
[24] Idem.
[25] Idem.
[26] Ibidem, p. 131.
[27] Borza, Alexandru, Dicionar etnobotanic, Editura Academiei, Bucureti, 1968, p. 255.
[28] Candrea, Ion Aurel, Folclorul medical romn comparat. Medicina magic,
Editura Polirom, Iai, 1999, pp. 324-330.
[29]Ghinoiu, Ion, Obiceiuri de peste an, Editura Fundaiei Culturale Romne,
[30] DMDMR, p. 182.
[32] Ghinoiu, Ion, Op. cit., p. 89.
[33] DA, volume II, part II, fasc. 1, p. 35.
[34] DLR, volume VI, fasc. 12-13, p. 896.
[35] DEX, p. 939.
[36] DMDMR, p. 416.
[37] DLR, volume X, part 3, pp. 1028-1029.
[38] Mulea, Ion, Brlea, Ovidiu, Tipologia folclorului, Editura Minerva, Bucureti,
1970, p. 387.
[39] DA, volume I, part II, p. 867.
[40] DMDMR, p. 85.
[41] Ghinoiu, Ion, Op. cit., p. 158.
[43] Blteanu, Valeriu, Dicionar de magie popular romneasc, Editura Paideia,
Bucureti, 2003, p. 151.
[44] Ibidem, p. 221.
[45] DLR, volume VIII, part IV, p. 1617.
Bibliographical Abbreviations:
DA = Dicionarul limbii romne (The Romanian Academys Dictionary of the

Romanian Language), volumes I-II, a-lojni, edited by the Romanian Academy,
Bucureti, 1913-1949.
DEX = Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne (The Explanatory Dictionary of the
Romanian Language), Editura Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1998.
DLR = Dicionarul limbii romne (The Dictionary of the Romanian Language), new
series, M-Z, Editura Academiei, Bucureti, 1965-2009.
DMDMR = Evseev, Ivan, Dicionar de magie, demonologie i mitologie romneasc,
Amarcord Publishing House, Timioara, 1997.
DULR = ineanu, Lazr, Dicionarul universal al limbii romne, sixth edition, s.a.
Selective References:
Blteanu, Valeriu Ecouri mitico-magice n lexicul popular romnesc, Editura

Junimea, Iai, 2002.
Pamfile, Tudor, Srbtorile la romni, Editura Saeculum I.O., Bucureti, 1997.
Popinceanu, Ion, Religion, Glaube und Aberglaube in der rumnischen Sprache,
Nrnberg, 1964.
Vintil-Rdulescu, Ioana, Terminologia i problemele ei actuale, Editura Academiei,
Bucureti, 1999.
Webster, Hutton, Le tabou, Les ditions Payot, Paris, 1952.
Inovaiile lingvistice din discursul public -

form de stabilire a comuniunii fatice.
Discursul publicitii [I]
Gina Necula
Abstract: The public discourse is generated by social dialogue, as a way of

speech group, a complex process of communication, consisting of a massive
exchange of information. This information is exchanged through linguistic
patterns determined by the need/feeling of belonging to a social group with a
specific sociological profile. The modern public discourse, however, shows a
tendency to identify itself with private discourse, as it places the message in
the area of phatic function of language, interested in establishing a
communion between the sender and the receiver of the message. Our paper
aims at pointing out the features that turn public discourse to private area
taking into consideration the fact that it currently falls into slang and
excessive familiarity.
Keywords: excessive familiarity, phatic communion, congregation, linguistic
innovation.
R ecunoaterea discursului ca posibil subiect al

unei tiine a limbajului trece, nainte de toate, printr-o semnificativ
munc de elaborare conceptual i printr-o serie de criterii de
clasificare care i explic complexitatea. O distinie terminologic care
ni se pare productiv pentru demersul nostru este aceea ntre discursul
public i discursul privat, ca timpuri de discurs ce comport abordri
divergente, dar i convergente (aa cum se ntmpl n cazul discur-
sului publicitar, asupra cruia intenionm s ne oprim aici). De fapt,
problema care se pune este aceea de a accepta faptul c pratica ne
ofer ocazia s analizm diferite tipuri de discurs, iar, dintre acestea,
cel care se contureaz ca o baz de diseminare excelent pentru ele-
mentul cheie al discuiei noastre este discursul public. Astfel, una
dintre posibilitile de departajare a tipurilor de discurs poate fi din
perpectiva funciilor pe care i le negociaz n comunicare, cci
raportarea corect la un anumit/anumii factori ai comunicrii d
esena discursului. Lund n discuie problemele legate de departajarea
pe criterii social culturale a varietilor discursului i numeroasele
variaii terminologice, Dumistrcel (2006:347) propune pentru o mpr-
ire fr rest a ansamblului modalitilor de comunicare [...], dup

delimitarea de stilurile tehnico-tiinific i beletristic, (ale cror discursuri
sunt autonome n raport cu o situaie dat de comunicare), cel de-al treilea
stil trebuie s cuprind att interaciunea comunicativ privat, ct i pe
cea public, o alturare ce va permite i stabilirea interferenelor normale
n cadrul aceleiai sfere. Nivelurile de manifestare ale stilului
comunicrii publice sunt prezentate n tabelul pe care l reproducem mai
jos din lucrarea citat.
DISCURSUL PRIVAT DISCURSUL PUBLIC

1
1 Discursul mass-mediei Discursul autoritii instituionalizate
Limbajul Limbajul Limbajul
Limbajul Limbajul Limbajul Limbajul Limbajul
2 instruciei vieii juridico-
conversaiei epistolar publicisticii publicitii religios
colare politice administrativ
registre registre registre
2 registre [a] registre [a] registre [b] registre [c] registre [d]
[b] [c] [d]
E E E E E
E R E R
3
R E E R RE
D D D D D
F u n c i a d e n o t a t i v
+ f u n c i a a p e l a t i v
fatic conativ
Fatic Conativ
+ conativ + fatic
Enunare ad-hoc, euristic, cognitiv Enunare pre-conceput, omniscient, normativ

5
* Abrevieri: E = emitor; R = receptor; D = destinatar
Dac atenia autorului citat se ndrepta ctre limbajul publicisticii,

analiza noastr privete, mai degrab, limbajul publicitii, ca specie a
discursului public ce se construiete miznd pe funcia fatic, n
principal, dar i pe cea conativ, dup cum se evideniaz mai sus. Fr
a relua teoriile comunicrii care au fost ndelung dezbtute n nume-
roase lucrri de profil i la care chiar noi ne-am referit n lucrri

anterioare, facem precizarea c ncercm (i aici) s repunem funcia
fatic n termenii n care fusese aezat de Malinowski (1923) i
revenim asupra ideii c elementul cheie n discursul public este
comuniunea fatic nscut din nevoia omului de a congrega, nevoie
exprimat prin comportament/exprimare mimetic n scopul inte-
grrii/acceptrii n grup. n acest punct, discursul publicitii se plaseaz
la grania dintre sfera public i cea privat prin faptul c plaseaz
mesajul n zona funciei fatice, interesat fiind de stabilirea unei comu-
niuni ntre actanii comunicrii.
Aceast nevoie de a congrega poate fi argumentul care explic ape-
tena creatorilor de texte publicitare pentru expresii populare, fami-
liare, n detrimentul limbii literare, cci expresivitatea lor sporit
creeaz, automat, i necesitatea autoreflexiv a textului de a-i stabili
dou tipuri de public int interesat de a se identifica cu ceilali prin
discurs: un prim tip de public ar fi publicul ignorant n privina
normelor i a rigorilor limbii, care nu este incomodat de familiaritatea
(uneori excesiv) a discursului publicitar, pentru c se afl pe un teren
cunoscut, mijloacele de comunicare i sunt familiare i atunci simte c
face parte din publicul int pe care l vizeaz measajul reclamei
respective; cel de-al doilea tip de public e publicul avizat, care
sesizeaz fuziunea registrelor stilistice, contientizeaz devierea de la
norm, dar accept mesajul ca pe un joc lingvistic i l apreciaz
pentru autenticitate i expresivitate. Aa se explic faptul c vorbitorii
accept enunuri n care apar asocieri absurde, cum ar fi nchide la
non-stop din reclama la coniacul Unirea (v. i Marius Velic, Limb
i putere. (Re)construcia realitii, p. 68):
Du-te m, tu, c, pn descarc la, nchide la Non-Stop.

(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nlxSMJDukgs)
Verificnd frecvena expresiei pe internet, am obinut 697.000 de

referine, ca dovad c sintagma are o circulaie foarte mare, deci a
fost acceptat i chiar a cptat statutul unei construcii relativ sudate.
nelegem, din felul n care este folosit compusul, c, dei DOOM2 l
nregistreaz ca adjectiv invariabil i ca adverb, are i utilizare
substantival. n astfel de contexte, cel mai probabil, vorbitorii
introduc cuvntul ntr-o serie sinonimic cu butic, magazin, scondu-l
din sfera semantic n care se ncadreaz ca adjectiv. E drept c
structura astfel creat se datoreaz unei elipse pe care o putem pune pe
seama comoditii vorbitorilor n exprimare. nchide la magazinul cu

program non-stop ar fi ns nefiresc de lung pentru exprimarea
familiar, deci se argumenteaz acest artificiu att de comun limbii
romne contemporane.
Ceea ce ni se pare relevant, din punct de vedere lingvistic, nu este
neaprat modul de generare a unor astfel de creaii, ci faptul c nglobarea
lor n discursul publicitii servete la rspndirea, promovarea i
lexicalizarea variantei substantivale. Aa se face c foarte muli vorbitori
i le asum, mai nti n glum, citnd textul reclamei (inteligent create,
de altfel), iar apoi le utilizeaz din obinuin, din dorina de a congrega,
de a fi n comuniune cu ceilali membri ai grupului.
O alt inovaie lexical, care ne atrage atenia pentru faptul c se
acrediteaz prin textul unei reclame, este de-diminea (sau
dediminea). Reclama la produsele din carne Matache Mcelaru
prezint un dialog n care apare utilizarea substantival a termenului:
Hai, noroc! Ce vrei? Tot muchi ignesc? Ce vrei s faci cu el?

Pi, pentru de diminea ...
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TMpJ6T4w_dE)
Ceea ce trebuie lmurit aici, mai nti, este statutul prepozi-

iei/prepoziiilor: fie e vorba de un cumul de prepoziii, rezultat n
urma elidrii unui cuvnt, fie este o prepoziie compus pentru de, sau
o prepoziie n faa unui cuvnt nou creat.
Prima interpretare este, evident, cea la care ne conduc rigorile
gramaticale: avem de-a face cu o elips (pentru masa de diminea),
care las n urm cumulul de prepoziii. Ajungem aici datorit faptului
c GALR precizeaz: n calitate de conector, prepoziia se ncadreaz
obligatoriu ntr-o structur ternar (noapte de var, merge la petre-
cere, demn de admiraie): prezena prepoziiei este condiionat de
coocurena cu doi termeni lexical autonomi (T1 i T2) implicai ntr-o
relaie de dependen (I, 2005: 607). De altfel, registrului popular i
este comun aceast practic a cumulului de prepoziii (Se fur de pe
peste tot :http://www.bihon.ro/se-fura-de-pe-peste-tot/1015628).
Ideea interpretrii structurii ca prepoziie compus ni se pare totui
nefericit cci, analiznd intrrile din MDA, constatm c una dintre
valorile prepoziiei pentru este aceea de a indica scopul, ceea ce se
ntmpl i aici (pentru pp 17 n scopul ... Scrie pentru bani.), iar
posibilitile ei de asociere n compuse sunt: pentru ca s, pentru c,
pentru ce, pentru aceasta, deci este exclus asocierea cu de, prepoziia
de introducnd un modificator pentru a indica natura obiectului

determinat.
Rmne s ne mai gndim i la cea de-a treia posibilitate pe care,
utilizarea contextual, nu ne las s o excludem, cci n aceast
direcie pare s duc uzul lingvistic, mai ales c vorbitorul poate pune
aceast expresie n tiparul pentru micul dejun. Mergnd pe aceast
variant de interpretare, constatm c limba romn nregistreaz
cazuri de creaii lexicale compuse cu structura de + xxx = substantiv.
Aa stau lucrurile cu demncare, demsurare, nvechite, ce e drept,
dar destul de cunoscute astfel nct s permit asocierea analogic care
ar putea duce la crearea un substantiv cum ar fi dediminea.
Plasarea prepoziiei cu n faa unui compus cu de este fireasc i
poate suna familiar (ca tipar) n mintea vorbitorului obinuit, fiindu-i
cunoscut dintr-un text pe care l-a parcurs cndva la coal: Dup
aceea m dau iar jos i pornesc repede cu demncarea la lingu-
rari... (Creang, Amintiri).
Tot pentru interpretarea substantival am opta i n cazul unei
creaii lexicale puse n circulaie de reclamele la pizza, i anume cu de
toate / cu detoate. Nu tim exact ct este inovaie lingvistic i ct este
un efect al comoditii sau al ignoranei vorbitorilor dar se constat
uor c structura intr ntr-un tipar: pizza poate fi cu brnz, cu
ciuperci, cu detoate (cu toate ingredientele posibile). Cel mai pro-
babil, aici este vorba despre un calc dup ital. pizza con tutto, cci
MDA nregistreaz structura de toate cu alt ncrctur semantic
(tot2, toat 29-30 pnh (ls; i la) De toate (Lucruri) de diferite feluri).
Am preferat, i de aceast dat, interpretarea substantival cci
posibilitile de compunere ale prepoziiei cu sunt foarte limitate (cu
pp 5 indic o nsuire om ~ talent. [...] 27 (Precedat de prep. de, cs ca
de ~ noapte, de ~ sear etc.) ncepnd (chiar) cu, cf. MDA). n
schimb, prepoziia de apare ca element de compunere n multe cazuri
(de4 pp 50 Este element de compunere n cuvinte sudate sau nu
deoarece, dedulci, floare de piatr, floare de col, untdelemn, cf.
MDA).
Am prezentat aici doar cteva inovaii ce tind s se rspndeasc
foarte repede i s capete circulaie foarte extins, vorbitorii acceptndu-
le att timp ct ele sunt acreditate printr-o form de discurs public.
Argumentul aici este faptul c limba este folosit, de cele mai multe ori,
ca instrument de comuniune social demonstrnd c oamenii se adun
i comunic ntre ei pentru a arta c fac parte dintr-un grup sau pentru
a-i manifesta dorina de integrare n grupul respectiv, att timp ct
comuniunea fatic implic meninerea sentimentului apartenenei la o

comunitate, a solidaritii ntre membrii grupului, dar i un sentiment de
acceptare a celorlali i de acceptare de ctre ceilali. Toi aceti factori
definesc limba ca un fenomen dinamic pentru c interaciunea fatic
presupune acordul n privina semnificaiilor, iar faticitatea poate fi
negociat i construit prin expresii.
Bibliografie
***Dicionarul ortografic, ortoepic i morfologic al limbii romne, Academia

Romn, Institutul de Lingvistic Iorgu Iordan Al. Rosetti, ediia a II-a,
Editura Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2005.
***Gramatica limbii romne, Academia Romn, Institutul de Lingvistic Iorgu
Iordan Al. Rosetti, Editura Academiei Romne, Bucureti, 2005.
***Micul dicionar academic, Academia Romn, Institutul de Lingvistic Iorgu
Iordan Al. Rosetti, ediia a II-a, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2010.
Dumistrcel, Stelian, Discursul repetat n textul jurnalistic, Editura Universitii
Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Iai, 2006.
Ogden, C.K., J.A. Richards, The Meaning of Meaning A Study of the Influence of
Language Upon Thought and of the Science of Symbolism, with supplementary
essays by B. Malinowski & F. G. Crookshank, A Harvest Book, Harcourt, Brace
& Company, New York, 1923.
Reboul, Anne, Jacques Moeschler, Pragmatica azi. O nou tiin a comunicrii,
Editura Echinox, Cluj-Napoca, 2001.
Velic, Marius, Limb i putere. (Re)construcia realitii, n vol. Discurs i
interaciune verbal n spaiul public romnesc, Diana Popa i Anca G (ed.),
GUP, Galai, 2008.
La gastrolittrature comme discours

identitaire de la modernit. Deux exemples
Florina-Elena Prjol
Abstract: The gastronomic discourse is tremendously important in the

construction of a national identity, and the famous French gastronome
Brillat-Savarin expresses it explicitly:tell me what you eat and Ill tell you
who you are. But how you write about what you eat is also very important,
and this discourse about eating is clearly an expression of modernity. What
does gastroliterature mean and why famous writers chose to write about food
and eating manners in an epoque where nations began to define themselves
in the context of early modernity? How exactly did the discourse about eating
helped in defining nations in the XIXth century and which are the reference
points of this new type of literature? In order to answer all these questions
we chose to analyse two situations: the one in France, the country in which
the gastronomic discourse was born, and the one in Romania, greatly
influenced by the French model.
Keywords: gastronomic discourse, gastroliterature, national identity,
French model
M anger est un acte minemment social qui

dfinit un individu ou une communaut dans ses lments les plus
profonds. Loin davoir seulement le rle banal dapaiser une pulsion
primitive, le manger est un rituel porteur de sens, il est tout simplement
un langage [1] charg dinformations identitaires. Massimo Montanari
parvient mettre le signe gal entre la cuisine et la culture: Chaque
fois que je prononce le mot cuisine, pensez-le comme un synonyme
de culture. Parce que la cuisine est un instrument (et un signe) de
lidentit culturelle, et tout discours sur la cuisine, loin dtre frivole, est
un plongeon dans le thme des identits culturelles [2]. Roland Barthes
participe aussi la lgitimation du manger comme acte culturel
significatif: [La nourriture] nest pas simplement une collection de
produits justiciables dtudes statistiques ou dittiques, mais aussi et en
mme temps un systme de communication, un corps dimages, un
protocole dusage, de situations et de conduites [3], alors que le
sociologue franais Marcel Mauss dfinit lhomme comme un animal
cuisinier. Crateur de lidentit collective, mais aussi un fondement
pour dfinir laltrit, quil soit peru comme signe, emblme ou

symbole, laliment insre le mangeur dans un systme de significations
[4]. Dans toutes les socits, le rituel de table met en ordre, il cre un
cadre pour que les alliances, mais aussi les conflits puissent se
manifester; autrement dit, il tablit les relations de pouvoir. Le repas
non seulement institue des hirarchies dans un champ social donn,
mais il devient aussi, au cours des sicles, un synonyme du pouvoir, un
privilge rserv aux lites. En France, par exemple, lhgmonie
culturelle, qui a atteint son maximum dans lpoque du Louis XIV, a
transform le repas dapparat dans une expression typique du pouvoir,
du prestige, en devenant de cette manire un repre pour toute lEurope:
Le choix dune cuisine, dun cuisinier et dun service franais permet
aux lites europennes et la bourgeoisie franaise enrichie de
prtendre goter un art de vivre la lgendaire douceur de vivre de
laristocratie franaise du Sicle des Lumires et, au-del, daffirmer
leur appartenance une lite.
tant une recherche de solidarits, le repas instigue au parler,
inspire et donne naissance au dialogue, au discours: le partage du
repas, fut-il frugal, suscite la communion des esprits, la parole
rciproque, les propos de table [5]. La convivialit produit, dune
part, une liaison entre ceux qui partagent le pain (les compagnons;
dailleurs, ltymologie latine explique lide de communion lie au
fait de partager les nourritures: com(ensemble)+panis(pain)), dautre
part, un discours gastronomique qui indique lappartenance une
communaut de valeurs. Pendant longtemps contest et considr de
petite importance, frivole ou tout simplement un discours descorte,
un discours secondaire, la littrature gastronomique a gagn peu peu
sa lgitimit et la position quelle mrite (les annes 60 et 70
apportent, dans le contexte plus large de lintellectualisation du
commun, un grand intrt pour lart de la gueule, comme
lappelait Montaigne [6]). N en France, le discours gastronomique
demi-genre, pour demi-monde, considr par les autorits
intellectuelles avec un mpris plus ou moins amus [7] ne peut pas
tre compris en dehors du contexte o il a t cr: la crise de la
culture aristocratique et le changement conomique conscutive: Le
bouleversement social opr par la prosprit conomique du Beau
XVIIIme sicle et par le brassage politique de la Rvolution et de
lEmpire lgitime la naissance de la critique gastronomique sous la
plume dun Grimod de la Reynire [...] et dun Brillat-Savarin [...]
[8]. Si la grande cuisine franaise se cristallise sous la monarchie
absolue, la gastrolittrature trouve ses racines pendant la Rvolution

deux moments dcisifs, fondateurs de la France moderne (la cuisine
franaise devient une rfrence au mme titre que la langue codifie
par Richelieu ou la peinture codifie par Colbert [9]). A laube de la
modernit, plus que copier tout simplement un rituel prandial, imiter
la cuisine franaise signifie surtout imiter un modle culturel
prestigieux: Derrire limitation de la cuisine franaise, il y a bien
videmment une question de got difficile cerner mais surtout
laffirmation dun idal socital la fois politique et culturel [10]. La
Rvolution cause une modification au niveau de la sensibilit, mais
aussi du discours; les nouveaux riches du Directoire, Consulat et des
nouveaux institutions de lEmpire ont eu besoin dtre duqus et
ce travail dducation a t fait par Alexandre Balthasar Laurent
Grimod de la Reynire (1758-1837) et Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin
(1755-1826), les deux inventeurs du discours gastronomique: ils
jouent le rle de passeurs culturels entre deux mondes en enseignant
aux nouvelles lites politiques et conomiques les codes
gastronomiques de lancien monde [...]. La critique gastronomique
naissante participe llargissement social de la grande cuisine
savante, sans pour autant labaisser, en diffusant un langage commun,
en enseignant les critres de distinction, en tranchant du beau et du
bon limage de la critique dart ne deux gnrations plus tt [11].
La naissance du discours gastronomique (synonyme de la
gastrolittrature ou de la gastrocritique, si on utilise le concept du
Ronald W. Tobin) qui est plutt une rflexion sur les manires de
table et sur le rapport entre le mangeur et laliment quune collection
des recettes culinaires ou des conseils mnagres doit tre aussi mise
en relation avec une autre innovation de lpoque: le restaurant.
Illustration typique des valeurs du nouveau rgime, ltablissement
des restaurateurs a eu une importante fonction sociale: si la bonne
chre tait auparavant lapanage des riches, au dbut du XIXme
sicle les restaurateurs lont mis la porte de tout le monde, en
tablissant une sorte dgalit sociale autour de la convivialit. Les
grands chefs de lancienne poque taient des officiers de bouche de
grands aristocrates et la Rvolution les a laiss sans matres et sans
occupation. Par consquent, ils ont dcid de crer leur propres
maisons, les restaurants, pour rendre durable leur art mais aussi
pour pouvoir survivre [12]. Et si le XVIIme tait le sicle des cafs,
le XIXme tait bien videmment le sicle des restaurateurs, qui ont
remplac les aubergistes et les traiteurs et qui ont donn au grand
public la possibilit de bien dner sans entretenir une brigade couteuse.

Si on pouvait dner dcemment en ville sans avoir subir la
promiscuit dauberges ou de tavernes, on tait prts aussi pour un
nouveau type de discours, ddi lart de manger. Cest pas une
concidence que ce discours, ce nouveau petit genre littraire btarde
na pas t promu par des cuisiniers de profession, mais par des
crivains. Ils taient dhabitude des faux cuisiniers [13], incapables
de mettre en application leur propres recettes. En consquence, on
pourrait dire quune histoire de la gastronomie sidentifie
partiellement avec lhistoire de la littrature: La naissance dune
littrature gourmande qui ne doive rien aux chefs et ne soit pas
seulement de recettes et de tours de main, dune littrature qui exalte
la cuisine comme art et la dgustation comme science, est signaler
[14]. La gastronomie cest plutt bien crire sur le manger que
savoir prparer un bon repas.
sprit raffin, dot avec le plaisir du ludique, Grimod de la
Reynire est celui qui a lev la gastronomie au rang dart, en posant
les bases dune critique gastronomique et dune gastrolittrature.
Dfini dune manire synthtique comme un lieu imaginaire situ
la frontire de lart, de la technique et de la science [15], le discours
gastronomique devient, sous la plume du Grimod de la Reynire, un
discours littraire qui sduit le lecteur, ayant plutt un sens esthtique
quun sens utilitariste. Bien que la postrit a retenu le livre de Brillat-
Savarin, Physiologie du got (1825), comme une pierre angulaire de
lloquence gourmande (Jean-Claude Bonnet), Grimod de la
Reynire est, en vrit, le premier crivain qui a port la science de la
gueule sur les territoires de la grande littrature. Il est souvent
considr comme un des pres fondateurs de la culture franaise
moderne, aux cts de Compte de Saint-Simon ou Alexis de
Tocqueville. Noble de nouvelle gnration, hritier dune fortune
fabuleuse provenant de lAncien Rgime, Grimod est un des
personnages les plus mmorables de son poque. Avocat, philosophe,
critique de thtre et parfois mme commerant (quand la riche
famille le rpudie), il a gagn sa place dans lhistoire de la littrature
avec les huit Almanachs des gourmandes (1803-1812) et son Manuel
des amphitryons (1808), un catchisme [...] dans lart de bien vivre et
de bien faire vivre les autre. Ses congnres lvoquent aussi pour
son comportament excentrique qui prpare le terrain pour lesthtisme
de Huysmans ou Oscar Wilde. Rsidant dans ce qui tait lpoque le
plus bel htel particulier de Paris, ami de Rtif de la Bretonne, de
Beaumarchais et de Mercier, il se fait connatre du Tout-Paris 25 ans

par des repas extrmement perfectionns dont son fameux souper
organis le 1r fvrier 1783 est le plus connu. Ayant la nostalgie de
lancienne aristocratie qui connaissait les dlices de la gourmandise,
Grimod sen donne comme objectif de guider la bourgeoisie dans les
maquis de ses nouveaux magasins de bouche, restaurants, traiteurs et
aussi de recrer un ordre, une taxinomie gastro-esthtique. Son code
gourmand propose quelques enseignes gourmandes, un Calendrier
nutritif (la dure dune anne traduite en expriences gustatives) et des
Promenades nutritives (Paris vu comme une suite de lieux gourmandes),
mais aussi des anecdotes gourmandes, des petites maximes et des gloses
gastronomiques. Un vrai gastrophile la plume, il crit avec de lhumour
et de lintelligence, et parfois de lironie aussi. Il utilise les procds du
burlesque et aime galement les mets et les mots. Il est un hdoniste, un
libertin qui, touff par un discours progressiste-rationaliste sur
lalimentation, propose un contre-discours qui dfend les droits du plaisir
gustatif. Comme le remarque Jean-Claude Bonnet, Grimod nhsite pas
fonder la gastronomie sur une mythologie du plaisir et du luxe, en
assurant que la cuisine sest toujours amliore dans les grandes poques
de licence et de sensualit comme la Regence, avec ses orgies et ses petits
soupers [16]. Il soutient que le plaisir du manger est aussi noble comme
le fait de regarder un tableau, et il ne renonce pas de mettre en scne des
festins compliqus et bizarres pour dmontrer sa thorie. Ses Almanachs
des gourmands (1803-1812) ont provoqu un changement de mentalit:
faire la cuisine nest plus lapanage des domestiques, mais un art comme
les autres, avec ses propres rgles et son savoir-faire.
Malgr le fait quil est galement considr comme fondateur de la
gastrolittrature, Brillat-Savarin na pas lenvergure culturelle de
Grimod. Un bourgeois de province, participant actif la Rvolution et
conseiller la Cours de Cassation pendant Charles X, il a t plutt un
lgislateur , un doctrinaire, lhomme dun seul livre longuement
labor, Physiologie du got, ou mditations de gastronomie transcen-
dante. Admirateur des Idologues et de la rpublique modre, il a
prfr la science et la bonne mesure la beaut et au plaisir (cele
nempche pas Balzac lui faire des loges pour la saveur du style,
en le mettant au mme niveau que La Bruyre et La Rochefoucauld). Et
si Brillat-Savarin est connu aujourdhui pour ses phrases sentencieuses
sur les manires de table et pour ses prolgomnes la philosophie du
got, Grimod a t beaucoup plus actif dans la cration de cette
littrature gourmande. Il a vraiment aim la gourmandise et la dcrite
comme un connaisseur, comme le remarque un de ses exgtes, Jean-

Claude Bonnet: Il dambule dans les rues de Paris la recherche des
meilleurs artisans, fournit de prcieuses descriptions de produits et
dlivre des conseils pratiques ou tonnants, tels que la manire de
confectionner des ufs monstrueux ou de teindre les crevisses vivantes
en rouge. Grimod met galement en place un jury dgustateur charg de
noter les plats des restaurateurs [17].
Ce Trimalchion de son poque, comme lappelait Victor Hugo, a
russi faire de la gastronomie un sujet tout fait respectable en passant
des cuisines et des boutiques, dans les salons, dans les bibliothques,
jusques [sic] sur les thtres [...] [18]. Sa mission a t continue par
dautres crivains du XIXme sicle, lpoque de la formation dtats-
nations et de laffirmation des identits nationales. Des noms comme
ceux de Charles Monselet (le vrai hritier de lessor spirituel du Grimod
de la Reynire), Horace Raisson, Colnet du Ravel, Honor Blanc, le
baron Brisse ou, plus tard, le grand Curnonsky ont represent des repres
dans lhistoire de lcriture gourmande, sans quaucun deux ait la
notoriet des fondateurs du genre. Noublions pas, dans ce contexte,
lapparition du Grand dictionnaire de cuisine dAlexandre Dumas, publi
post-mortem, en 1873. crit en collaboration avec un cuisinier,
Vuillemot, limpressionnant volume nest pas un livre de cuisine
proprement-dit, mais un roman-fleuve qui contient des portraits, des
recettes, des anecdotes, bref des grands pages de littrature inspires pas
la cuisine. La circulation du texte imprim a popularis galement le
sujet. La premire tentative de publier un priodique de bien-vivre est
aussi lie au nom du Grimod de la Reynire: entre 1806 et 1807, il publie
le mensuel Journal des gourmands et des belles, qui devient plus tard
Lpicurien franais, mais perd la prcieuse collaboration de
lexcentrique pre de la gastronomie. Dautres suivent: Gastronome,
journal universal du gout, 1814-1830 (le redacteur en chef a t un
crivain bien connu lpoque, Paul Lacroix, qui a souvent sign ses
textes avec le pseudonyme Le Bibliophile Jacob), Gastronomie, revue
de lart culinaire ancien et moderne (1839), Le Gourmet, journal des
intrts gastronomiques (1858, fond par Charles Monselet) et Journal
des gourmets (qui est publi en 1878, mais pretend avoir t fond en
1778 par Grimod de la Reynire en personne). Les quelques livres
dobservation sociale, les physiologies et les guides (des variantes
primitives du futur Guide Michelin qui est apparu en 1900), quoique au-
dehors de la littrature gastronomique, ont galement contribu aussi la
popularit de la gastronomie, en affirmant en mme temps la supriorit
de la culture franaise: Paris-guide (1867) dAuguste Luchet, Comme on

dne Paris (1842) de Jacques Arago, Paris qui consomme (1893)
dEmile Gourdeau et, le plus fameux, Paris table (1846) dEugne
Briffault. Trs importante dans le contexte de la popularit du sujet est la
cronique gastronomique, prefigure toujours par Grimod avec les textes
sur les restaurants parisiens publis dans les Almanachs des gourmands,
un genre que Charles Monselet, le baron Brisse et Fulbert Dumonteil ont
perfectionn dans les journaux de lpoque. Le baron Brisse (noble, bien
videmment seulement dans la rpublique des lettres) a t le premier vrai
auteur dune chronique culinaire quotidienne. La rubrique carnation
littraire sappelait Le monde gastronomique, apparaissait dans les
pages dun journal populaire et pas cher, La Libert, et elle tait destine
lusage des mnages bourgeois.
La priode dont on parle, celle de la cristallisation dun discours
gastronomique, se superpose sur une poque de grande effervescence
politique qui marque un nouvel ge, dfini par trois tendances
majeures: lindustrialisation, la dmocratisation et le nationalisme. Le
XIXme est le sicle de la formation des tats et de laffirmation de la
conscience et de lidentit nationales dans un contexte o les petites
communauts nationales avaient longtemps t asservies aux grands
empires qui dominaient le monde. Trouver sa culture nationale
signifiait un processus dexcavation dune couche culturelle
fondamentale, dun hritage unique qui appartenait de manire
exclusive la communaut et le distinguai des autres. Dans ce
processus de fabrication collective des identits nationales, qui
commence au XVIIIme sicle, mais est beaucoup plus intense au
XIXme (un processus qui est transnational, ainsi quon peut parler
dun cosmopolitisme du national), cette recherche du Graal
national devient la proccupation de tout le monde. Lobsession de la
lgitimation nationale conduit, dans la plupart des cas, inventer cet
ancien hritage, inventer les traditions: Pour faire advenir le
nouveau monde des nations, il ne suffisait pas dinventorier leur
hritage, il fallait bien plutt linventer [19]. Des nombreux
historiens contemporains (Anne-Marie Thiesse, Benedict Andersen,
Eric Hobsbawm, Ernest Gellner, Lucian Boia) parlent de linvention
des traditions. Le processus est bien dcrit par lhistorien britannique
Eric Hobsbawm : Les traditions inventes dsignent un ensemble de
pratiques de nature rituelle et symbolique qui sont normalement
gouvernes par des rgles ouvertement ou tacitement acceptes et qui
cherchent inculquer certaines valeurs et normes de comportement
par la rptition, ce qui implique automatiquement une continuit avec

le pass [...] [20]. La diffusion de limprimerie a eu galement un
rle important dans ce contexte et, comme le remarque Benedict
Andersen, la relation entre le capitalisme et la technologie
dimpression a pos les fondements dune nouvelle forme de
communaut politique imagine qui, ultrieurement, a dtermin la
naissance de la nation moderne.
Dis-moi ce que tu manges, je te dirai ce que tu es, disait Brillat-
Savarin. Le manger est un fort indicateur social et identitaire, il dfinit
lidentit dun groupe, en crayonnant le sentiment dappartenance mais
aussi le sentiment de diffrence sociale. Lacte alimentaire incorpore
(Claude Fischler) lindividu dans un systme de valeurs, dans un ordre du
mangeable: Manger est un phnomne total qui signifie une
appartenance sociale, affirme un lieu socital et affectif, et participe la
construction dune identit culturelle [21]. Lalimentation a un rle
important dans la construction de lidentit dun individu et aussi dune
communaut [22], et la cuisine est lune des expressions les plus
spcifiques dune ethnie et dune nation. Anne-Marie Thiesse a inclu la
cuisine (les spcialits culinaires) sur la liste des lments symboliques et
matriaux dune nation, ct de la langue, dun folklore, dune histoire,
des hros-modles, dune mentalit spcifique, des lieux mmorables, des
reprsentations officielles (lhymne, le drapeau), des identifications
pittoresques (des costumes, un animal emblmatique). La formation des
nations concide avec une intense cration dans tous les domaines
artistiques, tant donn que les mouvements nationalistes ont eu comme
leaders des gens avec des professions lies au langage: des crivains, des
professeurs, des pasteurs, des avocats. Cest aussi le moment de
linvention de nouveaux genres littraires ou artistiques et de nouvelles
formes dexpression; cest lpoque de la conscration dfinitive du
roman, un genre littraire aussi jeune que lide de nation, capable de
traduire artistiquement les mutations historiques et politiques. Dans cette
priode, le concept de culture de masse est cr (il a t soutenue surtout
par la presse) et aussi lide de littrature comme forme de loisir (et la
gastrolittrature pourrait bien tre inclue dans cette catgorie). Lintrt
du grand public pour les thmes du quotidien (le micro-univers, le monde
dans ses petits dtails, le banal fait quotidien) est, sans doute, une
expression de la nouvelle modernit politique.
Ds 1850, dans le cadre dun processus de revalorisation des
cuisines traditionnelles, porteuses dinformation identitaire, les livres de
recettes et ceux dedis linventaire des produits du terroir et des
traditions culinaires locales se multiplient: Inscrits dans le processus de

valorisation patrimoniale du pays dj engag depuis le dbut du
XIXme sicle, ils contribuent organiser une mmoire nationale
autour de la commensalit et de la convivialit des tables rgionales,
dsignes comme lieux identitaires [23]. Le rgionalisme culinaire, qui
provient de lidologie du gnie populaire (thoretise par Herder la
fin du XVIIIme sicle) reprsente une forme daffirmation de lidentit
nationale. Des titres classiques de la gastronomie rgionaliste sont
publis dans cette priode: Lancienne Alsace a table (1862), par
Charles Gerard, mais aussi La Table au pays de Brillat-Savarin (1892),
crit par le neveu du fameux crivain gastronome, Lucien Tendret.
Pas seulement en France, la patrie de la gastronomie, la cuisine est
valorise comme un fort emblme identitaire. Mme dans les nations
mergentes du XIXme sicle, telles que la Roumanie, la Norvge et la
Grce, les livres de cuisine recettes et conseils mnagers pour la plupart
-, publis dans de nouvelles langues nationales, ont revendiqu de
manire ouverte une identit spcifique et une appartenance nationale. En
plein veil des nations, ces livres montrent, dune part une forte
affirmation identitaire, mais dautre part, une occidentalisation des
pratiques culinaires, qui est une consquence normale du dsir de
modernisation du pays. Comme on lavait dj dit, limitation de la
cuisine franaise a un solide substrat politique: la revendication dun
modle de socit: Au XIXme sicle, la modernisation de la culture
culinaire des Balkans prend bien souvent la forme dune europanisation.
Processus urbain confin aux lites, elle ne concerne nanmoins que les
repas non essentiels et apparat comme superficielle [24].
La situation roumaine est un peu diffrente. Lanthropologue
roumain Vintil Mihilescu parle dune schizophrnie de la culture
roumaine, en soulignant quon a le cas dune nation moderne forme
sur une culture archaque, holistique, la culture populaire paysanne.
Mme si, au niveau de linfrastructure, la France est le modle pour la
nouvelle nation roumaine, les roumains se revendiquent de lidologie
nationaliste allemande, qui affirme que la nation est un donn, est
inscrite dans le ADN dun peuple: En ce qui concerne la nation
roumaine (et gnralement, les nations de lespace central-europen),
le modle invoqu correspond la formule allemande. Les roumains
se dfinissent par leur origine commune (roumaine, dacque ou daco-
roumaine), par la langue unitaire, par lhistoire quils partagent, par la
spiritualit spcifique [25]. La thorie des formes sans fond est
applicable au discours gastronomique import tale quale de la
prestigieuse culture franaise; on avait des livres de cuisine dans la

langue nationale, mais on navait pas un degr de civilisation qui
permettrait leur utilisation quotidienne. La cuisine roumaine est
fondamentalement rurale, paysanne, un mlange dinfluences
hongroises, turques, russes, allemandes, mais avec un savoir-faire
local, spcifique roumain. Quoique les lites rvolutionnaire qui ont
fait des tudes ltranger ont essay une inoculation des pratique
culinaires occidentales sur le territoire roumain, la cuisine autochtone
a continu dtre populaire, pas trop sophistique, fondamente sur
des ingrdients simples et sur des techniques de cuisson assez
primitives. Des livres de cuisine ont apparu ici mme avant le
XIXme sicle [26], mais les changements provoqus par le tumulte
rvolutionnaire de toute lEurope ont intensifi le rythme de ces
apparitions. Voil les plus connus: Crticic folositoare [Un petit livre
utile], le premier livre dconomie domestique publi Bucarest en
1806, redit en 1825; Cea mai nou Carte de Bucate a buctriei
romne, francese, germane i maghiare [Le plus nouvel livre de
recettes de la cuisine roumaine, franaise, allemande et hongroise],
publi avant 1900 par Johann Carl Hintescu; Manolachi Drghici,
Reete cercate n numr de 500 din buctria cea mare a lui Robert,
ntiul buctar al Curii Franei, potrivite pentru toate strile [500
recettes verifies de la grande cuisine de Robert, le premier chef de la
Cour de la France, utiles pour tout le monde], 1846; Maria Maurer,
Carte de bucate. 190 de reete alese i ncercate de o prieten a
tuturor femeilor celor casnice [Livre de cuisine. 190 recettes selectes
et verifies dune amie de toutes les femmes menagres], 1849;
Ecaterina doctor S. Coma, Buna menajer sau Carte de bucate [La
Bonne Menagre ou Livre de cuisine], 1871; Ionnin Christ, Buctarie
romn. Carte coprindetore de mai multe reete de bucate i bufet [La
cuisine roumaine. Un livre qui contient plusieurs recettes de plats et
de boissons], 1865 [27].
Absolument remarquable lepoque tait lactivit gastronomique
dun des leaders du mouvement rvolutionnaire roumain, lcrivain
Mihail Koglniceanu. Il publie, entre 1842 et 1846, cinq volumes du
Calendar pentru poporul romnesc. Almanah de nvtur i
petrecere [Calendrier pour le peuple roumain. Almanach des
enseignements et divertissement] et en 1841, un livre de recettes,
clbre jusqu prsent: 200 reete cercate de bucate, prjituri i alte
trebi gospodreti... [200 recettes vrifies de nourriture, gteaux et
dautre activits menagres...] en collaboration avec un autre crivain,
C. Negruzzi. Le livre est apparu Iasi, en 1841 et a connu un grand

succs, tant rdit en 1842 et 1846. Le livre est publi avec les
initiales des auteurs, mais Mihail Koglniceanu a dvoil dans son
roman Iluzii pierdute [Illusions perdues] quil est le co-auteur du
livre: Je veux seulement ajouter que je viens de publier avec C. N.,
un autre Promethe manqu comme moi un livre qui, en renversant
toutes les rgles, en foulant aux pieds toutes les lois reues de la
communaut et les usages du pays, fera une grande rvolution dans
toute la Moldavie dans la manire de faire les broches et les quenelles;
je parle dune collection de 200 recettes qui nous apportera une grande
rputation parmi les femmes cuisinires et la postrit reconnaissante
nous donnera sans doute le beau nom de ceux qui ont introduit lart
culinaire en Moldavie. On est content mme avec cette appellation
[28]. Bien que conu comme un instrument utile pour les mnagres,
avec un public bien focus, le livre de cuisine de ces deux crivains
est trs expressif surtout quand lu par un lecteur contemporain.
Plusieurs plats ont des noms paradoxaux, pleins dune certaine posie
archaque: sup pisat (de la soupe broye), lapte zburat [du lait qui a
pris son vol], ou buciume prjite n unt [des bches cuites en beurre].
Dautres sont impossible dchiffrer, mme aprs avoir lu la recette:
bou de mod [buf la mode], tort de leni cu gratii [gteau
de lentz avec des barreaux], babe fr lapte [des brioches sans
lait), zalatine [des glatines] etc. En dehors du contexte o elles
taient conues et crites, ces recettes et conseils menagres
deviennent de la littrature et sont lues exclusivement pour le plaisir
esthtique (dailleurs, mme si elles taient verifies, donc
homologues par la pratique des deux crivains, la plupart de ces
recettes ne peuvent pas tre realise aujourdhui par la plus doue
cuisinire). Le moment est important parce quil investit pour la
premire fois un domaine marginal comme la gastronomie avec un
grand prstige culturel, en anticipant la force dun discours qui, en
temps, dpassera les frontires du pratique. On remarque quimiter le
modle franais, cest aussi copier ce type de littrature gourmande,
une tche accomplie dhabitude par les crivains. Ils comprennent
limportance de la convivialit, du manger comme acte politique,
civilis, synonyme de la diplomatie (Brillat-Savarin a observ cet
aspect: Les repas sont devenus un moyen de gouvernement, mais
Antonin Carme aussi: Lart culinaire sert descorte la diplomatie
europen). Malgr cela, la vraie synchronisation avec lOccident en
forme, mais aussi en fond se produit beaucoup plus tard et pourrait
tre constate, par exemple, en lisant les menus des restaurants du

Bucarest entre les deux guerres. La gastronomie devient un sort
dindicateur de la civilisation impossible ignorer, et le petit Paris
saligne du point de vue gastronomique au niveau du reste de
lEurope. Parmi les livres de cuisine fameux de lpoque, on voque
deux crits par deux crivains assez connus: Dictatura gastronomic
[La dictature gastronomique] (1935) de Constantin Bacalbaa et
Cartea de bucate [Livre de recettes] (1939) de Mihail Sevastos.
Seulement le premier a une certaine valeur littraire puisque lauteur
agglutine dans son discours destination pratique beaucoup de
procds spcifiques aux fictions. Le rsultat est un texte sduisant
situ la frontire de nombreux genres littraire.
Le vrai crateur du discours gastronomique roumain est lcrivain
Al. O. Teodoreanu qui signe parfois ses textes avec le pseudonyme
Pstorel. Il est linventeur de la gastrolittrature roumaine et le
vritable hritier en esprit du grand Grimod de la Reynire: cultiv,
avec des gots extrmement raffins, dot dun humour acidul et
dune ironie impitoyable, aimant galement les mots et les mets. Bien
que ses premiers textes gastronomiques ont apparu plus tt dans sa
carrire dcrivain [29], ce nest quen fvrier 1933 quil annonce
officiellement sa passion pour la gastronomie, quand il inaugure
une rubrique hebdomadaire dans le quotidien roumain Adevrul
literar i artistic [La vrit littraire et artistique]. Approxi-
mativement 75 articles sur des sujets gastronomiques et nologiques
pas seulement des recettes culinaires, mais aussi des textes sur les
manires de table, des petites histoires comiques ou des aphorismes
ont apparus entre le 19 fvrier 1933 et le 14 octobre 1934. La
rubrique a t continue pour encore quelques semaines par le critique
littraire G. Clinescu. Les textes ont t publis beaucoup plus tard,
en 1977, dans un volume intitule De re culinaria.
La chronique gastronomique soutenue chaque semaine dans les
annes 30 (et continue aprs la guerre, avec des pauses, jusqu la
fin de sa vie, en 1964) a marqu une premire dans le journalisme
roumain et a instaur un nouveau genre, la gastrolittrature.
Lintention dexplorer un domaine culturel qui a beaucoup contribu
la cration du portrait identitaire dune nation, a t dclare du dbut:
Bref, le lecteur va pas trouver des recettes dans cette rubrique. []
Jai seulement pris la tche dcrire, de temps en temps, une rubrique
critique. Et, si de manire incidentelle je serai forc de parler de
quelques plats nationaux ou trangers, je le ferai seulement pour
communiquer une recette perdue ou pour corriger une recette qui est
errone. Je le ferai avec toute la conscience dun chrtien pratiquant et
sans aucuns regrets: je suis au rgime [30]. crits en prose, mais
parfois en vers, ses chroniques atypiques mettent en scne des
personnages et des histoires dans une atmosphre tout fait
fictionnelle, en crayonnant comme des feuilletons le roman dun art
pas encore homologue, la gastronomie. Presque subversive, puisque
elles dfient la priode de pauvret quand elles ont t crites, les
chroniques mlangent lrudition impressionnante avec une jovialit
absolument charmante, le calembour alerte avec laphorisme grave,
tablissant une relation de complicit avec le lecteur, une relation qui
rsiste mme en dehors de la rception immdiate du texte
journalistique. Tmoignant un plaisir diniti, plusieurs de ces articles
sont des petits pomes en prose, des vraies performances dart
littraire. Elles sont les uvres dun esthte, bien entran dans les
jeux de mtalangage, mais aussi dans le trait piquant qui porte
subrepticement un message audacieux pour cette poque-l: il y a une
philosophie et mme une mtaphysique du manger. Le repas et ses
dlices sont un prtexte pour bien passer un examen comportemental
et identitaire, et lauteur noublie jamais cette valence profonde du
manger: Les aliments sont badins. On pourrait penser quils cachent
en eux des petits dmons qui attendent le bon moment pour faire des
farces [...]. La carotte est sentimental, le raifort est agressif, la crme
frache est capricieuse, le beurre est farceur, loignon est indiscret et
lail est tout simplement magique [31].
Dans un autre article on apprend que le cuisinier est un home
lev et que, ainsi, la passion pour la bonne chre est tout fait
culturelle: Bien videmment le rle dun chroniqueur gastronomique
nest pas ce de communiquer des recettes. Cest la tches des
cuisiniers. [] Mais mme ailleurs, et mme quand le cuisinier est un
homme trs lev (ce que en Occident, surtout en France, se passe trs
frquemment), la dcision dinitier les autres dans leur complique
mtier concide avec leur dclin et mme avec limpossibilit de plus
travailler aux fourneaux [32]. Pstorel admets dailleurs que sont
intrt est purement thorique et quil fait toujours de la littrature
dans ses textes: beaucoup des femmes mnagres mont conseill de
renoncer la cuisine et faire tout simplement de la littrature (bien sr
il y en a beaucoup qui pensent le contraire). Pour satisfaire le plus
gens possible jai permis quelques fois la cuisinire de mon me de
parler avec la muse littraire. Les amateurs de recettes se sont fchs:
cest pas une rubrique littraire, monsieur, pourquoi vous ne rpondez

pas nettement et vous continuez de bavarder? Donnez-nous des
recettes! [33].
Aprs une longue pause cause du rgime communiste (quand la
nourriture tait un sujet tabou et des mots comme faim, peine etc.
ont t compltement limines par la censure dans tous les matriaux
imprimes journaux, livres), la gastrolittrature invente par Pstorel
Teodoreanu a t continue a lpoque contemporaine par deux
crivains: Bogdan Ulmu, Gastronomice la Pstorel [Des textes
gastronomiques... la Pstorel], 1998 et Radu-Anton Roman Bucate,
vinuri i obiceiuri romneti [Des plats, des vins et des traditions
roumaines], 1998. Aujourdhui le sujet des cuisines nationales devient
de nouveau un sujet de lactualit et le discours gastronomique est
toujours considr une forte marque didentit nationale. Dans le
contexte de la globalisation acclre et mme de leffacement des
frontires nationales, cultiver son identit est devenu une priorit,
surtout pour les petits pays qui, ntant pas capable de se lgitimer du
point de vue conomique et politique, continuent se lgitimer comme
culture. Si on analyse le langage publicitaire utilis dans lindustrie de
tourisme et loisir (les guides, les albums de photographies, les
reportages, le journalisme spcialis) on remarque que les lments de
gastronomie sont prsents dans tous les profiles identitaires des pays.
Les nourritures constituent larchive ou est dpose le dossier dune
poque et la gastrolittrature est un discours culturel qui traduit
esthtiquement tous les moments importants dans ce dossier historique
vivant. Parler de la gastronomie cest parler de lhistoire dune nation
et linvention dun folklore alimentaire (A. Rowley) cest
linvention dune tradition, dun pass. On nest pas seulement ce
quon mange, mais on est surtout ce quon dit quon mange.
Notes
[1] Claude Lvi-Strauss a remarqu que la cuisine dune societ est un langage dans
lequel elle traduit inconsciemment sa structure, a moins que, sans le savoir
davantage, elle ne se resigne a y devoiler ses contradictions. (LOrigine des
manieres de table, Plon, Paris, 1968, p. 411).
[2] Massimo Montanari, Un Medioevo aperto al mondo, in Antonio Brusa&Luigi
Cajani (dir.), La storia di tutti, Carocci, Rome, 2008, p. 63, trad. en franais par
Charles Heimberg.
[3] Roland Barthes, Pour un psychosociologie de lalimentation contemporaine, in
Annales ESC, n 16/ 1961, p. 977.
[4] Jean-Pierre Poulain, en collaboration avec Jean-Pierre Corbeau, Penser

lalimentation, Entre imaginaire et rationalits, Privat, Paris, 2002, p. 128.
[5] Jean Duvignaud, Cherif Khaznadar, Introduction, in Internationale de
limaginaire, Nouvelle Serie n 7, (Cultures, Nourriture), Editions Babel,
Maison des Cultures du Monde, Paris, 1997, p. 10.
[6] Preoccupe par la rcuperation de la civilisation materielle, LEcole des
Annales a publi, en 1970, Pour une histoire de lalimentation (Cahiers des
Annales, 28, Paris, 1970). En 1968, Claude Lvi-Strauss a publi LOrigine des
manieres de table (Plon, Paris, 1968), et Jean-Paul Aron, Essai sur la sensibilit
alimentaire Paris au XIXe sicle (Armand Colin, Paris, 1967) et plus tard Le
mangeur du XIX-eme sicle (Laffont, Paris, 1973). La premire histoire littraire
de la sensibilit gastronomique a t publie par lessayiste et le philosophe
franais Jean-Francois Revel, en 1979: Un Festin en paroles. Histoire littraire de
la sensibilit gastronomique, de lAntiquit nos jours (Jean-Jacques Pauvert/
Editions Suger, Paris, 1985). Lintrt du Roland Barthes pour ce sujet est aussi
bien connu: Pour un psychosociologie de lalimentation contemporaine, in
Annales ESC, n 16/1961); Lecture , introduction a Brillat-Savarin, Physiologie
du gout. Choix de textes (Hermann, Paris, 1975); Mythologies (Editions de Seuil,
Paris, 1957).
[7] Pascal Ory, Le discours gastronomique franais des origines nos jours,
Collection Archives, Editions Gallimard, Paris, 1998, p. 9.
[8] Florent Quellier, op. cit., p. 226.
[9] Pascal Ory, op. cit., p. 39.
[10] Ibidem, p. 224.
[11] Idem, p. 226.
[12] Ds 1780, le chef Antoine Beauvilliers a quitt le service du Comte de Provence,
le frre du roi, pour sinstaller son compte en donnant son tablissement, le
premier grand restaurant du Paris, lallure dune grande maison: un salon
lgant, des garons bien mis, un caveau soign et une cuisine suprieure,
comme la dcrit Brillat-Savarin dans son livre, Physiologie du gout (1825).
[13] Les cas d incompetence gastro-technique du Charles Monselet, Curnonsky,
Brillat-Savarin, le baron Brisse etc. sont dj bien connus; pourtant, ils ont t des
grands crivains de la bouche.
[14] Robert J. Courtine, La Gastronomie, Presses Universitaires de France , Paris,
1970, p. 49.
[15] Genevive Sicotte, Le discours gastronomique, le consommateur et le citoyen,
in Voulez-vous manger avec moi, textes reunis par Daniel Latouche, Fides,
Quebec, Canada, 2003, p. 205.
[16] Jean-Claude Bonnet, catalogue de lexposition de la Bibliothque de lArsenal
Livres en bouche, Hermann Ed., Paris, 2001, p. 230.
[17] Jean-Claude Bonnet, Preface, in Gustave Desnoiresterres, Grimod de La
Reynire et son Groupe, Editions Menu Frentin, Gallardon, 2009, p. 11.
[18] ABL Grimod de la Reynire, crits gastronomiques, Jean-Claude Bonnet (ed.),
UGE, collection 10/ 18, Paris, 1978, p. 312.
[19] Anne-Marie Thiesse, La cration des identits nationales. Europe XVIIIe- XXe
sicle, Seuil, Paris, 2002, p. 13.
[20] Eric Hobsbawm, Inventer les traditions, Introduction au recueil dtudes publi
sous la direction de E. Hobsbawm & T. Ranger, The Invention of Tradition,
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1983, p. 4.
[21] J.P. Corbeau, La dcouverte de lautre travers la nourriture, in Voulez-vous

manger avec moi, op. cit, p. 211.
[22] Si chaque individu diffre de lautre par ses gots et ses manires de manger, il
en est de mme dun groupe social, des habitants dun pays ou d'une communaut
religieuse: tous en effet dfinissent, en matire dalimentation, des identits
collectives (Massimo Montanari, op. cit., p. 64).
[23] Julia Csergo, Nostalgie du terroir, in Sophie Bessis (dir.), Mille et une
bouches. Cuisines et identits culturelles, Autrement, Coll. Mutations/
Mangeurs, n154, Paris, 1995, p. 162.
[24] Rayna Gavrilova, Ex Occidente Lux, in M. Bruegel et B. Laurioux (dir.),
Histoire et identits alimentaires en Europe, Hachette Littratures, Paris, 2002, p. 105.
[25] Lucian Boia, Istorie i mit n contiina romneasc [Histoire et mythe dans la
conscience roumaine], Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1997, p. 78, trad. par moi, F. P.
[26] Un des plus vieux livres de cuisine roumaines est O lume ntr-o carte de bucate:
Manuscris din epoca brncoveneasc [Un monde dans un livre de cuisine: un
manuscrit de lepoque de Constantin Brancoveanu], la transcription du texte,
prface et postface par Ioana Constantinescu, essai dintroduction par Matei
Cazacu, Editura Fundaiei Culturale Romne, Bucureti, 1997).
[27] Une partie de ces anciens livres de cuisine ont t rdits recemment: Crticic
folositoare (Editura Jurnalul, Bucureti, 2005), Maria Maurer, Carte de bucate.
190 de reete alese i ncercate de o prieten a tuturor femeilor celor casnice
(Editura Jurnalul, Bucureti, 2006), Manolachi Drghici, Reete cercate n numr
de 500 din buctria cea mare a lui Robert, ntiul buctar al Curii Franei...
(Editura Opera Magna, Iai, 2005).
[28] Mihail Koglniceanu, Scrieri alese [Ecrits choisis], textes choisies et essai
dintroduction par Geo erban, Editura Tineretului, Bucureti, 1967, p. 45, traduit
par moi, F. P.
[29] La premire cronique date de 1921: Din carnetul unui gastronom. n loc de
cronic rimat [Du cahier dun gastronome. Au lieu dune croniques en
rimes], in Flacra 7, n 4/ 31 decembrie 1921, p. 59 (cf. Dorina Merche,
Biobliografie Al. O. Teodoreanu (Pstorel), Iai, 1986).
[30] Al. O. Teodoreanu, De re culinaria, dition, notes et glossaire par Rodica
Abrudan Pandele et Aristia Avramescu, Editura Sport-Turism, Bucureti, 1977,
p. 9-10.
[31]Al. O. Teodoreanu, Rspuns unei cetitoare [Rponse une lectrice], in De re
culinaria, ed. cit., p. 41. trad. par moi, F.P.
[32] Al. O. Teodoreanu, Mncri estivale [Des plats estivals], in De re culinaria,
ed. cit., p. 185, trad. par moi, F.P.
[33] Al. O. Teodoreanu, Parantez [Une paranthse], in De re culinaria, ed. cit.,
p. 190, trad . par moi, F. P.
Bibliographie
Aron, Jean-Paul, Essai sur la sensibilit alimentaire Paris au XIXe sicle, Armand
Colin, Paris, 1967.
Aron, Jean-Paul, Le mangeur du XIX-eme sicle, Laffont, Paris, 1973.
Barthes, Roland, Pour un psychosociologie de lalimentation contemporaine, in
Annales ESC, n 16/ 1961.
Sophie Bessis (dir.), Mille et une bouches. Cuisines et identits culturelles,

Autrement, Coll. Mutations/ Mangeurs, n154, Paris, 1995.
Lucian Boia, Istorie i mit n contiina romneasc [Histoire et mythe dans la
conscience roumaine], Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1997.
Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, Physiologie du got ou Mditations de gastronomie
transcendante, Editions Flammarion, Coll. Champs Classiques, Paris, 2009.
Bruegel, M. et Laurioux, B. (dir.), Histoire et identits alimentaires en Europe,
Hachette Littratures, Paris, 2002.
Courtine, Robert J., La Gastronomie, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 1970.
Desnoiresterres, Gustave, Grimod de La Reynire et son Groupe, prface par Jean-
Claude Bonnet, Editions Menu Frentin, Gallardon, 2009.
Drouard, Alain, Les Franais et la table. Alimentation, cuisine, gastronomie du
Moyen Age nos jours, Ellipses Editions, Paris, 2005.
Freedman, Paul, Istoria gustului [Lhistoire du got], Editura Vellant, Bucureti,
2008.
Guy, Christian, La vie quotidienne de la societ gourmande en France au XIXme
sicle, Hachette, Paris, 1971.
Daniel Latouche (ed.), Voulez-vous manger avec moi, Fides, Quebec, Canada, 2003.
Claude Lvi-Strauss, LOrigine des manires de table, Plon, Paris, 1968.
Ory, Pascal, Le discours gastronomique franais des origines nos jours, Coll.
Archives, Editions Gallimard, Paris, 1998.
Poulain, Jean-Pierre, en collaboration avec Corbeau, Jean-Pierre, Penser
lalimentation, Entre imaginaire et rationalits, Privat, Paris, 2002.
Quellier, Florent, La table des Franais. Une histoire culturelle (XVe-dbut
XIXe sicle), Presses Universitaires de Rennes, Rennes, 2007.
Revel, Jean-Franois, Un Festin en paroles. Histoire littraire de la sensibilit
gastronomique, de lAntiquit nos jours, Jean-Jacques Pauvert/ Editions Suger,
Paris, 1985.
Reynire, A.B.L. Grimod de la, Ecrits gastronomiques, Jean-Claude Bonnet (ed.),
UGE, Coll. 10/ 18, Paris, 1978.
Reynire, A.B.L. Grimod de la, Manuel des amphitryons, Editions A. M. Metaili,
Paris, 1983.
Tannahill, Reay, Food in History, revised edition, Broadway Paperback/ Random
House, New York, 1995.
Thiesse, Anne-Marie, La cration des identits nationales. Europe XVIIIe- XXe sicle,
Seuil, Paris, 2002.
***Internationale de limaginaire, Nouvelle Srie n 7, (Cultures, Nourriture),
Editions Babel, Maison des Cultures du Monde, Paris, 1997.
Remerciements
Cet article fait partie dun projet de recherche financ par le contrat
POSDRU/89/1.5/S/62259, projet stratgique Sciences socio-humaines et
politiques applicatives. Programme de formation postdoctorale et de bourses
postdoctorales de recherche dans le domaine des sciences socio-humaines et
politiques, cofinanc par le Fonds Social Europen, par le Programme
Oprationnel Sectoriel Dveloppement des Ressources Humaines 2007-2013.
O nou perspectiv de nelegere a pragmaticii

discursului publicitar [1]
Adriana Maria Robu
Abstract: Our approach tries to prove that the good results of the nowadays
Pragmatics can be used within an integral model which starts from the
individual level of speech (the discourse or text), so as to foccus on the
particularity of every text with its complex relations with the frames or the
context of enunciation. The best theoretical background, in our opinion, that
can help such an approach, is the integral text linguistics of Eugenio
Coseriu, which offers clear distinctions between the levels of speech
(universal, historical and individual) and which are characterized by
particular competences/knowledges (elocutional, idiomatic and expressive).
All these levels and linguistic knowledge are paralleled by three linguistic
contents, specific to every speech act: designation, meaning and sense. It
means that a speech act is related to a reality, an extra linguistic reference,
but it is possible by means of certain categories of a particular language,
which have, in different cases, a certain function within the discourse. When
we start from particular instances of speech, we cannot ignore the other two
levels. A good way to find joint points between Pragmatics and Texlinguistics
is to explore the coserian theoretical approach concerning the complex
relations which a sign can establish within discourse, called evocative
functions. They are: relations of the sign with other signs, relations of the
sign in a given text with signs from other texts, relations between signs and
things, relations between signs and the knowledge of things and the frames
(intorni). We also consider that the pragmatic finality of the discourse is
strongly connected with the global sense. And this can be very well
demonstrated within the advertising discourse which, in Aristotles terms, is
a type governed by lgos pragmatiks (as a subsequent determination of
lgos semantiks). The goal of our analysis is to get to a better
understanding of the pragmatics of the advertising discourse, with the help of
the Integral Texlinguistics which encourages interdisciplinarity and which
can even assume transdisciplinarity.
Keywords: advertising discourse, evocative functions, Integral
Textlinguistics, Pragmatics.
0. C ele dou mari direcii ale pragmaticii de

astzi aduc o serie de contribuii utile pentru nelegerea discursului n
general, dar i a celui publicitar, oprindu-se n special la aspecte care
privesc planul universal al vorbirii, chiar dac analizele pornesc de la

fapte individuale. Dac pragmatica integrat, specific spaiului fran-
cofon, s-a fundamentat pe principii structuraliste de tip Benveniste,
fiind, de fapt, o semantic structural care nglobeaz fapte de discurs,
pragmatica cognitiv, dezvoltat n spaiul anglo-saxon, face distincie
ntre ceea ce ine de sistemul periferial lingvistic i aspectul pragmatic
al enunurilor. Rezultatele pragmaticii pot fi ns folosite n cadrul
unui model integral care s porneasc de la fapte individuale de
vorbire spre a urmri particularitatea fiecrui text n relaie cu
circumstanele sau cadrele de enunare.
0.1. Cel mai bun cadru teoretic care poate susine un astfel de
demers este, n opinia noastr, lingvistica integral a textului aa cum
a fost conceput de Eugeniu Coeriu, n interiorul creia analiza
discursului, pragmatica, analiza conversaiei, teoria argumentrii, dar
i alte discipline mai mult sau mai puin pragmatice pot fi mpcate
n mod coerent. Distincia fundamental pe care a fcut-o savantul cu
privire la nivelele limbajului (universal, istoric i individual), caracte-
rizate de trei competene specifice (elocuional, idiomatic i expre-
siv) [2], crora le corespund trei coninuturi lingvistice (desemnare,
semnificaie i sens)[3] ne ajut s identificm corect locul pragmaticii
n sfera tiinelor limbajului i s urmrim aspectele care o indivi-
dualizeaz. Totodat, distinciile coeriene amintite exprim foarte
limpede ideea c fiecare act lingvistic se raporteaz la o realitate (o
referin extralingvistic), dar c acest lucru se ntmpl cu ajutorul
unor categorii ale limbii, care au anumite funcii particulare n cadrul
discursului. Astfel, o analiz (asupra discursului publicitar) care por-
nete de la nivelul individual al limbajului (adic de la discurs sau
text) nu poate ignora celelalte dou nivele, deoarece acestea interrela-
ioneaz. Cu privire la tendinele pragmaticii cognitive, i ntr-o mai
mic msur ale celei integrate, observm c, dei par a se ocupa de
nivelul individual al limbajului, totui acestea surprind aspecte spe-
cifice nivelului universal al vorbirii, cum ar fi maximele conversa-
ionale, schemele de funcionare a presupoziiilor, implicaturilor
convenionale etc. Privit n lumina lingvisticii integrale, pragmatica
discursului poate adopta noi instrumente de analiz conforme cu
realitatea limbajului i care pot fi aplicate nu doar tipologiilor generale
de texte, ci textelor n funcie de particularitatea fiecruia. n acest
sens, extrem de util este i principiul coerian care susine c funcia
de baz a limbajului este cea de semnificare, la care se adaug deter-
minri ulterioare de natur pragmatic (material), tiinific sau

poetic, reperabile n cadrul discursului, precum i faptul c n discurs
sunt antrenate att componenetele cunoaterii lingvistice (meta-
limbajul, diacronia, discursul repetat, varietatea diatopic, diastratic
i diafazic a limbii istorice), ct i cunoaterea extralingvistic
(cunoaterea lucrurilor n general) ambele dimensiuni constituindu-se
n surse ale construciei de sens n cadrul discursului/textului. Toate
acestea trebuie avute n vedere atunci cnd urmrim aspecte legate de
finalitatea pragmatic a discursului publicitar care face uz de cea mai
variat gam de strategii discursive, funcii textuale, funcii prag-
matice sau evocri pentru a convinge.
0.2. Susinem c abordarea pragmaticii discursului publicitar, din

perspectiva lingvisticii integrale a textului, ca lingvistic a sensului,
ofer, pe lng caracterul inovator al aplicaiei, i posibilitatea nele-
gerii corecte a acestui tip de discurs. Modelul coerian constituie, la
ora actual, cel mai complex model conceptual de analiz a textu-
lui/discursului, fiind susinut de fundamente epistemologice din reto-
rica antic, din filosofia limbajului i lingvistic. Putem observa, de
asemenea, c unele aspecte din teoria coerian despre text/discurs se
ntlnesc adesea cu teorii din sfera pragmaticii lingvistice enunate de
Ch. Morris, J.L. Austin, J. R. Searle, Ch. J. Fillmore, H. P. Grice,
Sperber & Wilson etc., dar care sunt plasate de Coeriu ntr-un cadru
de analiz mult mai larg, nc din anii 50.
1. Spre a determina specificul discursului publicitar putem avea n

vedere tipurile de logos din viziunea lui Aristotel. Urmnd tipologia
aristotelic, lingvistica integral susine existena urmtoarelor fina-
liti discursive: finalitatea tiinific (cu sursa n logosul apofantic),
finalitatea pragmatic (logos pragmatic n funcie de care se deter-
min eficacitatea practic) i finalitatea poetic (logos poetic)
(Coeriu 2011:125). Fiecare dintre aceste finaliti surprind moda-
litatea de raportare a subiectului vorbitor la situaia de comunicare i
chiar relaia cu interlocutorul, ns considerate ca relaii interne ale
subiectului vorbitor cu propria sa vorbire, nu ca procese sau orientri
externe, fiind totodat determinri ulterioare ale logosului semanatic.
1.1. Din acest perspectiv a logosului pragmatic, textul publicitar

este un text caracterizat de ceea ce Coeriu numete eficacitate
practic, dominat fiind, totodat, de funcia apelativ [4]. Una dintre
principalele caracteristici ale discursului publicitar, manifestat

discret, chiar insesizabil pentru receptor la nivelul limbajului, este cea
de ascundere a gndirii, ca urmare a detarii de simpla funcie de
informare pe care o constituia reclama la nceput. Ca i textul politic
(despre care vorbete Coeriu n studiul Limbaj i politic), cel
publicitar este un tip de text eficient care
trebuie s reueasc n aa fel nct altul, asculttorul sau destinatarul

su s fac ceva, s acioneze ntr-un anumit mod sau s adopte o anumit
atitudine. De aceea, e adevrat c i printre procedeele sale se poate
numra i dac nu simpla ascundere a gndirii, atunci falsificarea
intenionat a lucrurilor, dar ntr-o form ascuns, adic lipsa adevrului,
dar cu aparena de a-l spune fr posibilitatea de verificare a celor spuse,
fie folosindu-se de interpretarea ca cele spuse s fie interpretate i n alt
mod, ntr-un sens inocent, ceea ce i este propriu insinurii (Coeriu
2002: 24).
1.2. Ceea ce definete discursul publicitar sub aspectul structurrii

sale este caracterul hibrid, dar i polifonia constitutiv. Sincretismul
dintre semn, text i imagine are ca scop construirea unui discurs care
nzuiete la considerarea lui drept art modern sau mai degrab
postmodern. Totodat, varietatea formelor sub care se prezint acesta
ca text audio, simbol, afi, fotografie, film, solicit un nou tip de
retoric lingvistic i iconic, definit de mbinarea codurilor: social,
comercial, mitic etc., prin care liniile de demarcaie dintre denotativ i
conotativ se estompeaz. Supremaia imaginii i a imaginarului, diver-
tismentul, incitarea ludic i evaziunea sunt completate, de tehnicile
dresajului publicitar: a reduce, a frustra, a erotiza, a recupera, a con-
diiona, a infantiliza (F. Brunne 1996: 25). Nu ntmpltor publicitatea
a fost numit de Marshall McLuhan regina pseudo-evenimentului,
fiind asociat totodat cu persuadarea, seducia sau manipularea. Putem
vorbi de utilizarea strategiilor argumentative n scop persuasiv care
caracterizeaz discursul publicitar. Dac ar fi s discutm argumentarea
n accepia utilizat de Perelman, am spune c o argumentare este
persuasiv n msura n care este direcionat ctre un auditoriu specia-
lizat, i convingtoare atunci cnd intenioneaz s obin adeziunea
oricrei fiine raionale. De aceea, publicitatea este conceput mai
degrab ca discurs persuasiv care vizeaz aciunea, dect ca discurs
convingtor care apeleaz la inteligena receptorului [5]. Dat fiind faptul
c specificul discursului publicitar este determinat, n primul rnd, de
relaia vorbitor-receptor i a funciilor pe care semnul le stabilete cu
aceti poli ai comunicrii, putem invoca aici modelul triadic din retorica
antic, i anume ethos (sinele) pathos (ceilali) logos (raiune). Dei
tipul ideal al modelului triadic presupune echilibrul perfect al celor trei
componente, observm, n cadrul discursului publicitar, favorizarea
pathosului din raiuni de manipulare [6] i seducie de ordin discursiv.
3. O modalitate adecvat de identificare a unor puncte comune

lingvisticii textuale i pragmaticii lingvistice este explorarea relaiilor
complexe pe care le stabilete semnul lingvistic n text i discurs, aa cum
au fost concepute de Eugeniu Coeriu. Importana nelegerii relaiilor
semnului n discurs este aceea de a contribui la conturarea sensului din
texte sau discursuri. Acesta ia natere n texte prin conjugarea desem-
nrii cu semnificaia, dup cum sintetizeaz E. Coeriu n schema:
sens

semnificaie + desemnare

semne lingvistice
(Coeriu 2007: 153)
Aici avem de a face cu ceea ce Coeriu numete dubl relaie

semiotic (op. cit., p. 155): mai nti, n cadrul primei relaii semio-
tice, prin semnele lingvistice se semnific i desemneaz ceva anume,
iar acest lucru poate fi neles de toi utilizatorii, i apoi, la nivelul
celei de-a doua relaii semiotice, procesul de interpretare a semnifi-
caiei i desemnrii, conduce la nelegerea sensului din texte/discur-
suri. Dac ne referim la discursul publicitar, vom spune c am ajuns la
primul nivel al relaiilor semiotice atunci cnd putem s reconstituim
verbal aspectele obiective care compun discursul, cum ar fi succesi-
unea de imagini, textul propriu-zis, efectele cromatice etc. ns, numai
atunci cnd suntem capabili s interpretm sensul profund al unui spot
publicitar, spunem c suntem la cel de-al doilea nivel al relaiilor
semiotice. Pentru a atinge acest nivel semiotic superior, este necesar
nelegerea a ceea ce Coeriu a numit funcii de evocare. Acestea sunt
discutate de marele lingvist din perspectiv semnic, adic n ceea ce
privete relaiile pe care le stabilete semnul lingvistic ntr-un text/dis-
curs. Funciile semantice de evocare sunt urmatoarele: relaii semnului
cu alte semne, cu semne din alte texte, relaii ntre semne i lucruri,
relaii ntre semne i cunoaterea lucrurilor, precum i cadrele
(intorni) (Coseriu 2007: 181-233). Complexitatea acestor relaii ale
semnului se manifest n special la nivelul textului literar, care repre-
zint spaiul prin excelen al actualizrii acestor funcii, ns i n
publicitate ntlnim adesea situaii similare.
3.1. n ceea ce privete relaiile dintre semne, n textul publicitar

regsim exemple de folosire a unui cuvnt care evoc alte semne, cum
ar fi folosirea cuvintelor cu nelesuri multiple, ca n sloganul unei
bnci romneti: Mulumim pentru creditul acordat! n care cuvntul
credit evoc i ideea de ncredere. Sau sloganul Paxeladine se d
la tuse evoc, prin verbul se d i ideea de a ataca, a se repezi.
Totodat, unele cuvinte pot evoca sensuri care fac apel la anumite
simuri ca gustul, pipitul, mirosul, vzul, senzaii tactile etc. De
exemplu, ntr-un spot publicitar la cafea productorii de publicitate
vor folosi cuvinte ca arom, savoare, placerea gustului, iar reclamele
pentru cosmetice vor apela la termeni ca finee, fermitate etc. Uneori
aproape ca simim rcoarea i gustul berii sau sucului natural care ni
se prezint. Iar apelul la diferitele simuri este folosit i ca modalitate
de opoziie pentru a diminua importana unor produse concurente.
Aici un rol important l poate juca i funcia icastic atunci cnd n
text apar elemente care sugereaz produsul n cauz.
Tot din perspectiva relaiilor dintre semnele din cadrul aceluiai
text, la nivelul formei discursive, discursul publicitar prezint, pe
lng componenta sa de baz textul redacional (avnd caracter
informativ) i o serie de elementele paratextuale (titlul, marca, logo-
ul, sloganul, imaginea, pentru discursul publicitar, i supratitlul, titlul,
intertitlul[7], dar mai ales grafica), care contribuie la asigurarea ace-
leia comuniuni fatice din viziunea malinowskian. Att n cazul pre-
sei scrise, ct i pentru publicitatea tiprit, observ St. Dumistrcel,
se face curent referire la culori i imagini, la mrimea literelor etc.
Demne de un interes deosebit sunt ns proieciile n ceea ce privete
orice text tiprit, n discuie fiind puse toate elementele ce favorizeaz,
respectiv sporesc lizibilitatea, ncepnd cu simple semne de punctuaie
(punctul care ncheie o fraz, semnul ntrebrii sau al exclamrii), pn la
punerea n pagin (marginile albe ale foii) i structurarea textului: titrarea,
paginile de prezentare a autorului sau a coninutului unei cri, intro-
ducerea, sumarul etc. (Dumistrcel 2006: 22-23).
Cu referire la elementele de paratext trebuie s menionm faptul

c ele nu se constituie ntr-un simplu cadru periferic al textului,
ntruct acestea ndeplinesc o serie ntreag de funcii: capteaz atenia
cititorului, delecteaz, informeaz, ascund sau dezvluie mesajul
textului. Publicitatea, dar i presa din zilele noastre folosesc, n
alctuirea texului, cele mai noi studii de eye-tracking, care analizeaz
traiectoria privirii n momentul vizualizrii unei pagini scrise.
Recursul la asemenea artificii grafice, la care se adaug cele retorice,
contribuie la eficientizarea i succesul mesajului transmis.
3.2. Legtura cu semne ntrebuinate n alte texte este fcut n

acest tip de text prin discursul repetat (sau frazeologia n sens larg),
care este important nu doar datorit acelor modificri prin
quadripartita ratio (de la Quintilian) [8], ci mai ales graie reseman-
tizrii formulelor canonice sau datorit suprapunerilor ntre formula
fix i formula (identic) liber. De pild: Mesteci i faci fa
distraciei n care sunt artate nite fee de copii deformate datorit
mestecatului de gum. Alte exemple de discurs repetat sunt adaugarea
(adictio) ntlnit n sloganul Vodafone Triete fiecare clip! sau n
sloganul Tarom Ca s fii cineva trebuie s ajungi undeva!.
Substituirea (immutatio) apare n exemplul Fanta la distracie se
cunoate!. Tot forme de discurs repetat sunt i frazeologismele
folosite pentru ca sloganul s poat fi uor memorat. Dou exemple ar
fi: Electrolux face viaa mai uoar! sau Depozitul pas cu pas de la
Bankpost. Bankpost o alegere ctigtoare.
3.3. Semnul se raporteaz, totodat, n mod direct la reprezentrile

lucrurilor, iar acest aspect este lesne observabil n textele care utili-
zeaz anumite grafii sau sunete care s ne duc cu gndul la ceva ascu-
it, surd, luminos, ntunecat, prin intermediul unor vocale sau con-
soane relevante. Aici putem vorbi i de prezena anumitor semne dis-
tinctive folosite n strategiile care vizeaz identitatea de marc, pentru
a asocia mai uor produsul cu animite simboluri (ursuleul Cocolino,
delfinul, pantera etc). Problema contribuiei pe care o are cunoaterea
lucrurilor la vorbire, poate fi studiat, n opinia lui Coeriu de ceea ce
nsui savantul a numit skeologie lingvistic (dup gr. skuos, care
nseamn lucru, instrument) [9].
3.4. Cu referire la cunoaterea lucrurilor, semnele din discursul

publicitar au, de asemenea, valoare intenional mai ales cnd unele
spoturi vizeaz anumite categorii de vrst, categorii sociale, profe-

sionale, culturale, etnice etc. Folosirea pronumelor de politee este i
ea o modalitate de selectare a receptorului. n reclamele la produsele
de lux, de exemplu, apar n special pronumele de politee pentru a
sugera superioritatea cumprtorului n opoziie cu un public care
folosete produse obinuite.
Un alt procedeu de manifestare a relaiei dintre semne i cunoa-
terea lucrurilor este hiperbolizarea. Aceasta face s domneasc ideea
de mereu-mai-mult, de cel-mai-bun, de super-orice i, literalmente, de
hiper-consum (F. Brune). De la hiporbolizarea vizual a cascadelor
care devin ape minerale miraculoase, a mainilor capabile s se meta-
morfozeze n creaturi gigantice care escaladeaz cele mai de nenchi-
puit spaii, i pn la hiperbolizarea verbal extrem de variat, liber-
tatea imaginarului suprim adesea raiunea. Hiperbolele din sloganul
Dorna te ncarc cu toat puterea sau Natura ntlnete oraul
sunt completate de imaginea unor personaje reale pline de energie,
care se metamorfozeaz, sub imperiul apei minerale, devenind prin-
cipii primordiale ce strbat hiperbolic jungla, deertul i n final
oraul.
Discursul publicitar astfel construit demonstrez c se poate spune
orice despre orice, iar receptorului i este ngrdit dreptul de a contesta
ceva, tocmai datorit abundenei de cuvinte i reprezentri
hiperbolizante.
3.5. Pentru nelegerea complexitii textelor/discursurilor, cu ade-
vrat profitabil este explorarea cadrelor pe care le implic enunarea
sau, alfel spus, nivelul circumstanelor n care se vorbete [10]. Acestea
sunt discutate de Coeriu tot din perspectiv semnic, adic n ceea ce
privete relaiile pe care le stabilete semnul lingvistic dintr-un text prin
funcia semantic de evocare. Cadrele sunt cele care contribuie la
posibilitatea ca vorbirea s semnifice i s fie neleas dincolo de ceea
ce se spune i dincolo de limb.
Cadrele intervin n mod necesar n orice activitate de vorbire, cci nu exist
discurs care s nu se produc ntr-o anumit circumstan, care s nu aib un
fond. [] cadrele particip n mod aproape constant la determinarea
semnelor i adesea substituie determinatorii verbali. ns funcionalitatea lor
este mult mai larg: cadrele orienteaz orice discurs, dndu-i un sens, i pot
chiar s determine nivelul de adevr al enunurilor (Coeriu 2009: 221).
n ceea ce privete tipologia cadrelor, Coeriu amintete de cteva
taxonomii din teoria contextelor enunate de Ch. Bally, K. Bhler i
W.M. Urban (op. cit., p. 222). La acestea am putea aduga unele rezultate
din cercetrile mai recente a unor pragmaticieni ca Y. Bar-Hillel, J.
Lyons, Teun Van Dijk[11] sau D. Maingueneau i J.-M. Adam. La
acetia din urm putem recunoate influena doctrinei coeriene despre
text, n special n Adam 2008.
n concepia lui Coeriu, cadrele sunt mprite n patru tipuri ample:
situaie, regiune, context i univers de discurs, fiecare cu subtipurile lui.
Schematic, tipologia cadrelor se prezint astfel:
I. SITUAIE imediat
mediat
II REGIUNE zon
domeniu
mediu (ambiant)
III CONTEXT context idiomatic
context verbal indirect
direct
pozitiv
negativ
context fizic
extraverbal
empiric
natural
practic sau ocazional
istoric particular
universal
actual
trecut
cultural
I UNIVERSUL DE al experienei
V DISCURS curente
al tiinei
al fanteziei
al credinei
(Coeriu 2007: 220)
Maestrul de la Tbingen face ns precizarea c numai n limba
vorbit apare acest complex de relaii n toat deplintatea sa, limba
scris dispunnd doar de anumite cadre.
3.5.1. Prin situaie Coeriu nelege circumstanele i relaiile
spaio-temporale care se creeaz datorit faptului c cineva vorbete
ntr-un anumit loc, la un moment dat (Coeriu 2009: 222). Aici se
includ elementele deictice care pot denota numai prin raportare la o
anumit situaie. Situaia poate fi de dou tipuri: nemediat (creat

prin nsui faptul vorbirii) i mediat (creat prin contextul verbal).
Dup cum valoarea timpurilor verbale depinde de ancorarea situativ a
textului, la fel i interpretarea deicticelor de persoana I sau a II-a va fi
determinat de micarea enuniativ. Acest tip de ancorare este numit
de D. Maingueneau ambreiere, iar enunul pus n legtur cu
situaia de enunare este un enun ambreiat.
3.5.2. Cel de-al doilea tip de cadru este constituit de ceea ce

Coeriu numete regiune. Aceasta este definit drept: spaiul n
limitele cruia un semn funcioneaz n anumite sisteme determinate de
semnificaie. Limitele acestui spaiu depind, pe de o parte, de tradiia
vorbirii i, pe de alt parte, de cunotinele pe care le are vorbitorul
despre faptele semnificate (Coseriu 2007: 214). Regiunea ine i de
relaia care se stabilete ntre semn i cunoaterea noastr despre
lucrurile desemnate. Clasificarea regiunii cuprinde: zona, adic
regiunea n care este cunoscut i folosit n mod curent un semn,
limitele ei constituind o izoglos; domeniul este reprezentat de
regiunea n care obiectul este cunoscut ca element al orizontului vital
al vorbitorilor sau al unui spaiu organic al experienei ori al
culturii, iar limitele sale nu sunt lingvistice; i mediul considerat a fi
o regiune stabilit social sau cultural: familia, coala, comunitile
profesionale, castele etc. (care) sunt medii n msura n care posed
moduri proprii de a vorbi (Coeriu 2009: 223).
3.5.3. Urmtorul tip de cadru precizat de Coeriu este contextul

vorbirii, prin care se nelege toat realitatea care nconjoar un semn,
un act verbal sau un discurs, ca tiin a interlocutorilor, ca prezen
fizic i ca activitate (Coeriu 2009: 225). Coeriu distinge trei tipuri
de contexte: idiomatic, verbal i extraverbal. Contextul idiomatic este
tocmai limba nsi ca fond al vorbirii. Exist cazuri n care n
contextul idiomatic poate s funcioneze o limb diferit de cea vorbit,
cnd sunt implicai subieci plurilingvi. Textul publicitar poate folosi un
astfel de cadru atunci cnd un cuvnt dintr-o limb evoc sensuri cu
nuan peiorativ sau hazlie ntr-o alt limb. Ct privete contextul
verbal i contextul extraverbal, aceste dou tipuri sunt extrem de
importante pentru constituirea sensului n texte. Contextul verbal
(numit de analitii discursului cotext) este definit ca fiind discursul
nsui n calitate de cadru al fiecreia dintre prile sale (ale
discursului). Pentru fiecare semn i pentru fiecare poriune a
discursului (care poate fi dialog), constituie context verbal nu numai

ce s-a spus nainte, cum credea Bally, ci i ceea ce se va spune n
acelai discurs (Coeriu 2009: 226). Acesta poate fi nemediat,
cuprinznd semnele din vecintatea semnului luat n discuie, sau
mediat, care poate s cuprind ntregul discurs (n cazul acesta este
numit context tematic). De asemenea, contextul verbal poate fi pozitiv
sau negativ, cu privire la ceea ce se spune efectiv i la ceea ce nu se
spune. n cazul omisiunii intenionate avem de-a face cu ceea ce n
funcie de intenia atribuit vorbitorului se numete insinuare,
aluzie, sau sugestie (loc. cit). Cel de-al treilea tip de context, numit
de Coeriu contextul extraverbal, presupune toate circumstanele de
natur nelingvistic ce sunt percepute n mod direct de ctre vorbitori.
Pot fi distinse diferite tipuri: fizic, empiric, natural, practic, istoric i
cultural (Coeriu 2009: 226227). Prin contextul fizic se nelege tot
ceea ce se afl n raza vizual a vorbitorilor sau la care ader un
semn, spre deosebire de contextul empiric constituit de strile de
lucruri obiective, care sunt cunoscute de cei care vorbesc ntr-un anu-
mit loc i ntr-un anumit moment, dei nu se afl n raza vizual a
vorbitorilor. Totalitatea contextelor empirice posibile sau universul
empiric reprezint contextul natural. Contextul practic sau ocazional
este constituit de mprejurarea particular, subiectiv sau obiectiv,
n care are loc discursul. Contextul istoric este reprezentat de de
circumstanele istorice cunoscute de ctre vorbitori (poate fi: parti-
cular, universal, actual sau trecut), iar contextul cultural cuprinde tot
ceea ce aparine tradiiei culturale a unei comuniti, care poate fi
limitat sau poate s cuprind ntreaga umanitate. Coeriu mai pre-
cizeaz c toate contextele extraverbale pot fi create sau modificate
prin intermediul contextului verbal, dar chiar limba scris i cea
literar se bizuie pe unele dintre ele (op. cit., pp. 227228).
3.5.4. Ultimul tip de cadru din viziunea coerian este reprezentat
de universul de discurs, definit ca sistem universal de semnificaii
cruia i aparine un discurs (sau un enun) i care i determin vali-
ditatea i sensul. Literatura, mitologia, tiinele, matematica, universul
empiric, ca teme sau ca lumi de referin ale vorbirii, constituie
universuri de discurs (op. cit., pp. 228229). Problema universului
de discurs a fost enunat de Coeriu nc din 1955 n studiul
Determination y enorno. Dos problemas de una linguistica del hablar
i dezvoltat n ultimul text pe care l-a scris savantul, intitulat
Rugciunea ca text (Orationis fundamenta. La preghiera come testo,
2000), n care delimiteaz patru universuri de discurs, considernd c

tocmai patru sunt modurile fundamentale ale cunoaterii umane:
(a) universul de discurs al experienei curente, (b) universul de
discurs al tiinei, (c) universul de discurs al fanteziei i (d) universul
de discurs al credinei (Coeriu 2010: 8). Referindu-se la universul de
discurs al credinei, Coeriu amintete de critica pe care a fcut-o
logica pozitivist (B. Russel, L.S. Stebbing) conceptului de univers de
discurs, care considera c nu exist alt lume n afara lumii ce poate fi
cunoscut sau lumii naturale. Numai c acetia dovedesc o nene-
legere a problemei, deoarece nu este vorba de alte lumi materiale, ci
de universuri de discurs sau sisteme de semnificaii, adic de
universuri n care limbajul apare de fiecare dat ca manifestare a unui
mod autonom de cunoatere [] i mai ales ca avnd funcie
transcendental i, n acest sens, fondatoare n relaie cu universul
cunoscut (Coeriu 2010: 7). Cu alte cuvinte, universul de discurs face
referire la modalitile cunoaterii, iar lumile corespund unor
obiecte ale cunoaterii.
3.6. Pentru exemplificarea cadrelor coeriene [12] vom invoca un

exemplu complex din publicitatea romneasc, n care regsim tipurile
principale de cadre discutate de savantul romn.
Izvorul Minunilor Ap de legend
Ct a inut vrjmia dintre mpratul Focului i Regele Gheurilor?
Pn cnd iubirea..., pn cnd, plecat la vntoare, feciorul
mpratului de Foc lu urma Inorogului fermecat. Prin Pdurea Ielelor,
peste Valea Plngerii, pn n inima munilor. Aa cunoscu prinul pe cea
mai frumoas dintre fpturi Prinesa Gheurilor. i iubirea lor, minune,
izvor venic s-a fcut. Lumea s-a schimbat, dar izvorul nc mai susur...
Transform-te n iubire! Izvorul Minunilor Ap de legend.
nti de toate trebuie s observm c, la nceputul textului citat, nu

exist vreun indiciu al relaiei emitor receptor (enun non-
ambreiat). Astfel, se stabilete o ruptur fa de situaia de enunare,
deoarece, prin intermediul universului de discurs al acestui text se
instituie o lume mitic, n care se vorbete despre un aspect al lumii.
Aceast instituire se realizeaz prin contextul verbal n care regsim
prezena termenilor din mitologie: Inorogul, Pdurea Ielelor, Valea
Plngerii, Prinesa Gheurilor, dar i prin contextul extraverbal,
relevat de succesiunea imaginilor care ruleaz paralel cu vocea din
spatele acestora, precum i de existena unui fond muzical grav
(Enya). Imaginile creeaz un context fizic (ceea ce se afl n raza

vizual a privitorului), iar contextele istoric i cultural sunt repre-
zentate de cunoaterea universului culturii populare romneti. Finalul
textului aduce ancorarea n situaia de enunare prin adresarea
direct care implic un tu (transform-te), ca marc a prezenei recep-
torului, care se raporteaz indirect la un emitor. Orice text are un
emitor real, chiar i un text scris sau unul prezentat prin intermediul
unei voci naratoriale. Acest emitor real i transpune personalitatea
n text, prin intermediul a ceea ce n retoric se numete ethos, adic
prin acel ton care dezvluie o autoritate. n exemplul prezentat, prin
ethos se relev i o form de context extraverbal. Acest text scris i
rostit aproape ca un poem transpune astfel receptorul ntr-un univers al
eternitii, guvernate de iubire. Prin seducia de ordin discursiv,
mesajul transmis este urmtorul: numai cu Izvorul Minunilor avem
acces la iubirea etern i vom aparine unei lumi rupte de cotidian.
Aadar, putem spune c instrumentele lingvisticii textuale coe-
riene, ca lingvistic a sensului, ne ofer totodat posibilitatea nele-
gerii laturii pragmatice a discursurilor, dincolo de limitele lingvis-
ticului. Din perspectiva acestei lingvistici integrale a textului, atunci
cnd se ia n discuie extraverbalul, trebuie s se in cont de faptul c
toate celelalte forme de comunicare se raporteaz la limbaj, iar coope-
rarea dintre aceste dou laturi conduce la construcia de sens. Sensul
discursului publicitar se desprinde i din nelegerea finalitilor prag-
matice care definesc tipurile de discurs orientate de ceea ce n retorica
antic s-a numit logos pragmatiks.
Note
[1] Aceast lucrare a fost realizat n cadrul proiectului POSDRU/CPP 107/DMI

1.5/S/78342, finanat din Fondul Social European de ctre Autoritatea de
Management pentru Programul Operational Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor
Umane 20072013.
[2] Vezi Coeriu 2009: 307.
[3] Op. cit. 117 119.
[4] Vezi Coeriu 2002: 25-26.
[5] n opinia lingvistului S. Dumistrcel, limbajului publicitii i este caracteristic o
funcie apelativ conativ + fatic (faticul manifestndu-se aici n sens
manipulator). De aici deriv i tipul mental al enunrii, al crui caracter
preconceput, reflect, nedisimulat, omnisciena emitorului (enuniatorului), iar
enunarea normativ, desfurndu-se preponderent monologic, se adreseaz
unui destinatar cu statut inferior n raport cu primul (Dumistrcel 2006: 49).
[6] Detalii referitoare la problema manipulrii prin publicitate se gsesc n Robu 2010.
[7] O prezentare amnunit a elementelor de paratext cu referire la textul publicistic

alctuiete Maria Cvasni Ctnescu n capitolul intitulat Paratextul publicistic,
n Cvasni Ctnescu 2006: 5-58).
[8] Problema figurilor de construcie din viziunea lui Quintilian este discutat n
cercetarea lingvistic romneasc de S. Dumistrcel, cu referire la textul jurnalistic
(2006b). Pornind de la modelul propus de cercettorul ieean, Monica Frunz
efectueaz o aplicaie asupra formelor de discurs repetat n discursul publicitar
francez (vezi Frunz 2007: 146-165).
[9] Vezi Coseriu 1992: 148-152.
[10] Un studiu asupra aceleiai problematici se regsete n Robu 2012 (sub tipar).
[11] O trecere n revist a opiniei acestor autori cu privire la context alctuiete Levinson n
lucrarea Pragmatics (1989: 2124).
[12] Pentru o exemplificare detaliat a cadrelor teoretizate de E. Coseriu, vezi Robu
2012 (sub tipar).
Bibliografie
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paratext la text, Editura Universitii din Bucureti.
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(n curs de apariie).
Literatur i interculturalitate
De la ideologia revoltei la inovaie n discursul
plastic i poetic american*
Simona Antofi
Petrica Pailea Crngan
Abstract: During its diachronic re-shaping process, the ideological creative

aim of the artistic and literary Avant-garde enhances the positive drive for
changing the assumed old-fashioned static structural and semantic traits
displayed by both artistic and literary works. The present paper debates on
the basic conceptual issues and functional strategies articulating the artistic /
literary objects as enhanced by two well-known American Avant-garde
movements the Pop Art and the Beat generations poetry.
Keywords: avant-garde, Pop Art, Beat generation, literary ideology,
indignation
I. Generaia Beat i micarea Pop azi [1]

Fenomenul avangardelor reprezint, actualmente, o component a
micrii formelor culturale care a fost asimilat post(post)moder-
nismului att n practic, precum i la nivelul discursului teoretic. n
ceea ce privete literatura romn, obsesia sincronizrii i a occiden-
talizrii, asimilarea i autohtonizarea unor modele nvestite cu atri-
butul autoritii din nevoia unei contraponderi fa de perioada
comunist a dus, n anii '80, la selecia unui model cultural i a unui
ansamblu de practici culturale care, prin dimensiunea i formele
revoltei ridicate la rang de (anti) regul se impusese n America anilor
'50'60. Alegerea generaiei Beat ca reper i surs de inspiraie pentru
poeii optzeciti romni a constituit mai mult dect nlocuirea agresiv
a unui antimodel cultural, aflat sub semnul exceselor etniciste i al
cenzurii, cu o form dinamic a libertii de exprimare, ct mai ales o
soluie n procesul cutrii unei identiti cultural estetice: Curentul
de care vorbii a fost mai degrab rodul unor frustrri: politice,
sociale, culturale ei da, mai ales culturale... Acestea au dat natere
unor manifestri spontane asta ne-a caracterizat pe noi, beatnicii,
spontaneitatea. i apoi, solidaritatea. Ct despre mine, eu nu am fost
dect unul dintre ei. Nu poi vorbi despre Beat generation fr a-i
*
Lucrare realizat cu sprijinul SOP HRD - TOP ACADEMIC 76822.
106
pomeni pe Jack Kerouak, William Burroughs, Peter Orlovsky,

Gregory Corso, Neal Cassady, Gary Snyder, Lawrence Ferlinghetti.
Printre ei m aflu, probabil, i eu. Dar ar mai fi i alii care ne-au fost
apropiai. Lou Reed, un muzician de mare valoare, a cntat n Velvet
Underground, trupa lui Andy Warhol, ntemeietorul pop art-ului -
n.m., Ed Sanders, un poet cunoscut aici la noi, ne-a fost, de asemenea,
foarte apropiat. () [2].
Filiaia cu marile spirite revoltate contra oprelitilor de orice fel,
impuse spiritului i creaiei n numele unei ideologii ori al unui alt tip
de imperativ non-estetic Walt Whitman ori Rimbaud, printre acestea
trece prin poezia revoltei i prin mistica atitudinal poetic promo-
vat de liderul generatiei Beat, Allen Ginsberg, ca i de reprezentanii
Pop Art-ului care, prin premergtorul Duchamp i prin congenerii si
americani practic revolta estetic ndreptat contra consumismului, a
supertehnologizrii i a dezumanizrii din societatea transparent.
Relativ la modelul Rimbaud, Ginsberg afirm: A putea spune chiar
c noi l-am redescoperit pe Rimbaud, artndu-i o alt faet. n anii
'50, americanii nu i cunoteau poezia. Rimbaud a fost i el un mistic,
dar de o alt natur. Se crede astzi c el fusese iniiat n tantra.
Sonetul su Vocale o demonstreaz din plin. Vocalele limbii sanscrite
snt considerate sacre i fiecare dintre ele are un corespondent
cromatic. Apoi, sonetul se ncheie aa: O, Omega, raza violet a
ochilor Ei! ntr-un text tantric se afirm c iubita predestinat unirii
tantrice trebuie s aib ochii violei. Iar n Anotimp n Infern se gsete
acest vers: ntr-o sear, am aezat Frumuseea pe genunchii mei. Ei
bine, nu este oare aceasta o aluzie la poziia sexual att de des
ntlnit n imagistica tantric tradiional din India i Tibet? () [3].
Form de asimilare a poeticului i a existenei vii, poezia lui
Ginsberg propune, ca si arta Pop, o soluie de restabilire a conexi-
unilor cu sensurile ascunse ale lucrurilor, cu spiritualitatea neleas ca
principiu constitutiv al macro i microcosmosului. Model declarat, i
el, al beatnicilor, pentru Ginsberg Blake a fost un vizionar. Un poet-
vizionar. Doar Yeats se mai poate compara cu el, dei irlandezul era
interesat mai mult de ocultism. Blake a fost un mare mistic, o
personalitate cu adevrat stranie: poet, pictor, gravor, editor, profet.
Crile profetice ne-o demonstreaz cu acuratee. Omul acesta a fost
genial, chiar dac muli i contest opera. ns Blake nu e neles. Este
studiat n universiti, dar capetele seci de acolo nu i ndrum pe
studeni corect: Blake nu trebuie interpretat sau neles, ci trit
mistic [4]. Opiunea se face, n acest sens, pentru un panerotism ce
funcioneaz ca un principiu de coeren intern ce le asigur

beatnicilor americani o tradiie proprie, iar emulilor lor romni ansa
unei regsiri a resurselor originale ale lirismului.
II. Context social, politic i cultural

n America anilor '50 - '60 centrul de greutate al micrilor artistice
pe plan mondial se mutase din Europa n America. Se nregistreaz
prezena, la San Francisco, adevrat capital intelectual [5] a
unor scriitori n exil voluntar sau nu, precum Aldoux Huxley, Heinrich
Mann, Cristopher Isherwood, primul fcnd experimentri cu
substane halucinogene, iar ceilali doi, scriitorii englezi profund
preocupai de budhism i de mistica oriental. Oraele americane gz-
duiau nu numai expoziii ale pictorilor locali, dar i pe artitii europeni
consacrai. Printre acetia, la loc de frunte se afla dadaistul Marcel
Duchamp. Importana concepiei sale artistice i a operelor sale, a
noului sistem de valori pe care tindea s-1 realizeze n plan estetic va
fi relevant pentru orientarea artistic ce se va manifesta n aceast
perioad.
S-a spus despre arta Pop c s-a nscut din necesitatea de a aduce o
gur de aer proaspt n atmosfera rarefiat a Expresionismului
Abstract. C se simea nevoia unei reveniri la realism i la lumea
concret, obiectual, departe de cea a abstractelor idei generale. n
mod firesc nu se cade a vorbi doar despre o art Pop, ci despre o
adevrat cultur Pop. Termenul este datorat atitudinii net pozitive a
lui Lawrence Alloway i a Grupului Independent din Londra care, la
sfritul lui 1957, se reunea pentru a discuta statutul artei comerciale
i al vehiculelor sale de circulaie mijloacele moderne de comu-
nicare. Privit cu reticen de critica academic, aceast art i-a gsit
totui susintori, precum i un public extrem de larg, cu un orizont de
ateptare pe msur. Pop Art-ul era un produs tipic american, rod al
talentului unor artiti crescui n mediul citadin al Americii anilor '40-
'50, Pop Art-ul, deci, is an American phenomenon that departs from
the cliche of big, bold, raw America that became current when
Abstract Expressionism triumphed internationally [6]. Termenul
nsui de Pop trimitea la popular, adic larg accesibil.
Consacrai ceva mai devreme dect artitii Pop, dar contemporani
cu asasinarea lui J. F. Kennedy, membrii generaiei Beat sunt expo-
nenii, mai cu seam prin liderul lor necontestat, Allen Ginsberg, unei
atitudini de profund angajare n tumultul social al Americii. Semni-

ficaiile termenului beat, propus de Jack Kerouac pentru a da nume
i unitate (relativ) tendinelor unui grup la nceput redus de scriitori,
explic n mod clar starea de spirit a membrilor acestei generaii, a
doua generaie pierdut a Americii. Se pare c Jack Kerouac a avut
n minte ideea de beatificat, ceea ce corespunde nclinaiilor mistice
ale acestor scriitori precum i tendinelor lor de a evada din sufocantul
mediu de via prin intermediul diverselor substane halucinogene,
pentru a vedea realitatea cu ali ochi sau pentru a vedea o alt realitate,
n care comarul i viziunea apocaliptic se amestec laolalt cu
profeii ale poetului ce se vrea vizionar. n alt sens, beat semnifica
btaia msurii n muzic, relevnd un ritm abrupt, sincopat, de unde i
denumirea typewriter-jazz, dat poeziei Beat. i n fine, n ultimul
rnd, beat connotes the beaten condition of the outsider [7].
Romantici n felul lor, Beatnicii sunt rebelii prin definiie ai secolului
al XX-lea, poemele lor sunt pline de urlete de mnie, de invective
i, mai ales cele ale lui Ginsberg, de termeni alunecai n vulgaritate.
Din acest motiv, acuzele nu au ncetat s se abat asupra poetului
libertin, cu toate c, de multe ori, sensurile din spatele a ceea ce s-a
numit, de critic i de public, nclinaie spre pornografie, au rmas
ascunse.
Att generaia Beat ct i Pop Art-ul sunt rezultatul unei stri de
lucruri, sunt expresia ei cea mai caracteristic. America, ara tuturor
fgduinelor, se afla zguduit n acea perioad de conflicte interne i
externe care se succedau cu repeziciune, fcnd ca atmosfera general
s fie mereu una postbelic. Dup Europa i Japonia, urmase Coreea
(rzboiul se ncheiase n 1953), i va veni la rnd Vietnamul. Incer-
titudinea, lipsa unor repere existeniale stabile, sacrificiul multor viei
nevinovate n Asia de Sud-Est, asasinatele n lan, micrile studen-
eti de mare amploare i cu repercursiuni la nivel social, toate acestea
au certificat o permanent stare de criz. Dac n poemele Beatnicilor
aceast stare se reflect aproape fizic, creaiile artitilor Pop suscit o
discuie mai larg, cu att mai mult cu ct exist diferene notabile
ntre Pop Art-ul new-yorkez i cel californian. i totui, n pofida
declaraiilor artitilor n care i proclamau indiferena, mai mult
chiar, o stare de impersonalitate n raport cu subiectele tratate, lundu-
i drept model obiectivul aparatului de fotografiat sau al camerei de
luat vederi - n pofida tendinelor de a lua din realitate ceea ce aceasta
le ofer i cum le este oferit, ei omit cu bun tiin unele aspecte
pozitive ale societii americane. Preferinele lor iat deja o alegere
care se face se ndreapt spre un anume tip de existen, spre un

anumit aspect al oraului american. Robert Rauschenberg, de pild,
forerunner al ceea ce Lucy R. Lippard numete Hard Core al Pop
Art-ului new-yorkez, organiza la Pasadena o expoziie spectacol n
care principalele evenimente dureroase ale trecutului imediat erau
prezente n decupaje ilustrate din ziare lanul de asasinri crora le-
au czut victime J. F. Kennedy, Robert Kennedy, Martin Luther King,
anunuri cu numrul prizonierilor i al morilor din Vietnam, fotografii
gritoare ale bombardamentelor cu recent descoperitul napalm, totul
pe un fundal sonor rednd zgomotul mitralierelor, ipetele mulimii,
vocile ntretiate ale comentatorilor de televiziune nnebunii.
Rauschenberg realiza aici un deziderat drag Pop Art-ului, i anume
spectacolul, reunind deopotriv vizualul i auditivul, producnd ocuri
asupra privitorilor i determinndu-i pe acetia s ia parte, fizic i
psihic, la ceea ce se ntmpla n expoziie.
Un alt aspect revelator deopotriv pentru generaia Beat i pentru
generaia Pop este faptul c ambele sunt produsul i reflexul unei
societi extrem de tehnicizate, al unei lumi a confortului i a luxului -
pentru unii, pentru alii o lume a unui spaiu nchis, al obiectelor
industriale utile omului sau destinate destinderii, a unui labirint de
beton, sticl i asfalt, lume a iluziilor de pe marele i de pe micul
ecran, a luminilor orbitoare ale reclamelor, lume n care oamenii unii
dintre ei, ncep s-i simt libertatea, individualitatea ameninate. Aici
totul e de-a gata. i atunci se simte nevoia unei reacii. A unei micri
contrare valului. i aa se nasc Beatnicii i artitii Pop.
n mod inevitabil orice artist, inclusiv cel Pop, nu poate face
abstracie de riscurile unei atitudini fa de obiectul artei sale; deta-
area e doar o bravad [8]. Pop Art-ul exprim asaltul vizualului,
agresivitatea reclamei multicolore, a tubului de neon, a revistei
ilustrate, a imensului afi de pe marginea autostradei [9], dar nu
poate fi discutat, credem, exclusiv n relaie cu aceste forme ale
culturii comerciale.
Extrem de ardentul spirit polemic al Beatnicilor s-a orientat spre o
societate a consumului, a violenei i a meschinriei, a ceea ce numeau cu
dispre burghezie, a prejudecilor, dar i, n plan artistic, spre o
opoziie fi fa de formele poeziei predecesorilor. n mod similar s-a
spus despre artitii Pop c s-au revoltat contra Expresionismului Abstract
i c, pe urmele dadaismului, ale lui Lger, dar mai ales ale lui Duchamp,
au creat o art a obiectului, a palpabilului. O atitudine net, tranant nu
s-a manifestat, n realitate, n nici unul din cele dou cazuri. Iar predilecia
spre publicitate i poz a reprezentanilor celor dou generaii nu

trebuie s nele. Erza Pound i William Carlos Williams sunt modelele
clare ale unui Ginsberg i ale partenerilor si, poeii Beat. Reacia lor de
respingere avea n vederea atmosfera poetic rarefiat a anilor '50, n
siajul Auden, cu T. S. Elliot plecat n Anglia i Erza Pound internat n
sanatoriu. i n-a fost singular, avndu-se n vedere grupul de la Colegiul
Black Mountain, cu care Beatnicii au avut multe n comun, precum i
Renaterea din San Francisco, n care unii critici ai fenomenului literar i-
au ncadrat i pe ei. n mod analog, arta Pop, ca reacie la abstracionism,
este o ipotez care nu trebuie tratat exhaustiv. Nu puine sunt urmele
influenei Expresionismului Abstract n operele unor artiti Pop i nu
trebuie uitat c aceast orientare, n varianta ei californian, mai clar i
mai direct n spiritul Beat dect cea new yorkez, nu a ntmpinat o att
de ferm opoziie, cum se afirm uneori, din partea curentului antecedent.
III. Formele poetice i plastice ale

avangardei
n anii '50-'60 fora avangardei istorice sczuse. Eecul ei era
evident. Andreas Huyssen afirm c inteniile ei erau de a transforma
viaa cotidian prin cultur i de a dezvolta, astfel, strategiile adecvate
contextului cultural i politic de atunci [10]. Aspiraia de a integra arta
i viaa ntr-un tot s-a dovedit a fi deart, prea mare pentru puterile
micrilor artistice ntemeiate pe negare i anulare. Nimeni nu poate
nega totul fr limite, cci va ajunge a se nega pe sine. Din acest impas
nu mai exist ieire. Marcel Duchamp a vzut pericolul i s-a retras din
activitatea artistic.
n mod sistematic, lumea de dincolo de ocean a renceput lupta
pentru reunirea artei i a vieii ntr-o singur unitate, cu alte fore, cu
aproximativ alte puncte de vedere i nu chiar cu aceleai mijloace.
Contextul i nivelul de disponibilitate al receptorilor era ns altul.
Adepii orientrii Pop aparineau unei generaii profund citadine,
obinuite cu atmosfera New York-ului sau a Los Angeles-ului, lucru
suficient pentru a nelege valorile americane fr s le priveasc cu
dispre, ca pn atunci. Total desprit de ceea ce nsemnase Anglia i
dependena de orice fel, artistul american ncepe a privi n jur i a reda
pe pnz ceea ce vede, lucrurile cu care era familiarizat i care defi-
nesc viaa ceteanului obinuit. ntr-un mediu paradoxal, democratic
pe de o parte, dar i conservator pe de alta, o serie de artiti devin

contieni de cele cteva trsturi fundamentale ale societii n care
triau. Devin contieni de inflaia vizualului, de tehnicizarea extrem,
precum i de noile posibiliti pe care detaliul aparent banal al exis-
tenei le putea deschide. De aici opoziia dintre cultura nalt, bur-
ghez, i cultura joas. Prin cultura Pop avangarda i modernismul
i-au revizuit relaiile reciproc. De la Saint-Simon ideea de avangard
a rmas legat de aceea a progresului creat de civilizaia industrial i
tehnologic [11].
Pe urmele dadaitilor i nu numai ale lor, ncorporarea tehnologiei
n art a nsemnat distrugerea noiunii de tehnologie ca progres i a
concepiei artei autonome, considerate un fenomen natural i
organic [12]. Din aceast perspectiv, n Statele Unite relaiile high
culture low culture au nregistrat numeroase interferene reci-
proce, mprumuturi de strategii etc. n mod inevitabil, acea ipostaz a
culturii populare numit Pop Art a sfrit prin a se instituionaliza. A
devenit dependent de tot ceea ce obinuia s nege cu trie: de muzee,
de colecionari, de burghezia bogat i, nu n ultimul rnd, a intrat n
acel angrenaj comercial n care artistul devine dependent de manager
i de cumprtor, dependent de reclam i de popularitate, care acum
l nghit cu totul. i nu alta a fost soarta Beatnicilor. Prin anii '70, dup
moartea lui Kerouac i dup ncercri nereuite ale lui Gregory Corso
de a se sinucide, versurile i prezena lui A. Ginsberg n mijlocul
tinerilor altdat electrizai de Howl sau de Sandviurile cu realitate
este hilar-tragic. Energia lor, concentrat ntr-un timp prea scurt i
bazat pe receptivitatea unui public labil, prea obinuit cu existena sa
cotidian pentru a polemiza cu ea un timp mai ndelungat, s-a epuizat
rapid.
Dac Beatnicii nregistrau cu mnie starea de fapt a societii
americane contemporane lor, oferind soluii mai mult sau mai puin
valabile pentru ieirea din criz, respectiv ntoarcerea la natur
(Snyder), sau iubirea universal (Ginsberg), arta Pop a fost acuzat de
a nu fi oferit soluii viabile crizei deopotriv sociale i artistice al crei
ecou s-a dovedit a fi. Spaiul de via al americanului era unul excesiv
de vizualizat. Panorama citadin evolua sub ochii si, dup un plan
vizual foarte bine pus la punct. Muzica, de asemenea, i cuta tot mai
mult expresia n vizual. Cinematograful opera tot mai mult cu make
believe, cu rdcini n neorealismul italian. Industria cinemato-
grafului american a cunoscut o evoluie rapid, niciodat, credem,
egalat de europeni. Caracterul ei de vandabilitate este definitoriu. Pe
marele ecran, dup regizor i scenarist, apare numele productorului.

Studiourile ntinse pe nenumrate hectare de teren fac din cetatea
Hoilywood-ului templul acestor entertainement industries. Artistul a
preluat de aici o serie de modaliti utile pentru a-i asigura publicul, o
mas ct mai mare de oameni disponibili i cu un orizont de ateptare
favorabil. De aici predilecia pentru subiecte mrunte, banale, coti-
diene, din acelea care fac locuinele noastre so different, so
appealing. De aici imaginea oraului vzut ca printr-o lup uria n
poeziile lui Ginsberg, sau pe enormele panouri ale lui Wesselman.
Concurnd ca importan cinematograful i dependent de publicul
telespectator, televiziunea a creat o nou sociologie i o nou psiho-
logie a artei, exploatat ulterior de generaia Pop i de maniera de
surprindere a detaliilor realului ce i caracterizeaz pe poeii Beat.
Definibile i definite drept colonizare Coca-Cola, non-art,
resimite ca eliberatoare de sub imperiul normelor burgheze, al
autoritii politice, sociale i culturale, Pop Art- ul i literatura Beat au
fost percepute ca un rspuns valabil, cel puin o perioad de timp, la
nevoia de eliberare de sub presiunea apstoare a status-quo-ului, ca o
evadare dincolo de monumentala monotonie a informalului i a
expresionismului abstract [13]. Respectiv ca o revigorare a poeziei i
a artei plastice, o revitalizare a lor n sensul propriu al termenului, prin
apropierea de via, de concret i prin ndeprtarea de aburul ideilor
generale.
C Beatnicii au fost angajai cu toate forele lor poetice n plan
social este n afar de orice ndoial. Pop Art-ul o art poetic,
neangajat, iat ceva ce nu poate fi ntru totul adevrat. Chiar neinnd
prea mult seama de declaraiile nu ntotdeauna conforme adevrului i
susinnd o perfect detaare de subiectele creaiilor lor, artitii Pop,
mai ales cei din New York, sunt creatori ai unei arte complexe care
uneori pare a le susine afirmaiile, alteori a le contrazice. Voluptatea
vizualului, a tactilului i a gustului, de multe ori asociate sonorului,
degenereaz uneori ntr-o ironie tragic de pild n cazul imenselor
sandwich-uri sau prjituri ale lui Oldenburg; iar Dezastrele lui
Warhol, precum i scenele de comicsuri ale lui Lichtenstein, reunind
ntmplri tragice n esena lor, dar tratate ntr-o manier specific,
relevnd o atitudine neangajat, reinut sau chiar indiferent, ar
merita a fi discutate mai pe larg.
Descendent a sintezei suprarealism-dadaism, arta Pop a avut drept
reprezentani oameni care absolviser coli de art, (n special secia
de publicitate), care lucraser n domeniul artei comerciale, al imen-
selor afie i panouri avertizatoare, al reclamelor. De aceea, redesco-

perirea unui tip de cultur ce se adresa unui nivel foarte larg de
receptori, bazat pe exprimarea direct a ideilor, pe accesibilitatea i
pe sistemul bine pus la punct al afiajului comercial de orice fel,
avnd drept scop crearea ocului psihologic asupra privitorului, a venit
aproape de la sine. In aceeai situaie s-au aflat i poeii Beat canale
de preluare i de amplificare a unei tendine generale n epoc i ei,
n majoritate, oameni cu educaie nalt.
Existena cotidian a artistului i a publicului su a atins un grad
nemaipomenit de standardizare, la care se adaug ,,un grad de comer-
cializare fr precedent [14]. Efectele acestei stri de fapt se relev n
atmosfera sufocant, chiar terorizant, pentru c artistul i simte ame-
ninat individualitatea, anihilat libertatea de gndire, contiina, sau
resimte o iremediabil stare de plictis, de toropeal fizic i intelec-
tual fa de care posibilitile de salvare nu sunt numeroase i nu
ntotdeauna eficiente. Motiv pentru care Ginsberg i ai si experi-
menteaz tot felul de droguri, de substane halucinogene. Admiraia
lor pentru nebunie i pentru poza n consecin, pentru gestul lui Carl
Solomon, care s-a supus de bunvoie unor ocuri electrice de ndat ce
a devenit major, ca i traficul mrunt, ce-i drept, de stupefiante, pentru
care Bob Kaufman a fost arestat intr, prin urmare, n regulile unui
joc de societate. Prin atitudinea lor de perpetu inadaptare, aceti
poei au ceva din romantismul-matc al secolului al XVIII-lea. Dar nu
preget s ncorporeze banalul contemporan, s arunce blasfemii acolo
unde naintaii lor din aceeai familie afiau indiferen. Revolta lor
era nobil, a Beatnicilor e glgioas, plin de invective i de bles-
teme, uneori trece de limitele limbajului acceptat i eueaz n vulgar.
Dar ceea ce susine i d viaa poeziilor lor este, printre altele, fora
estetic a mniei. Dincolo de o ntructva prefcut spontaneitate se
ghicete elaborarea contient, n spatele aparentei nvlmeli poetice
se simte contiina care-i organizeaz universul aa nct acesta s
par haotic.
La prima vedere, raporturile cu obiectul pot aprea noi. De fapt,
avem de-a face cu nc o tentativ de a nfia lumea aa cum este ea, i
obiectele aa cum se ofer ele privirii. Inflaia vizualului se manifest i
aici. Dar totul este filtrat prin creier. Este condiia nsi a individului
uman artist, n ciuda binecunoscutei remarci a lui Andy Warhol [15]. n
mod contient sau nu, Warhol, Rosenquist, Oldenburg, Wesselman,
Kienholz etc. ncearc s recupereze experiena ndelungat a detaliului
realist, caracteristic picturii, teatrului, prozei din secolul al XlX-lea. Mai
precis, ceea ce ncearc ei s fac este s umple prpastia dintre art i

realitate, dintre via i art, de care vorbea Rauschenberg. Prpastia
exist i acest lucru fusese resimit mai demult. William Carlos
Williams i propunea s creeze o poezie plasat la suprafaa existenei
de zi cu zi, o poezie nutrit din fragmente ale vieii sale i din contextul
ei imediat [16]. Atitudinea elitist att fa de poezie, ct i fa de arta
plastic, devenise iritant. De aici preocuparea artitilor Pop pentru
subiecte luate din mediul lor de via, cu care erau obinuii i pe care
oamenii nu-1 mai luau n seam. Un alt sens al realitii se vedea revelat
astfel. Acela al unui spaiu n sfrit contientizat, ale crui elemente,
brusc valorificate pozitiv sau negativ, ncepeau s existe cu adevrat.
Privindu-i altfel mediul de via, oamenii se puteau privi astfel pe ei
nii cu ali ochi. Societatea de consum s-a dovedit a fi o nchisoare.
Sensul tragic al lumii standardizate, frumos ambalate i livrate direct la
domiciliu, a trecut dincolo de indiferena programat a lui Warhol, ca
ntr-o reflectare multipl, din unghiuri diferite, a aceluiai obiect. Nu
tiu dac Andy Warhol era contient de acest lucru atunci cnd realiza
reproducerile n serie ale fotografiei lui Marlyn Monroe sau ale vduvei
Kennedy, ambele mituri ale prezentului american, artist de cinema,
prima, iar cealalt idealul de noblee, de origine aleas i de bun
educaie al oricrui american obinuit. Dar destinele tragice ale ambelor
nu ias ioc ndoielilor. Reproducerile dup fotografii, cci e vorba aici
de copii ale unei copii, deci ale unei pseudo-realiti, o nfieaz pe
Jacicie n diferite ipostaze la nmormntarea soului ei.
Oraul este vzut selectiv de artitii Pop. Dei declar c orice este
demn de a fi transformat n oper de art, fie i numai prin semntura
artistului n manier Duchamp ei caut n mod deliberat tot ceea
ce antecesorii lor ar fi caracterizat drept anti-art. Iat o afirmaie
semnificativ n acest sens: Accept cu snge rece tot ceea ce a fost
declarat lipsit de valoare, trivial. Nu iubesc i nu ursc. Pur i simplu
iau ceea ce mi se ofer [17]. n mod implicit, ns, se face o selecie a
unor imagini, iar maniera de reprezentare, chiar dac se vrea
indiferent, accentueaz o semnificaie secund, uneori chiar prin
voina artistului de pild imaginile de comics ale lui Lichtenstein n
care moartea, viaa etc. sunt tratate n linii simple, clare, puternice, ca
un desen care nu vrea s prezinte dect att. Aceast selecie vorbete
de la sine. Redescoperirea celor existente, a obiectelor aflate acolo
i tocmai astfel descoperite de artist i redate ca atare, este lipsit de
mult trmbiata impersonalitate. Reconstituirea contextului ncepnd
cu creaia unui antemergtor englez, R. B. Kitaj, i pn la show-urile
lui Oldenburg, de tipul celui intitulat Store sau de tipul happening-ului

pledeaz n favoarea acestui lucra.
Relaia dintre artist i subiectul su mi se pare a fi n mod
fundamental cea dintre real i o contiin reflectoare. Fie c e vorba
de un sistem de oglinzi paralele ce mresc imaginea sau o multiplic
n mod exasperant, fie c e vorba de o hiperbolizare afectiv, rezul-
tatul este acelai. M-am ndreptat, deci, ca un autor de reclame sau ca
o mare companie de comer, spre aceast inflaie a vizualului, spre
reclama comercial care e una din bazele societii noastre. Triesc n
aceast lume i ea m formeaz i-mi d mijloacele specifice ale
imagisticii ei [18].
Nu ncape ndoial c i Ginsberg este un produs al acestei socie-
ti. Dar nu unul care se complace n starea de fapt. niruirea aparent
neutr de versuri, fiecare cuprinznd descrierea n termeni vizuali a
diferitelor semne ca n poemul Studying the Signs [19] devine
exasperant de monoton. Culorile sunt crude that alchemical blood
-crimson pharmacy multitudinea de semne i de lumini n care
roul, albastrul, negrul se amestec ntr-un delir orbitor, diferitele
inscripii redate ntocmai n poem Swiss watch, Underground,
Swan&Edgar's, totul este un mixaj de elemente, mai bine zis un
colaj redat cu miestrie la nivel verbal, din care nu lipsete simbolul
absolut al fetiismului american sticla de Coca-Cola.
Poezia lui Ginsberg retrezete n memorie imaginea sticlei de
Coca-Cola o invenie pur american, din Coca-Cola plan, repre-
zentnd patru sticle fixate n braele unei cruci de lemn, simbol clar al
zeificrii unui obiect derizoriu, nu neaprat util ct acceptat ca atare,
ca o condiie a integrrii ntr-un decor de un convenionalism extrem.
Nu se poate uita faptul c Fernand Leger i Marcel Duchamp, a
cror influen asupra micrii Pop a fost important, au fost corelai
de muli cu o mai mic sau mai mare lips de importan acordat
sensibilitii. Leger, ns, i mai ales Duchamp, au fost cunoscui de
artitii americani prin intermediul a doi naintai, Johns i
Rauschenberg, ai Pop-Art-ului, i nu e mai puin adevrat c acetia
i-au interpretat n felul lor. Obiectul nsui nu mai este element al
picturii.
Colajul, motenit de la cubiti, nu mai are aceeai semnificaie i
nici aceeai valoare. n tentativa de a umple prpastia lui
Rauschenberg, pictura devine obiect i obiectul pictur. Nu mai e
vorba de un element cutat, gsit i declarat ca extrapictural, ca
Fntna lui Duchamp. Intenia nu e de defimare, ci de declaraie

pozitiv.
Pe de alt parte, Duchamp a fost cel care a anulat aura de unicitate
i de autenticitate a operei tradiionale de art, ce constituia distana
operei fa de via i cerea contemplarea i cufundarea privitorului n
oper [20]. Acelai Duchamp anulase caracterul de simbol zeificat al
tabloului davincian Mona Lisa, reproducnd imaginea personajului cu
musti, nsoit de un joc licenios de cuvinte. Pe urmele lui, Andy
Warhol reproducea aceeai capodoper n alb-negru. Era, de fapt, o
reproducere a unei realiti secundare viznd imaginea unui idol al
mulimii. Negndu-se unicitatea obiectului, se ironiza tendina bur-
ghez de a-i face idoli i de a-i aeza n muzee, spre venic adoraie
i contemplare. Nu m pot mpiedica s remarc evidena ironic a
gestului lui Warhol, innd cont mcar de faptul c nici un artist, prin
nsi natura condiiei sale, nu poate fi indiferent la ceea ce reproduce.
Pe de alt parte, artitii Pop nu au fost atrai de strzile murdare, pline
de ceretori i de vagabonzi, de locuinele insalubre i de lipsa de
speran a unei anumite categorii sociale a Americii. Totodat, este
aici vorba despre acelai Warhol care a lansat moda fracului purtat cu
adidai, exprimndu-i pe fa o atitudine polemic. Declaraia sa
Cred c fiecare din noi trebuie s devin o main. Cred c fiecare
trebuie s fie asemenea celorlali. Asta e tot ce conine arta pop? Da. E
crearea unor lucruri asemenea [21] este, n primul rnd, o opiune.
Expresia unei voine umane.
i dac Beatnicii ncearc s exorcizeze demonul social prin tot
felul de tendine de evadare ntr-o extrarealitate, de ce ar ncerca
artitii Pop s exorcizeze lumea anihilatoare n care au fost sortii s
triasc prin a se complace n atmosfera ei sufocant? Fr intenia de
a psihanaliza, nu cred c nu au sesizat aspectul deprimant al persona-
litii omului epocii supertehnologizate expresia ei cea mai clar mi
pare a fi cea de pe chipurile figurinelor lui George Segal: marionete,
oameni-ppui redui la condiia unor simple angrenaje mecanice. i
mai cred c modul lor de a se sustrage maleficului este arta. Aceast
oglindire monoton a aceluiai lucru, ca ntre perei de sticl, reflect
un dramatism bine ascuns, dar l i exorcizeaz.
Note
[1] Lucrarea de fa reprezint reluarea i actualizarea unei secvene din studiul

Reflexe ale spiritualitii americane n estetic: Pop Art i Beat Generation,
publicat n volumul Spaii culturale i modele literare. Ipostaze ale discursului

poetic i ipoteze critice, Ed. Didactic i Pedagogic, 2005, autor Simona Antofi.
[2] Ginsberg, Allen, Generaia Beat a fost un modus vivendi interviu luat de Daniel
Deleanu, Romnia literar, nr. 2/2000, disponibil la adresa http://www.romlit.ro/
allen_ginsberg_-_generaia_beat_a_fost_un_modus_vivendi. A se vedea, n acest
sens, i opinia lui Valry Oiteanu, care afirm urmtoarele: Relaia dintre
micarea Beat i dadaismul european a fost mai mult dect tangenial. Dadaitii
utilizaser deja de cteva decenii fluxul gndirii, tehnica de a distruge cuvintele,
psihoza creatoare i inspiraia indus de droguri. Tristan Tzara, Hans Richter, Max
Jacob i filosoful existenialist Franz Rosenzweig au fost adevrai predecesori
pentru beatnicii de mai trziu i, ntmpltor, au fost i evrei. Legtura cultural
direct ntre generaia pierdut i suprarealiti poate fi stabilit cu uurin prin
intermediul lui Gertrude Stein, cea care i-a sftuit pe tinerii scriitori ai generaiei
Beat s cltoreasc pentru a-i mbogi spiritualitatea i a descoperi noi ci ale
artei si ritualului. Ginsberg, Cohen, Orlovsky i Matz au cltorit n India i
Nepal, n Tailanda i Bali, n Valry Oiteanu, Beatnicii Americano-evrei din
Loisaida, Viaa romneasc, nr. 3-4/2009, traducere de Rodica Grigore,
disponibil la adresa http://www.viataromaneasca.eu/arhiva/58_viata-romaneasca
-3-4-2009/29_meridian/315_beatnicii-americano-evrei-din-loisaida.html
[3] Ibidem.
[4] Ibidem.
[5] Serge Fauchereau, Introducere n poezia american modern, Ed. Minerva,
Bucureti, 1974, p. 212.
[6] Lucy R. Lippard, Pop Art, Frederik A. Praeger Publishers, New York Washington,
1966, p. 9.
[7] Richard Gray, American Poetry of the Twentieth Century, Gray Longman Series,
Literature in English, 1990, p. 291.
[8] Dan Grigorescu, Pop Art, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 1975, p. 16.
[9] Idem, p. 7.
[10] Apud Dan Grigorescu, De la cucut la Coca Cola, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti, 1994,
p. 17.
[11] Idem, p. 12.
[12] Idem, p. 21.
[13] Idem, p. 32.
[14] Dan Grigorescu, Pop Art, p. 15.
[15] Cred c fiecare din noi trebuie s devin o main, apud Dan Grigorescu, De
Ia cucut la Coca Cola, p. 41.
[16] V. The Norton Anthology of American Literature, Second Edition, volume 2,
1985, p. 1082.
[17] Andy Warhol, apud Dan Grigorescu, Pop Art, p. 15.
[18] James Rosenquist, apud Dan Grigorescu, De la cucut la Coca Cola, p. 42.
[19] Apud Lucy R Lippard, Pop Art, p. 6.
[20] Dan Grigorescu, De la cucut la Coca Cola, p. 19.
[21] Idem, p. 41-42.
Bibliografie
Antofi, Simona, Spaii culturale i modele literare. Ipostaze ale discursului poetic i
ipoteze critice, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 2005.
Fauchereau, Serge, Introducere n poezia american modern, Editura Minerva,
Bucureti, 1974.
Ginsberg, Allen, Generaia Beat a fost un modus vivendi interviu luat de Daniel
Deleanu, Romnia literar, nr. 2/2000, disponibil la adresa http://www.romlit.
ro/allen_ginsberg_-_generaia_beat_a_fost_un_modus_vivendi.
Grigorescu, Dan, De la cucut la Coca Cola, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1994.
Grigorescu, Dan, Pop Art, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 1975.
Lippard, Lucy R., Pop Art, Frederik A. Praeger Publishers, New York - Washington,
1966.
Oiteanu, Valry, Beatnicii Americano-evrei din Loisaida, n Viaa romneasc, nr.
3-4/2009, traducere de Rodica Grigore, disponibil la adresa http://www.viata
romaneasca.eu/arhiva/58_viata-romaneasca-3-4-2009/29_meridian/315_
beatnicii-americano-evrei-din-loisaida.html
Richard Gray, American Poetry of the Twentieth Century, Gray Longman Series,
Literature in English, 1990.
Starer, Jacqueline, Les Ecrivains de la Beat Gnration, Editions d'carts, coll.
"Diastheme", Dol de Bretagne, 2011.
The Norton Anthology of American Literature, Second Edition, volume 2, W. W.
Norton & Co Ltd, New-York, 1985.
Resurse web
http://ecartsmbh.wordpress.com/articles-downloads/les-ecrivains-de-la-beat-
generation-de-j-starer-par-carla-gordon/
http://ecartsmbh.wordpress.com/2011/07/29/les-ecrivains-de-la-beat-generation-
critique-de-m-duclos/
Lucrare n cuvnt i rolul sugestiei estetice la
Grigore Vieru
Florentina Narcisa Boldeanu
Abstract: Grigore Vierus poetic language was many times said to be

exceeded or unintegrated in the contemporary culture. We believe, though,
that those who use to make these kind of statements (young critics who
practice a shocking language like M. Chivu or M. Mihe) do not have a high
exegetical culture. On the contrary, the simple language of Vierus poetry is
full of suggestions and understandable for every reader. The poet speaks to
all those who are in quest of the authentic in an old and ancestral speech.
Keywords: Grigore Vieru, poetic discourse, folklore, ethnolyricism
Grigore Vieru este adeptul poeziei de factur

folclorico-modern, motiv pentru care valorific din plin toate figurile
limbajului poetic, de la tropi la figuri de stil i figuri retorice. n acest
sens, nc de la debut, criticii au descoperit o serie ntreag de atribute
cu privire la universul liric vierean. Poetul se dovedete a fi nu doar un
mesager al nelepciunii folclorice, ci i un explorator al noilor
orizonturi lirice. n ncercarea de a evidenia natura sa liric, poetul se
aventureaz att n tainele trecutului de unde mprumut estetica
muzical a poeziei clasice, tlcuirea i repetiia poeziei folclorice (de
unde putem vorbi de un etnolirism vierean), dar i n tainele i neb-
nuitele ci ale modernitii trzii, prin tehnica numit intertextualism.
De exemplu, descoperirea criticului Mihail Dolgan privind tehnica
dialogal a liricii vierene este relevant.
Plierea discursului poetic ntre trecut i prezent, ntre aceste dou
tipuri de texte, constituie o coordonat fundamental a liricii vierene,
fapt ce ne permite s afirmm c autorul scrie printre postmoderni,
fr a pretinde c este un postmodernist. Bineneles, G. Vieru nu
poate fi considerat un postmodernist n nelesul deplin al cuvntului,
deoarece el nu practic teoria deconstructivist-nihilist a curentului
ci, dimpotriv, ndeamn la o recuperare a armoniilor muzicale. De
altfel, criticul Eugen Simion, cutnd locul lui Vieru n poezia
contemporan, ajunge la concluzia: Despre Grigore Vieru am putea
spune c este ultimul poet cu satul n glas. Un poet mesianic, un poet
al tribului su, obsedat de trei mituri: Limba romn, Mama i
120
Unitatea neamului su. Un poet elegiatic, dar n ciuda fragilitii

nfirii sale i a vocii sale, moale i stins, menit parc s
opteasc o rugciune, nu s pronune propoziii aspre ca vechii
profei, un poet drz, un cuget tare, un spirit incoruptibil. Muli i-au
neles stilul i mesajul, alii i-au reproat mereu faptul c nu este un
poet postmodern. Judecat rea. Vieru nu putea fi postmodern, pentru
c, spune chiar el, s-a nscut i a crescut ntr-o istorie imposibil [1].
Poezia lui Grigore Vieru apare ca o scriere a iubirii, a originilor, a
casei, a ntoarcerii ctre sine i, deopotriv, ctre semeni. n poezia
autorului sunt inserate oapte, acorduri fine care scot n eviden vocea
luntric i arhitectura baladesc. n ideea aceasta descoperim i
poemul Cntec de leagn pentru mama: Dormi-adormi, micu
drag,/ Dorm nepoii ti de frag,/ Dorm i blidele splate,/ Dorm i
rufele curate./ Dorm trudite-a scrii trepte / Lng cuibul meu de
pietre,/ Doarme-n tihn greieruu-n / Clopoelul de la u,/ Doarme
casa ta btrn,/ Doarme via sub rn,/ Dormi! Prin vis pe val de
mare / S te vezi copil mare [2].
Am putea, fr a grei, s afirmm c autorul mizeaz pe figura de
sunet. Aceast figur estetic scoate n eviden preocuparea constant
a lui Vieru fa de sistemul fonetic al limbii n care scrie, n care
vorbete, n care se roag. De altfel, n interveniile publice i
academice, el a luat mereu poziia unui filolog mptimit. Din aceste
ipostaze poetul a argumentat lupta pentru limba matern, limba
romn, pe care o consider cea mai pur ntre limbile poetice.
Descoperindu-i printre crpturile bncilor universitare pe cei mai
titrai poei romni, Grigore Vieru relateaz: A nsemnat redesco-
perirea neobinuitei fore a Limbii Romne de a crea nite poeme pe
care nu orice limb le poate zmisli. Nu sunt suficiente harul,
instruirea poetic a creatorului i cunoaterea profund a marii poezii
universale, mai trebuie s ai la ndemn limba care s ncap ntreaga
simire i ntregul cuget al creatorului de frumusei poetice [3].
Expresivitatea fonetic a limbajului poetic vierean reprezint un
fenomen complex, n sensul c niciun sunet al limbajului poetic luat n
sine nu are vreun sens autonom. Atribuirea sensului la sunet n poezie
nu rezult din natura lui specific. Sensul este presupus prin deducie [4].
O alt funcie ce completeaz tabloul estetic al limbajului poetic o
reprezint preocuparea poetului fa de rim i ritm. Prin folosirea
acestei tehnici estetice autorul atrage atenia asupra sunetului. Cu-
tarea i aezarea cuvintelor n aa fel nct s trezeasc simurile
lectorului (sau asculttorului) ne aduc n prim-plan argumentul c
structura psihologico-artistic a lui Vieru este una orfic. n acest sens,

despre poetul care poart inima mamei sale, criticul Theodor
Codreanu opineaz: Harfa Orfeului vierean are o coard druit de
mam. O singur coard, cum i-a rmas, la un moment dat, vioara lui
Paganini, dup ce au plesnit toate celelalte. Iar celelalte corzi ale
harpei lui Vieru sunt erpi uiernd. Ei sunt uruiacul (riacul)
zuruind al romnului suprat pe ceilali romni ntr-o biseric
romneasc de la grania franco-german. Pe aceast coard, Vieru
scoate cntecul cel mai pur. Altfel spus, el e nevoit s fac poezie i
muzic cu foarte puin, dar culmea, nzuind la mult, la preaplin. Vom
nelege srcia extrem a mijloacelor sale poetice [5].
Analiznd funciile poetice la Grigore Vieru, Paul Gorban, n cea
mai proaspt monografie despre poet tiprit n Romnia, Micarea
n infinit a lui Grigore Vieru, spune c odat ajuns pe trmul liricii
vierene, te ntlneti cu un adevrat tratat despre poezie, credin i
via. n ciuda simplitii aparente, care pare c guverneaz att forma
limbajului poetic, ct i pe cea a plasticitii, se ntmpl ca poezia lui
Vieru s prind inima cititorului din primele cuvinte. Poetul stpnete
o geometrie a compoziiei i tie unde s pun cuvntul care s
declaneze n cititor interesul pentru devenire ntru fiin. Magia liricii
vierene este o form de catharsis a sufletului. Poezia lui cur inima
omului de ncrctura negativ a cotidianului (urbanizat), strlucete
ca un cer de stele, nflorind astfel ca un lotus n ochii cititorului.
Poezia lui se arat ca o victorie a fiinei asupra neantului, exprim cea
mai nalt treapt a libertii, locuirea n Dumnezeu, ptrunde n
realitatea uman ca o religie ncrcat de substan [6].
n Limba Romn, Grigore Vieru rzbate ca i cnd ar rzbate n
marele Univers. n acest sens relevante sunt i gndurile despre atitu-
dinea ritualic a autorului n faa limbii, semnate de prozatorul Vlad
Zbrciog: Poetul a tiut a mblnzi cuvintele i a le semna ntru
luminarea i nlarea neamului, chiar dac uneori semenii nu l-au
neles, chiar dac, din ignoran, ba i din rea voin, l-au mprocat de
multe ori cu vorbe grele, dureroase, rnindu-l. Domnia sa, ns, a mers
nainte, lsnd la o parte obidele i continund s-i atearn cntecele
de iubire pentru om, pentru blndeea pmntului, pentru firul de iarb,
pentru spicul de gru, pentru nepieritorul nostru Dor, pentru nelinitile
mamei, pentru muzica netrectoare ce alin, nal i oblojete sufletul
de copil [7].
Grigore Vieru, ntors n propria-i copilrie, adic nspre joc, te
cheam s descoperi o lume i un limbaj crezut pierdut, anume: poezia
de tip clasic, cu rim mbriat, cu repetiii i inversiuni, cu intero-

gaii poetice i semne de punctuaie. Tot ce trece n timpul scriitorului
romn din Basarabia poart sunetul sacru al clopotului, al dorului, al
mbririlor.
Armonia cuvintelor, acordurile i sunetele versurilor vierene scot
n faa elementelor centrale ale cosmosului partea plin a eului, a
fiinei care se desvrete: Trece Soare, trece Lun/ i de chipul
tu mereu / ca un pom de roii mere / Sunt rodit luntric eu.// Trece
Lun, trece Soare/ i de numele-i, mereu,/ ca un clopote de clinchet
/ Sunt prea plin luntric eu.// E ari? E furtun?/ Mr se coace,
clopot sun! (Trece Lun, trece Soare) [8].
Poezia lui Vieru curge curat i sincer asemenea unei lacrimi. n
aceast curgere natura vegetal i arat melancolia, visarea i dorul.
ntlnim constant preocuparea autorului de a dialoga cu natura. Acest
dialog urmrete vindecarea durerilor acelora crora li s-a confiscat
dreptul de a glsui n limba pmntului natal. De altfel, nsui autorul
seamn n arta liricii de azi cuvinte pentru dor i vindecare. Aceste
cuvinte iau nfiarea codrilor, cntecul psrilor, clipa de rou,
culoarea grului i paii strbunilor. Poemul dialogal, de factur
folcloric, Roua dorului reverbereaz n imaginarul cititorului ca un
sunet de fluier: Ce-i mai sfnt sub steaua milei?/ Roza! Roza nou-n
care / O pasre n zorii zilei / Ou rou i dispare.// Ce-i mai mndru
dect toate?/ Codrul! Codrul vechi, cel care / Nu d printre muni din
coate / Ca s par el mai mare.// Ce-i mai bun, mai dulce-n lume?/
Grul! Grul galben, care / Calc pe strmoi n hume / i ei strig:
Nu ne doare!// Ce e fr, fr seamn?/ Graiul! Graiul mamei,
care / l adun i iar l seamn / Pentru dor i vindecare [9].
Poetul este un adevrat cercettor i practician al muzicii i
folclorului. Exist un permanent exerciiu de creaie muzical n lirica
lui Vieru. El se dovedete a fi un expert al repetiiilor, al refrenelor,
al laitmotivului, al sugestiilor sonore de tot felul, de la aliteraia
obinuit pn la alteraia-joc din folclorul copiilor sau aliteraia sim-
bolic [10]. Jocul muzical sugereaz un echilibru spiritual, un ideal
ritualic, linia peste suprafaa creia elementele primare ca apa, grul,
copiii etc. se contopesc cu cele primordiale. Bunoar, n poemul
Paparud-rud ntlnim o ambian de paradis arhetipal, n care cel
care crede n jocul copilresc se dezleag de spaim: Paparud-rud,/
Vino de ne ud,/ Vino de ne plou / Cu ploi nou;/ S-nfloreasc
grul / i la fete brul,/ S-nfloare mslinii / i la fete snii,/ S rd
copiii / i ochii cmpiei,/ S mai odihneasc / Lumea plugreasc!//
Paparud-rud,/ Vino de ne ud / Cu ploi bun,/ Acas ne-adun,/

Vino fr piatr,/ C am prunci n vatr / i oaspei la mas,/ Vino
luminoas!/ Spal mucegaiul,/ S zmbeasc paiul,/ Spal i rugina,/
S rd lumina!/ Curat i nou,/ Nou i curat / i nemritat!/ Te
cunun sfnt / Cu verde pmntu,/ Cu pmntu nostru,/ Fi`ndc el
ni-i rostu,/ Fi`ndc el ni-i miere / i el mngierea,/ Cci el ni-i
iubirea / i el nemurirea! [11]. De altfel ntr-un moment de confesiune
poetul i definete pasiunea fa de muzica popular i romane, pe
care le consider a fi capabile s cutremure sufletul i cugetul oricrui
tritor: mi place mult muzica noastr popular pe care, ca strlucire
melodic, trire i diversitate, o consider fr egal pe pmnt. n
aceeai msur ns m rvete pn la lacrimi muzica clasic
universal. Doream i doresc mult ca aceast dumnezeiasc plsmuire
s ajung i la copiii notri, mai exact, s-o cnte ei nii [12].
S-a spus de foarte multe ori c limbajul poetic al lui G. Vieru este
depit ori neintegrabil n cultura contemporan. ns, credem c aceia
care fac astfel de afirmaii (aici ne referim la unii tineri critici,
practicani ai limbajului de oc i argumente de ntmpinare Marius
Chivu, Mircea Mihe) nu au ei nii asumat o cultur exegetic de
nalt calitate. Dimpotriv, limbajul simplu din poezia vierean este
ncrcat de sugestii i a fcut ca fiecare vers s fie neles de orice tip de
cititor. Poetul se adreseaz tuturor i mai ales acelora care sunt n
cutare de autentic, de grai vechi, strmoesc.
Grigore Vieru, de foarte multe ori, este comparat sau chiar numit
un ablon n critica romn un Goga al Basarabiei, deoarece este
cunoscut faptul c i poetul Ardealului, Octavian Goga se angajase ca
prin arta cuvntului s apere cultura, limba i obiceiurile strmoeti,
transmise din generaie n generaie. Iat, n acest sens, criticul
Gheorghe Grigurcu ine s remarce: Grigore Vieru poate fi vzut ca un
fel de Octavian Goga al Basarabiei. Ca i poetul Ardealului, mprtie
vlvtaia unui crez naional programatic, care impune printr-o justi-
ficare intrinsec, nfind o angajare, e drept extraestetic, ns nu de
natur a submina arta cuvntului, ci a o corobora prin valenele sale
afective. Ne putem aminti de consideraiile prin care Titu Maiorescu l
saluta, fr a se situa n contradicie cu sine nsui, pe tnrul Goga,
mbrindu-i patriotismul (). Exist opinia c poezia lui Vieru ar fi
depit, demodat. Din punctul de vedere al inseriei n istorie, evident
c nu e. Separarea Basarabiei de patria-mam rmne o ran deschis a
sensibilitii noastre etnice. Din punctul de vedere al discursului literar,
credem c rspunsul e aijderea negativ, cci, innd seama i de
dezvoltarea n condiii ingrate a culturii dintre Prut i Nistru, poetul are

un timbru personal, adesea acut, n registrul tradiionalist pe care l-a
adoptat oarecum obligatoriu [13]. Noi considerm c neoromanticului
Grigore Vieru patria i implicit limba acesteia ofer nenumrate ocazii
de adncire n simboluri. Aceste simboluri sunt aduse n lumin de
izvoarele ntinse pe sub pmnt, prin arhivele istoriei. n folclor poetul
gsete o gam variat i inepuizabil de teme poetice. Folclorul, limba
mamei i pmntul firului de iarb cinstit ca un soldat, ofer scriitorului
informaii valoroase despre supravieuirea neamului, despre cntecele
acestora, despre jocul copiilor i al mireselor, despre relaia dintre om i
natura vegetal (sau cosmic). Poetica folcloric a lui Grigore Vieru
tinde spre formarea unor noi generaii concentrate pe substan, pe
aforism, n care se fixeaz o anumit ingeniozitate locul dorului i al
graiului. S-a spus, n cele din urm, c n poezia lui Vieru este un loc
nesfrit al dorului, o galaxie a umanismului n care cuvntul arde,
focalizeaz sufletul.
Note
[1] Eugen Simion, Grigore Vieru, n Literatura i arta, nr. 5 / 2009, Chiinu.
[2] Grigore Vieru, Rdcina de foc, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1988, p. 87.
[3] Grigore Vieru, Limba n care crezi trebuie s fie atotcuprinztoare micrii
sufletului i cugetului, dialog cu Alexandru Banto, n Limba Romn, nr. 1-3,
2005, Chiinu, pp. 17-25.
[4] B. Tomaevski, Teoria literaturii. Poetica, trad. de Leonida Teodorescu, Editura
Univers, Bucureti, 1973, p. 396.
[5] Theodor Codreanu, Duminica mare a lui Grigore Vieru, Princeps Edit, Iai, 2010,
pp. 275-276.
[6] Paul Gorban, Micarea n infinit a lui Grigore Vieru, Princeps Edit, Iai, 2011, pp. 6-7.
[7] Vlad Zbrciog, Meridiane ale verbului matern, Princeps Edit, Iai, 2009, p. 50.
[8] Grigore Vieru, Rdcina de foc, ed.cit., p. 300.
[9] Ibidem, p. 318.
[10] Theodor Codreanu, op. cit., p. 280.
[11] Grigore Vieru, Rdcina de foc, ed. cit., pp. 296-297.
[12] Grigore Vieru, Limba n care crezi trebuie s fie atotcuprinztoare micrii
sufletului i cugetului, dialog cu Alexandru Banto, n Limba Romn, nr. 1-3,
2005, Chiinu, pp. 17-25.
[13] Gheorghe Grigurcu, Poezia de patrie, n Grigore Vieru, Taina care m apr,
Princeps Edit, Iai, 2008, pp. 555-556.
Bibliografie
Codreanu, Theodor, Duminica mare a lui Grigore Vieru, Princeps Edit, Iai, 2010.
Gorban, Paul, Micarea n infinit a lui Grigore Vieru, Princeps Edit, Iai, 2011.
Grigurcu, Gheorghe, Poezia de patrie, n Grigore Vieru, Taina care m apr,
Princeps Edit, Iai, 2008.
Simion, Eugen, Grigore Vieru, n Literatura i arta, nr. 5/2009, Chiinu.
Tomaevski, B., Teoria literaturii. Poetica, trad. de Leonida Teodorescu, Editura
Univers, Bucureti, 1973.
Vieru, Grigore, Limba n care crezi trebuie s fie atotcuprinztoare micrii sufletului i
cugetului, dialog cu Alexandru Banto, n Limba Romn, nr. 1-3, 2005, Chiinu.
Vieru, Grigore, Rdcina de foc, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1988.
Zbrciog, Vlad, Meridiane ale verbului matern, Princeps Edit, Iai, 2009.
Kazuo Ishiguros Nocturnes of these days

Ruxanda Bontil
Abstract: Some musicologists consider that the notion of narrative brought

into interpretative relationship with instrumental music is neither heroic nor
scandalously nave on the grounds that it invites an experimental
exploratory approach to the performances of music-critical thought. In my
essay on Kazuo Ishiguros Nocturnes: Five Stories of Music and Nightfall
(2009), I shall reverse the paradigm music and the narrative effect and
construct an argument meant to prove that the effect of music in the five
narratives by Ishiguro is due to how the writer manages, through a subtle
concatenation of character, slant/path, and discourse, to instantiate a multi-
movement plot archetype similar to that in a nocturne. The under-current
movement in Ishiguros Nocturnes eludes resolution and definitive thought
just as musical nocturnes tranquility evokes a range of lyrical expressions
depending on both the performance/performer and the listener. Such
movement then allows into being the frisson of modern civilization and its
avatars, of ideological crisscrossing, which may undercut the brightest of
intention.
Keywords: music, effect of narrative, narrative, effect of music, narration,
contrapuntal textual policies.
Introduction: On Music and Narrative

I remember when I was watching Leonard Bernsteins inspiring
music lessons in the 70s, I was fascinated about how convincingly and
forcefully such a talented complete musician as Bernstein can make
musical phonology and semantics meet the logical ear. I wasnt then
familiar with the emergent explorations of musicologists concerning
the relationship between classical instrumental music and narrative. I
was just taking Bernsteins exercise in deciphering a narrative
meaning in instrumental music as an extraordinary didactic gift to
make music story tell/narrate the self.
Fred Maus recent analysis of the relationship between classical
instrumental music that which lacks an explicit literary program
originating with the composer and narrative, spells out for me a long
research tradition wherein musicologists compete to show either that
instrumental music is nothing than engagingly patterned sound or
narrowly emotion-based accounts that have often dominated
philosophical discussions of music (2008: 466). After mentioning

some claims against the analogies between music and narrative (such
as, musical form typically involves extensive repetitions of events;
music lacks past tense; music has no subject and predicate), Maus
declares for refining an account in response to those arguments rather
than abandoning the line of inquiry. He then looks for ways whereby
music through specific devices manages to meaningfully relate to
listeners. For instance, according to Maus, the fact that music does not
have the option of past tense may be indicative of how musical plot by
necessity occurs in the present time of the listeners perception. On the
other hand, the sequence of musical events in a composition invites
comparison to the unfolding of a narrative plot, with the help of
concrete material sound which by necessity again differs from the role
of concrete material words and sentences in literary narrative. On the
same line of thinking, the fact that music cannot use a subject-
predicate structure to tell a story by naming objects, describing
characters, or actions does not prevent listeners from hearing actions
whose agency, albeit indeterminate, may suggest, as Maus tells us,
that there is a correspondence between musical events and the
listeners imagined intentions (2008: 468). In order to make us
understand the nature and appeal of narrative analogies, Maus turns to
three exploratory essays, which, he considers, make a more
constructive, even optimistic use of ideas about narrative.
Since my musical knowledge limits to the fascination of listening
to and recognizing good music, not always being able to retrieve
sources, I shall follow in the steps of Maus demonstration so that I
can first understand the effect-of-narrative instrumental music carries
along, and then, try to reverse the paradigm, and sense the effect-of-
music Ishiguros narratives (Nocturnes: Five Stories of Music and
Nightfall, 2009) produce.
From Gucks essay (1994), Maus first turns to, I retain that the
music theorists description of a note in the slow movement of
Mozarts Symphony No. 40 as an immigrant pitch is nothing but the
representation of her own experience of hearing the score combined
with careful description of musical detail based on technical analysis
and other resources. In Mauss words, [i]n communication about
music, individual listeners explain their experiences to others, and
construction of a narrative can be an ad hoc device to help with this
communication (2008: 470).
McClarys essay (1986), Maus next refers to, purports and

manages to show that Mozarts concerto 453, through the dramatic
confrontation between the solo part of the piano and the orchestra,
deals with social issues in a tense complex way. Besides the specialist
demonstration, as in Gucks case, I retain the idea that sound technical
knowledge of music can generate a confident and convincing account
of the hearing of a composition, which the listener/addressee can also
experience or at least try to imagine as a new hearing.
In the case of Newcombs essay (1987), which gives an
interpretation of Schumanns Second Symphony, the interest rests on
reviving historically appropriate interpretative tools so as to do justice to
a musical piece which seems to have fallen from favour with twentieth
century audience. The music critic, by engaging documents of reception
history, inquires into the meaning of the composition and asks his
readers to test his interpretative account in their own experiences.
Newcombs reiteration of an older idea that Schumanns Second
Symphony as a whole instantiates a similar multimovement plot
archetype i.e. a standard series of mental states to Beethovens
Fifth and Ninth Symphonies (a psychological evolution, such as
suffering followed by healing and redemption, p. 472) may prove
functional in my own reading of Ishiguros Nocturnes.
Maus poetics of musical description concludes with admitting that
individualized personal involvement is central to musical meaning and
provides content to musical narratives. Nevertheless, the critic raises a
question which remains open for specialist and novice alike: Why,
nonetheless, do intelligent, careful attempts at general theory about
music and narrative seem comparatively bland and unmusical? a
feeling, I confess, I also experienced while reading the three
demonstrations in question. But this couldnt prevent me from
resonating with Hector Berliozs vivid description of a particular
passage leading to the recapitulation in Beethovens Fifth Symphony;
however, the passage, despite its impetus, doesnt create an effect of
musicality similar in force to the effect of narrative it attempts to
achieve:
Listen to the gasps in the orchestra, to the chords in the dialogue between
winds and strings that come and go, sounding ever weaker, like the
painful breaths of a dying man. Then their place is taken by a phrase full
of violence, as if the orchestra were revived by a flash of anger. Note this
trembling mass as it hesitates for a moment, then dashes headlong,
splitting into two fiery unisons like two streams of lava, and then say
whether this impassioned style is not beyond and above any instrumental
music ever written.
(Berlioz 1994: 19-20, quoted in Maus, 2008: 477)
Maus also makes an interesting point when he says that it depends

on each particular performance whether the story/narrative keeps the
same, changes a little or changes radically. In his mind, it is better to
ponder different performances rather than interpreting a stable musical
work, as it is recommendable that musicologists study the poetics of
texts about music, noticing the tricks of literary construction that
create images of music and subjectivity, rather than evaluating such
texts as purely representational devices (2008: 480).
On a different line of thinking, Peter Rabinowitz in the essay
They Shoot Tigers, Dont They?: Path and Counterpoint in The Long
Goodbye purports to find literary analogues to music by arguing that
narrative prose can engage in contrapuntal games too. According to
the critic, narrative is fundamentally contrapuntal because it is
founded on the duality of story and discourse, but it also depends on
the order of reception/perception or experience, such as states of mind
and processes of reflection of characters and readers alike. The critics
main claim is that by adding a third term path (and experience) to
the binary distinction story/discourse, we can then consider a
narratology that includes not only actants but also passants
those (especially including those beyond the narrator and his or her
chosen focalizers) on whom impressions are registered (2008: 184).
Including path as a third term, Rabinowitz tells us, means to favour
a kind of refocalization, a rethinking of a narrative in terms of how its
experienced from positions other than those focalized by the narrator.
In the subsequent analysis of Chandlers detective novel The Long
Goodbye, the critic demonstrates how attending to path the intended
meaning is more readily and acutely made conspicuous.
In my subsequent discussion of Ishiguros Nocturnes, I am going
to take Maus advice and ponder on those tricks of literary
construction that create images of music or what I call the effect of
music which somehow resembles the effect of narrative or subjectivity
Maus above mentioned examples were concerned with. I am also
going to make use of Rabinowitzs notion of path as contrapuntal
technique on both the thematic and the mimetic level in order to prove
the difficulty of the medium to reconstruct not only the passants
paths, but the actants paths too, hence the effect of non resolution,
dilemmatic stance Ishiguros Nocturnes manage to evoke.
Listening to Kazuo Ishiguros Nocturnes

In The Oxford Companion to Music, a nocturne (<L nocturnus
nox, night) is described as a pensive musical composition which is
inspired by or evocative of the night, or, meant to be performed at night,
much like a serenade. In the 18th century, when the term first appeared, it
indicated an ensemble piece in several movements played one time for an
evening party; either written for solo piano or for paired horns with
strings, the nocturne, in the 19th century, features a Romantic cantabile
melody evocative of an equally harmonious natural background.
Although nocturnes are mainly thought to convey lyrical and tranquil
moods, they have also acquired the capacity to evoke more intensive
feelings, either gloomy or joyous, as the composers meant them to be.
Kazuo Ishiguros first collection of short stories, titled Nocturnes:
Five Stories of Music and Nightfall (2009), can figure as a good
example of how narrative can create an effect of music which can be
compared to how a musical piece can create an effect of narrative or
subjectivity.
The subsequent claims I advance and intend to substantiate are:
firstly, Ishiguros stories manage, through a subtle concatenation of
character, slant/path, and discourse, to instantiate a multi-movement
plot archetype similar to that in a nocturne; and, secondly, the multi-
movement plot archetype allows into being an under-current
movement which inconclusively but poignantly describes the
ideological crisscrossing of modern civilization from East to West, or
West to East.
First of all, each story features characters that are either fictional
musicians/singers (Tony Gardner and Jan from Crooner; Tilo, Sonja
and the narrator from Malvern Hills; Steve from Nocturne; Tibor and
friends from Cellists) or music lovers in the old style (Ray from Come
Rain or Come Sunshine). They are all narrated by male narrators, in
the first person, which may lend their narration the suspicion of
unreliability. According to the latest norms narrative theorists have
established for describing the concept of unreliability (see Phelan and
Martins taxonomy (1999) in Nnning, 2008: 94), Ishiguros
unreliable narrators perform rather as deliberate underreporters and/or
misevaluators, and/or misreaders. They thus risk their trustworthiness

(sound judgment) for the sake of factual reliability, which they strive
to minutely (re)construct. Their fallibility can also be taken as a
measure for the readers own presuppositional literary and cultural
framework according to which they judge the textual world. Thus, the
narrators, the implied/inferred authors, and the readers doubtful
notions of objectivity and truth, normal psychological behavior,
linguistic norm, and moral/ ethical standards are at play and in
question when performing the narration and the reading of an
evaluative account of a lived experience, such as Ishiguros stories
propose.
For instance, Jan, the Polish caf musician from Crooner, while
narrating his experience of having accompanied Tony Gardner, a
fading American singer, while he serenades his wife from a gondola,
in Venice, is more concerned with the process of understanding how
the story/narrative which he tells has been affecting him. Accustomed
to playing with a crew in the open for making a living, Janeck, as the
friends call him, transfers the public surveillance, any artist is subject
to, onto himself, trying to see beyond that which is said, done, or
expected.
The opening paragraph describing the place (Piazza San Marco,
Venice) and time (spring arrival) also sets the mood of lyric
melancholy the whole narrative means to suggest: There was quite a
breeze that morning, and our brand-new marquee was flapping all
around us, but we were all feeling a little bit brighter and fresher, and I
guess it showed in our music (Crooner, p. 3). The uneasiness of an
up-side down feeling starts to insinuate undercutting the luminous
description, when the narrator introduces himself as one of the
gypsies, as the other musicians call us, one of the guys who move
around the piazza, helping out whichever of the three cafe orchestras
needs us (Crooner, p. 3); or, when Venice and implicitly Venetians,
are presented as obsessed with tradition, the past, roots, and origin, a
feeling which breeds ambivalence in terms of social status as long as it
exacerbates xenophobic attitudes:
Theres also, of course, the small matter of my not being Italian, never
mind Venetian. Its the same for that big Czech guy with the alto sax.
Were well liked, were needed by the other musicians, but we dont quite
fit the official bill. Just play and keep your mouth shut, thats what the
cafe managers always say. That way the tourists wont know youre not
Italian. Wear your suit, sunglasses, keep the hair combed back, no one
will know the difference, just dont start talking. (Crooner, p. 4).
The tourists are accepted and courted, while foreign performers,

from Eastern Europe in particular, though well liked and needed,
are played down upon whenever occasion arises. The chord of
unfitness is taken up, even more forcefully, when the narrator spells
out his dislike of Vittorio, the gondolier hired by the American singer
(Tony Gardner) to take them to the palazzo for serenading his soon
ex-wife (Lindy Gardner): To my face, Vittorios always friendly, but
I know I knew back then he goes around saying all kinds of foul
things, all of it rubbish, about people like me, people he calls the
foreigners from the new countries (Crooner, p. 13).
The first narrative of the cycle develops the plot archetype of a
psychological evolution of acculturation both as cultural change and
cultural absorption , taking the following standard series of mental
states: observation of new cultural patterns, disavowal and
acknowledgement of these patterns, and nostalgic recapitulation of
differences, which brings into question ones old cultural patterns as
moral and ethical values. To this purpose, the writer contrapuntally
develops several apparently separate stories in a harmonious texture
whose melody-dominated homophony is ensured by the narrators
memory of his mother. It is the narrators heart-felt love for his
mother that prompts the excitement of wishing to meet Tony Gardner
in the first place: For her sake, for the sake of her memory, I had to
go and say something to him, never mind if the other musicians
laughed and said I was acting like a bellboy (Crooner, p.6). Tony
Gardner then becomes the narrators badge of identity as he
personifies his mothers repository of both strength and lost illusions.
Although Jan knew deep down that things wouldnt be as
straightforward as he [Gardner] was making out (p.12), he accepts
the proposal of accompanying Gardner while serenading his wife:
My guitar was out of the case by this time, so I played a few bars of the
song. Take it up, he said. Up to E-flat. Thats how I did it on the
album. So I played the chords in that key, and after maybe a whole verse
had gone by, Mr Gardner began to sing, very softly, under his breath, like
he could only half remember the words. But his voice resonated well in
that quiet canal. In fact, it sounded really beautiful. And for a moment it
was like I was a boy again, back in that apartment, lying on the carpet
while my mother sat on the sofa, exhausted, or maybe heartbroken, while

Tony Gardners album spun in the corner of the room (Crooner, p. 14).
Jans memory of his mother intertwining with previous privations

in the communist days (cramped apartment; listening to American
music as a liberating gesture; black-market records) seems to act as a
developer for understanding and mostly questioning new cultural
bahaviours. For instance, when approaching Tony Gardner, a pensive
onlooker of the piazza spectacle, Jan is classified and evaluated by his
then absent interlocutor:
So you come from one of those communist countries. That must have
been tough. Thats all in the past. I did a cheerful shrug. Were a free
country now. A democracy. Thats good to hear. And that was your
crew playing for us just now. Sit down. You want some coffee? I told
him I didnt want to impose, but there was now something gently insistent
about Mr Gardner. No, no, sit down. Your mother liked my records, you
were saying (Crooner, p.7).
When Jan calls Gardner the legendary Tony Gardner (p.15),

while bringing up the issue of these days public appeal for being near
a star, he is considered uninitiated by the cultural standards of western
civilization:
My friend, you come from a communist country. Thats why you dont
realise how these things work. Mr Gardner, I said, my country isnt
communist any more. Were free people now. Im sorry. I didnt mean
to denigrate your nation. Youre a brave people. I hope you win peace and
prosperity. But what I intended to say to you, friend, what I meant was
that coming from where you do, quite naturally, there are many things
you dont understand yet. Just like thered be many things I wouldnt
understand in your country. (Crooner, p. 16).
However, when Gardner, a man in his sixties, instructs his

colleague musician about how important it is for a musician to
know certain peculiarities of the audience (in that case in point, the
audience was his wife, whom he portrays as an upstart by formation
who eventually turns into a caring and loving wife), Jan finds himself
in the position of counsellor:
Mr Gardner, its none of my business, I know. But I can see maybe

things havent been so good between you and Mrs Gardner lately. I want
you to know I understand about things like that. My mother often used to
get sad, maybe just the way you are now. Shed think shed found
someone, shed be so happy and tell me this guy was going to be my new
dad. The first couple of times I believed her. After that, I knew it
wouldnt work out. But my mother, she never stopped believing it. And
every time she felt down, maybe like you are tonight, you know what she
did? She put on your records and sang along. All those long winters, in
that tiny apartment of ours, shed sit there, knees tucked up under her,
glass of something in her hand, and shed sing along softly. And
sometimes, I remember this, Mr Gardner, our neighbours upstairs would
bang on the ceiling, especially when you were doing those big up-tempo
numbers, like High Hopes or They All Laughed. I used to watch my
mother carefully, but it was like she hadnt heard a thing, shed be
listening to you, nodding her head to the beat, her lips moving with the
lyrics. Mr Gardner, I wanted to say to you. Your music helped my mother
through those times, it must have helped millions of others. And its only
right it should help you too (Crooner, pp. 23-24).
In Jans case, the general progression of acculturation follows

several movements raising a series of emotions, along with subjective
stances toward those emotions. For instance, the gondola
performance, similar to the broken-chord patterns and lyrical melodies
based on long notes from a nocturne, creates a soothing calm night
atmosphere, suggestive of extreme sadness. Let us listen to the
guitarists song which blends in as much hope, illusion, and regret as
life can hold:
And I played gently a little opening figure, no beat yet, the sort of thing
that could lead into a song or just as easily fade away. I tried to make it
sound like America, sad roadside bars, big long highways, and I guess I
was thinking too of my mother, the way Id come into the room and see
her on the sofa gazing at her record sleeve with its picture of an American
road, or maybe of the singer sitting in an American car. What I mean is, I
tried to play it so my mother would have recognised it as coming from
that same world, the world on her record sleeve. (Crooner, p. 26).
The sadness of this movement comes from Jans juxtaposition of

his mothers record sleeve world (an imaginary world of happiness
and dignity), his own representation of America, and the American
way as the narrated events were hinting at. The note of jubilation the
narrator-protagonist introduces: We did it, Mr Gardner![] We did
it. We got her by the heart (p. 28), falls short when he learns that the
couples separation is needed for making possible Mr. Gardners

comeback into the showbiz. As a comebacks no easy game, Mr.
Gardner tells Jan, [y]ou have to be prepared to make a lot of changes,
some of them hard ones. You change the way you are. You even
change some things you love (p. 30).
The Polish guitarists process of acculturation turns out to be also a
process of illumination by way of pondering over the avatars of
Western civilizations. The dramatic accumulation of tension towards
the end of the story introduces the last movement of an ever more acute
sadness due to an existential dilemma: knowing when and how to get
out. Jans mother hasnt had a chance.
I still dont get it, Mr Gardner. This place you and Mrs Gardner come
from cant be so different from everywhere else. Thats why, Mr Gardner,
thats why these songs youve been singing all these years, they make
sense for people everywhere. Even where I used to live. And what do all
these songs say? If two people fall out of love and they have to part, then
thats sad. But if they go on loving each other, they should stay together
for ever. Thats what these songs are saying. I understand what youre
saying, friend. And it might sound hard to you, I know. But thats the way
it is. And listen, this is about Lindy too. Its best for her we do this now.
[]. She needs to get out now, while she has time. Time to find love
again, make another marriage. She needs to get out before its too late. I
dont know what I would have said to that, but then he caught me by
surprise, saying: Your mother. I guess she never got out. I thought about
it, then said quietly: No, Mr Gardner. She never got out. She didnt live
long enough to see the changes in our country. (Crooner, pp. 31-32).
By countrapuntally juxtaposing the two womens vocations and

destinies, the writer rings a new chord of utter dejection which tends
to engulf the whole meaning of the story. Though sympathetic to
others problems as Mr. Gardner was (Thats too bad. Im sure she
was a fine woman. If what you say is true, and my music helped make
her happy, that means a lot to me. Too bad she didnt get out, p. 31),
he sounds pathetical when he says: I dont want that to happen to my
Lindy. No, sir. Not to my Lindy. I want my Lindy to get out (p. 31).
The concluding lines of the story enrich the sad, melancholic tone
of the whole piece by adding that touch of ironic non resolution which
was subsidiary to the whole score from the very beginning: Because
Mr Gardner had seemed a pretty decent guy, and whichever way you
look at it, comeback or no comeback, hell always be one of the
greats (p. 34). Though unreliable as he was, due to oversimplification

of things, Jans potential of decency and commonsense seems to
remain intact.
Paradoxically and ironically, Jan is a beautiful naf who, due to
being short of experience, will replay the score of those events by
listening to his inner thoughts, feelings, while the other (Mr. Gardner),
because of being too experienced, will make a comeback at the cost
of his feelings.
The other four stories are only contrapuntal deviations from the
first story, thus becoming tricks of literary construction meant to
create images of music and subjectivity.
For instance, the second story, Come Rain or Come Sunshine (the
title of Ray Charless song where the words themselves were happy,
but the interpretation was pure heartbreak, p. 38), is a comic replay
on the theme of love, as either failed or unfulfilled. Ray, the narrator
of the story, a pretty disillusioned EFL itinerant teacher, is invited by
his old university days friends, who, from his knowledge of previous
visits, had been living happily married in London. He soon finds out
from Charles, his life-long friend, that things had been going wrong
for some years between Emily and him. Emily is a lover of up-tempo
music like the narrator and, apparently of up-tempo life too, unlike the
narrator. She, Charles says, wants the ever best of him: I was doing
all right. I am doing all right. Perfectly okay. But she thought I was
destined for ... God knows, president of the fucking world, God
knows! Im just an ordinary bloke whos doing all right. But she
doesnt see that. Thats at the heart of it, at the heart of everything
thats gone wrong. (Come Rain or Come Sunshine, p. 50)
The narrator, although reluctantly, accepts to enter Charles game,
meant to teach her perspective, which, in Charles acceptation, means
setting lower goals as a different viewpoint: Perspective, she needs
perspective. And I kept saying to myself, look, Im doing okay. Look at
loads of other people, people we know. Look at Ray. Look what a pigs
arse hes making of his life. She needs perspective. So you decided to
invite me for a visit. To be Mr Perspective (pp. 50-51). The comical
parts a perfect match to Charles perverse scheming are a reminder
of Gardners up-tempo/vivid description of Lindys little hot-dog
diner, which had been her Harvard, her Yale wherein she learned
all the tricks, when it came to marrying a star (Crooner, p. 20).
The following quote is a good example of a literary trick meant to
create the effect of music, Ishiguros nocturne evokes. The lush
strings, bluesy horns of Sarah Vaughans Lover Man contrast to

Emilys confessional discourse, a reminder of Charles Rays delibe-
rate ambiguity from the song which provides the title of the story:
You know, Raymond, when youre at a party, at a dance. And its

maybe a slow dance, and youre with the person you really want to be
with, and the rest of the rooms supposed to vanish. But somehow it
doesnt. It just doesnt. You know theres no one half as nice as the guy in
your arms. And yet well, there are all these people everywhere else in
the room. They dont leave you alone. They keep shouting and waving
and doing daft things just to attract your attention. Oi! How can you be
satisfied with that?! You can do much better! Look over here! Its like
theyre shouting things like that all the time. And so it gets hopeless, you
cant just dance quietly with your guy. Do you know what I mean,
Raymond?[]. I wish theyd just lay off, all these gatecrashers. I wish
theyd just lay off and let us get on with it. (Come Rain or Come
Sunshine, pp. 84-85).
As subjective as Raymond was (there are enough hints about the

narrators attraction towards Emily), he, like Jan in the previous story,
like Charles Ray (the two protagonists intended alibis) knows and
understands more that he says. His unreliable stance, conflating both
the picaro and the clown types (Riggans terms, 1981, quoted in
Nnning, 2008: 95), contributes to creating a movement of apparent
happiness evocative of the tranquil transitions from sadness to
hopefulness in a nocturne.
The bucolic landscape of Malvern Hills reminiscent of Elgars
symphonies is a contrapuntal detour promissory of lasting safety, real
authenticity and honesty. Disappointed in the shallow, inauthentic
London scene, the narrator, a young aspiring musician, goes to spend
the summer at Malvern Hills, his childhood place, where his sister and
brother-in-law had a cafe, in the hope that he will be able to compose
new songs for his return to London in the autumn. There, he meets
Tilo and Sonja, a Swiss middle-aged couple of professional musicians
who get enthusiastic when listening to the narrators songs. In the
narrators case the beauty of landscape relates to his nostalgic
representations from childhood, despite some bad memories too (his
parents separation): I found myself wandering in the hills practically
every day, sometimes with my guitar if I was sure it wouldnt rain. I
liked in particular Table Hill and End Hill, at the north end of the
range, which tend to get neglected by day-trippers. There Id
sometimes be lost in my thoughts for hours at a time without seeing a

soul. It was like I was discovering the hills for the first time, and I
could almost taste the ideas for new songs welling up in my mind
(Malvern Hills, p. 94). Besides several harsh chords of disappointment
(the deteriorated relationship between the two Swiss musicians and
their son; the narrators incompatibility with his brother-in-law which
tells upon his relationship with his sister), the whole piece develops a
melancholic serenity suggestive of outdoors, of air, of echo. But not
for long. The following excerpt returns us (the reader and narrator
alike) to just who we are: human beings for ever going against the
current which sooner or later overwhelms us. This liquid modernity of
our present times is gnawing at our minds and soul. There is no
escape.
So we come out here. And he says, Sonja, look at these hills, arent they
so beautiful? Arent we fortunate to come to such a place as this for our
vacation? These hills, he says, are even more wonderful than he imagined
them when we listen to Elgar. He asks me, isnt this so? Perhaps I become
angry again. I tell him, these hills are not so wonderful. It is not how I
imagine them when I hear Elgars music. Elgars hills are majestic and
mysterious. Here, this is just like a park. This is what I say to him, and
then it is his turn to be cross. He says in that case, he will walk by
himself. He says we are finished, we never agree on anything now. Yes,
he says, Sonja, you and me, we are finished. And off he goes! (Malvern
Hills, pp. 120-121).
Ishiguros contrapuntal technique in this fragment bases on change

of path on both the thematic and the mimetic level. The
narrators/readers focus, on account of this outburst of anger between
the two protagonists, turns onto their own order of experience, and
consequently, reception of a range of events leading to limit situations.
There is a chilling feeling of assumed guilt and responsibility hovering
between the two spouses. The new path introduced in the fragment
allows us to examine our own frustrations due to the impossibility of
doing all things properly right. In the given situation, its most likely
(a reader who is also a parent can sense it all right) that the devouring
pain (we are finished) is caused by how things have turned out with
their son, whom they love dearly, but, only managed to have well
provided: their itinerant job of professional singers, which they loved
too, wouldnt allow them to be there when needed. Thus, earlier that
year when they went to Dsseldorf, where their son lives, he is as
absent from their concert, as they have probably been from his life.
This new path reading is almost like listening to Beethovens Eroica
Symphony, in E-flat key an experience, which brings ones sore
points to the surface. The multi-movement plot-archetype here takes
the following pattern: potential for fulfillment, suffering, followed by
resignation, near stasis: Yes, he says, Sonja, you and me, we are
finished.
With the next story, Nocturne, the music of regret gives way to a
movement of apparent happiness due to comic overtones. At the
surface level, it tells the story of Steve, a talented but not exactly a
big-league saxophonist, who decides to take plastic surgery to
become noticed. In the exclusivist Beverly Hills hotel where he is
recuperating, he meets Lindy Gardner, the influent ex-wife of the
crooner in the first story, who was also all wrapped in bandages, and
the two of them go through some extremely funny but awkward
situations. For instance, upon deciding to put back an award statuette,
Lindy has taken to give Steve as a token of her appreciation for his
talent, they end up in a bizarre confrontation on the stage of the ball
room where that years awards giving ceremony was taking place.
Lindy, caught red-handed, hides the statuette in a cooked turkey, it too
proudly awaiting the publics appreciation.
The contrapuntal game, based on the duality of story and discourse,
confronts two divergent viewpoints on the already familiar character
Lindy Gardner. The version we figured out in the first story, and
reiterated by Steve, from his knowledge of the world, is juxtaposed
onto a new path Steves narration leads us to. Here is the first version
of Lindy Gardner, reiterating the image we have formed in the first
story:
here it turns out to be Lindy signing copies of her latest ghosted

autobiography. And how was this all achieved? The usual way, of course.
The right love affairs, the right marriages, the right divorces. All leading
to the right magazine covers, the right talk shows, then stuff like that
recent thing she had on the air, I dont remember its name, where she
gave advice about how to dress for that first big date after your divorce, or
what to do if you suspect your husband is gay, all of that. You hear people
talk about her star quality, but the spells easy enough to analyse. Its
the sheer accumulation of TV appearances and glossy covers, of all the
photos youve seen of her at premieres and parties, her arm linked to
legendary people. (Nocturne, pp. 137-138).
This pathetic description of all the Lindy Gardners of this world

into vacuous celebrity (p. 137) is gradually reversed by the unfolding
of Lindys fragile/romantic ego, which she has, all through, bravely
and desperately bandaged out of sight. This becomes apparent when
she listens to Steves recording of his singing The Nearness of You,
which brings back sweet memories. Listen to the song which Steve
plays and describes for her, so as to understand why Lindy, in a
childishly candid manner, thinks of rewarding Steve with the Jazz
Musician of the Year award, which she steals for him.
Our version of The Nearness of You which featured my tenor all the
way through wasnt a hundred miles from Tony Gardner territory, but
Id always been genuinely proud of it. Maybe you think youve heard this
song done every way possible. Well, listen to ours. Listen, say, to that
second chorus. Or to that moment as we come out of the middle eight,
when the band go III-5 to VIx-9 while I rise up in intervals youd never
believe possible and then hold that sweet, very tender high B-flat. I think
there are colors there, longings and regrets, you wont have come across
before. (Nocturne, pp. 153-54).
Steve, this beautiful clown not a George Clooney beauty

anyway , is no more reliable than any of the previous narrators. But,
he, even more drastically, contrives to be a moralist and trickster
simultaneously; and as he says in the end of the story: Maybe, like
she says, I need some perspective, and life really is much bigger than
loving a person (p. 186).
With the Cellists, the last short story of the cycle, we go back to the
piazza San Marco, in autumn, to listen to the Godfather theme which,
the musician-narrator tells us, had been played three times already.
Jan, in the first story, was giving us a vivid description of the tourists
musical tastes too (Okay, this is San Marco, they dont want the
latest pop hits. But every few minutes they want something they
recognize, maybe an old Julie Andrew number, or the theme from a
famous movie (Crooner, p. 4)). This time, the unnamed narrator, as
untrustworthy as the previous co-narrators, plays his whole story in a
grave E-flat key, which makes a sharp contrast with its content
rather a tale of mystery and suspense. The narration is more in the
hearsay register since the narrator retells things he had learned about
some seven years ago. It tells about Tibor, a Hungarian cellist, who
had studied at the Royal Academy of Music in London, and spent two
years in Vienna under Oleg Petrovic. That summer, he finds himself
in Venice for the Arts and Culture Festival, but he is not much in
demand, as it goes for young blooming artists. Back then, Tibor meets
Eloise McCormack, an American woman, who recommends herself as
a virtuoso, and promises to make him blossom, so that [t]he person
wholl hear you and realise youre not just another well-trained
mediocrity. That even though youre still in your chrysalis, with just a
little help, youll emerge as a butterfly (Cellists, p. 195-196)
Tibors langue de bois styling of his excuse of not knowing the
womans name sounds awkward and farfetched: its an honour to
meet you. I realise this will seem unbelievable to you, but I beg you to
make allowances both for my youth and for the fact that I grew up in
the former Eastern bloc, behind the Iron Curtain. There are many film
stars and political personalities who are household names in the West,
of whom, even today, I remain ignorant. So you must forgive me that I
do not know precisely who you are (pp. 196-197).
Tibor finally falls under the womans commanding manner of
instruction, which, he confesses to his friends, feels like: A garden Id
not yet entered. There it was, in the distance. There were things in the
way. But for the first time, there it was. A garden Id never seen
before (p. 202).
When the woman makes a full breast of her offence of having
pretended to be a virtuoso, she also offers an explanation: What I
meant was that I was born with a very special gift, just as you were.
You and me, we have something most other cellists will never have, no
matter how hard they practise. I was able to recognise it in you, the
moment I first heard you in that church (pp. 211-212).
This yet to be unwrapped virtuosos natural gift, as she puts it,
which meant to help the still not entirely unwrapped (p. 212)
maestro cellist to shed those layers off, prompts a whole range of
thoughts and sensations about human creativity, imagination, and
learnability. Or, as Tibor tells his tutor, at a certain moment: You
suggest verbally, then I play. That way, its not like I copy, copy,
copy. Your words open windows for me. If you played yourself, the
windows would not open. Id only copy (p. 208).
Ishiguro too suggests verbally. In his case, the story/discourse/path
confrontation opens vast windows of consciousness through which the
readers can hear the sad illuminating music of truth coming from their
most inner feelings.
Conclusion: narrative as playback

music performance
Like in music, the contrapuntal movements in Ishiguros narratives
sound different, move independently from each other but sound
harmonious when played/read as a whole. They are beautiful
individual pieces, which, when read one after another, sound as a
more beautiful polyphonic whole.
As the case goes in contrapuntal music, the internal structures that
create each of the movements contribute to the emergent structure of
the polyphony, which in turn, reinforces and comments on the
structures of the individual movements.
Like in musical nocturnes, Ishiguros Nocturnes, evocative of
nighttime sadness and melancholy, are disturbing, heartbreaking
compositions whose under-current movement the frisson of modern
civilization and its avatars inconclusively but poignantly pierces the
heart of the careful listener.
References
Ishiguro, Kazuo, (2009-05-07). Nocturnes: Five Stories of Music and Nightfall, Faber
and Faber. Kindle Edition.
Maus, Fred, Everett, Classical Instrumental Music and Narrative. In James Phelan
and Peter J. Rabinowitz (eds.) A Companion to Narrative Theory, London:
Blackwell Publishing, 2008, pp. 466-483.
Nnning, Ansgar, F., Reconceptualizing Unreliable Narration: Synthesizing
Cognitive and Rhetorical Approaches. In James Phelan and Peter J. Rabinowitz
(eds.) A Companion to Narrative Theory, London: Blackwell Publishing, 2008,
pp. 89-107.
Rabinonowitz, Peter, They Shoot Tigers, Dont They?: Path and Counterpoint in The
Long Goodbye. In James Phelan and Peter J. Rabinowitz (eds.) A Companion to
Narrative Theory, London: Blackwell Publishing, 2008, pp. 181-191.
http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/public/book/omo_t114 (Retrieved 08.02.2012)
Influena ideologiei politice asupra romanului

postbelic de inspiraie rural
Ramona Buruian
Abstract: The installing of the totalitarian regime in Romania led to

important changes in the political domain, but also on the socio-cultural
level. The literature from this period, subservient to communism, renounces
the aesthetic component in favor of the bias doctrine adopted by the socialist
realism. This method of creation, introduced from the Soviet cultural scene,
has a great influence upon the post-war novel of rural inspiration, by means
of representative ideological elements, motifs or pillars of the epic literary
construction positive heroes, the new man, formed in the spirit of the party,
the class struggle, the class enemy, the model of the Soviet agriculture
adopted by the party and implemented in all Romanian villages, the
transition from individualism to collective thinking. Thus, the work illustrates
the impact of the realist-socialist novel in that particular time, by means of
valorization of the party principles and through the poignancy of the
revolutionary message.
Keywords: socialist realism, the new man, the class struggle, collective
thinking, revolutionary message
Realismul socialist a ntors operele literare la

o paradigm mai veche (idealizarea vieii), limbajul folosit fiind mai
clar, mai flatant, mai agreat de cititorul instinctual. Literatura devine
imaginea unei realiti sociale i psihologice corespunztoare ideo-
logiei comuniste. Cenzura, n pofida momentelor de relaxare, veghez
la ndeplinirea comandamentelor, dup principii determinante ale
momentului: dac primii cenzori aplicau epuraia n funcie de eti-
cheta colaboraionist, legionar sau fascist, din 1949 pn n
1953 se va pune accentul pe puritatea ideologic a textelor literare
(); dup destalinizare, din 1954 pn n 1964, conteaz mai mult
ndeprtarea eventualelor deviaii prooccidentale din text, precum i
moralitatea autorului n cauz, () n sensul conformrii acestuia la
doctrina omului nou[1]. O definiie interesant, bazat pe logica sau
filozofia cenzurii, apare n 1984 de George Orwell: a ti i a nu ti, a
fi contient de o total veridicitate n timp ce spui minciuni cu grija
contruite, a susine n acelai timp dou idei care se exclud reciproc,
tiind c sunt opuse i totui creznd n amndou; a folosi logica
mpotriva logicii, a renega morala n timp ce o pretinzi; a uita tot ce

este necesar s uii, pe urm a readuce acel lucru napoi n memorie
exact cnd este nevoie de el i a-l uita imediat din nou[2].
ntregul tablou literar al obsedantului deceniu ofer exemple n
acelai sens modele de roman realist- socialist (Eusebiu Camilar,
Negura; V. Em. Galan, Brgan; Aurel Mihale, Ogoare noi; D.
Mircea, Pine alb; Titus Popovici, Setea etc.), opere despre omul
nou, lupta de clas, muncitorii i ranii revoluionari, activistul de
partid eroi pozitivi , dar i despre eroul negativ chiaburul,
dumanul de clas etc. Trebuia subliniat sensul pozitiv al schimbrilor
n societate, construirea omului nou, optimist, ncreztor n viitorul
luminos i reflectarea nalt a prezentului, materializat n industria
socialist, n procesul de edificare a socialismului la sat, n activitatea
de pe antiere, din institute de cercetare, din cele mai reprezentative
uniti socialiste (). Trebuiau nfiate n biruine ale construc-
torilor noii societi, obinute n lupta dur cu dumanul de clas [3].
Abordarea temei rurale, esenial n aceast perioad, se nvrte n
jurul evenimentelor cheie din istoria satului romnesc reforma
agrar (1945) i colectivizarea (1949), prezentate distorsionat, cu
multe artificii pentru a se putea trece de cenzur.
Dac Puna Mic (1948) nu trezete interes fiindc nfiarea
construirii unor noui aezri sociale de ctre rnime rmnea nc
idilic[4], Mitrea Cocor se pliaz pe cerina tezist de la nceput,
anticipnd motivul luptei de clas: la Dropii e aur, boierii adun
bogii, noi trim n strmtoare i putrezim n srcie. Romanul are
ca tem formarea noului stat socialist prin intermediul eroului pozitiv,
Mitrea Cocor, ran srac din Malu-Surpat, oprimat i plin de suferine
din copilrie: Iari zic vai de voi, la Malu-Surpat. Ce jucrii, ce
mncare, ce somn? C pe unul din fraii mei cruia i s-ar fi cuvenit
s-i spun acum: Mi nene, l rupser porcii cnd era de un an i se
afla ntr-o albie, la umbr, iar maic-mea dus cu treburile mai
departe. Pe acel prunc de-un an l chema tot Mitrea. Puteam fi eu cel
din albie. Celelalte clase sociale (boierii i chiaburii) i au ca
reprezentani pe Cristea Trei-Nasuri i pe morarul Ghi Lungu, avid
pus pe fapte netrebnice mpotriva fratelui su, Mitrea, din dorina de
a-l nltura pentru a intra n posesia averii lui. Dup moartea prin-
ilor, Ghi l trimite pe Mitrea la curtea boierului Trei Nasuri unde
umilina, btile i asupririle alimenteaz ura i revolta strnse de-a
lungul timpului, amplificate de nedreptile i de atitudinea violent a
mamei (eroul trebuia clit n lipta de clas, ba chiar i-n lupta
matern sau chiar fratern [5]). Revolta se nate din copilrie

Agapia era nemiloas odat, i-a dat cu dosul palmei peste gur.
Mitrea i-a nghiit lacrimile i-a tcut. Ochii aceea negri, scldai n
patimi, trdau un suflet mpovrat de durere i revolt, cci dup
stingerea mamei a trebuit s ndure dispreul singurului frate, boierul
Ghi Lungu, hotrt s-l dea pe mna lui Cristea Trei-Nasuri, la
conac. Ghi veghea din spate suferinele din temnia n care-i azvr-
lise fratele, asigurndu-i anii de supliciu, prin aciuni infame, josnice,
mieleti. Mitrea se stpnete i rabd, pstrndu-i demnitatea,
judecnd aspru frdelegile npustite asupra lui Mitrea a rmas
singur gndindu-se. l durea toat carnea de pe trup ca dup o trud
cumplit i l mpungeau n spinare ace de foc. Avea n el venin. Se
opintea s-l verse. A stat aa singur cu ochii ngheai cugetnd la o
rzbunare crunt, ns nc nedesluit. tia c fratele lui se fcuse
trdtor pentru o mn de pmnt, dar la fel de bine tia c va sosi i
ceasul dreptii.
Mitrea Cocor, exponentul omului nou n societatea comunist, i
urmeaz iniierea la regiment, unde plutonierul major Cataram are cu
el planuri mari. Caporalul Florea Costea, om al partidului, l sftuiete
pe Mitrea s ia lecii, vorbindu-i despre importana nvturii, dar
profesorul ce avea s-l lumineze, un revoluionar ca cei care lucraser
la drmarea mpriei ruseti, lupttor pentru ridicarea norodului
muncitor, fusese ntemniat. Atunci, fierarul Florea i ia asupra sa
misiunea de formare a lui Mitrea i, n preajma Patelui (1942), sol-
datul frunta trimite prima scrisoare iubitei sale, Nastasia, ptruns de
sperana revederii, n ciuda fatalitii rzboiului mistuitor de viei. Ni
se pare totui, c Florea Costea i se destinuie cu prea mult uurin
lui Mitrea Cocor i cu i mai mult uurin l descoper, din prima
clip, pe cellalt om de partid, profesorul care urma s-l nvee carte
pe Mitrea. Cu mult mai prevztor ar fi trebuit s fie un comunist, n
acele mprejurri. Datorit acestui fapt, oprimarea exercitat de ctre
dictatura antonescian mpotriva Partidului Comunist, pe atunci n
ilegalitate, ca i lupta cu att mai grea pe care o duceau comunitii
pentru a transmite cuvntul Partidului, pierd din trie., afirma, ntr-un
tablou critic al romanului, Vera Clin [6].
n rzboi, experiena tririi la limit a fiinei ajunge la paroxism,
odat cu rnirea prietenului su Florea. Urmeaz experiena lagrului
i transformarea lui Mitrea n spiritul ornduirii sociale sovietice
nva rusete i ia lecii de agronomie, apoi soldatul Mitea Karaganov
de la Kostroma i prezint modelul de stat sovietic i vrea s-l fac om
politic: () n acel sat oamenii au de 11 ani gospodrie colectiv i

se ndeletniceau cu pomii roditori i legumele. Apa ce trebuia la gr-
dinile lor o pompau din coada lacului. Iar dincoace, la dig, apele
repezite pe lptoc purtau o turbin. Moara umbla fr odihn i
mcina spornic. Ddea i putere electric pentru lumin i pentru o
fabric mic de unelte de gospodrie steasc. Muscalii apreciaz
abilitatea ranului de la Dunre de analiz a fenomenului social,
diplomaia, tria de caracter i inteligena romnului, atribute ideale
ale unui brbat politic (Ce s-a ntmplat n aceste ri ale Rusiei se
va ntmpla i n ara mea. Se vor ridica robii i vor cdea stpnii.
() Pe lng asta, am ochi i urechi. De cnd sunt aici, vd, aud i
pricep).
Costea Florea nu-l uit pe Mitrea, care, nainte s fie luat prizonier,
l lsase pe mini bune, n grija semenilor si i acum, dup ceva timp, i
trimisese veste prin tovarul Beriozov (vraciul salvator), spunnd c-l
ateapt, n vederea instruirii i formrii sale ca om al societii
socialiste. La ntlnirea cu prietenul su, Mitrea se declar impresionat
de privelitea satelor sovietice, mprtindu-i sentimentele sale de
admiraie: De asemeni, vzui ntinderile de gru de dincolo de hotarul
de pn acum al grului vechi spre miaznoapte, gru nou care se coace
n scurt, dup averile pripite de acolo. Vzui apoi sate dup sate, chiar
acum cldite n jurul unor mlatini unde e disciplinat apa n canaluri. i
din loc n loc heletaie i pdurici de straj mpotriva viforilor. Unde era
pustie umed, acum cresc holde. i heletaiele pline de pete. Beriozov
i arat i o gospodrie colectiv i pretutindeni abundena, satisfacia,
luminarea ranilor creeaz imaginea unei viei perfecte un model
social ideal de ornduire a lumii rurale: Rsaduri de roii, ardei i
castravei sub geamuri, pe mari ntinderi (). Vd club unde se adun
tovarii grdinari i grdinresc, citesc gazete, ascult radio, discut
politic (). Iat c ajung ntr-o grdin cu 2-3 case de prunci ().
Jucrii grmezi ntr-o cmar; paturi cu cearafuri n camere unde i
culc pe mruneii ia. Tocmai prnziser i acum i duceau cele trei-
patru doici ale satului la somn. () Mumele lor, fr grij, la munc.
Tristeea l copleete pe Mitrea la gndul srciei din satul lui, la gndul
c fratele lui pierise de mic, lsat n voia sorii, fr supraveghere. n
casele pe care le vzuse, totul prea bine organizat, vaci, capre i paseri
ntr-o gospodrie anume pentru hrana acelor prunci precum i a
nevolnicilor satului babe i moi. Florea gsete un diagnostic sup-
rrii lui boala nerbdrii fierarul i promite i i inoculeaz ideea
unei reconstrucii sociale, dup victoria ruilor industrializarea satului.
(Dm jos pe stpni, mprim plugrimii pmntul; nlturm pe

exploatatorii industriilor, statul ia n stpnire fabricile i v pregtim
vou, plugarilor, moiile i uneltele).
Mitrea ajunge subofier n divizia Tudor, iar Ghi se teme tot mai
mult de ntoarcerea fratelui su. Morarul este de partea nemilor,
declarndu-se mulumit de dispariia lui Fran, mecanicul su, spre
uimirea ranului Cerne, uluit de gndirea morbid a boierului. Stoica
Cerne, adeptul modelului social rusesc intervine i susine politica
clasei muncitoare, socotind puterea sovietic drept instan izbvitoare a
naiei sale: n Rusia, dup ce-au fost drmate boieriile i lcomiile,
iat iei dreptatea pentru omul muncitor. Cine muncete mnnc, cine
nu muncete nu mnnc. Mila de muncitor, nea Ghi Lungu, care se
frige n zduf i vifor i-l ustur btturile minilor, asta e legea nou,
asta o fcur bolevicii. Nemii pun puterea, stia dreptatea. Cu toat
puterea lor tia i bat i-i hcuiesc pe nemi, cci s-au sculat sub
crmuirea rusului o sutp de noroade; i se bat o sut de noroade, ()
pentru dreptatea ce-au dobndit. i alungar i de la noi pe nemi. Ne
vine i nou acestora vremea s ne scuturm de urgia n care trim.
Acest ran ntruchipeaz colectivitatea, muncitorii obidii i nsetai de
dreptate reprezint glasurile tuturor n care se regsete, de asemenea, o
tcere a suferinei. Durerea unuia se contopete n durerea mare a
tuturor se afla ntr-adevr pitit ntru umilin un stean de culoarea
rnei i care sta zbrlit ca ariciul, cu ochii rotunzi spriai ().
Suntem muli ca el. Crescu Ni acesta cinci copii. I-au pierit n rzboi.
Din asta i s-a scrntit muierea. I se nzar copii pierii ca nite pui cu
fulgi. Fiind vorba de robie, Cerne amintete i de Mitrea, slug odat
la boier dar inima de piatr a morarului nu se induplec. Pentru toi
robii, rani muncitori, era convins Cerne, gria numai Partidul
partidul muncitoresc, sperana eliberrii de sub jugul ntinrii (sub
sloganul s nceteze exploatarea omului de ctre om!).
Mitrea i pregtete venirea n satul su, inopinat, pentru nfptui-
rea reformei agrare urma s fie scrii toi n condici, fiecare dup
nevoia lui; apoi aveau s trag brazde, nsemnnd rzoare. Eroul
pozitiv, Mitrea Cocor, se nfrunt acum cu eroul negativ, chiaburul
Trei Nasuri, ntru aplicarea noii legi a partidului (pmntul e a celor
care muncesc). Mnia lui Cristea se dezlnuie i se amplific ntr-un
rget de fiar se rstoarn lumea, boierii se preschimb n argai,
sub porunca lui Prslea. Pentru chiaburi i boieri, ncepe corvada -
ntoarcerea spre brazd, prin schimbarea raportului cu aceasta (din
stpnitori devin vasali, restabilind relaia om-natur i reglnd ener-
giile universale, prin acest raport al necesitii, de subordonare).

Pmntul aparine tuturor, iar prbuirea suzeranitii unei clase este o
metafor a cderii: Boier Cristea cdea, l nepa cu o porunc
ascuit Alior, i atunci se punea nti n genunchi, apoi n brnci, apoi
cu rsucit trud n picioare. Dup zece pai cdea iar. Nea Ghi i
purta capul ca pe o povar strin. ngenunchea i el arcuindu-se ca un
vierme.
n viziunea autorului, reforma agrar se face prin dobndirea
accesului tuturor la pmnt, iar plugul devine simbolul dreptii i al
supunerii energiilor, ajutat de eroul pozitiv Mitrea, ambasador al
autoritilor suzerane sovietice, sub auspiciile Partidului, nsrcinat cu
misiunea transplantrii unui model social, el nsui fiind un om nou n
devenire, un revoluionar, un reprezentant al noilor valori sociale i un
continuator al acestora, prin fiul lui Mitrea a fost n Uniunea
Sovietic. A vzut colhozuri, a vzut tractoare rscolind ogoarele, a
vzut oamenii luptnd cu natura, nvingnd-o. De aceea el tie c actul
pe care l nfptuiete el i tovarii lui la Malu-Surpat e doar un
nceput.i d seama c aci, n satul unde alctuirile trecutului sunt
nc n fiin, unde fiecare om e legat de bucica lui de pmnt, va fi
de dus o lupt grea pentru deselenirea minilor. Lupttor contient,
Mitrea nu se amgete. Cele vzute n ara socialismului i dau ns
curaj i-l narmeaz cu rbdare: Viitorul e al tu, spune Mitrea
privindu-i copilul [7].
Mitrea este un om nou n formare mai are de nvat, de acumulat
experiene pentru a se edifica asupra menirii sale, asupra atitudinii
vizavi de ceilali, asupra modului de a aciona, n demersul su de a
schimba societatea; nc nu tie s-i stpneasc resentimentele, i
revars ura, este ptima, subiectiv, nu a dobndit acel echilibru, acea
judecat chibzuit i reinut, acel sim de orientare dictat de mpre-
jurri, pe care lupta i viaa de Partid le dau comunistului, ().
Cititorul tie ns,c odat cu evenimentele ce vor schimba faa satului
Malu-Surpat,se va nchega i caracterul lui Mitrea Cocor, c el va
deveni un om de partid, precis n judeci i aprecieri [8].
Romanul lui Sadoveanu are la baz tehnica tipizrii, prin esenia-
lizare, n sensul respectrii esteticii romaneti impuse de Engels
(realismul prinde i red viaa n aspectele ei eseniale, adic n
devenirea sa istoric [9]). Astfel, chiaburimea este reprezentat de
Ghi Lungu, iar boierimea de Cristea, fcui, desigur, pe acelai
calapod- cei doi semnau att fizic, ct i moral: Trei-Nasuri semna
cu morarul. Parc ar fi fost frai. Numai c proprietarul era nalt i
gros, iar morarul i ajungea abia la umr. Trei-Nasuri prea fratele mai
mare; nenea Ghi era fratele mic. Ambii erau lacomi i zgrcii,
ipocrii, lipsii de simul umanitii. Satul Malu-Surpat simbolizeaz
un etalon al imaginii rurale din acea perioad, un fragment de
oglind, n care se reflect realitatea complex a acelui prim pas
revoluionar, pecare-l fcea lumea satelor noastre n timpul cnd se
petrecea aciunea romanelor[10]. Partidul i face simit prezena
prin oamenii si, propovduitorii noilor principii partinice Stoica
Cerne, Voicu Cerne, Mitrea Cocor (Stoica Cerne i convinge
semenii de victoria partidului, n demersul su de a mpmnteni
modelul social sovietic: Acest partid..mpinge n coluri tot mai
strmte pe mbuibaii de eri. Vor mpri pmnt; vor alctui legi
drepte. Ies acum, zicea el, ntiinri despre adevratele stri de lucruri
din Uniunea Sovietic. Sosesc de acolo oameni de ai notri care au
vzut cu ochii lor aezarea nou rsritean. Acolo ciocoii i
mbogiii pe nedrept, s-au topit. Se bucur la soare numai muncitorii
care in n mn secera i ciocanul. Robii de odinioar, sunt acolo
stpni acuma[11]) Masa ranilor mpovrai de suferinele muncii
i rscoalelor griete prin btrnul Triglea, iar atmosfera de rzboi
este sintetizat i sugerat prin dialog - unitate de msur pentru ceea
ce au gndit i au spus milioane de oameni, n timpul acelui rzboi
criminal[12]. Pe lng aceste aspecte, mesajul revoluionar al
transformrilor imperioase, n rndul stenilor (ivirea zorilor noii
societi), promovarea noului tip de om, educat n spirit militant, revo-
luionar, un aliat i un corespondent al partidului n rndul maselor, i
nu n ultimul rnd, maginea ranului, ca rezultat al trimfului noilor
idei sociale sunt elemente care asigur succesul romanului n epoc,
dirijnd inspiraia marilor scriitori ai vremii spre obiectivele estetice
primordiale, avnd ca fundament transferul mesajului revoluionar n
opera de art. Traian elmaru dedic un spaiu generos interpretrii
romanului n Lupta de clas din 1951, unde sunt sintetizate
principalele virtui ale operei lui Sadoveanu (umanismul, optimismul
i dragostea de pace), dezvoltate sub nrurirea veacului luminat de
genialele idei ale lui Lenin i Stalin[13]. Urmrind dezideratele
politice ale vremii, Mitrea Cocor reprezint de fapt procesul de
trezire la contiin revoluionar a rnimii noastre muncitoare, n
focul luptei de clas, sub conducerea proletariatului i sub influena
hotrtoare a Uniunii Sovietice[14]. Mesajul ideologic transmis de
eroul operei se nscrie, de asemenea, n principiile modelului sovietic
de construcie a romanului: Mitrea Cocor este cea dinti carte a lui
Mihail Sadoveanu scris de pe poziia clasei muncitoare. Ea mar-

cheaz n opera sa, saltul spre realismul socialist [15].
Primul roman al colectivizrii [16], aparut n Viaa romneasc
din 1950, i aparine lui Eusebiu Camilar. Pentru a da via tabloului
social de inspiraie rural, autorul a radiografiat starea ranilor, n
vremea desfurrii campaniei de colectivizare a agriculturii (perioada
iunie-octombrie 1949).
Aciunea se petrece n satul Mlini, unde stau adpostite tot attea
suferine, tot attea dorine i nempliniri ale oamenilor ca n toate
satele romneti. Discuia despre starea ranilor o ncepe baba
Tnsoaia, care, venind spre sat de la o nmormntare, l ntlnete pe
activistul de partid Vasile Frunz: Cu pmntul ar trebui fcut o
rnduial... Da! Sunt unii care au adunat, n vremea foametei, pmnt
cu hapca! Sracii i-au dat, pentru un cu de fin, grdina...ogorul...
i bogaii au strns... Sracii crc din msele! La noi, la Mlini, a
fost amar i jale! Venea sorocul, chiaburul lua bordeiul sracului n
primire. Sracul, lundu-i plozii i bulendrele, gemea i cnta (...).
Btrna, vorbind n numele semenilor, i mprtete tnrului
gndurile lor, unii speriai ntru ctva de zvonul colectivizrii. Mai
ales femeile se tem de schimbare, nu-i imagineaz viaa fr tradiiile
dintotdeauna, fr pmntul lor, i, de frica srciei i mai mari, refuz
fr preget trecerea n colectiv.
Tnsoaia i arat musafirului, n zare, ogorul chiaburului Tun,
aflat lng acela gtuit ntre lanuri al ranului srac Onufrie Ochi-
de-Vulpe, lsndu-l s neleag de ce are un of la inim: (...) fiecare
fir de gru nsamn lacrim de orfan...Dac i-a istorisi cum lcrmau
copiii, atunci! Ei lcrmau...Tun spunea: La o parte! i cu ogor i
fr ogor, tot golani suntei! Ce v-ai face fr bogai, calicilor i
pieriturilor? Noi suntem fruntea lumii!
Vasile Frunz se oprete la Ion Crngau, fecior srac, dar plin de
speran, pregtit s lupte alturi de partid mpotriva dumanului de
clas. Are o misiune dificil, de aceea credina n mesajul revoluionar
trebuia s-i nsoeasc pretutindeni: n toate prilejurile, Ioane, s
avem ncredere nezdruncinat c drumul colectivizrii e singurul drum
al binelui... alt drum bun pentru rnimea muncitoare nu se mai afl!
Asta s ne fie steag n lupt...
ntlnirea cu ranii este, desigur, intermediat de Crngau intr
mai nti ranii sraci Onufrie, Cocoran, Mina lui Ifrim etc. , apoi
cei mijlocai Filimon Hancu, Clip etc. , eroii pozitivi ai romanului,
unii prin tenacitate n lupta pentru belugul muncii colective. Aceti
rani sraci i mijlocai vor forma un tot unitar i, ajutai de partid,

vor izbuti s nving chiaburimea. Portretul lor este tipic, realizat de
autor amplu, iar personajele, surprinse n aciuni diverse, sprijin
idealul partinic i al ranilor muncitori deopotriv, punndu-i toat
fora, toat puterea de jertf n slujba construirii socialismului[17].
Figura ranului srac Onufrie Ochi-de-Vulpe se impune de la n-
ceput prin spiritul jovial, prin voin puternic i sinceritate: nu-mi
cunoti istoria opincilor... Le pun asar pe gard, s se usuce; cnd m
duc azi diminea s le iau, ia-le de unde nu-s Se vede c se afl n
sat un om i mai srac ca mine! M cheam Onufrie Ochi-de-
Vulpe El se destinuie mulimii i, hotrt s mearg pn la capt
alturi de partid, vorbete despre deertciunea unui petec de pmnt:
Onufrie Ochi-de-Vulpe arta cum mncase, n vremea foametei,
mmlig din tre de orz amestecate cu pmnt; dar i-a inut ogorul
cu dinii...n-a vrut s-l dea lui Tun pentru cteva cuuri de fin... i
acum, simte n pntece ca un pumn ciolnos, care-l izbete i-l
frmnt...a rmas cu ogorul...ei i? l scormonete, de ani, l rsco-
lete poate, poatedar de cnd se tie pe lume, nu s-a sculat
niciodat de la mas stul... De ce? Pregtind satul pentru lupta de
clas, va rspndi vocea partidului printre mlineni, ndemnnd
oamenii s-i dirijeze energiile spre aceeai cauz, trezindu-le senti-
mentul menirii lor supreme: ... De-o via de om, ppuoi srac...
gru srac! Partidul ne nva ce nseamn o agricultur bun...fcut
cu judecat...Avem pild agricultura sovietic... Ne trebuie pmnt
larg...arat adnc...bine hrnit...() Agricultura n colectiv e singura
cale... Nevasta lui, Rozalia, nu mprtete aceleai gnduri, i,
vzndu-l ndrtnic, decide s-l lase singur, dar dup ceea ce a vzut
strbtnd attea sate, s-a ntors alturi de brbatul ei, resemnndu-se
s-l nsoeasc oriunde s-ar ndrepta Am umblat prin strini, am
btut praguri dumnoase (). Oftnd prin strini, mi Onufrie, m-am
gndit i m-am tot gndit: Ce vrei voi? i m-am luminat i
mi-am zis: Omul meu vrea binele i dac omul meu vrea binele,
mi-am zis eu, atunci de ce s m pun contra?
n timpul unei edine, Onufrie, urmrit de Corcodel, mna dreapt
a lui Tun, triete o mare umilin peste care va trece foarte ruinat.
Exaltat de misiunea sa, ranul promite, n numele partidului i al
statului, fapte prea mari i fericire deplin, dezamgindu-i semenii.
Corcodel, pndind vreme s-l dezonoreze n faa mulimii, insist
asupra eliminrii sale din edin. Astfel, suprat pe atitudinea exa-
gerat a lui Onufrei, n care-i pusese toat sperana, Iordache,
trimisul Comitetului Central, l ceart aspru, determinndu-l s plece,

stingherit i plin de mhnire: Dai-m afar, dacam greit! Iaca,
dac-i aa, m duc, dar facei ru! Mai bine mi-a despica pieptul, s
v art inima din mine..dac-i gsi pe ea pat neagr, m dau pucat!
Partidul, ns, prin oamenii si Frunz, Crngau, Iordache,
Leonte , l iertase de mult deoarece bbatul i demonstrase ntru
totul devotamentul fa de marea deviz cluztoare, participnd
deplin la ntemeierea gospodriei colective Horia din satul su,
nume ales n amintirea ranului lupttor, reprezentant al moilor
participani la revolta din 1784. Suferina pare c-l urmrete pe
Onufrie i va atinge proporii uriae n noaptea blestemat, cnd,
auzind planul mielesc al dumanului, decide s stea de paz la
hambarul gospodriei. Corcodel, ns, nu are drept int hambarul, ci i
incendiaz casa, lsndu-o pe Rozalia, nevasta lui Onufrei, oarb.
Abnegaia strnge n jurul ranului tot partidul, mobilizat de Leonte,
trimisul judeenei, s-l menin activ pentru a-l ajuta s mai uite
durerea, Onufrei nfind pentru obte modelul de urmat, exponent
al celor mai nalte caliti morale: Tovarul Onufrie este o pild...o
pild de om cu inima lipit de nzuinele clasei muncitoare...despre
tovarul Onufrie se va gri cu cinste, foarte mult vreme... Eroul
evolueaz, se formeaz n spiritul partidului i, dup experiene
eseniale, iniiatice, el devine un simbol al ranului muncitor, lupttor
pentru furirea socialismului: Acum civa ani i cntau greieruii n
bulendre. l mai cunoate cineva azi pe Onufrie cel vechi, n Onufrie
cel nou? Nimeni! A nvat la Partid atta carte...parc te mngie
cnd griete!
Dup mult timp de ndoial i de team, toi ranii intr n
colectiv, urmnd exemplele vrednice ale stenilor demni de laud.
Crlig se las greu convins, e temtor, ndrjit, respingtor: Ct
triesc eu, nu... n ruptul capului! Peste voia mea nu trecei! Dac
acolo, la comun, v primesc fr vite, fr pmnt... poftim, calea-i
liber! Ifrim refuz din cauza lui Tun, iar pe Hacu nu-l las nevasta.
Ileana lui Pru, vduv, ngrijind de doi prunci orfani, se teme de o
srcie i mai mare. Dar toi, absolut toi, mnai de ambiia semenilor
lor, ajung s nale acelai steag rou al Partidului: Peste deal, fiile
reflectoarelor arau besnele i gospodarii mnau vitele, trgeau
brazdele, cu simmntul c au alturi de ei o putere pe care n-o poate
birui nimeni Ici, colo, rsuna cntecul despre oimul Rou... Pn
i ranul mijloca Vrabie, mndru, harnic, aflat n disput cu Ion
Crngau din pricina fiicei lui, i mblnzete inima. i dduse fata
chiaburului Cercelu din ambiie, fr s in cont de suferina

Albstriei. Dar acest amar, paradoxal, reuete s-i ndulceasc
sufletul, s-l umanizeze, s-l aduc lng stenii oneti, de bun
credin, trezindu-l din mnia cu care-l hrnise atta vreme chiabu-
rimea: Tu, Cocorane, nu tiu ce inim ai...ce pui n cuvinte... Dar
cum mi-ai spus tovare nti, am simit o cldur n piept, m-am
nmuiat orict m aflu de nveninat la inim...
Tun, prototipul dumanului de clas, uneltete mpotriva
partidului, ajutat de Corcodel i de jandarmul Caaveic. Corcodel
incendiaz casa lui Onufrei, Caaveicu omoar vitele stenilor, iar
Tun manevreaz din umbr ranii slabi de fire i slabi de nger.
Pentru o mn de fin muli rani au refuzat din start s neleag
schimbarea i s se adapteze la noua rnduial a lumii rurale.
n toate mprejurrile nefaste, partidul (prin oamenii si Vasile
Frunz, activist de partid, Iordache, trimisul Comitetului Central,
Leonte, trimisul judeenei etc.) ajut oamenii s priceap ntmplrile
din viaa satului, s depeasc mai uor tragediile pricinuite de
chiaburi: Eu griesc, dumitale i geme inima...ntr-un loc,
chiaburii au dat foc grajdului plin de vite, au ars vitele a ars un copil
al tovarului care pzea... n alt parte, au tras cu pistolul automat n
secretarul de plas... i cte... i cte...
La aceste nenorociri, riposta cuvenit a ranilor a nsemnat
triumful noii ornduiri n toate satele Mlini, Hluca, Tupilai,
Bozia etc. Eroii pozitivi au n fa modelul sovietic cuvntul lui
Stalin i belugul ogoarelor din ara Socialismului (datorit agri-
culturii mecanizate temelia statului de mine colhoznicii
obineau cinci mii de kilograme de gru la hectar). Stenii din Mlini
sunt onorai prin mesajul de admiraie i de recunotin al partidului,
rostit de reprezentantul Comitetului Central, tovarul Iordache: ()
Voi, gospodarii din Mlini, ai dat Patriei ntia cunun de gru
comun...Muncii cu rvn...scoatei pne mai mult pentru muncitorii
de la orae! Ei muncesc depind normele, pentru a v da unelte...i
astfel, strni sub semnul Secerei i al Ciocanului, ridicai Patria, o
ntrii...o facei de nenvins! Cu fiecare ppuoi prit bine, cu fiecare
spic secerat la vreme, cu fiecare nit, cu fiecare urub, izbim n doritorii
de noi rzboaie! S-ndrzbeasc dumanul s s-apropie de zidurile ce
le durm, ale socialismului! nainte, tovari...[18]. Iar ranul
Onufrie Ochi-de-Vulpe, pentru valoroasa contribuie la furirea
socialismului, prin faptele sale excepionale, este distins de trimisul
Prezidiului Marii Adunri Naionale cu Ordinul Muncii.
n articolul su despre nsemntatea romanului, Vera Clin luda

iniiativa lui E. Camilar de a insista asupra acestui nou tip de ran,
ranul muncitor factor activ n opera de construire a socialis-
mului[19], iar n Almanahul poporului (nr. 8/1951), C. Regman
evidenia actualitatea romanului, prin tematic i prin mesajul revolu-
ionar transmis de autor: Scriitorul este pe drumul cel bun, acela al
orientrii tot mai hotrte spre realitate i totodat spre o art lupt-
toare nsufleit de problemele i frmntrile concrete, vii, ale oame-
nilor care, nlturnd subjugarea, i construiesc liberi viitorul. Nu
trebuie uitat c Temelia e i romanul nceputurilor colectivizrii i
totodat cap de serie curajos al unei linii tematice principiale[20].
Romanele, produsul unor rigori de sorginte politic, concepute s
cloneaze eroi, motive, scene, ipostaze, circumstane etc., pentru a face
din ntreaga structur epic o simulare de punere n abis a societii
socialiste, supravegheate de marea putere estic, fac parte dintr-o
colecie ampl de proze realist-socialiste i trateaz encomiastic muta-
iile din lumea satului romnesc, desfurate n perioada de dup al
Doilea Rzboi Mondial, sub regimul totalitar impus de U.R.S.S. [alte
romane Ion Istrati, Gru nfrit (1950); V. Em. Galan, Brgan
(1954); Ivan Ghilia, Cuscrii (1958); D. R. Popescu, Zilele sptmnii
(1959); Lucia Demetrius, Primvara pe Trnave (1960) etc.].
Note
[1] Literatura n epoca totalitarismului. Perioada 1945-1965 n cultura romn

(coord. Lucian Chiu, Laureniu Hanganu), Editura Printech, Bucureti, 2008, p. 88.
[2] George Orwell, 1984, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1991, p. 34.
[3] Literatura n epoca totalitarismului. Perioada 1945-1965 n cultura romn
(coord. Lucian Chiu, Laureniu Hanganu), Editura Printech, Bucureti, 2008, p. 57.
[4] Vera, Clin, Un succes al literaturii noastre, n Viaa romneasc, nr. 3, martie,
1950, p. 309.
[5] Georgeta Moarc, Maestrul M. Sadoveanu scriitor ran, tovar de drum
sau scriitor proletar? n Vatra, 9-10/2004, p. 143.
[6] Vera Clin, Un succes al literaturii noastre, n Viaa romneasc, nr. 3, martie,
1950, p. 311.
[7] Ibidem, p. 312.
[8] Ibidem
[9] Ibidem, p. 313
[10] Ibidem
[11] Mihail Sadoveanu, Mitrea Cocor, Editura de Stat pentru Literatur i Art,
Bucureti, 1955.
[12] Vera Clin, Un succes al literaturii noastre, n Viaa romneasc, nr. 3, martie,
1950, p. 314.
[13] Traian elmaru, Mihail Sadoveanu: Mitrea Cocor (roman), n Lupta de clas,
1951, nr. 1, p. 111.
[14] Ibidem, p. 113.
[15] Ibidem, p. 112.
[16] Titlul articolului pulblicat de Vera Clin n Viaa romneasc, nr. 10, 1950.
[17] Vera Clin, Primul roman al colectivizrii, n Viaa romneasc, nr. 10, 1950,
p. 271.
[18] Romanul Temelia de Eusebiu Camilar, Editura pentru Literatur i Art a Uniunii
Scriitorilor din R.P.R., Bucureti, 1951.
[19] Vera Clin, art.cit., p. 270.
[20] C. Regman, apud Eugen Simion, Andrei Grigor, Cronologia vieii literare
romneti. Perioada postbelic, vol. V , Editura Muzeului Naional al Literaturii
Romne, Bucureti, 2011, vol. V, p. 72.
Bibliografie
Camilar, Eusebiu, Temelia, Editura pentru Literatur i Art a Uniunii Scriitorilor din
R.P.R., Bucureti, 1951.
Chiu, Lucian, Hanganu, Laureniu Literatura n epoca totalitarismului. Perioada
1945-1965 n cultura romn, Editura Printech, Bucureti, 2008.
Clin, Vera, Primul roman al colectivizrii, n Viaa romneasc, nr. 10, 1950.
Clin, Vera, Un succes al literaturii noastre, n Viaa romneasc, nr. 3, martie,
1950.
Moarc, Georgeta, Maestrul M. Sadoveanu scriitor ran, tovar de drum
sau scriitor proletar?, n Vatra, 9-10/2004.
Orwell, George, 1984, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1991.
Sadoveanu, Mihail, Mitrea Cocor, Editura de Stat pentru Literatur i Art, Bucureti,
1955.
Simion, Eugen, Grigor, Andrei, Cronologia vieii literare romneti. Perioada
postbelic, vol. V, Editura Muzeului Naional al Literaturii Romne, Bucureti,
2011.
elmaru, Traian, Mihail Sadoveanu: Mitrea Cocor (roman), n Lupta de clas,
1951, nr. 1.
Discursul intelectualilor central-europeni.

Reflectare poliedric
Georgiana Ciobotaru
Abstract. Mitteleuropa primarily points to a variable geographic space,

which has stirred different debates on the geographic and geopolitical status
of this specific area. The Central Europe concept has been used for a long
time, being either neglected or, on the contrary, frequently assumed as a
focal point structuring the identity discourse voiced out by Mitteleuropa
intellectuals who, be they dissidents or in exile, have spoken their opinions
about their representative nations caught between different historical
movement influencing the above mentioned geographical area. Once the time
has passed, the identity discourse itself has changed to turn Central Europe
into a genuine forma mentis, always omnipresent within the conscience of its
intellectuals.
Keywords: identity discourse, dissidence, Mitteleuropa, exile.
Europa Central, Mitteleuropa, este un

spaiu geografic, dar i cultural, care a suscitat de-a lungul timpului o
serie de discuii, deoarece realitatea geografic la care se refer
conceptul nu poate dobndi o definiie exact: Europa Central e
chiar aceast colecie de simboluri ale inutilitii, o ncrengtur de
strzi ntortocheate, de vise sfrmate i comaruri devenite realitate,
imagini ale ntunericului i imposibilei evadri [...]. Teritoriu imaginar
i geografie mantal, Europa Central e un spaiu totodat fictiv i
real. O galaxie nebuloas alctuit din vise, reverii, nevroze, spaime,
frustrri, resentimente, iluzii, sperane, dezamgiri: un bovarism ce nu
e doar al oamenilor, ci al Istoriei nsei [1]. Efectiv, Europa Central
poate fi asociat cu o lumea a crepusculului dominat de deziluzie, de
perpetuele nemulumiri, de o atitudine bovaric a Istoriei, care pentru
spaiul central-european a fost una inexorabil. Spaiu cu geometrie
variabil [2], teritoriul mitteleuropean se caracterizeaz prin flexi-
bilitate, dar i prin vagul contururilor sale, el putnd fi definit doar
dac este raportat att la Est, ct i la Vest, n funcie de relaia pe care
cei doi poli o stabilesc: Mitteleuropa nu se poate defini dect n
raport cu estul i cu vestul i n funcie de realia pe care o ntrein
aceste dou extremiti ale continentului [3]. Cea mai mare parte a
intelectualilor Europei Centrale fie aleg calea exilului, fie sunt

disideni, indiferent care este parcursul pe care aleg s-l urmeze,
acetia realizeaz prin studiile, prin articolele lor cte un excurs prin
sfera cultural central-european, oferind definiii, argumente n
sprijinul dovedirii unei actualiti perpetue a conceptului.
Tony Judt este cel care evideniaz insignifiana spaiului central-
european, aa cum era acesta privit din perspectiva Vestului: n bagajul
cultural al Occidentului, Europa Central a fost, vreme ndelungat, un
accesoriu neglijabil. Aa s-a ntmplat, mai cu seam, n spaiul rilor
de limb englez, cci francezii s-au descurcat ceva mai bine. Potrivit
directorilor de opinie i liderilor politici, de la William Shakespeare la
Neville Chamberlain, hotarele civilizaiei nu se extindeau dincolo de
nzuinele teritoriale ale ovielnicilor monarhi carolingieni. Iar ceea ce
era, deja n 1938, o viziune limitat, s-a transformat, dup 1945, ntr-
una marcat evident de miopie [4]. Efectiv, cultura occidental i
reprezentanii acesteia au ignorat bagajul cultural central-european pn
cnd, dup finalizarea celui de-al Doilea Rzboi Mondial, Europa
Cultural s devin invizibil. Prbuirea Imperiului Austro-Ungar a
provocat o sciziune, o ruptur n planul geografiei conceptuale [5]
continentale, situarea Europei Centrale devenind din nou problematic,
disputele pe plan politic reapruser, stabilirea extremitilor estice i
vestice fiind greu de realizat, un procedeu aproape imposibil. Dispariia
temporar a spaiului central-european din mentalul colectiv european
dup 1945 a fost urmat de o recuperare a acestuia n anii '70, Susan
Sontag evideniind caracterul metaforic al conceptului, care a fost util ca
o reacie mondial mpotriva ruilor. Jacques Rupnik menioneaz c
fantoma Europei Centrale nu a disprut niciodat cu adevrat, ea revine
periodic pentru a bntui zonele ce ilustrau odinioar socialismul real
[6]: De la Praga la Budapesta, de la Cracovia la Zagreb i cu
puternice ecouri auzite i n Viena sau Berlin, redescoperirea Europei
Centrale va rmne una dintre cele mai importante schimbri
intelectuale i politice ale anilor '80 i va fi, fr ndoial, un factor
vital n restructurarea hrii politice a Europei n era post-Ialta [7].
Efectiv, redescoperirea Europei Centrale n anii '80, la un interval de
zece ani, dup ultima ncercare de revigorare, presupune, de
asemenea, reconfigurarea identitii att n plan cultural, ct i n plan
istoric, spre a se deosebi de profilul identitar propus i impus de
sovietici teritoriilor din cealalt parte a Europei. Europa Central a
nceputului de secol al XX-lea s-a manifestat printr-o efervescen
cultural, intelectual datorat interaciunii, interferenei dintre
naiunile sale n plin proces evolutiv, dar i din perspectiva viziunii

supranaionale[8] a crei imagine se suprapunea peste cea repre-
zentat de comunitatea iudaic: Hermann Broch spunea c, la
cumpna dintre secole, aristrocraia catolic a fost nlocuit cu o
burghezie iluminat evreiasc principala for care a contribuit
direct la formarea culturii cosmopolite universale a Europei Centrale
(tradiia baroc, implantat n colurile ndeprtate ale Imperiului
Habsburgic ne-a lsat drept mrturie graniele arhitecturale ale
Europei Centrale, ntinse de la Praga la Vilnius i de la Cracovia la
Ljubliana) [9]. Privit ndeaproape, textul evideniaz contribuia
evreilor la micarea ideilor culturale, cei care au facilitat constituirea
unei culturi central-europene care se distruge prin universalitate i
cosmopolitanism. Frontierele zonei erau impregnate de trsturile
stilului baroc, stil impus iniial de Imperiul Habsburgic i care s-a
conservat, ndeosebi, la margini, n oraele cu dublu statut de margine
i de centru, precum: Vilnius, Lvov, Carcovia.
Centrul poate fi situat n Est este o expresie ce parafrazeaz titlul
eseului lui Karl Schlgel, Centrul se afl n Est [10], cercettor ce face
i mai evident procesul de reconfigurare, reinventare, redescoperire a
spaiului central-european, definind explicit i un concept cheie al
zonei, acela de Centru. Bruno Bauer este cel care sesizeaz un aspect
important al teritoriului cu o geografie variabil, parafrazndu-l pe
Jacques le Rider, i anume c acesta este expresia unor ntrebri ce nu
au un rspuns imediat, dar i al controverselor i al perpetuelor
cvasisolicitri.
Claudio Magris a crei existen este legat de oraul Trieste
subliniaz, ntr-un capitol ca Mitteleuropa Hinternaional sau total
german, din lucrarea Danubius, faptul c ideea unei Mitteleurope
Hinternaionale [11], expresie a echilibrului diferitelor naiuni, utili-
zat n contemporaneitate, a constituit un aspect real al Monarhiei
Habsburgice care s-a bucurat naintea declinului de o perioad armo-
nioas n care coexistau multiplele popoare: La rdcinile mitului
habsburgic care contrapune Dunrea Rinului, se afl aceast sfiere
istoric i cu ct aceasta se accentueaz, cu att se intensific mitul
[12]. Efectiv, textul ilustreaz aura mitic ce nvluie Imperiul
Habsburgic care, cu ct este mai supus dezintegrrii istorice, cu att
mitul dobndete for. Dunrea este pentru Claudio Magris un liant
dintre Centrul zonei central-ueropene i periferie, putnd ntruchipa
statutul de emisar [13] al influenelor germanice din Est: [...] lui
Herder i plcea fluviul, torentul tnr i impetuos care curge la vale,
purtnd n el o fertilitate fecund: privind aceast ap tnr i subire a

nou-nscutei Dunri, m ntreb dac, urmrind-o pn n Delt, printre
popoare i oameni att de diferii, ptrundem ntr-o aren de confruntri
sngeroase sau n corul unei umaniti totuu unitare, cu toat diver-
sitatea limbilor i a civilizaiilor sale [14]. Efectiv, Claudio Magris
prezint, nc o dat, rolul de martor nensufleit al Dunrii la evenimen-
tele, uneori, catastrofale pentru Europa Central, aa cum Oltul veghea
de secole la suferinele celor muli din Ardeal, dup cum sublinia
Octavian Goga, plednd finalmente pentru o identitate central-euro-
pean, n ciuda diversitii lingvistice, etnice, culturale, confesionale.
Identitatea central-european comun este afirmat, nu doar de Magris,
cehii, ungurii sau polonezii se remarcau i ei printre popoarele care au
ajuns s contientizeze finalmente comuniunea de destin [15].
Milan Kundera, intelectualul ceh, care s-a stabilit n Frana, ar pe
care a ales-o ca patrie adoptiv, n perioada exilului su, sesizeaz n
eseul Tragedia Europei Centrale, problematica definirii unei Europe
geografice, care, n opinia sa, a fost segmentat n dou emisfere: cea
care se afl n strns legtur cu Roma i cu religia catolic i cea
care este subordonat Bizanului i ortodoxismului, ns frontierele
de-a lungul istoriei au suferit numeroase deplasri, mai ales dup
momentul 1945: Drept urmare, n Europa de dup rzboi s-au
dezvoltat trei situaii fundamentale diferite: cea a Europei de Vest, cea
a Europei de Est i aceea, mai complicat, a acelei pri din Europa
situate din punct de vedere geografic n centru, din punct de vedere
cultural n Vest, i din punct de vedere politic n Est [16]. Milan
Kundera apreciaz ca fiind fragil postura n care se afl acea parte a
Europei cum numete el vag Europa Central, postur controversat
datorit multiplelor poziionri politice, culturale, geografice.
Note
[1] Vladimir Tismneanu, Mircea Mihie, Vecinii lui Franz Kafka. Romanul unei
nevroze, Editura Polirom, Iai, 1998, pp. 17, 33.
[2] Jacques le Rider, Mitteleuropa, Editura Polirom, Iai, 1997, p. 15.
[3] Michael Rutschky, Mitteleuropa, eine kurzfristige Utopie, n Merkur, nr. 516,
martie, 1992, pp. 185-199, apud Jacques le Rider, Mitteleuropa, ed. cit., p. 15.
[4] Tony Judt, Redescoperirea Europei Centrale, text aprut n Daedalus, iarna
1990, vol. 119, nr. 1, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Cambridge apud
Adriana Babei, Cornel Ungureanu (coord.), Europa Central, Nevroze, Dileme,
Utopii, Editura Polirom, Iai, 1997, p. 17.
[5] Ibidem, p. 18.
[6] Jacques Rupnik, Europa Central sau Mitteleuropa?, text aprut n Daedalus,
iarna 1990, vol. 119, nr. 1, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Cambridge
apud Adriana Babei, Cornel Ungureanu (coord.), Europa Central, Nevroze,
Dileme, Utopii, ed. cit., p. 43.
[7] Ibidem, p. 43.
[8] Ibidem, p. 46.
[9] Ibidem, p. 46.
[10] Karl Schlgel, Die Mitte liegt ostwrds, W.J., Seidles, 1986 apud Adriana
Babei, Cornel Ungureanu (coord.), Europa Central, Nevroze, Dileme, Utopii,
ed. cit., p. 47.
[11] Claudio Magris, Mitteleuropa Hinternaional sau total german, n
Danubius, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1994, cap. I., pp. 22-28, traducere, note,
capitol post ultim de Adrian Nicolescu apud Adriana Babei, Cornel Ungureanu
(coord.), Europa Central, Nevroze, Dileme, Utopii, ed. cit., p. 82.
[12] Ibidem, p.82.
[13] Ibidem, p. 83.
[14] Ibidem, p. 85.
[15] Andr Reszler, Europa Central: Realitate cultural i iluzie politic - Rjoindre
l'Europe. Destin et avenir de l'Europe Centrale, diteurs Georg, Geneve, 1991,
cap. V apud Adriana Babei, Cornel Ungureanu (coord.), Europa Central,
Nevroze, Dileme, Utopii, ed. cit., p. 111.
[16] Milan Kundera, Tragedia Europei Centrale, text tradus dup versiunea englez a
articolului francez, Un Occident Kidnapp ou la tragdie de l'Europe Centrale
( Le Dbat , 27 noiembrie, 1983), aprut n The New York Review of
Books, 26 aprilie 1984, tradus de Edmund White apud Adriana Babei, Cornel
Ungureanu (coord.), Europa Central, Nevroze, Dileme, Utopii, ed. cit., p. 222.
Bibliografie
Bib, Istvn, Misre des petits tats de l`Europe de l`Est, trad. Gyrgy KASSA et
Albin Michel, Paris, 1992.
Kundera, Milan, Tragedia Europei Centrale, text tradus dup versiunea englez a
articolului francez, Un Occident Kidnapp ou la tragdie de l'Europe Centrale
( Le Dbat , 27 noiembrie, 1983), aprut n The New York Review of
Books, 26 aprilie 1984, tradus de Edmund White n Adriana Babei, Cornel
Ungureanu (coord.), Europa Central, Nevroze, Dileme, Utopii, Editura Polirom,
Iai, 2002.
Le Rider, Jacques, Europa Central sau paradoxul fragilitii, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2001.
Le Rider, Jacques, Mitteleuropa, Editura Polirom, Iai, 1997.
Pomian, Krzysztof, Europe et ses nations, Editions Gallimard, Paris, 1990.
Reszler, Andr, Europa Central: Realitate cultural i iluzie politic- Rjoindre
l'Europe. Destin et avenir de l'Europe Centrale, diteurs Georg, Geneve, 1991,
cap. V n Adriana Babei, Cornel Ungureanu (coord.), Europa Central, Nevroze,
Dileme, Utopii, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2002.
Tismneanu, Vladimir, Mihie, Mircea (coord.), Vecinii lui Franz Kafka. Romanul
unei nevroze, Editura Polirom, Iai, 1998, pp. 17-33.
Culturalit et inter-culturalit littraire dans les

crits du XIXe sicle
Ana-Elena Costandache
Abstract. The present approach proposes a questioning on the concerns of

the translators-interpreters of the XIXth century. Their centre of interest
aimed at the lexicon of the literary language which they used in this time:
words adapted from French to the Romanian, new expressions, locutions,
inversions or forms of words revealed a diligent work and a will to become
known in the public reader the secrets of the western world and the
French civilization. But the imperfect knowledge of the French language, the
way difficult to express himself and, sometimes, the impossibility to transpose
into mother tongue of the foreign sentences, without correspond linguistics
represented obstacles which the writers had to exceed. Consequently, our
approach leans on papers which contain a linguistic mixture of lexical forms
of French adapted to the Romanian and loans.
Keywords: culture, translation (s), lexicon, French language, Romanian
language.
Au dbut du XIXe sicle, la littrature

roumaine sest intresse au monde culturel europen, en aspirant
une synchronisation avec les productions littraires de ce temps-l.
Se situant la confluence du monde occidental, oriental et balkanique,
la culture roumaine a connu des changements au niveau des influences
et des interfrences avec la littrature occidentale. partir de cette
ide et grce aux importations mcaniques [1] les crivains de la
premire moiti du XIXe sicle et surtout ceux de la gnration de
1848 ont russi la rinvention dune littrature vraiment moderne.
Les modles culturels des pays voisins ont t repris et adapts au
contexte socioculturel roumain, tandis que linfluence des langues
parles en Europe a t ressentie au niveau de la langue roumaine, car
on sait que les frontires politiques nont jamais concid avec les
frontires linguistiques. On ne peut pas les dlimiter avec prcision et,
de cette faon, le roumain sest enrichi en se crant un vocabulaire
semi-hybride.
La modification des formes culturelles a favoris lenchevtrement
des cultures, afin que lon puisse identifier certains concepts et
images similaires dans le cadre des cultures apparemment loignes.

[2] Les influences trangres ont port principalement sur la
satisfaction des besoins illusoires des gens . [3] Les intellectuels
roumains duqus ltranger (comme par exemple Ghe. Asachi
Vienne, ou Vasile Alecsandri et Ion Heliade-Rdulescu Paris) ont
adapt leurs crits selon les attentes des lecteurs des provinces
roumaines.
Tout au long de son volution, la littrature roumaine a tabli des
liens avec les littratures trangres par des collaborations et des
acquisitions de modles dcriture, par des traductions et des
acquisitions thmatiques qui ont contribu la formation de la
littrature roumaine moderne.
Pour les crivains roumains de la premire moiti du XIXe sicle et
surtout pour ceux de la gnration de 1848, la modernit a reprsent
un problme des recherches et des dcouvertes identitaires. Les
transformations importantes de lpoque, faites par des groupes de
gens proccups par des idaux rvolutionnaires, ont vis toute la
culture roumaine. Les crivains roumains ont oscill entre lidal de
lcriture romantique selon le modle de lOccident et les ralits
imposes par le pouvoir politique du pays. cet gard, Paul Cornea a
consacr un chapitre entier de son livre Les origines du romantisme
roumain au phnomne dlans et dinerties [4] littraires de
cette poque-l. Paul Cornea remarquait quil tait difficile de prciser
exactement quelles ont t les traductions utilises comme source
dinspiration pour un travail autochtone. De cette perspective,
linfluence pourrait tre considre comme une intention artistique
particulirement visible au niveau du vocabulaire utilis par les
crivains promoteurs des traductions. Toutefois, les problmes de
traduction nont pas t simples, car les traducteurs-crivains de la
gnration de 1848 ont oscill entre deux mondes, deux cultures, plus
ou moins diffrentes. Lide de traduction et dinterprtation tait
certainement connue par ceux qui ont os enrichir la langue roumaine
de formes littraires et lexicales nouvelles.
Les premiers crivains-traducteurs ont lutt contre les imitations et
les traductions mdiocres ; ils ont senti la ncessit de crer une
littrature nationale, en encourageant les crits originaux, inspirs par
lhistoire du pays, de sa beaut, du pittoresque des traditions
populaires, mais tout en gardant lide de loriginalit; en mme
temps, ils ont dfendu, en fait, lide doriginalit dans la littrature.
Le dsir de reprendre ou de transformer certains lments des cultures
trangres sest ralis par lintermdiaire des traductions. Les

aspirations des crivains de lpoque ont t en faveur de la cration
de nouveaux modles littraires, en se confrontant avec les grands
classiques de la littrature mondiale, dont la valeur tait dj
reconnue. Mais les traductions, en tant quinfluences, ont conduit
des changements dans les formes et les sens littraires devenant
presque mconnaissables, et cela dans le cas o les connaissances de
la langue originale est rude ou que la personnalit du traducteur est
trop forte et influence de manire subjective le texte traduit. [5]
Toutefois, la traduction nest pas un avantage pour les travaux de
transposition littraire, ni pour loriginal [6] et les inconvnients en
sont nombreux, afin de parvenir la situation de le traduire (le
langage) dans notre propre langue. (notre trad.) [7]
Les nombreuses traductions faites dans la premire moiti du XIXe
sicle reprsentaient un acte symbolique de la littrature roumaine, qui
marquait le passage de la sphre dinfluence de la littrature orientale
dans la sphre dinfluence de la littrature franaise, donc sous
linfluence de lOccident moderne. Iancu Vcrescu, Vasile Crlova,
Ghe. Asachi, I. Heliade-Rdulescu, C. Bolliac, D. Bolintineanu, Gr.
Alexandrescu, C. A. Rosetti, D. Gusti et G. Sion ont traduit des
pomes de Lamartine, en essayant dadapter la prosodie et toutes les
formes de la versification utilises par le pote romantique franais.
Lun des promoteurs des traductions, Iancu Vcrescu, a
commenc par sept strophes traduites des Harmonies potiques et
religieuses de Lamartine (La retraite), strophes runies sous le titre de
La maison de campagne de La Martin (Casa de ar a lui de La
Martin) :
Je sais sur la colline
Une blanche maison;
Un rocher la domine
Un buisson daubpine
Est tout son horizon. [8]
La traduction de Vcrescu a la forme suivante:
Pe muntior albete
Casa ce preuiesc,
Stnca pe ea domnete,
Juru-i mprejmuiete,
Un crng de lemn cinesc. [9]
Malgr les difficults dordre stylistique, qui supposent des inver-

sions involontaires et des lments vtustes, la traduction est, pourtant,
intressante, compte tenant de lopinion dAl. Piru sur luvre
littraire de Iancu Vcrescu : Sforarea sa de a mldia limba
romn celor mai diverse forme de versificaie merit a fi reinut.
( Il sest donn la peine dadapter le vocabulaire de la langue
roumaine aux diverses formes de versification. ) (notre trad.) [10]
Grigore Alexandrescu propose lui-aussi des traductions
nombreuses. Luvre littraire de Lamartine semble vaste et, alors, les
traductions en sont aussi. Lcrivain roumain propose la traduction
suivante du pome Tristesse:
Ducei-m acolo pe ermuri fericite,

Diceam, unde Neapol p-al mrii sen prea lin
Rsfrnge deluri, stele de nori nenvelite
Si unde cresc oranzii subt ceerul cel senin
Ce-ntrziem ? S mergem; din unda cea albit
S vd eind Vesuvul n flcri care sbor,
S vd eu Aurora pe dealuri strlucit.
S voiu, iind de mn uor p-a mea iubit,
Din aste nlimi vesel visnd s m cobor. [11]
et la version de Lamartine a la forme suivante:
Ramenez-moi, disais-je, au fortun rivage

O Naples rflchit dans une mer dazur
Ses palais, ses coteaux, ses astres sans nuage,
O loranger fleurit sous un ciel toujours pur.
Que tardez-vous ? Partons ! Je veux revoir encore
Le Vsuve enflamm sortant du sein des eaux;
Je veux de ses hauteurs voir se lever laurore;
Je veux, guidant les pas de celle que jadore,
Redescendre en rvant de ces riants coteaux. [12]
Fabuliste convaincu, inspir par les Satires de N. Boileau, Gr.

Alexandrescu propose pour la Satire IX ( mon esprit) sa variante de
la Satire. Mon esprit:
Vino acum de fa i stai la judecat,

Tu care le faci astea, duh, fiin ciudat,
Ce vrei s joci o rol n lumea trectoare:
De ce treab-mi eti bun, putere gnditoare... [13]
tandis que N. Boileau dtient la variante originale :
Cest vous, mon esprit, qui je veux parler.

Vous avez des dfauts que je ne puis celer:
Assez et trop longtemps ma lche complaisance
De vos criminels a nourri linsolence [14]
En fait, Satire. Mon esprit offre aux lecteurs limage fidle des
salons roumains de la premire moiti du XIXe sicle et le raffinement
du monde occidental comprenant les jeux de cartes, le flirt, la danse,
la mode selon le modle parisien. Le pote a une bonne conduite dans
la socit: il joue le whist (ou wist ), il danse et remarque toujours
les situations ridicules partout o il y en a le cas.
La plupart des critures de lpoque portaient le signe des
influences trangres mais, sur cet appui, on contournait aussi des
lments originaux, novateurs:
Abundena romanului n spaiul romnesc al secolului al XIX-lea, fie c

ne raportm la primele romane romneti, cele ale nceputului de drum,
aflate sub semnul cutrii genului, al gsirii formei i a culoarului cu priz
la publicul nou, (cel de dup revoluia de la 1848, obinuit n special cu
ceea ce gsea n josul paginilor de ziare ale vremii), fie c avem n vedere
puzderia de romane populare ctre sfritul secolului i nceputul noului
secol, justific ncercarea de elaborare a unei posibile tipologii a
romanului popular, n formele principale n care a circulat acesta n
parcursul su. (Labondance des romans dans lespace culturel roumain
du XIXe sicle, soit quon garde des rfrences aux premiers romans
roumains, ceux des dbuts littraires, qui cherchaient leur genre ou qui
trouvaient leur forme et le moyen dattirer le public nouveau (celui
daprs la rvolution de 1848, habitu surtout avec ce quil trouvait en bas
des pages des journaux du temps), soit quon garde un grand nombre de
romans populaires jusqu la fin du sicle et au dbut du nouveau sicle,
tout justifie lessai dlaborer une possible typologie du roman populaire,
dans ses formes principales quil a promues tout au long de sa parution.
(notre trad.) [15].
Le pome Le Soir a la traduction (en roumain) qui dvoile des

termes langagiers adapts aux formes lexicales de la langue roumaine
(Le Soir) :
Le soir ramne le silence.

Assis sur ces rochers dserts,
Je suis, dans le vague des airs,

Le char de la nuit qui savance.
Vnus se lve lhorizon;

mes pieds ltoile amoureuse
De sa lueur mystrieuse
Blanchit les tapis de gazon. [16]
Seara:
Seara aduce lina tcere;

Pe pustii stnce eu azat
Iau dup urm al nopii car
Ce-n aburosul senin pete.
Venus se nal pe orizon,

i la picioare-mi steaua-amoroas
Cu-a sa lumin misterioas
Argintuiete verdele s. [17]
Les modles culturels trangers et les traductions ont contribu la

modernisation de la langue littraire roumaine. Les nombreuses
traductions ou acquisitions reprises des littratures du monde
occidental ont conduit lalphabtisation des masses et la formation
dune opinion du public lecteur. Les traductions littraires ont
concern, en fait, les valeurs de lOccident et surtout la perception des
sens thiques et esthtiques, diffrents dun pays lautre, dune
poque lautre, selon les aspirations et les besoins moraux,
artistiques ou idologiques des personnes intresses la culture. La
littrature roumaine a pass et dpass une priode importante de
transformations, la priode de la premire moiti du XIXe sicle, en
contribuant de cette manire lchange dides entre les diffrents
systmes desthtique europenne qui ont domin lpoque entire.
Notes
[1] Teodor Vrgolici, Aspecte ale romanului romnesc din secolul al XIX-lea, Ed.
Eminescu, Bucureti, 1985, p. 25.
[2] Alexandru Duu, Literatura comparat i istoria mentalitilor, Ed. Univers,
Bucureti, 1982, p. 150.
[3] Ioana Drgan, Romanul popular n Romnia. Literar i paraliterar, Ed. Casa Crii de
tiin, Cluj-Napoca, 2001, p. 69.
[4] Paul Cornea, Originile romantismului romnesc, Ed. Cartea Romneasc,
[5] Dan Grigorescu, Introducere n literatura comparat, Ed. Universal Dalsi Semne,
Bucureti, 1997, p. 114.
[6] ibidem, p. 123.
[7] Vatra, 4 aprilie/ 2008, p. 24.
[8] A. de Lamartine, Harmonies Potiques et Religieuses, Editions Charles Gosselin,
Paris, 1838, p. 325.
[9] Poeii Vcreti. Versuri alese. Ediie ngrijit de Elena Piru, prefa de Al. Piru, Ed.
Albatros, Bucureti, 1974, p. 114.
[10] Al. Piru, Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn la 1830, Ed. tiinific i
Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1977, p. 718.
[11] Gr. Alexandrescu, Opere, Ed. de Stat pentru Literatur i Art, Bucureti, 1957,
p. 256.
[12] A. de Lamartine, Mditations potiques, Socit Belge de Librairie, Bruxelles,
1835, p. 172.
[13] Gr. Alexandrescu, Versuri i proz, Ed. Tineretului, Bucureti, 1967, p. 190.
[14] N. Boileau, uvres potiques, Librairie Hachette, Brodard et Taupin, Paris, p. 73.
[15] Ioana Drgan, op. cit., p. 12
[16] A. de Lamartine, Harmonies Potiques et Religieuses, p. 25.
[17] I. Heliade-Rdulescu, Opere, Ed. de Stat pentru Literatur, Bucureti, 1967, p. 19.
Bibliographie
Alexandrescu, Grigore, Opere, Editura de Stat pentru Literatur i Art, Bucureti, 1957.
Alexandrescu, Grigore, Versuri i proz, Editura Tineretului, Bucureti, 1967.
Boileau, N., uvres potiques, Librairie Hachette, Brodard et Taupin, Paris, 1935.
Cornea, Paul, De la Alecsandrescu la Eminescu, Editura pentru Literatur, Bucureti,
1966.
Cornea, Paul, Originile romantismului romnesc, Editura Cartea Romneasc,
Bucureti, 2008.
Drgan, Ioana, Romanul popular n Romnia. Literar i paraliterar, Casa Crii de
tiin, Cluj-Napoca, 2001.
Grigorescu, Dan, Introducere n literatura comparat, Editura Universal Dalsi,
Semne, Bucureti, 1997.
Heliade-Rdulescu, I., Opere, Editura de Stat pentru Literatur, Bucureti, 1967.
Lamartine, A. de, Harmonies Potiques et Religieuses, Editions Charles Gosselin,
Paris, 1838.
Lamartine, A. de, Mditations potiques, Socit Belge de Librairie, Bruxelles, 1835.
Piru, Al., Istoria literaturii romne de la origini pn la 1830, Editura tiinific i
Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1977.
Poeii Vcreti. Versuri alese. Ediie ngrijit de Elena Piru. Prefa de Al. Piru,
Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1974.
Vatra, 4 aprilie 2008.
Vrgolici, Teodor, Aspecte ale romanului romnesc din secolul al XIX-lea, Editura
Eminescu, Bucureti, 1985.
Victor Hugo et lidologie humaniste: le cas de

Notre-Dame de Paris
Mirela Drgoi
Abstract: Victor Hugos Notre-Dame de Paris (1831) lays much emphasis

on the ideological foundations of the French Renaissance. An analysis of
those parts of the novel that allude to religious beliefs, art and literary text
production in the sixteenth century may reveal the connections that the
nineteenth-century French writer establishes between the past the
Renaissance and his own age. Hugos historical novel makes direct
reference to Gothic art, Jean Calvins doctrine of predestination, and traces
even further back in time the theme of immutable fate wonderfully developed
in the medieval legend of Tristan and Isolde. Thus, it may be used to
successfully explore French history and artistic imagination as well as their
evolution about the end of the medieval period and in the early days of the
Renaissance.
Keywords: Victor Hugo, French Renaissance, humanist ideology, Gothic
art, doctrine of predestination
Jai voulu peindre lhumanit successivement et

simultanment sous tous ses aspects, histoire, fable,
philosophie, religion, science .
(Victor Hugo, Le Lgende des sicles)
Au dbut du XIX e
sicle, le roman historique
illustre lintrt de lcole romantique pour lhistoire nationale
franaise, mais aussi son got du pittoresque et de la couleur locale.
Parmi les uvres littraires durablement populaires on peut citer La
Chronique du rgne de Charles IX (1829) de Prosper Mrime, Cinq
Mars (1826) dAlfred de Vigny, Le Capitaine Fracasse (1863) de
Thophile Gautier et Les Trois Mousquetaires (1844) dAlexandre
Dumas. Les thmes dominants du romantisme sy retrouvent
pleinement: linquitude mtaphysique (les destines de lhomme, sa
place dans lunivers, son aspiration vers labsolu); la mort, vue
souvent comme un allgement des souffrances et comme une forme
dvasion; le sentiment religieux (lcrivain entre parfois en conflit
avec le disme) [1].
Le Romantisme porte ses regards la fois sur le monde extrieur

et sur les profondeurs mystrieuses du moi [2], se prsentant comme
un retour aux sources, donc au Moyen ge chrtien. Proclamant la
libert cratrice [3] comme principe esthtique essentiel, ce courant
littraire sactualise comme un rveil spirituel qui conduit le
romancier retrouver lexpression de lme dans ses profondeurs.
La reconstitution romanesque de lhistoire est particulirement
saisissante dans luvre de Victor Hugo, Notre Dame de Paris
(1831). Hugo y fait revivre le Paris du XVe sicle et transforme la
cathdrale dans le personnage principal de son roman.
A une premire lecture, le roman est centr sur une intrigue
sentimentale extrmement tragique et touchante: Esmralda la
Bohmienne est aime la fois par deux hommes (Quasimodo le
bossu et larchidiacre Claude Frollo). Ces derniers sont en proie des
tourments amoureux qui les rendent inhumains. Mais la belle gitane
est follement prise du capitaine Phbus de Chateaupers, qui est dj
promis une autre union. Chaque fois donc, lamour rel n'existe que
dans un seul sens, ce qui donne au texte romanesque hugolien un
charme part. Mais la vritable profondeur du roman est assure par
un portrait minutieux de Paris et par tout un ensemble de rflexions
sur la foi, larchitecture et limprimerie. Le texte devient ainsi un
mystrieux microcosme [4] dans l'histoire des lettres franaises. Par
lintrt accord la pense desthtique et de philosophie de ce
livre, Hugo sadresse aux lecteurs qui se plaisent dmler sous le
roman autre chose que le roman et suivre (...) le systme de
lhistorien et le but de lartiste travers la cration telle quelle du
pote [5].
Lintrigue et les personnages mlodramatiques de Notre-Dame de
Paris illustrent les grands thmes romantiques et les contrastes chers
Hugo. Avant la parution en 1831 de Notre-Dame de Paris, Victor Hugo
stait dj essay au genre du roman noir , avec Han dIslande (1823)
et au roman-plaidoyer avec Le Dernier Jour dun condamn (1829), o il
sengageait vigoureusement contre la peine de mort.
Le style du roman Notre-Dame de Paris est trs suggestif, plein de
relief et de couleur. Lincipit du roman fixe laction le 6 janvier 1482,
jour de la Fte des fous. Il met en uvre la reprsentation dun
mystre du pote Gringoire dans la grande salle du Palais de Justice.
Un bossu hideux, Quasimodo, sonneur de cloches de Notre-Dame,
essaie denlever la bohmienne Esmralda (qui danse sur le parvis) sur
lordre de larchidiacre Claude Frollo. Sa tentative choue, car la
jeune femme est sauve par Phbus de Chateaupers, le beau capitaine

des archers du roi.
Dans le deuxime livre, le narrateur prsente les msaventures du
pote Gringoire gar dans la Cour des Miracles [6]. Le roi des
truands (mendiants du Moyen-Age), Clopin Trouillefou, le met en
jugement pour avoir pntr dans leur cnacle , mais il est sauv
par Esmralda qui sapitoie sur son sort et consent lpouser. Six
sections ( Les bonnes mes , Claude Frollo , Immanis pecoris
custos immanior ipse [Dun monstrueux troupeau, gardien plus
monstrueux encore ], Le chien et son matre , Suite de Claude
Frollo , Impopularit ) retracent le pass de Quasimodo, lhabitant
solitaire des tours de la cathdrale, et la passion dvorante de Frollo
pour la belle gitane Esmralda.
Quasimodo est condamn au pilori pour avoir essay denlever la
gitane et reoit boire des mains de la jeune fille. Mais la belle femme
aime Phbus. Elle accepte un rendez-vous au cabaret, au cours duquel
le jeune capitaine est poignard par Frollo. Celui-ci senfuit et laisse
accuser Esmralda de meurtre. Elle est condamne pour crime et pour
magie, mais Quasimodo lentrane dans lglise, asile inviolable.
Inquiets de ne pas voir Esmralda revenir, les truands attaquent la
cathdrale.
Les archers de Phbus de Chateaupers russissent mettre en droute
les truands, mais linquitant Frollo sempare de la belle Esmralda. Il lui
dclare son amour et, repouss, il dcide de la livrer une vieille
mendiante qui reconnait en elle sa fille autrefois perdue. Il veut la cacher
de cette manire, mais la bohmienne est reprise. Du haut des tours,
Frollo assiste la pendaison de la femme aime. Quasimodo le prcipite
alors dans le vide, rcupre le cadavre de celle quil aimait et, en
ltreignant, il rend son me dans le charnier de Montfaucon.
1. La pense historique: Paris et son

histoire. La fte des fous et le tableau
des murs d'autrefois. La Cour des
Miracles et le passage du rel au
surnaturel
Hugo ressuscite dans cette uvre romanesque le Paris du XVe
sicle tout en insistant sur les traits spcifiques du climat socio-
politique et culturel de la fin du Moyen-Age. Au centre de ses

rflexions se trouve la cathdrale Notre-Dame de Paris, qui domine les
vnements de sa prsence solennelle. Deux chapitres du troisime
livre Notre-Dame et Paris vol doiseau ralisent la
description de la cathdrale (vue comme un chef-duvre gothique
dchu de son ancienne grandeur) et, respectivement, du Paris
dautrefois. Ce texte est le rsultat dune documentation solide.
Lcrivain conoit ds 1828 lide dun roman sur la cathdrale; cest
pourquoi il va plusieurs fois visiter la cathdrale et lit des livres
anciens. Le matre du romantisme franais se conforme donc aux
traditions du roman historique et attire lattention de ses lecteurs l-
dessus quatre annes plus tard, dans une note ajoute ldition
dfinitive de son roman:
A lpoque o Notre-Dame de Paris simprimait pour la premire fois,

le dossier qui contenait ces trois chapitres sgara. () Notre-Dame de
Paris a peut-tre ouvert quelques perspectives vraies sur lart du Moyen-
Age, sur cet art merveilleux, jusqu prsent inconnu des uns, et ce qui est
pis encore, mconnu des autres. Mais lauteur est bien loin de considrer
comme accomplie la tche quil sest volontairement impose. () Il sera
aussi infatigable dfendre nos difices historiques que nos iconoclastes
dcoles et dacadmies sont acharns les attaquer [7].
Dans la squence textuelle qui fait revivre le grouillement des

parias (truands, potes, monstres, bohmiens) runis dans la Cour des
Miracles [8] situe derrire la faade majestueuse de la cathdrale, il y
a toute une srie de termes connots historiquement:
Un soir, au moment o le couvre-feu sonnait tous les beffrois de Paris,

les sergents du guet, sil leur eut t donn dentrer dans la redoutable
Cour des Miracles, auraient pu remarquer quil se faisait dans la taverne
des truands plus de tumulte encore qu lordinaire, quon y buvait plus et
quon y jurait mieux. (...) Seulement ils avaient lair plus gai que de
coutume, et on leur voyait tous reluire quelque arme entre les jambes,
une serpe, une cogne, un gros estramaon, ou le croc dune vieille
hacquebute. (...) Clopin Trouillefou, dun air trs srieux et voix basse,
rglait le pillage dune norme futaille pleine darmes, largement
dfonce devant lui, do se dgorgeaient en foule haches, pes,
bassinets, cottes de mailles, platers, fers de lance et darchegayes, sagettes
et viretons, comme pommes et raisins dune corne dabondance [9].
La description du vaillant roi de Thunes, arm jusquaux dents

ne diffre point du portrait dun individu quelconque, ralis quelques
lignes plus bas: Il s'tait viss une panoplie sur le corps et sa voix
schappait de dessous une pesante armure complte du casque aux
perons. (...) Il avait la ceinture pleine de dagues et de poignards, une
grande pe au flanc, une arbalte rouille sa gauche (...) [10].
Tous ces termes renvoient au lexique militaire tellement cher aux
romanciers de la Table Ronde et au monde des chevaliers du XIIe
sicle, mais leur actualisation se ralise dans le texte hugolien dune
manire burlesque et grotesque la fois. Les armes sont associes
des personnes appartenant au XIXe sicle des couches sociales
basses, qui nont jamais eu droit de cit dans la vie parisienne. Cest
ainsi que Victor Hugo ralise le mlange des genres, tout en imaginant
le sublime (reprsent par des renvois directs laristocratie
mdivale) ct du trivial (reprsent son tour par ceux qui
utilisent les armes dans la Cour des Miracles). Les truands et les gitans
appartiennent lautre-culture, la contre-culture, un monde dont
les traits essentiels sont le bas, le difforme, lhorrible, le bouffon, mais
aussi ltrange et le merveilleux. Dailleurs, dans la conception de
Victor Hugo, tous les humains vivent cette dualit, ce mlange de
sublime et de grotesque. Le sublime de la cathdrale Notre-Dame de
Paris abrite le grotesque des personnages Quasimodo cette pauvre
crature incomplte et peine bauche (V. Hugo, Romans, p. 291)
et Claude Frollo. Cette association inattendue est le propre de ce que
Victor Hugo appelle lge dramatique de lhumanit, cr par le
christianisme [11], qui rvle la dualit de lhomme divis entre la
chair et lesprit, la mort et la vie ternelle, la terre et le ciel.
2. La pense esthtique et artistique. La

dcouverte de limprimerie /vs/ la
dcadence de larchitecture
Les chapitres intituls Abbas Beati Martini [ Labb Saint
Martin ] et Ceci tuera cela du sixime livre mettent en opposition
ceci le livre imprim et cela ldifice, car il est venu le
temps o les petites choses viennent au bout des grandes . [Hugo,
1963, p. 300] Selon Victor Hugo, la pense humaine se perptue au
Moyen-Age par les monuments architecturaux. La pierre contient les
traces laisses par les humains de gnration en gnration. Construite

dans le style gothique (le successeur de lart roman), la cathdrale
slance vers le ciel et prsente des chapiteaux pleins de dcors
floraux simples, inspirs de lOrient, de lAntiquit grco-latine et de
la Bible [12].
Au XVe sicle, linvention de limprimerie vue par Hugo comme
le plus grand vnement de lhistoire , comparable un dluge ,
un cataclysme , donc un changement complet et dfinitif du
monde transforme la parole construite en une parole crite , plus
durable et plus rsistante :
Au quinzime sicle tout change.

La pense humaine dcouvre un moyen de se perptuer non seulement
plus durable et plus rsistant que larchitecture, mais encore plus simple
et plus facile. Larchitecture est dtrne. Aux lettres de pierre dOrphe
vont succder les lettres de plomb de Gutenberg.
Le livre va tuer ldifice.
Linvention de limprimerie est le plus grand vnement de lhistoire.
Cest la rvolution mre. Cest le mode d'expression de l'humanit qui se
renouvelle totalement, c'est la pense humaine qui dpouille une forme et
en revt une autre, cest le complet et dfinitif changement de peau de ce
serpent symbolique qui, depuis Adam, reprsente lintelligence [13].
Ce nouveau mode dexpression de lintelligence humaine remplace

le lourd attirail de larchitecture, car les lettres de plomb de
Gutenberg reprsentent un moyen plus simple, plus commode et
plus praticable tous [14] de laisser des traces aux gnrations
suivantes et de transcrire ainsi lhistoire de lhumanit.
3. La pense religieuse et philosophique.

Le thme de lamour fatal, inaccompli,
malheureux et tumultueux de Notre-
Dame de Paris une rcriture de Tristan
et Yseult et de lidologie calviniste
Le texte romanesque de Victor Hugo est compos dans une tonalite
pessimiste, qui lui confre une authentique grandeur. Un fatum
analogue la fatalit antique conduit les personnages la souffrance
ternelle et mme au meurtre et la mort. Leur destine est dcide
par une instance suprieure, dont les enjeux chappent aux humains.
Ils ne peuvent pas changer le cours de leur condition, car le sens de
leur existence est fix davance.
La fin du texte renvoie directement la lgende mdivale de
Tristan et Yseult par limage des corps enlacs jamais, sous la terre
et par le thme de lamour inaccompli, malheureux et tumultueux.
Cest dailleurs cette ide de lamour eternel, dfinitif, qui clt le
magnifique spectacle musical de Notre-Dame de Paris, ralis en
1998: Quand les annes auront pass / On trouvera sous terre/nos
deux squelettes enlacs / Pour dire lUnivers / comment Quasimodo
aimait Esmralda / Esmralda la zingara / Lui que Dieu a fait si laid /
pour laider porter sa croix [15]. Le sonneur de cloches de la
cathdrale veut mourir ct de sa bien-aime, tout comme Tristan et
Yseult: Que la mort au-del du temps / Unisse nos deux curs /
Laissez mon me senvoler / Loin des misres de la terre / Laissez
mon amour se mler / A la lumire de lUnivers.
Ces mots nous font remonter aux XIIe-XIIIe sicles, par un court
rappel de la courtoisie, ce phnomne densemble de la civilisation,
la fois social, psychologique, spirituel et littraire [16]. Ce type de
relation sentimentale supposait alors des qualits spirituelles et
physiques qui caractrisaient les gens de cour (llgance, la politesse,
la gnrosit, lart de parler) et exprimait un art de vivre conforme
lidal social et thique de la chevalerie, mais aussi un art daimer, une
sorte de religion de lamour. La thmatique amoureuse spanouit
ensuite dans la littrature de la Renaissance grce aux reprsentants de
lcole lyonnaise (Maurice Scve, Pernette du Guillet, Louise Lab
etc.). Dans les vers de Maurice Scve par exemple, lamour apparat
de faon invitable comme inaccompli, platonique et toujours
insatisfait. Au centre de sa parole potique se trouve la femme vue
comme invitation la vertu, dans un cadre raliste suggr avec une
fermet prcise et claire. Lamour est ds le dbut plac sous le signe
du coup de foudre et dune rduction un asservissement dfinitif la
femme aime.
Le texte de Victor Hugo se prsente de ce point de vue comme une
somme de ce qui lui a prcd, comme une synthse des traditions
littraires franaises.
Une autre source dinspiration du roman hugolien est la doctrine de
la prdestination labore par Jean Calvin en pleine poque
humaniste. Dans la conception de ce grand rformateur de lglise
franaise, la foi seule ne suffit pas faire le salut du pcheur; il lui
faut la grce divine, que Dieu rserve certains lus pour des raisons
qui nous chappent. Calvin place au centre de la vie chrtienne
lEcriture, que chaque croyant doit connatre fidlement. Il reprend de
Thomas Luther (un moine augustinien, professeur de thologie
lUniversit de Wittenberg) toutes les pratiques qui matria-
lisent la religion par un mlange du spirituel et du corporel, grce
auquel on peut ramener Dieu lhomme. Calvin remonte Saint Paul
et Saint Augustin pour tablir que lhomme, de lui-mme, ne peut
pas chapper par ses actes ou par des uvres conformes la loi la
condition dgrade laquelle il est soumis depuis le pch originel.
Au contraire, il obtient son salut uniquement par la grce divine, au
moyen de la foi seule, car il avait bien reu en sa cration grande
vertu de franc-arbitre, mais quil la perdu par le pch [17].
Le fidle est donc prdestin : il se trouve sous le conseil ternel
de Dieu, par lequel il a dtermin ce quil voulait faire dun chacun
homme , car la justice divine le sauve en vertu dune misricorde
absolument gratuite: Dieu sait bien ce quil a dlibr de faire une
fois de nous. Sil a dtermin de nous sauver, il nous conduira salut
en son temps; sil a dtermin de nous damner, nous nous
tourmenterions en vain pour nous sauver [18].
Limage de lhomme rabaiss, qui na plus de moyens dagir en ce
monde, est parfaitement illustre dans Notre-Dame de Paris dans la
substance de Quasimodo et de larchidiacre Claude Frollo. Ils ne
peuvent pas changer de destin, car leurs aspirations ne correspondent
ni laspect physique, ni au statut social et leur existence est un
tourment continuel.
Conclusions
La rflexion de Victor Hugo sur lhistoire de la nation franaise, sur
le pouvoir politique et religieux tabli la charnire de deux poques
le Moyen-Age et la Renaissance et sur la cration et lvolution des
arts dans cette priode effervescente donne lieu de brusques
interventions lyriques. Le pittoresque et la coloration mdivale des
descriptions se ralisent dans Notre-Dame de Paris par lemploi dun
vocabulaire choisi en fonction de ses connotations historiques ou
techniques. Loin de tenir seulement des habitudes de penser et de
sentir, ce texte romanesque illustre, dune part, les bouleversements de
la socit franaise des XIIe-XVIe sicles et reprsente, de lautre, un
instrument privilgi par lequel son auteur exprime sa personnalit. En

outre, le style emphatique, la nettet des images contrastes (le jeu
antithtique sublime trivial), la parfaite fluidit, la musicalit des
phrases et la prcision des figures stylistiques donnent cette uvre
narrative un pouvoir miraculeux de matriser le temps et lespace:
dot dubiquit, vainqueur de lphmre, compagnon de foules, le livre
peut permettre son auteur de dire quil atteint par l une postrit
analogue celle des hros, et en quelque sorte daccder lternit [19].
Notes
[1] Dans le recueil Voyage en Orient, Lamartine fait lloge dune autre religion, vue
comme un catholicisme purifi et retrouve la forme religieuse de linvocation (
Dieu, la vie, la mort, lme, au temps, la nuit).
[2] Philippe van Tieghem, Les grandes doctrines littraires en France, P.U.F, Paris,
1993, p. 160.
[3] La conclusion du critique littraire en question est trs intressante: il affirme que
le Romantisme est la continuation et llargissement du classicisme. (Philippe
van Tieghem, op. cit., p. 158).
[4] Victor Hugo, Romans, prsentation dHenri Guillemin, tome premier, Ed. du
Seuil, Paris, 1963, Note ajoute ldition de 1832, p. 242.
[5] Ibidem.
[6] La Cour des Miracles, le repaire des mendiants et des truands, a t dtruite en
1656. Elle se trouvait au Moyen-Age sur le territoire de lactuel 2e arrondissement
et tait dlimite par les rues Saint Sauveur, des petits-Carreaux, du Caire et
Saint-Denis. (cf. Henri Mitterand, Littrature - textes et documents. Le XIXe
sicle, Ed. Nathan, Paris, 1986, p. 162.)
[7] Victor Hugo, op. cit., p. 243.
[8] Dans le deuxime livre du roman, les msaventures de Gringoire se droulent dans
la Cour des Miracles.
[9] Victor Hugo cit par Henri Mitterand, op. cit., pp. 162-163.
[10] Ibidem.
[11] Dans sa prface de Cromwell (1827), Hugo distingue trois ges de lhumanit:
lge lyrique (o les hommes composaient des odes et des hymnes la gloire de
leur Crateur), lge pique correspondant lAntiquit et lge dramatique cr
par le christianisme.
[12]Les personnages pittoresques sont propres lart roman. En outre, dans les flancs
des glises appartenant lart gothique souvrent des rosaces et de hautes fentres
ornes de vitraux.
[13] Victor Hugo, op. cit., p. 303.
[14] Les fragments cits sont extraits de V. Hugo, op. cit., p. 303.
[15] Le spectacle Notre-Dame de Paris, lanc Cannes en 1998, retrace lhistoire
imagine par Victor Hugo en 1831. Les chansons sont produites par le musicien
franco-italien Richard Cocciante en collaboration avec le parolier qubcois Luc
Plamondon.
[16] Pierre Bec, Nouvelle Anthologie de la lyrique occitane du Moyen ge, cit par
Angela Ion, Histoire de la littrature franaise, Bucuresti, 1981, p. 25.
[17] Jean Calvin, LInstitution de la religion chrtienne, cit par Henri Mitterand, op.
cit., p. 239.
[18] Ibidem, p. 237.
[19] Claude-Gilbert Dubois, Limaginaire de la Renaissance, cit par Henri
Mitterand, Le Moyen-Age Le XVIe sicle, Ed. Nathan, Paris, 1988, p. 240.
Bibliographie
Hugo, Victor, Romans, prsentation d'Henri Guillemin, tome premier, Ed. du Seuil,
Paris, 1963.
Ion, Angela, Histoire de la littrature franaise, Editura Universitii din Bucureti,
1981.
Mitterand, Henri, Littrature - textes et documents. Le XIXe sicle, Ed. Nathan, Paris,
1986.
Mitterand, Henri, Le Moyen-Age Le XVIe sicle, Ed. Nathan, Paris, 1988.
Raimond, Michel, Le Roman depuis la rvolution, Ed. A. Colin, Paris, 1967.
Van Tieghem, Philippe, Les grandes doctrines littraires en France, P.U.F, Paris,
1993.
Rsfrngeri ale personalismului n Paracliserul,

de Marin Sorescu
Luminia Crihan
Abstract: An analytical theatre towered drama in which the fall into self
corresponds to the apotheosis as insight, the Sexton play, by Marin Sorescu
belongs to the trilogy of the lyric ego the trilogy of queries, in which
the absolute is being searched by oneself by lonely characters, on a triple
paradigm that reveals the Man in his fundamental dimensions homo
cogitans, homo religiosus and homo aestheticus, in search of the solution of
coming out from the absurd and the soteriological way. The idea of saving
the soul by deification of the human spirit and by creation supposes know-
ledge, faith, creation, sacrifice-major thematic coordinates in a neo-
modernist dramatic structure in which three different ways conciliate:
philosophy, religion and art. In its deep structure, the play combines
gnosticism, Hegelian philosophy, Platon`s philosophy and personalism.
Protesting against church demolitions and against cultural and ideological
activity, bringing again Platon and Aristotles models in the artistic world,
the author of this play proves himself to be a sensitive artist when it comes to
separate literature from mythology, religion, and philosophy. The Sexton is
the state of creator taking upon himself the falling of the entire humanity and
carrying upon his shoulders the burden of its salvation through his own
creation. Meeting God is not only a limit-mystical experience in which the
opposition immanent-transcendent is suspended, when the terrestrial
becomes celestial but also the moment of revealing the absolute freedom,
as a vitruvian man.
Keywords: the Sexton, Analytical Sorescu theatre, energetic personalism,
spiritual evolution, towered drama, gnosticism, ontophany, eleutherologie,
absolute freedom
Motto:
Cerul e un cerc cu centrul pretutindeni i circumfe-
rina nicieri.
(Nicolaus Cusanus)
Vai, fericitule meter,

Dac nu ine pmntul, tu te ancorezi n slav, cu
simbolul
Aripilor tale.
(Marin Sorescu, Bocet crpat [1])
Personalismul, fenomen eclectic

Personalismul este un concept politic, filosofic, metafizic, teolo-
gic, psihologic i sociologic, fundamentat pe ideea c persoana
omeneasc este forma final, elevat de actualizare a energiei divine
n actul su desvrit, contiina uman percepnd identitatea
structural a personalitii, n centrul creia se afl eul, cu multiplele
sale ipostaze, cu universul din care deriv. Construit pe ideea filo-
sofic (metafizic) neoplatonician de persona, revendicndu-se din
idealismul kantian i hegelian, dar i din existenialism [2], el s-a
dezvoltat n spaiul modernitii ca filosofie a subiectivitii [3] i a
contiinei de sine angajate n cunoatere i creaie, n opoziie cu
individualismul i n complementaritate cu energetismul i cu
filosofia omului, cum se numea, n anii 30, antropologia. nc din
primele decenii ale secolului XX, personalismul se manifest ca un
fenomen eclectic, nsumnd contribuii teoretice [4] n plan filosofic,
teologic, antropologic, estetic, economic Emannuel Mounier [5],
Jacques Maritain, Denis de Rougemont [6], Alexandre Marc, Nikolai
Berdiaev [7], Romano Guardini, Max Scheler, Luigi Sturza,
Constantin Rdulescu-Motru [8], Luigi Pareyson [9] etc. Ali perso-
naliti englezi i americani [10], fcnd apologia demnitii i
creativitii persoanei, autodeterminrii, vocaiei i subiectivitii, au
contribuit, de asemenea, la nflorirea a ceea ce s-a considerat a fi
primul sistem filosofic complet i comprehensiv al secolului XX [11].
Din multitudinea surselor teoretice, vom evoca, n analiza pe care-o
ntreprindem, cteva idei din dou lucrri de referin care apreau n
acelai an, n 1927, una la noi, alta la Tbingen, fr ca autorii s se fi
cunoscut: Personalismul energetic (1927), de Constantin Rdulescu-
Motru i Sensul creaiei. ncercare de ndreptire la omului, al crei
autor este scriitorul rus renumit n mediul cultural francez, Nikolai
Berdiaev. Aceste lucrri au inspirat concepii filosofice n spaiul
romnesc i european. n timp ce Motru a fost puin cunoscut i stu-
diat ideile lui Berdiaev au cunoscut rapid o larg rspndire n Europa.
Idei personaliste, incipiente la sfritul secolului XIX, dezvoltate de
Constantin Rdulescu-Motru (1868-1957) n Elemente de metafizic i
n Personalismul energetic, apar n paradigma romneasc interbelic,
n metafizica naeionescian, n sistemul filosofic blagian i apoi la Petre
uea, citai frecvent n articole soresciene. Este ns posibil ca ideile
personaliste s-i fi devenit cunoscute lui Marin Sorescu prin contactul
cu mediile culturale europene, n frecventele deplasri n Frana,
Germania Federal, Italia i prin experiena scriitoriceasc de la Iowa,

din anii 1971-1972.
n studiile dedicate personalismului energetic, fie c abordrile
sunt psihologice, sociologice, filosofice, estetice, accepiunile concep-
tului vizeaz fie un model de reconstrucie a umanului, funcional pe o
scar universal, fie o ipotez de cercetare a identitii realitii
energetice (orma superioar personalitatea uman), fie o teorie cu
finalitate educaional despre potenialul uman, dar mai ales concepia
filosofic original a Constantin Rdulescu-Motru.
Personalismul energetic teorie

autohton
Nu putem afirma cu certitudine c Marin Sorescu a fost influenat
direct de filosoful romn, c a transpus idei ale acestuia n drama-
turgia sa n urma unei lecturi sistematice aa cum putem constata
privitor la asimilarea tezelor hegeliene, din care conspecta srguincios
dei este totui posibil s-l fi studiat n perioada studiilor universitare,
cu att mai mult cu ct Motru condamna bolevismul (mentalitate
proprie popoarelor asiatice [12]), nu i marxismul, ca filosofie [13]. O
oarecare legtur cu acesta se poate stabili, de vreme ce, ntr-un inter-
viu luat lui Alice Magheru [14] despre soul su, poetul i dramaturgul
George Magheru [15], despre care Marin Sorescu scria un articol
documentat, este amintit numele gnditorului interbelic. Magheru frec-
ventase cursurile lui Maiorescu i ale lui Constantin Rdulescu-Motru,
un maiorescian de dreapta, pstrnd cu echilibru distana fa de
occidentalizare, contient de influenele apusene asupra societii rom-
neti [16]. La ale celui din urm participa i Nae Ionescu, al crui Curs
de metafizic a influenat gndirea generaiei criterioniste. Aceste perso-
naliti au nrurit suflul cultural aizecist. ntr-un articol despre Cioran,
Sorescu elogia virtuile eseului total, hrnit din influene diferite
gnditori romni ai perioadei interbelice: C. Rdulescu-Motru, P.P.
Negulescu, D.D. Roca, Petre Pandrea, Petre uea [17], personaliti
nrudite spiritual, care afirmau importana dezvoltrii personalitii i a
canalizrii energiei creatoare spre mplinirea idealului artistic.
Dac pentru G. Clinescu, Blaga este autorul primului sistem filo-
sofic integral romnesc, Mihail Ralea, Tudor Vianu [18], V. Bncil i
recunoteau acest merit lui Constantin Rdulescu-Motru. Ca filozof,
sociolog i psiholog, Rdulescu-Motru a considerat persoana ome-

neasc drept forma superioar de manifestare a energiei: persoana
omeneasc indic nsi direcia evoluiei nspre care merg diferitele
energii ale universului [19]. El si-a delimitat teoria de aceste tiine,
inclusiv de antropologie i a realizat o sintez a tradiiei tiinifice i
culturale romnesi i europene [20], o tiin obiectiv a persoanei
omeneti [21], mbinnd personalismul vzut din perspectiv pozi-
tivist cu energetismul lui W. Ostwald, mutnd personalismul tradi-
ional metafizic i religios pe temeiurile tiinelor naturale i ale
psihologiei de la nceputul secolului, lucru care implic folosirea
metodelor obiective de observaie i de experien, ntre care intuiia
i introspecia [22].
Este o speculaie afirmaia c varianta american a personalismului
(care l-a precedat) sau cele franceze varianta teist, cretin a lui
Charles Renouvier (1815-1903) [23] sau cea sociologic a lui
Emmanuel Mounier (1905-1950) [24], micarea iniiat n jurul
revistelor Ordre Nouveau i Esprit s-i fi fost cunoscute; analitii
Personalismului energetic exclud ideea, susinnd originalitatea i fora
sintetizatoare a gndirii lui Constantin Rdulescu-Motru [25]. n spiritul
epocii, el a separat metafizica de tiin, construindu-i sistemul cu
material filosofic, psihologic, estetic, sociologic Immanuel Kant,
Friedrich Nietzsche, Wilhelm Wundt, Wilhelm Ostwald, Titu
Maiorescu. Idei comune acestor personaliti se regsesc n opera lui
Rdulescu-Motru: omul este scopul final al Fiinei, al Creaiei,
realitatea energie n permanent dinamic, evoluia culturii se produce
n acord cu energiile pmntului, valoarea contiinei creatoare de
realitate intern, subiectiv i extern, obiectiv, n planul tiinelor,
filosofiei, artei i rostul cultural al vocaiei fiind eseniale.
Afirmnd superioritatea valorilor morale fa de cele artistice,
Rdulescu-Motru critica filosofia nietzschean (catalogat atee i
amoral), aducnd ca argument superioritatea culturii cretine medie-
vale fa de cea elin, urmrind, spre deosebire de filosoful declinului
culturii moderne de tip socratic, un progres istoric n totalitatea sa,
epoca fiind superioar prin superioritatea tipului de valori cele
morale. Fr a exclude componenta religioas a personalitii, concept
pe care l definete mai curnd printr-un monism naturalist [26],
Constantin Rdulescu-Motru respinge orice subordonare teist, spiri-
tualist i consider c personalitatea uman se ntinde n marginile
ntregului univers, dar supus unui determinism prin finalitate, cci
personalitatea aparine unui univers cosmic (energia-natur) i social
(al scopurilor) Ordinea lumii este deci una personalist [27]. n

personalism, omul gliseaz pe axa Condiionat (lume) Necondiionat
(Absolutul) [28]. Concepia lui Rdulescu-Motru despre Persoana
divin, numit metaforic Corpul Alfa, difer de concepia biblic,
este o subiectivitate nedefinit: Cci dup corpul Alfa, tot un ochi
omenesc privete spre universul cunoscut, precum i n puterea lui
Dumnezeu tot logica omeneasc se recunoate [29]. Conciliind
tiina i religia, Rdulescu-Motru admite, paradoxal, c existena lui
Dumnezeu, binevoitorul i n veci prevztorul nu mpiedic ntru
nimic materia s-i urmeze legile sale. Dimpotriv, cu ct mai
neschimbate sunt aceste legi, cu att ele dovedesc puterea divin [30]
ntr-o epoc a degenerescenei, filonul religios cretin este funda-
mental n cultur, exprim un mod etern de afirmare a personalitii
credina religioas.
Supraomul lui Nietzsche, expresie a fondului vitalist dionisiac,
este, dup Rdulescu-Motru, o imagine poetic, exprimnd gestul de
ironie al unui temperament de artist, titan i geniu, expresia voinei de
putere i a superioritii rasei, or omul de vocaie, afirm filosoful
romn n acord cu Kant i Bergson, are, pe lng fora intelectului i a
intuiiei, elanul vital i capacitatea de a munci, de a crea organizat.
Timpul este interpretat bergsonian, durata fiind procesul de organizare
sau de ntreptrundere reciproc a faptelor de contiin. Timpul real,
trit, este destinul, adic desfurarea cu care se nate insul sau poporul.
n intuiia timpului se dezvluie, pentru aceti cugettori, sinteza dintre
lumea subiectiv i lumea obiectiv; cu deosebire numai c pentru Kant
lumea obiectiv consist n formele a priori ale intelectului, pentru
Schopenhauer, n voin, iar pentru Bergson, n elanul vital. Cteitrei
sunt nvoii ns n aceea ce privete prerea c lumea subiectiv (...)
este o lume de aparene, care trebuie s stea pe un suport obiectiv (uni-
tatea apercepiei, voina, viaa) pentru a putea ajunge s se organizeze n
adevruri universale i necesare [31].
Dei att de diferii, Nietzsche i Rdulescu-Motru se ntlnesc n
ideea personalitii care se dezvolt n mediul culturii create de oameni
de vocaie. Vocaia consist n tendina de identificare a omului cu
opera sa, cu profesiunea sa [32]. Omul de vocaie este activ, energic,
este subiectul istoriei, purttorul posibilitilor ce devin realitate-a-
vremii, el determin cursul istoriei, progresul [33]. Eul, contiina i
personalitatea evolueaz prin spiritualitate i prin munc. Pe de o parte,
orice individ reface, prin munc i creaie, istoria evoluiei umane. In alt
sens, adernd la ideea creativitii ca esen a personalitii umane i a
efervescenei spirituale generatoare de progres (...), Rdulescu-Motru o

pune n legtur cu cultura viitorului(...). Creaia de cultur va fi i va
rmne (...) singurul indiciu al nobleei originare a omului, produsul
dispoziiilor native, dar mai ales al efortului creator. Creaia vocaio-
nal apare ntr-un moment istoric determinat, cerut de nevoia de a lega
trecutul cultural de un viitor anume. Vocaia creatoare de cultur este,
n opinia Corinei Hric, cercettor al operei lui Motru, similar
elanului Supraomului, dar concretizat nu n cntarul exact al tiinei,
ci n descoperirea i cultivarea prin munc i educaie a dispoziiilor
vocaionale [34]. Cultura este expresia personalitii energetice a
poporului.
Spre deosebire de angoasa existenialitilor, mplinirea vocaiei
este ceea ce d scop i sens existenei umane. Oamenii de vocaie,
de cultur, consider Motru, sunt cei capabili s genereze modele
comportamentale. Motru vorbete de cultur adevrat, condamn
fenomenele de pseudocultur i semicultur. Adept al ideii de cultur
unic, nchis, animat de un misterios spirit al culturii, acceptnd
condiionarea reciproc dintre cultur i civilizaie, spre deosebire de
Spengler i Berdiaev, care le aaz n raport de invers proporio-
nalitaste i de excludere, Rdulescu-Motru consider c o cultur
ncepe odat cu asigurarea originalitii n manifestrile sufleteti ale
unui popor; ea sfrete n momentul cnd acest originalitate este
istovit [35].
Filosoful remarca, precum Marcuse n Omul unidimensional,
disproporia dintre funcia civilizatoare i funcia umanist a culturii:
n manifestrile externe ale culturii, personalitatea este n cretere; n
manifestrile interne, n cel mai bun caz, staionar. Puterea omului
este istovit de produsele exteriorizate ale culturii, dar nu i simit
sufletete n om. Gigantul din lumea dinafar este piticul din lumea
dinuntru [36]. Pentru Rdulescu-Motru, dup un secol al electri-
citii (secolul al XIX-lea), ar trebui s urmeze un secol al cuceririi i
stpnirii energiei sufleteti.
Personalismul religios
n timp ce Rdulescu-Motru consider c personalismul anarhic,
de tipul misticului i al romanticului, este inferior prin faptul c eul
deine ntietatea n raport cu personalitatea, Nikolai Berdiaev (1874-
1948), filosoful de origine rus exilat n Germania i n Frana, a
dezvoltat o variant metafizic, mistic a personalismului, n care insist

pe locul omului religios n cosmos, pe relaia sa personal cu persoanele
treimice. n viziunea sa, cultura este un comandament social, dar un
eec al creaiei, ea este imposibiltatea de a realiza transfigurarea crea-
toare a existenei., pentru c nu a armonizat revelaia Legii (Tatlui),
revelaia ispirii (Fiului) cu Revelaia Creaiei (Duhului), cele trei
principii definind epocile consecutive ale culturii, ultima fiind una
eschatologic [37]. Pentru Berdiaev, criza culturii de azi este un ru
necesar pentru depirea antagonismelor i pentru desvrirea omului,
care trebuie s se transpun n actul creator [38], ntr-o nou epoc,
inspirat de Duh, ca om-divin.
In personalismul religios dezvoltat de Berdiaev sunt importante
conceptele de libertate absolut i creaie. Omul trebuie s urmeze
calea liberrii spiritului uman de constrnderile necesitii lumii
(stare necosmic de dezbinare i adversitate, atomizarea i dezagre-
garea monadelor vii ale ierarhiei cosmice [39]), s se ofere creaiei
sacrificiale, dup modelul hristologic, pentru a se mntui. Creaia nu
este doar lupt cu rul i pcatul, ea cldete o alt lume, ea continu
opera creaiunii, iar creaia autentic, spune Berdiaev, nu e posibil
dect prin ispire, care face posibil hristificarea naturii umane [40].
Prin creaie, deci prin voin proprie, dar i prin voin divin, omul
este chemat la o excepional activitate, la edificarea acelei supraabun-
dene ntru mpria Domnului, al crei nume este teantropia [41].
Omul va depi tragismul culturii umane maladive prin teurgie. n
creaie va fi restaurat identitatea dintre subiect i obiect i se va atinge
libertatea originar, de dincolo de Dumnezeu. Numai o nvtur
personalist despre lume, pentru care orice existen este personali
original-substanial, este capabil s dea neles creaiei [42]. Liber-
tatea este energia capabil de amplificare, de a crea din sine, din nimic,
am spune. n personalism, libertatea adevrat este expresia unei stri
cosmice, a coeziunii interne a prilor universului resimite de eul
creator, libertatea maturitii religioase, total diferit de libertatea
czut, caracteristic majoritii, supus individualismului. n teurgie,
arta devine o nou natur transfigurat i frumuseea ei este creaie [43].
Nuannd diferenele dintre mistica ortodox i cea catolic,
Berdiaev afirm c sufletul catolic este gotic, avntare a omului n
sus, misticismul catolic este pasional, senzorial, se canalizeaz ntr-o
cultur istoric, n timp ce mistica ortodox, omul se aterne n faa
divinitii, nu se avnt spre ea, iar experiena religioas este inte-
rioar, nu se revars ctre istorie si cultur [44].
n setea sa de ntoarcere la puritatea originar, omul contemporan

nu-i poate purifica a sa contiin dect prin nebunie sacrificial [45].
Libertatea i personalismul
Natura libertii e abisal i ambigu i a o pune n centrul fiinei
nseamn a duce n realitate duplicitatea i contrastul i deci a recu-
noate tragismul insondabil al ntregului univers, care privete pn i
viaa divin. Libertatea uman, afirm G. Vattimo, parafrazndu-l pe
Schelling, nu poate fi gndit dect n orizontul libertii divine: a-l
afirma pe Dumnezeu ca libertate originar [46].
Luigi Pareyson, un personalist al anilor60, consider c omul este
fa de Fiin raportul ontologic nsui, contiin real, originar, iar
situarea sa nu indic numai existena istoric, ci mai ales locul su
n cosmos. Libertatea omului nseamn iniiativ, aciune, activitate
[47], se traduce n termenii unei dialectici a darului i a consim-
mntului, este donare de libertate i chemare la libertate, ca o limit
care n latura ei superioar e actul de libertate ca donare, i care n
latura ei inferioar e o chemare la libertatea donat i o invitaie la
exercitarea ei [48]. Libertatea este abisal, nelimitat, indivizibil,
nucleu al realitii, manifestare a fiinei, sinteza dintre receptivitate i
activitate.
Libertatea omului se manifest att pozitiv, ct i negativ, prin
puterea iniial de alegere devine alternativ, fie aciune pozitiv, fie
ca omul s fie i el Dumnezeu, ori prin dezvoltarea imaginii divine n
sine, ori rzvrtindu-se pentru a-l nlocui pe Dumnezeu cu propria
libertate, aspecte regsite i la Nietzsche ori Dostoievski, pcat nu de
necredin, ci de lezmajestate [49]. Libertatea negativ e distructiv,
omul i distruge fiina, nu libertatea, nici pozitivitatea, adic pe
Dumnezeu [50]. Pareyson subliniaz ambiguitatea i duplicitatea
liibertii, convins c viaa nu este totui prada negativitii, resimind
tragismul i angoasa c omul nu poate s fac binele dect prin nsui
actul cu care poate s fac rul, c nu poate ajunge la bucurie dect
prin durere, la virtute prin viciu [51]. Omul este cel care
redeateapt rul pri n cderea sa [52].
Dumnezeu este libertatea care alege libertatea; e fiina, binele,
adevrul, dar nu ele ca atare, ci actul permanent al libertii pozi-
tive ce respinge rul, ab aeterno, n timp ce binele nvinge. Libertatea
e autooriginare i alegere originar [53].
nruriri personaliste n viziunea

artistic sorescian
Articolele soresciene sunt ntreesute cu astfel de idei. ntr-un
interviu mrturisea: Am scris cu sentimentul c am o extraordinar
libertate, c sunt Dumnezeu pentru vorbele mele pe care pot s le
creez din haosul care este omul[54] Pentru Sorescu, scriitorii sunt
fora i sensibilitatea unei naiuni, parte integrant din istoria n
micare a poporului. La poporul de care aparinem trebuie s ne
ntoarcem i pentru el trebuie s scriem. Deci libertatea de creaie
nseamn i libertatea n funcie de interesele unui popor [55], dar i
cutarea, de unul singur, a Absolutului.
Scriitorul va rmne viu, viu pn la capt i att dac i asum
datoria i vocaia scrisului: a scrie adevrat, att de adevrat nct s
te ngrozeti i chiar s vrei s ajustezi anumite gnduri i s nu poi [56].
Teza de doctorat Insolitul ca energie creatoare i eseul Teoria
sferelor de influen avanseaz ideea c n literatur se manifest
energii artistice, zone privilegiate, cmpuri magnetice, noduri,
bulgri poteniali de poezie care sunt punctele de unde sunt posibile
saltul, micarea nodal i exponenial: absurdul, vagul, inefabilul,
insolitul [57].
n teatrul sorescian, eul devine subiect ontologic i istoric, legat
de-o subiectivitate colectiv, ce trebuie cultivat (eu, adic noi, cu
permisiunea dumneavoastr) [58]. Toate piesele sunt expresia setei
de libertate absolut, originar, aa cum o definete Berdiaev. Eroii si
caut ieirea prin cer, adic prin moarte.
Rsfrngeri ale personalismului n

Paracliserul
Format prin corelaii energetice persistente, persoana
energetic a Paracliserului depete stadiul personalismului anarhic,
deoarece protagonistul din piesa omentat este profesionistul de
vocaie, al crui eu raionalizat, expresia unei subiectiviti i a
unei viziuni personaliste asupra omului i a universului, structureaz
aptitudini care pun omul dincolo de mplinirea sa n planurile social,
istoric i estetic, aezndu-l n relaie cu absolutul.
Metafor a evoluiei spirituale (iter perfectionis), tragedia n trei

tablouri Paracliserul (1968) [59], aparine trilogiei eului liric, trilo-
giei nedumeririlor. Dup mrturisirea autorului, seria deschide trasee
pe o tripl paradigm: Absolutul cutat de unul singur. Aceste piese
exprim idei, o filosofie pe care intenionam s-o prezint vorbit. n
form de eseu (...). n trilogie, personajul se caut pe orizontal i pe
vertical. Orizontala ar fi Iona, un fel de planet pe ap; apa reprezint
trei sferturi din glob. Paracliserul e nlarea pe vertical a omului,
cutarea de sine, zbuciumata cutare de celest, care exist n fiecare
om contient. Matca ar fi rezolvarea dialectic a celor dou dibuiri: o
femeie care rezolv ecuaia simplu, aducnd pe lume un alt personaj.
ntr-un fel poate fi judecat i hegelian toat acest poveste n trei
acte, ca o triad cu tez, antitez i sintez. A fi vrut ca toate s
fie jucate ntr-un singur spectacol mare, de patru-cinci ceasuri, ca
trilogia tragic a lui ONeill sau cea comic a lui Goldoni., mrtu-
risea dramaturgul ntr-un interviu [60].
Piesa publicat n Romnia literar, n 1969, iar n volum, nti
n 1970, cu titlul Paracliserul. Tragedie n trei tablouri, la Editura
Eminescu, apoi n Setea muntelui de sare, n 1974, se juca n pre-
mier absolut n 1971, la Teatrul din Skopje (regia Liubia
Ghiorghievski). n ar s-a jucat la Teatrul din Petroani, pe 15
septembrie 1981, n regia lui Radu Dinulescu [61], la Teatrul de Stat
din Reia i apoi la Oradea, n octombrie1982, cu titlul Slujitorul [62].
n critica literar s-a vorbit despre o pies afin dramelor
beckettiene [63], una din dramele ale destinului [64], de un teatru
al speranei, al solidaritii cu spea uman, despre vocaia herme-
neutic a trilogiei, chiar i despre un mit cult al Paracliserului,
construit pe reflexele blagiene ale visului transcendental [65], despre
spectrul su ontic, despre experiena ocult, de mister tragic, despre
opintirea excelsiorist a Paracliserului apostat i autoimolare [66],
despre complexul lui Iona prezent n tot teatrul sorescian [67], adic
despre drama omului prins n tot ce exist n lume, ntr-o existen
format din multe straturi (cel existenial, cel istoric, cel cultural)
[68], despre un teatru esopic i despre parabole expresioniste ale
existenei [69], despre drama mistuirii pe vertical [70] a unor
destine nchise n captivitatea paradoxal a propriei lor aspiraii de
nlare, de eliberare, de ascensiune spre purificare i ideal, de
desvrire uman [71], despre nevoia salvrii prin credin a omului
metafizic, model ivit din zona teatrului medieval [72], despre o para-
bol a jerfei creatoare [73], cci Paracliserul, acest Meter Manole cu
aura legendar estompat, cobort la dimensiuni parodice de Don

Quijote, omul unei singure generaii, creeaz n modul su unic:
afum zidurile lcaului, dndu-le vechime, tradiie, istorie [74].
Avnd n vedere aprecierile lui Ion Vartic despre teatrul ibsenian, am
putea considera piesa o veritabil dram cu turn aspiraia fiind
elementul cruia i corespunde structural sondajul n profunzimile
eului i introspecia lui dramatizat , o compoziie ce aparine
teatrului analitic sau invizibil, n tradiia tragediei lui Sofocle, n
care aciunea scenic rmne numai o parte a analizei trecutului
consumat deja [75].
Fiecare dintre piesele trilogiei redescoper Omul n dimensiunile
sale fundamentale homo cogitans, homo religiosus i homo
aestheticus [76] i ofer soluii ale ieirii din absurd cunoaterea n
Iona, credina n Paracliserul, creaia n Matca [77]. Cele trei coordo-
nate tematice se unesc n Paracliserul i fac din aceast pies o
complex structur dramatic, un fel de palimpsest cu urme expre-
sioniste i adnotri existenialiste, pe care se rescrie, n polemic i n
continuitate, estetica (neo)modernist, cu elementele sale de subver-
sivitate, esopism, evazionism, ermetism, pulverizare a metafizicii ntr-o
referenialitate echivoc-filosofic, ce compune realul comunist din
care artistul face efortul de a iei nnoit spiritual.
Paracliserul este ipostaza triadic a artistului asumndu-i cderea
ntregii omeniri i purtnd pe umeri povara salvrii ei prin propria
oper n care cuget la salvare, libertate i la ntlnirea cu Dumnezeu,
ntru mntuire. Tot el verific, n esen, trinicia triadei filosofie
religie art i posibilitatea mpletirii, n actul creator, a cugetrii cu
trirea i cu reprezentarea artistic.
Artistul modern ameninat de vidul interior al negsirii (argheziene
a) lui Dumnezeu este un liber-cugettor care consider credina i
trirea religioas drept acte fundamentale personale, autentice, subiec-
tive i irepetabile n relaia sa cu divinitatea. Cum actul artistic este i
metacreaie, Paracliserul concepe un fel de istorie a filosofiei, artei i
religiei, definete relaia subiect-obiect, n raport cu aceste domenii
interdependente, cutnd cnd spre un capt, cnd spre cellalt, esena
ontologic a fiinei. Reprezentat astfel, Paracliserul este, sub primul
aspect, homo religiosus raportat la idealul i tradiia cultural a comu-
nitii, iar din cealalt pespectiv, eul cunosctor al evoluiei credin-
ei/religiei n raport cu filosofia, experimentnd emergena celei din
urm din cugetarea dialecticii sacru-profan.
Ca simbol (semn i hierofanie), Paracliserul este o ipostaz uma-

nist, ultimul paracliser care are datoria de a da lumin, de a reme-
mora i transmite tradiia religioas i cea filosofic ocultat n comu-
nism, un liber cugettor aproape credincios practicnd cunoaterea
apofatic [78], dar mai mult eretic n ochii unui cretin, pentru care
concepia sa despre Dumnezeu este relaia vie cu o Persoanele
Trinitii.
S-ar putea afirma c este credinciosul care, experimentnd perso-
nalist, prin intuiie, cunoaterea lui Dumnezeu i creaia, trece de la
dimensiunea ipostatic, prin care lumea este neleas ca parte
ncorporat unei realiti universale, la dimensiunea extatic, deoarece
trind n aceast stare el creeaz o lume (biserica de fum) pe care o
consacr divinitii. Transcendentul l absoarbe, iar ceea ce pare
sacrilegiul de a se fi urcat pn la ceruri, prin coninutul negativ al
tririi mistice, este catharsis [79], este cunoatere apofatic.
Nostalgic al culturii eleate, neoplatonician care crede n adevrurile
eterne, zidar (deci creator) de arhitecturi de fum, care tie s caute
piatra unghiular, s ridice schele, s lucreze cu prghii i s ndese
zidirea-afumtur pe linii drepte i la ncheieturi, cu gesturi rosto-
golite prin unghiuri, tot aa cum Demiurgul zidete, de Sus,
Universul, stpnind fora focului care transmut materiile n niveluri
superioare, artistul ntruchipat de Paracliser se caracterizeaz prin
vocaie, lucrare haric i gndire de natur filosofic (tatonnd con-
ceptele i categoriile ca un filosof [80], ca un antropolog ori un
teantropolog [81]) i mitico-simbolic (svrind acte eroice ca
salvarea lumii prin credina sa i mplinirea vocaiei prin ctitoria de
fum). Paracliserul recupereaz gnostic, prin Cuvnt i gest semni-
ficant, pentru sine i pentru lumea corupt, legtura cu monismul divin
dup modelul ntlnirii Creatorului cu Creaia Sa, fapt care-i red
libertatea spiritului, cea de dinainte de cderea din Rai.
Experiena Paracliserului este de a regsi, prin anamnez i prin
meditaie, starea edenic a omului, care este Dumnezeu dup har i
chip. Ca persoan, el creeaz relaia dintre sine i divinitate ca
imago Dei, revelat drept chip i slav a lui Dumnezeu, om
ndumnezeit [82]. Este evident c piesa problematizeaz raportul
ontologic al omului-subiect cu lumea-obiect, completndu-l gnoseo-
logic (i epistemologic, ca intenie) prin ntrebrile fundamentale
despre existen, determinism, necesitate i libertate, sacru, divin,
experien etc., dup cum s-au rostit ele de-a lungul istoriei. Peste tot,
n solilocviul su, Paracliserul reface prin anamnez istoria cugetrii
omeneti, de la atomiti, eleai, la Platon i Aristotel, n filosofia

clasic i n gndirea modern. Dup cum sugera autorul nui, cele
trei tablouri definesc trei stadii ale fenomenologiei spiritului,
triadica ridicare hegelian marcnd devenirea n raportul de valo-
rizare a omului i a lumii de la om al lumii se ajunge la lumea
omului, la restaurarea lui ntr-o simbolic re-umanizare a lumii.
Dar cutarea nu se oprete nici la filosofia platonian sau aristo-
telic, nici la gndirea hegelian. Contiina de sine a Paracliserului,
supus limitrii i determinrilor, i lrgete aria prin experiena
cognitiv a sacrului [83], ntocmai ca un proiector care scoate la
vedere umbrele celor nevzute, relevnd Realitatea [84]. Paracliserul
trece i prin experina gndirii existenialiste negative (Nietzsche,
Satre, Cioran), critic ateismul social-politic i istorist, secularizant i
profanator, ca pe o eronat fondare a umanismului contemporan pe
nite premise false. nstrinarea omului modern a dus la excluderea
experienei religioase din orizontul preocuprilor sale i a impus, cum
ar spune Aurel Codoban [85], raionalitatea operaional n locul celei
semnificante, a exclus contactul omului cu divinul, sacrul, transcen-
dentul, scond nzuina spre Absolut din aria reperelor existeniale i
srcindu-l de trirea religioas. S-a vorbit n critica sorescian despre
un refuz al transcendenei [86] manifestat din ambii poli ai relaiei
Om Divinitate, care i are originea n ndoiala ce macin credina
omului modern.
n fapt, revelaia Paracliserului este c, dup irul de achiziii,
de proiecii ancestrale, omul i depete limitele numai prin
credin i prin ardere-de-tot, se elibereaz de finitate tocmai prin
implicarea infinitii n dat, imanen a valorilor n contingent, dar
fr s se rup de existena social, cci exact implicarea n viaa
profan, n comunitate, l nal spiritual.
Primul tablou relev premisele crizei ontologice a modernitii.
Cauza pierderii centralitii i a coeziunii lumii produce ruptura de
Dumnezeu, oamenii nu mai triesc n duh, materialitatea devine
centrul cerului. Numinosul e cutat amnezic: Pe unde-o fi venind?
Pe unde se scurge? Sau poate picur, clip de clip, ca apsarea unui
deget necunoscut pe nodul unui gtlej umflat de spaim? [87]. Lumea
croit armonios i pierde reperele axiologice pentru omul modern,
care uit credina, ierarhiile, calea. Simbolistica stilului gotic, elan
impietrit al fanatismului religios al lumii medievale, exprim aici pato-
sul vanitii artistice moderne demiurgia, omul divin, care presu-
pune o depire a omului ca valoare umanist suprem [88]: Eu m
uit i stelele rsar pe alt planet. Eu vorbesc, i tun i fulger pe

alt planet. Sunt slbnog ca o furnic, dar fora mea crete nspi-
mnttor pe alt planet. i sunt Dumnezeu acolo fr s tiu [89].
n tabloul al II-lea, criza ontologic este alimentat de sentimentul
mbtrnirii, de rul secolului (mbtrnim, ni se duce veacul. i
trebuie s ne umplem cu ceva...) i de nostalgia minunilor, a ideilor
mree, a Cuvntului zmislitor: mi s-au anchilozat organele, scn-
cetele se articuleaz, devin vorbire pctoas, nu ne mai ajunge
becul, viaa e ardere pur i simplu, fr nicio minune. Alternana
lumin artificial ntuneric interior este simbolic pentru veacul ce
stinge cele din urm lumini ntr-un paradis terestru devastat. Eroul
refuz lupta cu ngerul, intr n rezonan cu forele ntunericului,
lumea lui devine un iad invadat de lilieci. Ereziile se suprapun, pe
rnd, serie de pcate uitate, iertate, capitale: frica de sine, gndirea
negativ, credina n idoli i pierderea credinei cretine, reprezentat
de imaginea liliacului ( eidolein, simbol bivalent, termen al cderii
luciferice, al simulacrului, al idolului, dar i al formei noi, al repre-
zentrii, al imaginii).
Mitul platonician al cavernei simboliznd cunoaterea dialectic,
relativ i vulnerabil, se recompune n momentul cnd Paracliserul i
vede proiectate pe zid mai nti trei, apoi apte umbre vrste, trepte,
corpuri, cercuri planetare, avataruri, categorii, paradigme, niveluri
ale psihicului, forme, cpii, daruri sau vicii, forme ale eului sau alter
ego, ipostaze ale demonicului sau orice vor fi semnificnd, reprezint
nu numai apolinicul, ci Totalitatatea nsi [90]. Paracliserul nelege
c actul cunoaterii senzoriale i al gndirii discursive este iluzoriu i
eronat, universul material fenomenologic fiind compus din umbrele
Ideilor eterne. Spiritul (prin facultile sale reunite inteligena, cu-
noaterea discursiv, credina i imaginaia) poate ptrunde n lumea
inteligibil, croindu-i drum, dincolo de opinii, la esen [91].
Paracliserul triete aadar o dram a spiritului (concept funda-
mental al antichitii) care alege ca alternativ a salvrii sacrificarea
materialitii, ca i ali eroi sorescieni, precum Iona sau Moul din
Matca. El este contient c declinul filosofiei a nceput de la ato-
miti i hotrte s triasc ntru spirit. Obsedat de o existen
transcendent a lucrurilor, i-a ales o munc (o cale de ispire) deli-
berat dificil pentru a istovi o dorin aprig de creaie, mrea, dei
inutil pn la sublim nnegrirea altarului, cu o voluptate a epui-
zrii, de lmie bine stoars [92]. Gestul aduce devierea, sacri-
legiul, cutarea, dincolo de Dumnezeu, a Adevrului i lsarea semne-
lor trecerii sale i aici, n locul sacru. Personajul s-a inchis singur
ntr-o iluzie, o recluziune consimit n interiorul unei credine din
care sper c va iei pe calea spiritului, a creaiei. Multiplele simboluri
au creat o arhitectur coerent a imaginarului divinului. A afuma
pietrele unei catedrale nseamn a-i da o istorie, o tradiie, a pune n
spatele unui obiect simbolic (catedrala) o vechime care s ntreasc
ideea de durat i de durabilitate, cu fiecare generaie [93], dar i a
tri n iluzie, n voluptatea epuizrii cunoaterii tiinifice: Sunt sleit
de istorie, de geografie, de geologie, de suflet, de tot nu mai exist
nimic, sunt stors definitiv. Anomia social, generat de dezordinea
ideologic i axiologic, de criza moral i religioas determin ano-
mia suicidal i refuzul de a tri n ntuneric i nefericire.
Exist, n stratul de adncime al tragediei soresciene, o tulburtoare
meditaie asupra schismei culturale declanate de izolarea noastr
ideologic n perioada comunist. Protestul mpotriva demolatorilor de
biserici, mpotriva activitilor ignorani, refuzul de a transforma arta n
instrument ideologic al comunismului ateu, fora credinei, concen-
trat n art, comunicat prin metafora bisericii vii, pictate pe o dropie,
replicile exprimnd regretul c nu se mai fac catedrale, se drm
i-asta mine-poimine, aparin unui subsidiar subversiv, care, din
pcate, nu mai nseamn mai nimic pentru un cititor neavizat de
astzi.
Sorescu tia c noua noastr cultur aizecist, cultura unei
singure generaii, este menit s rup legturile cu proletcultismul, s
recupereze tradiia filosofic idealist i s se deschid ctre noi
experiene, spre o cultur heracleitic [94], precum cea occidental a
schimbrii, a spiritului agonal, a voinei, a epistemei i a umanismului,
asimilnd i nelinitea declinului cauzat de inflaia civilizaiei, a
materialitii.
Flacra lumnrii ntruchipeaz deopotriv cunoaterea i puterea
de creaie, piatra afumat materia acestora, Paracliserul e artistul
complex, omul de vocaie care servete Totalitatea prin afirmarea
personalitii energia n actul ei cel mai desvrit [95]. Ca
Demiurgul din pictura lui Blake, el face stelele s rsar, dar pe o alt
planet, a imaginaiei, deoarece contiina sa (n fond, energie n
manifestare) intr n unitate structural cu Universul-energie. Totul e
s poi nla un imn pnzelor albe care pot fi de nori, pot fi de aer
mai rar, pot fi de prpastie absolut, adic s desctuezi toate
energiile creatoare, lrgind astfel i limitele personalitii.
n actul III, dramaticul lamento despre soarta celor muli, a

celorlali, n faa unui deus otiosus degenereaz din reflecie despre
identitate i alteritate, n revolt luciferic: Dup ce tu le-ai fcut pe
toate singur, ce ne-a mai rmas i nou, celor de pe fundul lucrurilor
fcute? (...) s-i dm prin gnd ca nite avalane prin vis. i s ne
rzgndeti de la nceput. i s nici nu ne mai faci! i s ne lai n
pace! [96]. Camusianul revoltat va avea ansa ndreptirii, n sensul
dat de Roger Caillois [97], pentru care sacrul implic transgresarea:
ceea ce este murdar, impur (afumarea altarului, blasfemia) primete
binecuvntare, se purific. Dumnezeu este n creaia sa omul, iar
spiritul omului s-a nlat prin creativitate pn la libertatea increat,
absolut, dincolo de orice determinism. Taina ultim dat omului este
naterea lui Dumnezeu n om, prin Iisus Hristos [98].
Catedrala este locul epifaniei i imago mundi, sinteza celor trei
niveluri cosmice, locul transcendenei care coboar, n care omul
realizeaz n sine cerul prin luntrica sublimare [99]. Pentru
Paracliser, edificiul nu e complet fr creaia sa catedrala de fum, iar
zidul su iluzoriu i are corespondentul n ceruri, metafor care subli-
niaz omologia gnostic cer-pmnt, identitatea macro micro-
univers, amintete de ierarhia energetic. Tenacitatea de a nla cate-
drala de fum de unul singur, cu un efort aproape supraomenesc,
rscumprnd indiferena ntregii omeniri, a dat roade, cci biserica
prinde via religioas, firele de iarb nesc din ziduri ca sgeile
prin trupul Sfntului Sebastian. Vocea Paracliserului nu rostete ns
psalmi i rugciuni, ci un ir de meditaii lirice, divagaii i extra-
vagane [100], relaia cu divinitatea fiind neconvenional, dar
onest, direct, o relaie personal cu un Dumnezeu - Persoan
Paracliserul a nzuit toat viaa s ajung la altar, printre sfini, i e
pregtit a svri miracolul, nlndu-se prin imitatio Christi, convins
c astfel va ajunge s-l cunoasc direct pe Dumnezeu. Lumnrile
aprinse pot evoca semnificaii pascale, cerurile i sunt deschise (cele
apte umbre pot fi cerurile, cercurile planetare).
nsingurat, tie c starea autentic de nlare este smerenia i se
simte ghimpele de pe ariciul unui scai, ipnd de sete dup sfnta
ln a oii pierdute pe-o gur de rai: Doamne, tu eti oaia mea cea
rtcit, / Fr tine m simt nepereche./ Ia-m-n coad prin lumea ta
infinit, / ori mcar n luna cea din ureche. Lumea n care s-a revrsat
Rul devine Iadul contiinei sale (liliacul, simbolul lui Lucifer, i-a
intrat n suflet), Contiina religioas a Paracliserului este dual,
avnd, n potenialitate, att esena divin, ct i fibra luciferic.
Cutarea divinitii capt pentru el accente tragice cnd nelege c

n aceast lume sentimentul religios este ros de gndirea mitic sau de
cugetarea exclusiv filosofic, trirea rmnnd n umbra cugetrii.
Paracliserul simte c Dumnezeu i-a fcut semn, iar paznicul surd nu-i
aduce lumnrile necesare ncheierii lucrrii deificatoare (despre care
vorbete i Berdiaev). Pe schele, n cupola altarului, de unde ndj-
duiete s ating norii trainici pe care st El. Ateapt cu nfrigurare s
ajung n lumea cealalt (lumea platonian suprasensibil, ierarhia
cereasc?) Este tras n sus, de o putere misterioas, terifiant, care l
fascineaz, simultan. nelege c Dumnezeu nu exist fr Om, fr
jertfa lui. Triete diferitele stri ale numinosului, etape de care vorbete
Rudolf Otto [101]: sentimentul de creatur nensemnat, cutremurarea,
maiestatea, fascinaia n faa misterului. Jertfa asumat, svrit de
bunvoie, l deific, anulnd gratuitatea sacrificiului violent. St n faa
obiectului numinos, n fa are lumea de-a stnga i de-a dreapta.
Pentru contiina religioas antinomic a Paracliserului, ntlnirea cu
Dumnezeu nu este, de fapt, numai o experien mistic-limit n care se
suspend opoziia imanent-transcendent, cnd pmntescul devine
ceresc, ci i revelaia libertii absolute, meonice, a priori, libertatea
Increatului din care rsar Lumina i ntunericul, cum ar spune Berdiaev.
tu nu te vezi...n afar de mine, plutesc i nu mai pot s cad, ca i
tine. Lumea e de-a dreapta i de-a stnga mea. Paracliserul, ngrozit,
nelegnd, strig: Eu! Se identific, de fapt, cu Dumnezeu, care,
se pare, nu este ultima realitate. Citit astfel, finalul dezvluie o
eleutherologie, cum ar spune Nikolai Berdiaev, o doctrin a libertii
Spiritului care este nsui centrul universului. Ca i pentru gnditorul
rus amintit, pentru Sorescu doar spiritul uman poate nelege sensurile
profunde ale libertii, iar omul este dator a nzui la libertatea absolut,
dumnezeiasc. Or, creativitatea, creaia sunt comportamente care pun
libertatea divin n act (diferit de cea uman, negativ, inspirat
luciferic, afirm Berdiaev), adaptndu-l prin teurgie pe om la lumea lui
Dumnezeu, ndeprtndu-l de mirosul urt al lumii [102].
Tomas D Aquino, Sfntul Augustin, teologi catolici susin c spi-
ritul parcurge prin religie penultima treapt n drumul de ntoarcere
spre Absolut, cugetarea filosofic aducnd spiritului ndumnezeit
harul divin / graia creat care transfigureaz omul nainte de des-
vrire. Am putea spune c ndumnezeirea Paracliserului, evident
n nevoia lui de a sta alturi de sfini, de a le lumina aureola, de a se
sui pe nori, lng Dumnezeu, asemnndu-se cu El prin actul creator,
este o lucrare teantric, nu efort al Supraomului (post)nietzschean, ci
exercitare a voinei divine, care-l soarbe n sus, fcndu-l apt de o

cratofanie [103], sau de perihorez, adic ntreptrunderea ener-
getic a creatului de necreat n Hristos [104], comuniune intratri-
nitar, cum ar spune Sfntul Maxim Mrturisitorul [105]. Ca i la
Iona, sacrificiul ignic suicidal este, din perspectiv religioas, expresia
cderii specifice naturii umane, iar omului i este dat a lupta s-i
domine natura nclinat spre pcat. Eroul sorescian, probabil singurul
om religios ntr-un timp agnostic i ateu [106], refuz ns s se
abandoneze voinei divine, prin care ar putea dobndi libertatea ilimi-
tat, dar nu i se poate sustrage; e Alesul. n cel din urm moment, el
accept contactul cu Dumnezeu, dar alegerea este greit, nfptuind
sacrificiul prin sinucidere, fapt care duce la o transcenden deviat
[107] de la verticalitatea sa.
Finalul, recviem al expierii, reia ideea sacrificiului deliberat din
drama blagian; acest alt Manole triete simultan cderea, prin cere-
rea, n numele oamenilor, de a se elibera de determinismul religios
(nate-ne din nou, nu ne mai grei), dar i apoteoza ndumne-
zeirea. Creaia, comparabil cu a lui Manole, impune o ispire, o
implicare total, o experin irepetabil, de esen divin [108]. Dac
la Iona, cderea const n renunarea de a mai cuta ieirea, iar
apoteoza este revelaia adevrului c drumul e greit, c a luat-o
prost (c destinul este nefast, n limbaj subversiv, c orientarea
comunist este greit) n Paracliserul i n Matca obsesia elanului
ascensional este echivalentul apoteozei, ultima etap a unui demers
de autocunoatere [109]. Cunoaterea prin anamnez capt i aici
virtui de soteriologie, observa Monica Spiridon [110]. Ca i
Crtorul din Pluta Meduzei, Paracliserul se strduiete s-i
aminteasc traseul spiritual al motenirii filosofice, din care n-au
rmas dect crmpeie sub tvlugul gndirii veacului materialist.
S-a spus despre Paracliser c este un eretic, un iconoclast, un ico-
nodul, gnostic, agnostic, ateu etc. Termenul erezie vine de la cuvn-
tul grecesc nsemnnd alegere i implic deci o decizie uman
limitat la nsuirile omului. Or, apostolii au conservat i propovduit
ceea ce au primit de la Hristos. Istoria ereziilor reflect faptul c
acestea sunt creaie uman, alegere, atitudine, gnoz. Cretinismul pri-
mitiv a fost influenat, se tie, de doctrine gnostice. Gnosticul supra-
pune traseele: filosofic, religios, moral. El este convins c Dumnezeu
admite ca rugtor pe cel ce se strduiete s trateze, s vindece
universul, s fie rugtor chiar de unul singur [111].
Motenirea gnostic, se tie, d substan noilor plsmuiri mistice

ale secolului, tratate de ortodoxism cu rezerve i precauii: personalis-
mul, energetismul, antropozofia, teozofia etc. ntre ele, personalismul,
generat n catolicismul francez de stnga al primelor decenii ale
secolului XX, pleac de la ideea c persoana este categoria ce permite
revelaia propriei uniciti i revelaia transcendent a aproapelui tu,
relaia cu un Dumnezeu personalizat. Personalismul reprezenta
transfigurarea individualismului, o form de imitatio Christi: a fi tu
nsui nu exclude, ci implic posibilitatea de a te sacrifica pe tine
nsui. Pentru semi-secularul, eclecticul radicalism mistic al anilor60,
sensul persoanei era intens psihologizat, iar personalismul presupu-
nea n primul rnd nu sacrificiul, ci explorarea unor teritorii interioare,
a unei cu metafora poetului Lawrence Ferlinghetti Coney Island a
minii [112], observa pertinent Caius Dobrescu n Modernitatea
ultim. Prezena sa teoretic i expresiile artistice pe care le mbrac
argumenteaz ipoteza c exista un continuum intelectual care lega
subteran lumile desprite de Cortina de Fier, sistemele capitalist i
comunist fiind convergente [113].
n lumina personalismului energetic teoretizat de Constantin
Rdulescu Motru i a personalismului mistic al lui Nikolai Berdiaev,
legitimarea Paracliserului se produce prin criza mistic imitatio
Christi, prin iniiere gnostic i creaie a omului de vocaie imitatio
Dei. Astfel, personalitatea i contiina de sine se conecteaz la
identitatea Universului. Or, asimilarea frecvent a literaturii cu gnoza
aduce n discuie, n estetica neomodernist, cunoaterea unui corpus
de adevruri revelate, ntoarcerea la doctrinele ezoterice, ca sfidare i
refugiu din calea materialismului dialectic i istoric, dar mai ales
dobndirea libertii spirituale prin creaie. Paracliserul se ridic peste
nori pentru a respira aerul tare al gndirii idealiste i al metafizicii
pentru a-l gsi pe Dumnezeu trind plenar sentimentul de Persoan n
comuniune cu energiile divine ale Universului.
Note
[1] Marin Sorescu, Poezii, 2, Editura Scrisul Romnesc, Craiova, 1983, pp. 220-222.
[2] Vezi Viorel Cernica, Filosofia umanului. Personalism energetic i antropologie
kantian, Institutul European, Iai, 2008, http://www.scribd.com/Salmoksis/
d/76171781-Viorel-Cernica-Filosofia-umanului-personalism-energetic-%C8%
99i-antropologie-kantian%C4%83 i Andronil Maria, Prelegeri de filosofie,
http://www.scribd.com/doc/51891669/16/FILOSOFIA-PERSOANEI-
PERSONALISMUL
[3] Ioan Deac, Ontologia subiectivitii, Editura Paideia, Bucureti, 2003.

[4] Informaii despre personalism n Marco Drago i Andrea Boroli (coord.),
Enciclopedie de filosofie i tiine umane, Editura All Education, De Agostini,
Bucureti, 2004; Viorel Cernica, Filosofie romneasc interbelic, ediia a II-a,
Institutul European, Iai, 2006; Viorel Cernica, Filosofia umanului. Psihologism
energetic i antropologie kantian, Institutul European, Iai, 2008,
http://www.scribd.com/Salmoksis/d/76171781-Viorel-Cernica-Filosofia-
umanului-personalism-energetic-%C8%99i-antropologie-kantian%C4%83,
Corina Hric, Constantin Rdulescu-Motru, filosof al culturii, Editura Dacia,
Cluj-Napoca, 1987.
[5] Emmanuel Mounier, Le personnalisme (1941), Les presses universitaires de
France, 7-e dition, Paris, 1961, http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/ Mounier
_Emmanuel/personnalisme/personnalisme.html
[6] Denis de Rougemont, Partea Diavolului, Editura Humanitas, Bucure;ti, 2006,
http://www.scribd.com/doc/15859641/Denis-de-Rougemont-Partea-Diavolului
[7] Nikolai Berdiaev, Sensul creaiei. Incercare de ndreptire a omului, Editura
Humanitas, Bucureti, 1992.
[8] Constantin Rdulescu-Motru, Personalismul energetic i alte scrieri, Editura
[9] Lazea, Dan, Filosofia lui Pareyson. Personalism existenial, hermeneutic,
ontologia libertii, Editura Universitii de Vest, Timioara http://www. roma
nian-philosophy.ro/newsletter/pages/10_06_iunie/dan-lazea.html
[10] Borden Parker Bowne, Edgar S. Brightman, Martin Buber, Ralph Tyler
Flewelling, John Macmurray, Gabriel Marcel etc.
[11] Buford, Thomas, Classical American Personalism, http://www.personalism.pl/
biannual/number-3/classical-american-personalism/
[12] C. Rdulescu-Motru, Revizuiri i adugiri 1944, vol. II, Editura Floarea
darurilor, Bucureti, 1996, p. 366, apud Costic Brdan, O introducere la
istoria filosofiei romneti n secolul XX, Editura Fundaiei Culturale Romne,
Bucureti, 2000, p. 117.
[13] Costic Brdan, op. cit., p. 117.
[14] Marin Sorescu, Dialog cu Alice Magheru despre George Mageru, n Marin
Sorescu, Opere. V. Publicistic, Editura Fundaiei Naionale pentru tiin i
Art, Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2005, pp. 599-606.
[15] Marin Sorescu, George Magheru, un poet nedreptit. Alte poezii postume,
inclus n vol. Uor cu pianul pe scri, n Marin Sorescu, Opere. V. Publicistic,
ed. cit, pp. 769-780.
[16] Marta Petreu, Un trecut deocheat sau Schimbarea la fa a Romniei, Editura
Apostrof, Cluj-Napoca, 1999, pp. 102-104, apud Costic Brdan, op. cit., p. 25.
[17] Este posibil ca ntlnirile din anii 1967-1968 cu Cioran i cu Petre uea s fi
influenat, prin sfera discuiilor i prin vorbirea n paradoxuri, geneza piesei
Paracliserul. n 4 martie 1968, uea i vorbea despre proiectul unei piese cu un
clugr foarte evlavios i prost, care, rugndu-se la Dumnezeu, devine nelept, c
nu-l mai neleg ceilali. Domnul il face s neleag c toate-s dearte, c evlavia
e totul. La rndul su, Sorescu i-a nmnat piesa Iona pentru lectur i i-a
comunicat ideea noii piese, Paracliserul. Vezi Marin Sorescu, Proba de vorbire
n Jurnal, inclus n Marin Sorescu, Opere. IV. Publicistic, Editura Fundaiei
Naionale pentru tiin i Art, Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2005, pp. 1380-
1382.
[18] Un articol al lui Tudor Vianu, Conceptul omului n filosofia lui Constantin
Rdulescu-Motru aprea n revista craiovean Ramuri, n 1938. Marin Sorescu
l-ar fi putut gsi n arhiva redaciei. Cf. Gh. Al. Cazan , studiul introductiv la vol.
Constantin Rdulescu-Motru, Personalismul energetic i alte scrieri, ed. cit, p. XII.
[19] Constantin Rdulescu Motru, Personalismul energetic i alte scrieri, ed. cit., p. 511.
[20] Viorel Cernica, Filosofia umanului. Psihologism energetic i antropologie
kantian, ed. cit, p. 25-30, http://www.scribd.com/Salmoksis/d/76171781-Viorel-
Cernica-Filosofia-umanului-personalism-energetic-%C8%99i-antropologie-
kantian%C4%83,
[21] Pentru RdulescuMotru, eul empiric, exclusiv psihic, n jurul cruia se crista-
lizeaz personalitatea / persoana este subiectiv, n timp ce personalitatea este o
realitate bio-psiho-social care dobndete caracter obiectiv.
[22] Ion Ianoi (coord. gen.), Dicionarul operelor filosofice romneti, Editura
Humanitas, Bucureti, 1977, pp. 159-160.
[23] Pentru Renouvier, finalismul este transcendent, omul se ntlnete cu Dumnezeu,
identificndu-se cu modelul divin, nu va rmne captiv n istorie. Vezi comen-
tariul comparativ al lui Viorel Cernica, Filosofia umanului. Psihologism ener-
getic i antropologie kantian, ed. cit, p. 201, http://www.scribd.com/ Salmoksis
/d/76171781-Viorel-Cernica-Filosofia-umanului-personalism-energetic-%C8%
99 i -antropologie-kantian%C4%83
[24] Vezi Emmanuel Mounier, Le personnalisme, http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/
Mounier_Emmanuel/personnalisme/personnalisme.html
[25] Vezi Corina Hric, Constantin Rdulescu-Motru, filosof al culturii, ed. cit,
Cernica, Viorel, Filosofie romneasc interbelic, ediia a II-a, Institutul
European, Iai, 2006 i Corneliu Leu, Idei personaliste de mare actualitate n
opera lui Constantin Rdulescu-Motru, http://www.vipnet.ro/pluralitas/
motru.pdf
[26] Corina Hric, op. cit, p. 80.
[27] Viorel Cernica, Filosofia umanului. Psihologism energetic i antropologie kan-
tian, ed. cit., pp. 102-103, http://www.scribd.com/Salmoksis/d/76171781-Viorel-
kantian%C4%83
kantian, ed. cit., p. 23, http://www.scribd.com/Salmoksis/d/76171781-Viorel-
kantian%C4%83.
[29] C. Rdulescu-Motru, Elemente de metafizic,, apud Corina Hric, op. cit, p. 79.
[30] Ibid, p. 99.
[31] C. Rdulescu-Motru, Personalismul energetic i alte scrieri, ed. cit., p. 451.
[32] C. Rdulescu-Motru, Revizuiri i adugiri. 1944, vol. IV, Editura Floarea daru-
rilor, Bucureti, 1998, p. 141, apud Costic Brdan, op. cit., p. 44.
kantian, ed. cit., p. 170, http://www.scribd.com/Salmoksis/d/76171781-Viorel-
kantian%C4%83,
[34] Corina Hric, op. cit., pp. 41-42.
[35] C. Rdulescu-Motru, Curs de psihologie, p. 333, apud Corina Hric, op. cit., p. 87.
[36] C. Rdulescu-Motru, Puterea sufleteasc, pp. 203-204, apud C. Hric, op. cit., p, 109.
[37] Nikolai Berdiaev, Sensul creaiei, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1992, pp. 290-
292. Vezi i Nikolai Berdiaev, ncercare de metafizic eschatologic, Editura
Paideia, Bucureti, 1999p
[38] Ibid., pp. 290-292.
[39] Ibid, p. 29.
[40] Ibid, pp. 104-105.
[41] Ibid, p. 103.
[42] Ibid, pp. 121, 134.
[43] Ibid, p. 230.
[44] Ibid, pp. 279-280.
[45] Ibid, p. 282.
[46] Giuseppe Riconda i Gianni Vattimo, Prefaa la Luigi Pareyson, Ontologia
libertii. Rul i suferina, Editura Pontica, Constana, 2005, p. XII. Persona-
listul italian Luigi Pareyson a elaborat, pe trunchiul existenialismului, o herme-
neutic a experienei religioase, bazat pe o ontologie a libertii i pe gndirea
tragic, a riscului alegerii i a nelinitii i ndoielii, teorie pe care Gianni Vattimo
o consider alternativ la fel de robust la cele ale lui Gadamer i Ricoeur. Luigi
Pareyson, Ontologia libertii. Rul i suferina, Editura Pontica, Constana,
2005, p. XI.
[47] Ibidem, p. 17.
[48] Ibidem, pp. 18-19.
[49] Luigi Pareyson, Ontologia libertii. Rul i suferina, ed. cit., pp. 49, 66p.
[50] Ibidem, p. 57.
[51] Ibidem, pp. 57-58.
[52] Ibidem, pp. 67-69.
[53] Ibidem, p. 60.
[54] Ilie Purcaru, Obligaia fa de public este s scrii bine, n Marin Sorescu,
Opere, V. Publicistic, ed. cit, p. 917, not la p. 1362.
[55] Maria Minciu, Intrarea n literatur se face prin poarta mare a locurilor de unde
ai plecat, n Convorbiri literare, nr. 2, februarie 1979, p. 2, apud Marin
Sorescu, Opere, V. Publicistic, ed. cit, p. 1016, not la p. 1367.
[56] Adrian Punescu, Omenirea ntreag este Iona, dac-mi permite, n Romnia
literar, nr. 36, 4 septembrie 1969, pp. 6-7, apud Marin Sorescu, Opere, V.
Publicistic, ed. cit, pp. 893-900, not la p. 1360.
[57] Marin Sorescu, Insolitul ca energie creatoare, tez de doctorat, Universitatea
Bucureti, Facultatea de Litere, ndrumtor tiinific: prof. univ. dr. Dumitru
Micu, Bucureti, 1991, pp. 3-4
[58] Marin Sorescu, Extemporal despre mine, n Vatra, nr. 4, 20 aprilie 1981, pp. 4-
5, apud Marin Sorescu, Opere, V. Publicistic, ed. cit., p. 1050, not la pp. 1349-
1350.
[59] Scris n 1968, aa cum reiese din jurnal ( unde autorul menioneaz c i-a vorbit de
proiect lui Petre uea), piesa a fost citit nti n cenaclul din casa lui Vladimir
Streinu, apoi, n 1969, ntr-un cerc de scriitori, la Paris: ntr-o sear, cu muli
prieteni o lectur, Paracliserul, pe care Claude Rich ar dori, i cred c-ar fi n stare
s-l joace. A citit Monica Lovinescu, cu nerv i cu o bun intonaie. Traducerea i
aparine. Vezi Marin Sorescu, Opere, IV. Publicistic, ed. cit., p. 1100.
[60] Valentin Silvestru, Temele vitale ale teatrului, n Romnia literar, nr. 7, 13
februarie 1986, pp. 4-5, apud Marin Sorescu, Opere, V. Publicistic ed. cit, pp.
1153-1170, not la p. 1373.
[61] Radu Dinulescu, Caietul Program nr. 241 al Teatrului de Stat din Valea Jiului
Petroani, apud Marin Sorescu, Ieirea prin cer, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti,
1984, pp. 87-89.
[62] Marin Sorescu, Opere, III, Teatru, Editura Academiei Romne i Univers
Encliclopedic, Bucureti, 2003.
[63] Ion Negoiescu, Scriitori contemporani, Editura Dacia, Cluj, 1994, p. 402.
[64] Nicolae Ciobanu, Panoramic, Editura Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1972, p. 252.
[65] Ibidem, p. 253.
[66] Florin Faifer, Dramaturgia ntre clip i durat, Editura Junimea, Iai, 1983, pp.
115-116.
[67] Monica Spiridon, Melancolia descendenei, ediia a II-a, Editura Polirom, Iai,
2000, pp. 100-148.
[68] Monica Spiridon i Mihai Iovnel n Dicionarul general al literaturii romne, S
T, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2007, p. 302.
[69] Alex tefnescu, Istoria literaturii romne contemporane ( 1941-2000), Editura
Maina de Scris, Bucureti, 2005, p. 407; Mircea Zaciu, Marian Papahagi, Aurel
Sasu, Dicionarul scriitorilor romni, Editura Fundaiei Culturale Romne,
Bucureti, 1978, pp. 301-302.
[70] Ion Rotaru, O istorie a literaturii romne, vol V, Editura Niclurescu, Bucureti,
2000, p. 213.
[71] Constatin Cublean, Teatrul ntre civic i etic, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca,
1983, p. 126.
[72] Henry Zalis, O istorie condsensat a literaturii romne. 19880-2000, ediia a II-a,
revzut i adugit, Editura Bibliotheca, Trgovite, 2007, p. 535.
[73] Dumitru Micu, Istoria literaturii romne. De la creaie popular la
postmodernism, Editura Saeculum I. O., 2009, p. 257 D. Micu exagera legtura
piesei cu mitul jertfei creatoare i, citnd neglijent din dicionarul lui Marian
Popa, vedea n Paracliserul o parabol construit pe legenda c edificiul s-ar
prbui dac n-ar fi afumat cu lumnri, dar un foc o mistuie i se prbuete
(sic!), eroul fiind omul mistuit de credin, ce zugrvete icoanele-n biserici.
Vezi i Marian Popa, Dicionar de literatur contemporan, Bucureti, Editura
Albatros, 1971, p. 515.
[74] Maria Ionic, Marin Sorescu. Un eu creator n ipostaze daimonice, Editura
Scrisul Romnesc, Craiova, 2005, p. 137. Afinitile dintre Paracliser i Meterul
Manole se amplific n episodul drmrii schelelor de ctre Paznicul surd,
moment care alimenteaz faptul absurd ce pregtete un final dublu, de cdere i
apoteoz, afirm Romulus Diaconescu, n Condiia uman n dramaturgia
postbelic, Editura Scrisul Romnesc, Craiova, 2001, p. 143.
[75] Ion, Vartic, Ibsen i teatrul invizibil, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic,
Bucureti, 1995, pp. 42-45.
[76] Ana-Maria Tupan, Marin Sorescu i deconstructivismul, Editura Scrisul
Romnesc, Craiova, 1995, p 140.
[77] Crengua Gnsc, Opera lui Marin Sorescu, Editura Paralela 45, Bucureti,
Piteti, 2002, pp. 127-128.
[78] Calea cunoaterii, contrar celei a manifestrii lui Dumnezeu, nu va fi o catabaz,
o coborre, ci o anabaz, o urcare ctre izvorul oricrei energii care se mani-
fest, ctre tearhie, monarhia Tatlui. Vezi Vladimir Lossky, Dup chipul i
asemnarea lui Dumnezeu, ediia a II-a, Editura Humanitas, Buucreti, 2006, p. 8.
[79] Vladimir Lossky, op. cit., Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2006.
[80] Paracliserul inventariaz idei i experiene speculative i epistemologice variate,

de la coala eleat i atomismul lui Parmenide, la aporiile lui Zenon, Democrit,
la metafizica platonician, de la gnosticismul diferitelor epoci pn la teorii
moderne i contemporane.
[81] Nikolai Berdiaev, Sensul creaiei. Incercare de ndreptire a omului, ed. cit, p. 9.
[82] Daniel Gligore, Sacerdoiul omului. Omul preot al creaiei, Editura Dacpress,
Curtea de Age, 2004, pp. 39, 53.
[83] Marin Sorescu a analizat i transpus aici idei despre sacru, preluate din Sfntul
Augustin, de la Rudolf Otto i Mircea Eliade.
[84] Aurel Codoban analiza specificul experienei ontologice i al experienei religi-
oase la la Hant, n fenomenologia lui Husserl, unde apare metafora contiinei
reflector, la Mircea Eliade, Rudolf Otto, n hermeneutica lui Dilthey, subliniind
c n prezent se definete o hermeneutic a experienei religioase n care divinul
si sacrul sunt delimitate, omul contemporan timznd spre o nou spiritualitate,
asemntoare celei de care vorbea Berdiaev n duh. Vezi Aurel Codoban,
Sacru i ontofanie. ed. cit, p. 29 i Nikolai Berdiaev, Sensul creaiei. Incercare de
ndreptire a omului ed. cit, pp. 290-293.
[85] Aurel Codoban, Sacru i ontofanie. ed. cit, p. 34.
[86] Dumitru Velea, Caietul Program, nr. 241 al Teatrului de Stat din Valea Jiului
Petroani, apud Marin Sorescu, Ieirea prin cer, ed. cit, pp. 89-90.
[87] Marin Sorescu, Teatru I. Setea muntelui de sare, vol. I, Grupul Editorial Art,
[88] Nikolai Berdiaev, Sensul creaiei. ed. cit, p. 246.
[89] Marin Sorescu, Teatru I. Setea muntelui de sare, vol. I, ed. cit, p. 46.
[90] Vezi Jean Chevalier i Alain Gheerbrant, Dicionar de simboluri, volumul III, P-
Z, Editura Artemis, Bucureti, pp. 404-405, Ivan Evseev, Enciclopedia simbo-
lurilor religioase i arhetipurilor culturale, Editura nvierea, Timioara, 2007,
pp. 586-587, Hans Biedermann, Dicionar de simboluri, vol. 2, Editura Saeculum
I. O., Bucureti, 2002, p. 471.
[91] n Republica, n Cartea a VII-a, Platon demonstreaz c metoda dialectic este
cea care, respingnd ipotezele, se ridic pn la principiu pentru a-i sonda solid
concluziile i care extrage ncet-ncet ochiul sufletului din mlatina barbar ctre
regiunea superioar, lundu-i drept ajutoare pentru asta artele Vezi Platon,
Republica, Editura Antet, Ploieti, 2002, p. 235.
[92] Eugen Simion, Scriitori romni de azi, vol. I, Editura Cartea Romneasc,
Bucureti, 1978, p. 310.
[93] Tragicul, starea de criz ies din confruntare permanent ntr-un spirit care
concepe raional i realitatea care fabric nencetat irealiti. Aa se explic i
starea de inocen n care triesc personajele soresciene, linitea cu care ele
accept neobinuitul, curajul lor de a mbria i de a tri iluzia, condiia de
excepie Eugen Simion, Scriitori romni de azi, vol. I, ed. cit, p. 311.
[94] n accepia dat de Anton Dumitriu, Culturi eleate i culturi heracleitice, Editura
Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1987, pp. 119-124.
[95] Constantin Rdulescu-Motru, Personalismul energetic i alte scrieri, ed. cit, p. 670.
[96] Marin Sorescu, Teatru I. Setea muntelui de sare, vol. I, ed. cit, p. 57.
[97] Roger Caillois, Mitul i omul, Editura Nemira, Bucureti, 2000.
[98] M. Berdiaev, Sensul creaiei, ed. cit., p. 35.
[99] Ivan Evseev, Enciclopedia simbolurilor religioase i arhetipurilor culturale, ed.
cit, p. 78.
[100] Al. Piru, Poezia romneasc contemporan, 1950-1975, vol. II, Editura
Eminescu, Bucureti, 1975, p. 189.
[101] Rodolf Otto, Despre numinos, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2006.
[102] Nikolai Berdiaev, Sensul creaiei, op. cit, p. 126.
[103] Manifestatea puterii divine care i-a mpiedicat omului cderea. Concept folosit
de Rne Girard, Gerardus Van der Leeuw, Aurel Codoban. Vezi Aurel Codoban,
Sacru i ontofani, ed. cit., pp. 58-59.
[104] Daniel Gligore, Sacerdoiul omului. Omul preot al creaiei, ed. cit, p. 55.
[105] Apud Daniel Gligore, Sacerdoiul omului. Omul preot al creaiei, ed. cit., p. 55.
[106] Romulus Diaconescu, Condiia uman n dramaturgia postbelic, Editura
Scrisul Romnesc, Craiova, 2001, p. 137.
[107] Aurel Codoban, Sacru i ontofanie. ed. cit., p. 55.
[108] Eugen Simion, Scriitori romni de azi, vol. I, ed. cit., p. 311.
[109] n Ibsen i teatrul invizibil, Ion Vartic analiza enigma dramei cu turn,
concept formulat de I. Negoiescu, abordat i de Nicolae Balot, ntr-o discuie cu
autorul citat. Drama cu turn este echivalena nelinitilor existeniale, a strilor
ultime trite de eroi. Vezi Ion Vartic, Ibsen i teatrul invizibil, Editura Didactic
i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1995, p. 45.
[110] Monica Spiridon, Melancolia descendenei, ediia a II-a, Editura Polirom, Iai,
2000, p. 79.
[111] Apud Ioan Gh. Coman, Patrologie, vol. II, Editura I.B.M.B.O.R., Bucureti,
1985, pp. 281-282.
[112] Caius Dobrescu, Modernitatea ultim, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1998, pp.
106-107.
[113] Ibidem, p. 111.
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Mounier_Emmanuel/personnalisme/personnalisme.html
Revizionismul, o anti-ideologie postdecem-

brist a recuperrii est-etice a valorilor. De la
mirajul integraionist la sindromul auto-distructiv
n discursul critic post-totalitar romnesc*
Nicoleta Ifrim,
Carmen Nane
Abstract: The criteria motivating the European orientation of national

literatures generate different significations gathered around the larger
concept of Romanian cultural identity which focuses on specific cultural
units, sometimes too abstract, such as cultural satellite vs European
orientation, cultural identity non-value vs myth of the national writer,
cultural patriotism vs the conscience of the marginal. From this
perspective, the analysis asks for an axiological pattern used to objectively
cope with the Romanian theories enhancing the identity issue, within the
larger European process of aesthetic validation by means of which our
culture can make its own voice heard. Within this context, G. Calinescus
case becomes representative for the self-destructive cultural syndrome
choosing to demolish the main literary values in the light of the revisionist
East-ethic drive.
Keywords: East-ethic discourse, aesthetic axiology, post-December critical
discourse, Calinescus dossier, Eurocentrism.
D ezideratul integrrii culturale a literaturii

romne n spaiul european a girat, n perioada post-comunist, un val
uria de contestri de orientare est-etic a marilor maetri, ntr-un proces
inchizitorial - validat critic al demascrii indezirabililor, acuzai
acum de colaboraionism i pactizare cu regimul dictatorial. Avntul
justiiar este asumat drept o necesitate de maculare a spaiului literar de
reziduurile totalitariste de scriitorii i scriiturile culpabile, consi-
derate incompatibile cu orientarea eurocentrist a anilor de dup
decembrie 1989, cu att mai mult cu ct discursul cu miz identitar
este din ce n ce mai prezent n spaiul romnesc, preocupat acum de
revizuirea valorilor naional-literare i restabilirea unui nou canon. n
calitatea sa de porteur dun langage capable de vhiculer la mmoire
*
Lucrare realizat cu sprijinul SOP HRD - TOP ACADEMIC 76822.
collective et de donner forme lidentit [1], spaiul cultural

postdecembrist devine scena pe care performeaz spectacolul est-etic
legitimat de manipularea violent a memoriei, distorsionnd raportul
scriitorului cu Istoria i validnd, cu orice pre, referina aproape
exclusiv la acel european Autrui gnralis (Claude Dubar) care
puisse permettre daccompagner la reconstruction identitaire, de servir
dintermdiaire entres les anciennes identifications en crise, voire en
faillite, et les nouvelles en gestation [2]. Odat cu trecerea de la We-I
identity (identifications culturelles et statutaires) la I-We identity
(identifications rflexives et narratives) [3], altfel spus de la compo-
nenta doctrinar-impus la cea n formare, scriptural, eliberat de
constrngerile supra-puse ale politicului, marca reprezentativitii, a
identitii valoric legitimate prin discursul literar, este supus unui
proces coroziv de revizuire eticist, invalidnd, n mod afiat, crite-
riile estetice ale judecii critice. Idealul integraionist al unei literaturi
post-totalitare cere ca schimbarea ideologic s genereze un alt sistem
de raportare la lume, un alt statut al scriitorului / criticului n cutarea
unor noi rfrences, des repres, une nouvelle dfinition de lui-mme
et donc des autres et du monde. Ces nouveaux repres, ces nouvelles
rfrences sociales, diffrentes des prcdentes, permettent progressi-
vement dincorporer une autre configuration identitaire, une autre
arrangement entre formes communautaires et socitaires , entre
identits pour autrui et identit pour soi [4].
n schimb, revizionitii est-etici reitereaz simptomatic un discurs
replic a paradigmei ideologice dominante totalitariste, cutnd
vinovai i trdtori: judectorii devin judecai, prigoniii
iau masca prigonitorilor, iar clivajele ocurente sunt uneori irecon-
ciliabile. Nu ntmpltor sunt atacate marile figuri creatoare ale
culturii romne ntr-un proces demistificator, maniheist care utili-
zeaz deliberat biografia ptat a scriitorului drept strategie de inva-
lidare estetic a operei. Este de notorietate dosarul colaboraionistului
G.Clinescu care a ocupat spaii extinse n articolele postdecem-
briste, ajungndu-se pn la emiterea unor etichete de o extrem
virulen cinic, oportunist, amoral i plin de laitate. Fr nici o
contiin etic i civil. Predispus la simulare, duplicitate i fars
public de mari proporii. Preocupat exclusiv de succesul i realizarea
personal, fr nici un scrupul [5]. Mai mult, limbajul la limita
vulgaritii, iritrile, tehnicile subestimrii, ale discreditrii i chiar
loviturile sub centur pe tema antiromnismului i neromnismului,
prezente n lurile de atitudine ale criticilor n misiune, servind cu zel
politica cultural ceauist, ori ale semidocilor de astzi i dintot-

deauna, nvpiai de mistica salvrii idolilor, toate se afl in nuce la
Clinescu! [6] Astfel aplicat, formula revizuirii morale devine un
exerciiu la ndemna publicitilor care i vars sptmnal fierea prin
gazete i contest de-a valma pe marii scriitori, spernd astfel s le ia
locul. Ei pot susine orice, de la moartea miturilor naionale la
ntoarcerea feudalismului. Un fenomen pe care cultura romn l-a
cunoscut i altdat, de pild dup 1945. S-a schimbat doar tachisma,
vorba lui I.L. Caragiale. Tachisma revizionist care, la paralela noastr
moral este o aglomerare impudic de resentimente, frustraii, uri
abisale i, pe dedesubtul lor o mediocritate compact i rzbuntoare.
Aadar: ne revizuim, ne revizuim, pn la apusul istoriei [7].
n alt ordine de idei, articolul lui Gh. Grigurcu, din Romnia
literar de sfrit de an 1995, prefaeaz, mai bine spus, pre-
normeaz seria atacurilor din ediiile revistei din anul urmtor, 1996,
o prigoan a trdtorilor instrumentat n numele unui re-viziona-
rism anti-pactizant / est-etic, a unei curenii ideologice a profilului
biografic/empiric al scriitorilor. i, nu ntmpltor, epurarea lite-
raturii romne de elementele nocive iat cum se repet istoria n
epoca postrevoluionar, a democraiei re-ctigate! ncepe cu
modelele recunoscute valoric, cu vrfurile sale legitimatoare, cu
Centrul. n ianuarie 1996, folosindu-se de un discurs cameleonic cu
int declarat punerea fa n fa a dou figuri tutelare, Lovinescu
i Clinescu i a celor dou programe postdecembriste care le urmeaz
ndeaproape spiritul i legea verbului Gh. Grigurcu proiecteaz, de
fapt, o mitologie personal compensatorie a sindromului inferio-
ritii care i marcheaz din umbr propriile expozeuri interpretative.
Demonstraia n sine i trdeaz insuficiena, dar i tendeniozitatea
afiat la nivel declarativ: cele dou modele canonice de cum se face
critic literar sunt puse n relaie de excluziune reciproc nu prin
argumente estetice privind construcia principial, ci, inevitabil, prin
plusarea contaminrilor biografice cu ideologia pro-pactizant care
ar invalida o metod, recte clinescian. Pe de o parte, antioportu-
nistul prin excelen [8] E. Lovinescu , pe de alta conformistul
G. Clinescu. (Ne)aderarea omului biografic / empiric la doctrina
politic totalitarist, un factor totalmente extra-literar, este chemat s
arbitreze cuantumul (non)valoric al celor dou programe critice. Miza
articolului are, n primul rnd, reverberaii postrevoluionare, demon-
tnd n virtutea unui asemenea argument o coal i figurile sale
emblematice. n al doilea rnd, pe un plan secund, aparent evaziv, dar
att de percutant n intenionalitatea lui mascat sub aura unui excurs

asupra metodei, demonstraia lui Gh. Grigurcu funcioneaz ca
proiect auto-legitimator, proiectnd o opiune care, paradoxal, este
fundamentat pe criteriile non-literarului compensatorie a margi-
nalului aflat n postura de a rzbi i auto-impune n canonul
Centrului. Sentinele orchestreaz unilateral, determinist i implacabil
procesul clinescienilor postdecembriti, pui la zid i etichetai
denigrator, n dichotomie (punere n antitez care, trebuie s
precizm, nu are consisten i percutan atunci cnd intr n scen
vectorul estetic de raportare la ideologia metodei) cu victimizaii,
exilaii, rezistenii anti-comuniti lovinescieni: Chipul tutelar al
lui E. Lovinescu ne confirm gndul c orice autoritate real are un
temei sacrificial. Masca sa n care au mpietrit un dramatism asumat, o
continu suferin domptat, alctuiete - ne dm seama tot mai bine -
un etalon pentru autenticii si continuatori. Nu dm exemplele care se
afl, de altfel, foarte la ndemn. Aproape fr excepie, aceti
continuatori au urmat un periplu de via dificil, n mai multe rnduri
au fost victimizai de interdicie, prigoan, temni, exil. N-a fost uor
pentru ei (nu este nc) a corecta, cum am spune n termeni lovines-
cieni, echilibrul negativitii dintre merit i recunoatere. Marca lor o
formeaz o doz de inadaptare, n virtutea idealului valorii i al
constanei de caracter. n orice caz, nu n rndul arivitilor, aranjorilor,
conjuncturalilor sunt de cutat actualii lovinescieni. Falsul lor moral
nu face dect s sublinieze autenticitatea, s-o legitimeze prin contrast
[9]. Prin ricoeu, inadaptaii contemporani i valideaz parcursul
personal prin aderena invocat la ilustrul magister, maximaliznd
rechizitorul biografic al Autorului n criteriile judecrii Operei, un
ideal al valorii i o constan de caracter fa de care, mrturisim
mpcai, Lovinescu nu a avut nici o afinitate. Mai mult, tabra
clinescienilor, manipulatori tendenioi ai esteticului, constituie, n
viziunea analistului, o adevrat menajerie demonologic, o mai-
nrie infernal, deformatoare a valorilor organizat ntr-o cast de
grup: Esteii tendenioi de la Literatorul, bunoar, au comprimat
concepia lovinescian, mai exact spus au mutilat-o pentru a o lipsi de
eficien n prezent. Lovinescianismul lor e unul estropiat. Frustrndu-l de
nsemnele unei atitudini militante, brbteti, l-au transformat ntr-un
serv al oportunismului lor incontestabil. I-au pecetluit gura, i-au legat
braul. i cer servicii, n schimbul unei recunoateri pur formale. Este
aceasta o nou, insolit, etap a negrii lui E. Lovinescu. Ea se nca-
dreaz, relevant, n peisajul anamorfotic al momentului postdecem-
brist. Rspunde acelei tendine de combinare eteroclit i repulsiv, de

asociere promiscu i colcitoare a unor factori ce preau a nu avea
nici un fel de afiniti ori chiar a se respinge. Viermuiala relictelor
totalitarismelor, dispuse a fraterniza prin sfidarea unor antagonisme
de-o via alctuiesc un fundal propice unui asemenea fenomen
monstruos. n aceast zon a pierzaniei, bizareria grefelor n-ar mai
trebui s ne surprind. Aa cum printr-o chirurgie politic a fost
ncercat socialismul cu faa uman, printr-o chirurgie estetic se
experimenteaz lovinescianismul cu faa inuman. Un lovinescianism
dereglat, aidoma unui Golem impulsionat a drma nsui spiritul
critic. Oare misticii i mistagogii cu care s-a rzboit E. Lovinescu mai
exist la ora de fa? Avem impresia c da, metamorfozai asemeni
unor virui nevoii a rezista mpotriva noilor mijloace terapeutice, sub
chipul misticilor i mistagogilor esteticului pur, oficios. Sunt vameii
i fariseii credinei n estetic [10].
Tuele unui astfel de portret (pe care l-am reprodus din dorina de
a-i evidenia criteriile interne de operare i judecat critic ce discre-
diteaz definitiv att pe autorul ei, ct i calea de interpretare aleas
o vendetta personal fr finalitate valoric) frizeaz absurdul, justifi-
cndu-se doar din perspectiva unui bluf retoric intit asupra demisti-
ficrii pactizantului tutelar, G. Clinescu. Rechizitoriul este
structurat pe o singur coordonat de semnificaie postura ideologic
servil a Divinului (Gh. Grigurcu) fa de un regim compatibil
cu structura sa interioar i, inevitabil, discreditnd tipul de critic pe
care l propune magistrul. n viziunea analistului Romniei literare,
demitizat ca discurs i practic a interpretrii prin nsi condiio-
narea politizant, metoda clinescian, tendenioas n strategiile
judecrii operei, regizeaz un scenariu critic care se auto-invalideaz
prin nsui comportamentul imoral al ideologului su. Emulii
postdecembriti nu ies, nici ei, de sub incidena sentinelor demola-
toare, fiind suspectai de supralicitarea, n descendena modelului
clinescian, a propriului ego dictatorial care sufoc libertatea de
expresie a operei prin aseriuni estetizante, non-militante. De
altfel, ntr-o asemenea demonstraie critic pertinent, modelul
Clinescu inoportuneaz deschiderile postdecembriste ale criticii
prin inconsecvena poziiei, prin abdicarea de la principiile estetice n
favoarea celor interesat-personale, colaboraioniste. Sunt aduse ca
argumente, evident distorsionate pentru eficacitatea definitivrii
statutului de inculpat, nesbuita sa ambiie a recunoaterii oficiale
pe modelele Sadoveanu (un alt beneficiar de dosar celebru al feno-
menului pactizant) i Parhon, precum i apologia lui Stalin i a

tezelor jdanoviste din 1944 colportate spre persiflarea partidelor
istorice. Scrib decepionat al regimului care nu i-ar fi gratificat
eforturile printr-o impunere la nivel de autoritate critic (de parc
mai avea nevoie de aa ceva!), maestrul devine un meschin decepio-
nat al sistemului care nu-i ntoarce serviciile: Aceast lips de
ncredere i afeciune partinic a fost marea sa durere. Scos de la
catedr, mpiedicat a-i tipri crile i chiar a cltori peste hotare
pentru a-i ngriji sntatea (iat o recunoatere neintenionat a
statutului de indezirabil! n.n), a putut rumina, nendoios, tema ingra-
titudinii unei puteri corupte, creia s-a silit a-i nchiria pana n condiii
ce le ndjduia avantajoase. Geniul su condus de vanitate s-a pome-
nit n postura de personaj naiv de fabul. ntre soarta sa i cea a lui E.
Lovinescu exist o deosebire considerabil. Orict i admirm pe
amndoi, nu putem a nu-l prefera, ca model, pe cel a crui soart a
ilustrat sacrificiul real, ca surs a autoritii [11]. Aceast opiune
personal a vehementului procuror nu deranjeaz dect n msura n
care este erijat n dimensiune modelatoare a criticii postrevoluionare,
alimentnd o fals opoziie structural care se auto-discrediteaz de la
sine odat cu impunerea postulatul estetic. n realitate, acest tip de
demers, al melanjului infertil de criterii (etic/estetic) funcioneaz prin
ricoeu spre validarea critic a propuntorului ei: nu este vizat
dect recuperarea unei mitologii personale deghizate, a unei biografii
camuflate sub eticheta oponentului i a dreptei msuri. O form
de iluzionism patologic (Andrei Grigor) sau de manifestare nihilist
a anticanonului (Simona Antofi).
n contra-replic, n 2000, Eugen Simion, mentorul autonomis-
mului estetic n judecata critic a operelor indezirabile aeaz lucru-
rile sub semnul normalitii obiective: Regimul totalitar avea nevoie
de numele lui G. Clinescu, dar se temea de ideile lui. Aa c l-au tre-
cut pe un circuit secundar, controlabil. Articolele puteau fi cenzurate,
discursurile la Academia Romn aveau o audien redus, iar ca
deputat G. Clinescu nu avea, n fapt, nici o putere. Putem, desigur,
s-i reprom faptul c a acceptat s joace acest rol decorativ. Unii
i-au spus chiar c s-a prostituat, c trebuia s aleag mai degrab
temnia, dect s in discursuri oficiale. Este uor s vorbeti n alt
timp i din alt poziie, este mai greu s fii scriitor ireproabil ntr-o
istorie atroce. Cum ar fi artat literatura romn la nceputul anilor 60
fr Tudor Arghezi i G. Clinescu? Este imoral s cerem cuiva s
devin victim dac noi nu suntem n condiia de a deveni victime...
Revenind la ntrebare: regimul comunist i-a aplicat lui G. Clinescu

dou msuri: una represiv (ndeprtarea din Universitate; interzicerea
operei sale fundamentale, cenzurarea la snge a crilor, limitarea
strict a posibilitilor de micare etc.) i alta permisiv, onorific,
reprezentativ: deputat, membru al Academiei Romne, libertatea de a
publica etc. O atitudine pervers fa de un mare spirit, o politic abil
bazat pe vechea strategie: cu o mn-i dai, cu alta i iei... [12]. De
altfel, discursul publicistic clinescian este spaiul deschis ctre
iniierea unui dialog subtil polemic cu marea Istorie, refleciile sale
proiectnd o istorie personal surprinztoare, seductoare prin fora
i acuitatea ideilor. Aa cum s-a i remarcat dealtfel, pamfletele din
Cronicile optimistului, nsemnri i polemici, Cronici literare i
recenzii, proiecteaz un discurs specific care nu aparine sub nici o
form profilului mental i valoric al conformistului: Prezentarea
galnic a cotidianului i diatriba polemic sunt cele dou extreme
ale gazetriei clinesciene. Procedeele predilecte sunt: relatarea mali-
ioas, citarea (<perlele> de tot soiul sunt vnate cu atenie i reliefate
fr mil), nscenarea burlesc, mimarea absurdului, caricaturizarea,
ncadrarea ntr-o tipologie. Verva coroziv (excepional, n cazul lui
G. Clinescu) l-a condus numai rareori la diatrib, autorul prefernd
ironia. Pamfletele denot, n majoritate, un spirit de moralist care
crede n perceptul horaian: ridentem dicere verum [13]. Pe de alt
parte, G. Clinescu considera c ,,lumea literelor este un parlament n
care discuiunea i libera expresie a sentimentului critic sunt agenii i
chiar raiunea de a fi a scrisului i ct vreme pstreaz nivelul vehe-
menei intelectuale, polemica este o onoare i pentru agresor i pentru
cel atacat. Dndu-i seama de primejdia pe care o reprezint o
asemenea libertate de opinie, o seam de autori caut s compromit
prin toate mijloacele spiritul critic i s-l confunde cu ura i rzbu-
narea [14]. n acest sens, publicistul invit la ,,lupt dreapt literar i
nu fizic, cum era provocat uneori [15], apreciaz polemica loial i
strlucirea atacului inteligent, este incisiv sau cinic doar pentru a
amenda mediocritatea, platitudinea sau lipsa culturii. Radiografiile
sale sociale, din Jurnalul literar i artistic, din 1939, definesc o agil
vocaie critic, cu impact asupra schimbrilor social-culturale ale
epocii: Un ochi expert poate observa fr s cad n nici o exagerat
mizantropie, c sforrile pe care le face omul ardent i educat s
cultive tineri sunt primite cu o apatie mut, cu un ochi ntunecat i n
chip mahmur prudent. Capacitatea de antipatie care st larvar, uscat
n orice om normal, a nfrunzit i iese ca acele de pin prin ochi. Este
probabil c lumea trece printr-o criz. Prea mult cea n juru-ne irit
i d halucinaii i aprehensiuni [16]. Conform Dicionarului General
al Literaturii Romne (vol.II), ntre 1920 i 1965, G.Clinescu a scris
peste 1200 de texte constituind articole de atitudine, cronici literare i
recenzii, note polemice, medalioane tiprite n cele mai importante
gazete i reviste de cultur ale vremii (este director fondator, redactor,
colaborator la reviste precum Dimineaa, Capricorn 1930, publicaie
editat de el nsui, Adevrul literar i artistic titularul cronicii
literare ntre 1932-1939, Tribuna poporului 1944-1945, Lumea
1945-1946, Naiunea 1946-1949; colaboreaz la numeroase perio-
dice: Roma, Dacia, Universul literar, Viaa literar, Sburtorul,
Sinteza particip la pregtirea apariiei revistei, Gndirea, Vremea,
Romnia literar, Viaa romneasc, Revista Fundaiilor Regale,
Jurnalul literar, Cuvntul, Iaul, Micarea, Politica, Ecoul, Vestul,
Studii i cercetri de istorie literar i folclor, Contemporanul,
Gazeta literar, Steaua, Teatrul) [17]. Inaugureaz celebrele rubrici
fixe, sptmnale, precum Cronica mizantropului (12 februarie 1933)
i Cronica optimistului (9 decembrie 1955), publicate n Adevrul
literar i artistic i n Jurnalul Literar (1933-1939), Vremea i Lumea
(1943-1946) i n Contemporanul (1955-1965) acestea proiecteaz
spectacolul personalitii (Ion Blu) clinesciene, multiplele ipos-
taze creatoare ale scriitorului sub vremuri. Eafodajul publicistic
este insertat de constatri zilnice, pamflete politice i culturale,
incursiuni i predilecii polemice, articole de idei, toate trdnd o
atitudine franc, incisiv, cu exprimarea clar a opiniilor personale,
pentru impunerea adevrului i sancionarea mediocritii, prejudec-
ilor i clieelor. Expunerile sunt tranante, relatrile maliioase, aver-
siunile categorice, cenzura neierttoare i concluziile manifeste, avnd
permanena i precizia unui barometru social, raionalist n gndire i
idealist n druirea profesional, ntr-un context social politic nepriel-
nic, opresiv i periculos. Profilul interior al publicistului este orientat
spre ordine, armonie avnd ca unitate de msur luciditatea i conci-
zia, iar diversele subiecte sunt abordate ntotdeauna profund i respon-
sabil. Ion Blu a remarcat, de altfel, faptul c, ,,ntr-o vreme cnd
opera lui T. Maiorescu i Eugen Lovinescu era interzis, cnd majo-
ritatea criticilor interbelici erau n nchisori, iar celor liberi li se inter-
zisese dreptul la publicare, G. Clinescu era singurul al crui glas
rsuna cu regularitate [18] i nu de puine ori, tonul este subliminal
i acid, ocultat sub miza pamfletar a discursului. n acest sens, Daniel
Cristea Enache observa, ntr-un articol publicat n 2011, c Cronica
mizantropului, pe care G. Clinescu o inuse, sub pseudonimul

Aristarc, n Adevrul literar i artistic, Jurnalul literar, Vremea i
Lumea, nu cadra cu euforia oficial, obligatorie la intrarea n lumea
nou, socialist. Printr-o piruet a convingerilor afiate, marele critic a
renunat la mizantropie pentru demofilie i la izolarea de societate n
favoarea activrii entuziaste n snul ei. Cronica mizantropului a de-
venit Cronica optimistului i ceva din modul caracteristic al autorului
de a gndi problemele culturii i ale lumii printr-o prism de subiecti-
vitate ntoars, contradictorie, polemic s-a pierdut. ns rubrica lui
din Contemporanul a avut un impact formidabil i un rol formativ
greu de cuantificat. ntr-un context profund viciat de monocroma-
tismul ideologic, vocea lui G. Clinescu, stilul su inimitabil, verva
ideatic marcau o excepie de la regul, o pat de culoare n cenuiul
epocii [19].
*Fragmente din prezentul articol au fost publicate n volumul Identitate

cultural i integrare european. Perspective critice asupra discursului
identitar romnesc n perioada postdecembrist, Ed. Europlus, Galai, 2011,
autor Nicoleta Ifrim.
Note
[1] Christine Chivallon n Di Mo, Di Mo, Guy, Le rapport identit/espace. lments

conceptuels et pistmologiques, halshs-00281929, version 1-26 May 2008,
http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/28/19/29/PDF/Identite-Reims.pdf, p. 8.
[2] Claude Dubar, La crise des identits. Linterprtation dune mutation., PUF, 2000,
p. 172.
[3] Ibidem, p. XI.
[4] Ibidem, p. 172.
[5] Adrian Marino, Viaa unui om singur, Ed. Polirom, Iai, 2010, pp. 50-51.
[6] Eugen Negrici, Iluziile literaturii romne, Ed. Cartea romneasc, Bucureti,
2008, p. 47.
[7] Eugen Simion, Fragmente critice vol.6, Bucureti, Fundaia Naional pentru
tiin i Art, 2010, pp. 1-2.
[8] Gh.Grigurcu, Consideraii asupra lui E. Lovinescu, n Romnia literar, nr. 2 /17
ianuarie 1996 .
[9] Ibidem.
[10] Ibidem.
[11] Ibidem.
[12] Eugen Simion, G. Clinescu n-a avut istoria pe care geniul su o merita, n
Academica, nr. 12 (120) octombrie 2000 http://www.acad.ro/academica/
pag_acad_12_01.htm
[13] Postfa la volumul G. Clinescu, nsemnri i polemici, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti,
1988.
[14] G. Clinescu, Critica i justiia sau polemic cu pistoale, n Adevrul literar i

artistic, 1931.
[15] G. Clinescu, Duelistul, n Adevrul literar i artistic, 1932.
[16] G. Clinescu, Capacitatea de ur, n Jurnalul literar i artistic, 1939.
[17] *** Dicionarul General al Literaturii Romne, vol. II, Ed. Univers
Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2007, p. 132.
[18] Ion Blu, G. Clinescu spectacolul personalitii, Ed. Fundaiei Culturale Ideea
European, Bucureti, 2004, p. 133.
[19] Daniel Cristea Enache, Optimismul lui Clinescu, n Dilema veche, nr. 397, 22-
28 septembrie 2011 http://www.dilemaveche.ro/sectiune/dileme-line/articol/
optimismul-lui-calinescu
Bibliografie
Antofi, Simona, Discursul critic actual ntre clasicitatea modelelor i presiunea

anticanonului, n Communication Interculturelle et Littrature, no. 1, May-
June-July, 2008.
Blu, Ion, G. Clinescu spectacolul personalitii, Ed. Fundaiei Culturale Ideea
European, Bucureti, 2004.
Clinescu, G., Capacitatea de ur, n Jurnalul literar i artistic, 1939.
Clinescu, G., Critica i justiia sau polemic cu pistoale, n Adevrul literar i
artistic, 1931.
Clinescu,G., Duelistul, n Adevrul literar i artistic , 1932.
Clinescu,G., nsemnri i polemici, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti, 1988.
Cristea Enache, Daniel, Optimismul lui Clinescu, n Dilema veche, nr. 397, 22-28
septembrie 2011 http://www.dilemaveche.ro/sectiune/dileme-line/articol /optimi
smul-lui-calinescu
Di Mo, Guy, Le rapport identit/espace. lments conceptuels et pistmologiques,
halshs-00281929, version 1-26 May 2008, http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/
docs/ 00/ 28/19/29/PDF/Identite-Reims.pdf
*** Dicionarul General al Literaturii Romne, vol. II, Ed. Univers Enciclopedic,
Bucureti, 2007.
Dubar, Claude, La crise des identits. Linterprtation dune mutation., PUF, 2000.
Grigor, Andrei, Iluziile literaturii romne. Iluzionism (2), n Caiete critice, no. 11,
2009.
Grigurcu, Gh., Consideraii asupra lui E.Lovinescu, n Romnia literar, nr. 2 /17
ianuarie 1996.
Marino, Adrian, Viaa unui om singur, Ed. Polirom, Iai, 2010.
Negrici, Eugen, Iluziile literaturii romne, Ed. Cartea romneasc, Bucureti, 2008.
Simion, Eugen, Fragmente critice vol. 6, Bucureti, Fundaia Naional pentru tiin
i Art, 2010.
Simion, Eugen, G. Clinescu n-a avut istoria pe care geniul su o merita, n
Academica, nr. 12 (120) octombrie 2000 - http://www.acad.ro/ academica/
pag_acad_12_01.htm
Despre intelectuali, politic i cultur n spaiul

romnesc totalitar i posttotalitar.
Adrian Marino, Viaa unui om singur
Doinia Milea
Abstract: Focused on as a testamentary autobiography, Adrian Marinos

memoir book, Viaa unui om singur / The Life of a Lonely Man published
in 2010, five years after the authors death, mirrors the different facets of the
Romanian intellectual experiencing both the totalitarian and post-totalitarian
age, equally having to cope with the Romanian society and culture dilemmas.
The book perspective on the pre-December social, political and cultural life
is overtly related to the ideas dynamics subjected to the oppressive
ideological mechanism forcing the intellectual to accept mystification and to
obey the cultural and political icons of the period.
Keywords: the intellectuals status, pre / post-totalitarian age, egofiction,
autobiography, cultural and political icons
Un prim portret al lui Adrian Marino,

interesant ca termen de comparaie i de mare finee n liniile generale,
este propus de Marian Popa, n 1971, citndu-l pe G. Clinescu. La
acea dat Marino publicase Viaa lui Alexandru Macedonski, 1966,
Opera lui Alexandru Macedonski, 1967, Introducere n critica
literar, 1968, Modern, modernism, modernitate, 1969: ,,A.M. este
mai ales un eseist curios i malign, mare scotocitor de cri, cu stil
intelectual i acut de excursie livresc. La aceste observaii Marian
Popa adaug: ,,Prin trecerea timpului, trsturile enunate s-au
conturat i nuanat: curiozitatea a dat natere unor lucrri valoroase,
iar malignitatea s-a transformat ntr-un autentic complex, publicistul
dovedind o irascibilitate i o suspiciune aproape unic n contextul
literar contemporan [1].
Acelai articol de dicionar definete, pornind de la Viaa lui
Alexandru Macedonski, metoda de creaie, care peste atia ani
caracterizeaz i construcia din Viata unui om singur, aprut n
2010: Execuia vizeaz omul antinomic, oscilnd permanent ntre
iluzie i realitate, cu tot complexul de circumstane care l-au creat:
rudele, prietenii, dumanii, condiiile de existen material precar,
cuplate cu ura aproape general din care se va nate, la rndu-i,
dispoziia ferocitii. Fr intenii de romanare, dar cu simpatie pentru

obiect, sunt etalate toate datele intind n genere ctre un portret moral
al unui romantic frondeur i antifilistin (...), egoist, setos de tmie,
ambiios i bovaric, grandios n toate actele i aspiraiile sale i cu un
complex de superioritate pe care autorul crii era poate singurul
exeget n stare s-l intuiasc desvrit [2].
Finalul articolului este i el foarte aproape de personalitatea
criticului i eseistului Adrian Marino: O caracteristic a lucrrilor ca
i a articolelor sale este caracterul pasionat-polemic, uneori pur
gratuit. Un neajuns al acelorai lucrri l constituie dimensiunile lor
greu accesibile cititorului i chiar cercettorului de azi, dimensiuni n
genere obinute nu att prin informaii, ct prin afirmaii adeseori
repetate, prin precizri care izvorsc dintr-o nevoie de acoperire total,
specific unui spirit grandios i ptima [3].
n 2001, articolul semnat de Mircea Martin n Dicionarul scriito-
rilor romni, definete intr-o secven conclusiv un alt aspect defini-
toriu al viitoarelor memorii: Regimul acordat subiectivitii nu difer
esenial de la Dicionar... la carnetele europene (1974, 1976, 1978):
acelai eu e pus n circulaie de M., fie c scrie despre o carte, despre o
idee, despre un muzeu sau despre sine. Cltoriile nu sunt pentru el
dect pretexte ale confesiunii intelectuale care nu lipsete nici din sin-
tezele abstracte. n jurnale, spectacolul devenirii operei devine, n mod
explicit, un spectacol al construciei de sine, cu tot ceea ce aceasta din
urm presupune: iluzii i deziluzii, refulri i defulri. Meditaia
confesiv a autorului rezultat din confruntarea prezenelor romneti
cu realitile europene, atinge pe alocuri accente dramatice [4].
Aceste portrete ale intelectualului fa n fa cu textele sale i cu
spaiul social i politic pe care-l traverseaz, permit nelegerea aces-
tor memorii cu destin voit postum ca un spectacol al construciei de
sine, pe care autorul nsui ncearc s o defineasc, nc din
Preambulul crii, avnd ca subtitlu Dificulti. Sintagme ca un
document n felul su, clarificri interioare importante, edificator
asupra sensurilor eseniale ale existenei mele, definiia exact a
singurtii mele, cartea vieii mele, definesc scopul/sensul acestui
text confesiv. Autorul i plaseaz existena pe fundalul socio-cultural
definitoriu: procesul vieii mele este (...) i procesul culturii i civili-
zaiei romne, ntre anii 1920 i 2000, repere nu chiar convenionale.
Total neadaptat mediului romnesc, de toate categoriile, mi ngdui
s-l evaluez fr nici o clemen i complezen [5].
Asumarea propriilor alegeri face parte din structura intern a crii:

C am suferit umiline i cedri nu contest. Cine poate fi erou zi de
zi, ani i chiar decenii ntregi, mai ales sub un regim dictatorial,
represiv, terorist? Dar punnd cap la cap toate episoadele prin care am
trecut, ndrznesc s afirm c nu mi-a fost i nu-mi este ruine, n
esen, de viaa mea. Trit adesea n condiii-limit, chiar disperate.
Pre prea mare? Inevitabil? N-am nici pn azi un rspuns definitiv,
riguros, inatacabil, la aceast ntrebare. Pn la urm, mi spun, ca o
consolare de ordin istoric: opera salveaz n cultur, n ultim analiz,
toate slbiciunile creatorului [6].
Autorul i trece declarativ n planul secund viaa personal i
mai ales sentimental propunnd cititorului viaa mea intelectual i
ideologic, intim, dar i exterioar i public (...) sub diverse regi-
muri autoritare i totalitare, un nou gen subordonat ideii de biografie
cam cte autobiografii culturale i ideologice de acest tip exist n
literatura romn? Un gen care, de fapt, nici nu exist. Dac am
renunat la prima versiune a acestei Viei... este i pentru motivul c
vreau s-o rescriu ct mai calm, neutru, obiectiv i, mai ales, ideologic
posibil. Un examen riguros de contiin al unui intelectual romn, cu
toate ideile, reveriile, iluziile, revoltele, decepiile i... prostiile sale.
M intereseaz doar o evoluie intelectual i ideologic, formaia sa
progresiv, adesea dificil. Evocat ct mai autentic, introspectiv,
esenial i semnificativ posibil (). Viaa dur a unui intelectual
romn stpnit ntotdeauna de bune intenii [7].
Declarativ o carte a rememorrii, a resentimentului, marcat de
memoria afectiv, ea pune n loc ceva, ceea ce a fost distrus,
desfiinat, umple un gol. Reface un echilibru rupt. Cu rol resturator i
compensator, notaiile nu nregistreaz ,,amintiri frumoase: tiu ce
nseamn furia, indignarea i revolta. Foarte multe dintre ideile
dezvoltate n crile de teorie, hermeneutic i comparatistic literar
sunt aici ntr-o form anticipativ. Marino i judec opera n raport cu
ntreaga tradiie european a crilor la care are acces sistematic. Se
compar cu mediul intelectual ntlnit n redaciile revistelor, cu
editori sau scriitori ai momentului i gsete c A avea un suflet i un
spirit paoptist, ntr-o cultur ca a noastr, nc minor, provincial, n
plin copilrie, este, pe un plan strict personal, o adevrat calamitate.
Eti imediat izolat, boicotat, atacat. Visam o cultur romn solid,
rezistent, original, n felul su, i m loveam doar de compilaii,
sincronizri mecanice, alinieri docile i minore la ultima mod
intelectual [8].
Capitolele Descoperirea crilor, Crile romneti, Relaiile

externe, Adio literaturii i Singurtatea cultural construiesc un
profil intelectual n formare, de la un adolescent rebel, la cel care se va
regsi n cartea lui G. Papini, Un uomo finito, refuznd ideea de grup, de
afiliere de tip ideologic. Refuz modelul maetrilor,a ,,stpnului
intelectual n spe, trece de la admiraia pentru Clinescu la marele
eec Clinescu, pe care-l vede egocentric (...), ntr-un interior
mediocru, ters, mic-burghez.
Refuzul leciei maetrilor capt i o justificare Oamenilor, orict
de excepionali, nu le este ngduit orice (...). Descopeream, pas cu
pas,imensa fars a Marelui Maestru [9].
Regretul i frustrarea de-o via a solitarului intelectual se simte
n fiecare pagin a acestei confesiuni recuperatoare: Nimeni nu apre-
ciaz, cel puin deocamdat la noi, sinteza, construcia n mai multe
volume, enciclopedismul, erudiia referinelor internaionale folosit
n spirit independent i critic. Am mai spus-o i o repet: este un indiciu
evident de cultur minor, fragmentar, publicistic, actualist i
mecanic-sincronic [10].
Nu rmne pe soclu niciun intelectual ntlnit n ar sau n
deplasrile din strintate: eternul procent inevitabil de mediocriti:
Atunci mi-am dat seama, prin experiena cea mai direct, cum se
stabilesc, de fapt, reputaiile, canoanele i modelele critico-literare
occidentale. Cum se instituie i funcioneaz dictatura unei orientri i
metode critice unice. Ignorarea sau expulzarea radical a poziiilor
teoretice i metodologice adverse [11].
Revista Observator cultural, n numrul 519/1-14 aprilie 2010,
propune la rubrica O carte n dezbatere, un dosardezbatere, pe
marginea crii lui Marino, Viaa unui om singur. Demersul revistei
este important pentru refacerea biografiei intelectuale a lui Adrian
Marino, dincolo de cderile sociale (nchisoarea i domiciliul forat
din Brgan, deriva politic totalitar), exilul interior, furtunile orgo-
lioase sau nenelegerile cu mediul cultural romnesc. Acest demers
reabiliteaz opera unui intelectual marcat interior de un puternic
complex social, care, ntr-o perspectiva asupra spaiului romnesc
apreciaz c se va putea construi, cndva, o alt contiin critico-
teoretic n cultura romn. Urmat de o alt contiin ideologic. n
ultim analiz, totul st pe afirmarea energic a ideii de construcie, de
ntemeiere (...). Am foarte viu sentimentul construirii culturii
permanent ascendente [12].
Note
[1] Marian Popa, Dicionar de literatur romn contemporan, Bucureti, Albatros,

1971, p. 360.
[2] Ibidem, p. 362.
[3] Ibidem, p. 363.
[4] Dicionarul scriitorilor romni, M-Q, coordonatori Mircea Zaciu, Marian
Papahagi, Aurel Sasu, Bucureti, Albatros, 2001, p. 106.
[5] Adrian Marino, Viaa unui om singur, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2010, Preambul, p. 7.
[6] Ibidem, Relaiile cu regimul, p. 229.
[7] Ibidem, Motivaii, p. 11.
[8] Ibidem, Singurtatea cultural, p. 329.
[9] Ibidem, Marele eec. G. Clinescu, p. 49.
[10] Ibidem, Cteva concluzii, p. 489.
[11] Ibidem, Relaiile externe, p.160.
[12] Ibidem, Cteva concluzii, p. 497.
Bibliografie
Caietele Echinox, vol. 7, Literatur i totalitarism, Cluj-Napoca, Dacia, 2004.

Marino, Adrian, Viaa unui om singur, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2010.
Observator cultural, 519/1-14 aprilie 2010, O carte n dezbatere: Viaa unui om
singur, pp. 8-16.
Prvan-Jenaru, Dana, Elitism i individualism excepionalist n cultura romn,
Observator cultural, 151/7-13, februarie 2008.
Kurt Vonneguts Stylistic Inventiveness in

His Use of Telegraphic Schizophrenic Black
Humour
Abstract: A very important part of Kurt Vonneguts life was when he served
in World War II and was a prisoner of war in Dresden, which affected him
greatly. His experiences are rendered in his famous Slaughterhouse-5, the
novel under discussion in the present paper, which is truly unique in point of
inventiveness, style and structure, further upholding the anti-war theme and
the texts black humour. Besides the classical traits of black humour, shared
by most black humorists, Vonnegut adds his distinctive stylistic
characteristics that contribute to his singular form of black humour, i.e. the
use of multiple narrative perspectives, the random time structure, the
combination of trivial and high literature, lexical inventiveness, the play
upon emotional detachment and involvement in the story, parallel verbal
motifs, illustrations, the oral rhythm, the poetical stylistic devices, and the
appeal to the readers senses, which makes the experience of black humour a
total and all-encompassing one.
Keywords: black humour, linguistic stylistics, stylistic inventiveness
A very important part of Vonneguts life was

when he served in World War II and was a prisoner of war in
Dresden, which affected him greatly. His experiences are rendered in
his famous Slaughterhouse-5, which is truly unique in point of
inventiveness of style and structure, further upholding the anti-war
theme and the texts black humour.
The majority of the book is written in the past tense, but the narrator
occasionally uses the present tense especially in the first and last
chapters when speaking from a personal point of view as Kurt
Vonnegut. The reporting of Billys speech is in the present tense (for
example Billy Pilgrim has come unstuck in time. Or so he says [1].
Intermittently, the tense switches to future, as when Billy describes his
future death. As far as the writing style of Slaughterhouse-5 is concerned,
there arent too many adjectives. The novels writing is minimalist and
dry, and Vonnegut tends to write in short, declarative sentences. The
tone of the novel is spare, elusive and deadpan.
The title page of Slaughterhouse-5 is an original example of the

fusion of laughter and pain, of humour and blackness. A kind of pun
that reads somewhat like a short prayer, the title page not only affirms
the authors personal connection to the narrative that follows (itself a
prayer that no more Dresdens will occur to haunt future generations)
and to the unusual telegraphic schizophrenic manner in which it will
be told; it also begins Vonneguts story before its actual beginning.
Even the pages typography, which forms the outline of a bomb with
the all-important word peace at its tip, serves as a comment on the
violence of war and it is an integral part of the novels black humour
and resourcefulness.
The complete title of the novel is Slaughterhouse-5, or The
Childrens Crusade: A Duty-Dance with Death. It is, at the same time,
surprising and black humourish by the unusual juxtaposition of terms:
the noun children is associated with the nouns slaughterhouse, death
and crusade, while the noun dance is associated with the nouns duty
and death. The triple titles on the title page and the unique association
of terms synthesize the novels major events at the same time that they
suggest the insufficiency of any title to encapsulate the experiences
Vonnegut describes.
Slaughterhouse-5 is the actual address of the one hundred
American prisoners of war in Dresden; they were housed in the fifth
building of an old slaughterhouse, originally built as a shelter for pigs
about to be butchered.
One of the most resourceful stylistic elements of the novel is the
unique way of combining narrative perspectives. The nineteen-page
first chapter is more an authors preface giving personal background
and attitudes. Hence, the presence of the narrator within the novel is
one of the most important stylistic idiosyncrasies of Vonneguts
writing.
Vonnegut starts his novel with the following paragraph:
All of this happened, more or less. The war parts, anyway, are pretty
much true. One guy I knew was shot in Dresden for taking a teapot that
wasnt his. Another guy I knew really did threaten to have his personal
enemies killed by hired gunmen after the war. And so on. Ive changed all
the names.
The first noticeable feature of the above fragment is the colloquial

tone which is expressed by the usage of contractive forms such as
wasnt, Ive as well as the use of italics (was and did) to indicate the
stressed words within the sentence in order to emphasize, or by the

use of colloquial words and expressions such as guy, so on, more or
less, pretty as a modifier of much.
Vonnegut keeps this colloquial tone throughout the whole novel
and it undoubtedly helps to raise the readers attention and create the
sense of being welcome to listen as they can perceive the authors
trust to tell them something personal and private.
Another specific aspect of this paragraph and the whole chapter
One, which is also evident from the colloquial nature, is its personal
quality. First-person narrator using the first-person pronoun I
(repeated three times in the above paragraph) does not refer to one of
the characters in the fictional world of the novel, but it is used to
immediately establish the narrative voice as the author-narrator. In
chapter One, Vonnegut keeps the same narrative perspective
collapsing the three discourse levels into one author-narrator-character
which is primarily used in autobiographies. At the end of chapter One,
Vonnegut-narrator reveals that he has finished his war book now and
pre-establishes the opening and closing words of the fictional part of
the novel:
It begins like this:
Listen:
Billy Pilgrim has come unstuck in time.
It ends like this:
Poo-tee-weet? (p. 22)
by means of which the author clearly implies that he is the storyteller.

The first question the reader is confronted with after reading the first
paragraph of the novel is the question of truth. Vonnegut, on the one
hand, claims that his novel is not fictitious, but, on the other hand, he
also states that everything only happened more ore less, thus restricting
the truth of the story. Does the story depict reality or even truth, or is it a
work of fiction? Vonnegut intentionally leaves this question for the
reader to answer, adding another facet to the novels black humour.
The remaining nine chapters are different from the first chapter.
The narrative perspective changes right at the beginning of chapter
Two, employing the traditional technique of omnipresent and
omniscient third person narrator, commonly used in fictional works.
Nevertheless, the authors presence as a character is felt in many
instances within the remaining chapters of the book by means of his
remarks. Here is an example of a sudden unexpected one-line
comment which breaks into the middle of an episode describing the

Americans digestion problems, who, having eaten properly after a
long starvation period, all suffer from diarrhoea:
The place was crammed with Americans who had taken their pants
down. An American near Billy wailed that he had excreted everything but
his brains. Moments later he said, There they go, there they go. He
meant his brains.
That was I. That was me. That was the author of this book.
Billy reeled away from his vision of Hell. (pp. 125-6)
This extract is important not only for Vonneguts entering his tale
of Billys life explicitly but it also revels one branch of poetical
devices (another ingenious feature of Vonneguts style) that
contributes to the oral rhythm, which will be discussed in more detail
further on. An example of poetical device used here is the repetition of
the syntagm That was, and the use of the synonym me for the pronoun
I, and of the paraphrase the author of this book.
The plastic, descriptive, grotesque image in this fragment, which is
obviously a mark of black humour, is supported by the use of the
verbs to cram and to excret and of the predicate plus direct object had
taken their pants down. Also, one may notice the ironic tinge, which is
expressed by the assertion He had excreted everything but his brains
and the superfluous comment He meant his brains. The verb to wail,
which expresses pain and suffering is an extremely inspired choice
from the part of the author as, together with the irony and the plastic
image, make up the black humour of the passage.
The most extensive case when Vonnegut repeatedly refers to
himself as I or me can be found in the final chapter, which can be seen
as a blend of the fictional Billys tale and Vonneguts
autobiographical comments of the same events. Particularly the very
final autobiographical comment of the war events is the point in which
Vonnegut comes closest to depict the fire bombing of Dresden: Two
days after the city was destroyed. Now Billy and the rest were being
marched into the ruins. I was there. OHara was there. (p. 212)
Notice here the use of the Passive Voice, were being marched, which
expresses unwillingness from the part of the speaker and, of the
repetition of verb plus adverb was there, which expresses, on the one
hand, regret and, on the other hand, it stresses the idea of destruction
depicted in the first sentence The city was destroyed. However,
paradoxically, in neither his autobiographical reminiscences nor in his

fictional story is the bombing described directly.
The author asks himself if it is possible and sensible to write literature
with regard to such horrible events. This is also explicitly expressed in the
novel: It is so short and jangled, Sam, because there is nothing
intelligent to say about a massacre. Everybody is supposed to be dead.
(p. 29).
In this excerpt, as opposed to the rest of the novel, where adjectives
are extremely scarce, Vonnegut employs three adjectives, two forming a
hendiadys, short and jangled, referring to his book, and the other,
intelligent, preceded by the negative adverb nothing, referring to the
firebombing of Dresden. The tone of this passage is stern; Vonnegut
uses words with a great force of assertion like the noun massacre or the
past participle dead. The conclusion, Everybody is supposed to be dead,
is grim and is meant to make the reader reflect upon the implications of
such a massacre.
The conclusion of this fragment is probably the reason why
Vonnegut doesnt directly describe the firebombing of Dresden or
why he uses such simple language all through the novel, without many
descriptive adjectives.
Vonneguts narrative presence makes a crucial impact on the
novels tone. Besides the linguistic indicators, the reminiscences, the
discussions with the OHares, the openness in declaring his difficulties
with the subject of war, all point towards Vonnegut being a truthful
narrator. His authenticity is vital to the telling of this extraordinary,
often horrifying, story and it consistently contributes to its black
humour.
Another device Vonnegut makes use of, which proves his stylistic
inventiveness, a device which is also extremely relevant for the
novels black humour, is the combination of trivial and high literature.
Traditionally, these two levels of literature are not combined, as they
are considered to be commensurate. Both theses types of literature
usually represent different levels of style, language and meaning. In
using them together, Vonnegut deliberately breaks with this
distinction, thus transforming humour into black humour, crossing the
border between black and humour and mingling these two concepts
together in a unique way.
He already starts with this technique in the first chapter. On the
first two pages, Vonnegut introduces several examples of trivial or
low literature. The postcard written by the taxi driver is quoted as well
as the obscene limerick and the cyclical story about Yon Yonson. Out
of these we shall quote here the limerick, which is the most relevant:
There was a young man from Stamboul,
Who soliloquized thus to his tool:
You took all my wealth
And you ruined my health,
And now you wont pee, you old fool. (p. 14)
The use of the verb to soliloquize, which is evidently part of high

literature, in the same context with the euphemism tool, which is part
of trivial literature, is clearly ironic. Moreover, another interesting
thing about this quotation, which stresses the authors irony, is that
Vonnegut plays with registers of style, using this limerick in the same
paragraph in which he quotes Horaces Odes: Eheu, fugaces labuntur
anni. My name is Yon Yonson. There was a young man from
Stamboul (p. 14). Hence, it becomes obvious that Vonnegut
deliberately puts the quotation from Horace next to the trivial Yon
Yonson poem to achieve his aim.
It becomes apparent that Vonnegut combines the didactic level of
high literature with the motivating effect of trivial literature, uniting
two different kinds of literature in an attempt to create a black humour
model no author has ever created before.
Reading the quotation from Horace (trans. Alas, our fleeting years
pass away), which most probably comments upon the destruction of
Dresden, the reader becomes aware of the consequences caused by the
attack on Dresden, i.e. the black part of black humour, reading the
limerick, or postcard written by the taxi driver, or the song about Yon
Yonson and many other examples could be quoted the reader
might be amused, thus Vonnegut managing to render the funny part of
black humour. In other words, Vonnegut succeeds in combining
horror and humour in a revolutionary way.
Another attention-grabbing point is the fact that the passage
quoting Horace is itself also embedded in another quotation. Thus,
Vonnegut quotes a quotation in a quotation. This device is a typical
example of a technique called regressus in infinitum. Vonnegut wants
to point out that there is no real starting point for anything. He also
makes this obvious by putting the first and the last sentences of his
novel next to each other, thus claiming that time is not linear but
cyclical or spiral.
And this brings us to another highly original stylistic feature,

which characterizes Vonneguts book, i.e. time structure.
The telegraphic schizophrenic manner of writing, overtly asserted
from the very beginning by Vonnegut, matches perfectly the novels
random, skipping timeline, which presents an effective method of
representing mans inability to live a normal life after experiencing
modern warfare. Slaughterhouse-5 represents a disjointed collage of
Billy Pilgrims life, which gets translated directly to the disjointed
collage of the narrative.
A traditional novel might start with a youthful Billy Pilgrim and
follow him into old age or with an elderly protagonist who flashes
back on his life. Billy, however, adopts a Tralfamadorian attitude
because it is the only way he can make sense of the loose grip on time
he is left after the war. In order to follow him, the narrative
approximates the same attitude.
The manner of writing of a Tralfamadorian novel is discussed in
chapter Five. This peculiar way of writing also reflects the concept of
time Vonnegut employs in conceiving his own novel:
Each clump of symbols is a brief, urgent message describing a situation,
a scene. We Tralfamadorians read them all at once, not one after the
other. There isnt any particular relationship between all the messages,
except that the author has chosen them carefully, so that, when seen all at
once, they produce an image of life that is beautiful and surprising and
deep. There is no beginning, no middle, no end, no suspense, no moral, no
causes, no effects (p. 47).
In the first sentence of the fragment, the striking feature is the

perfectly balanced syntactic structure. Vonnegut uses two binary
syntactic structures, one made up of two adjectives, brief and urgent,
and the other one made up of two nouns, situation and scene. After the
first and second sentences, which are concise and to the point, the
third and fourth sentences are more elaborated and intentionally
disrupt the syntactic balance of the whole paragraph. In the second
sentence, the author uses three adjectives linked by means of the
coordinating conjunction and (beautiful and surprising and deep),
while in the fourth sentence he uses an enumeration of seven nouns
(no beginning, no middle, no end, no suspense, no moral, no causes,
no effects). This disrupted balance, which is manifest on the level of
narrative technique and time structure, is also manifest on a linguistic
level, as shown by the above fragment. One may easily make a
parallel here of the way reality before and after the war looks like.
This parallel is reflected at a linguistic level as well. Before the war
everything was balanced (fact which is stylistically manifest by the
use of the two binary syntactic structures), while after the war
everything is unbalanced and oversized (fact which is proven by the
use of the seven nouns).
The concept of time is again brought up in another fragment, in
which Billy tries to explain the Tralfamadorian view of its circularity
as opposed to the linearity perceived by humans:
All moments, past, present, future, always have existed, always will
exist. The Tralfamadorians can look at all the different moments just the
way we can look at a stretch of the Rocky Mountains, for instance. They
can see how permanent all the moments are, and they can look at any
moment that interests them. It is just an illusion we have here on Earth
that one moment follows another one, like beads on a string, and that once
a moment is gone it is gone forever. When a Tralfamadorian sees a
corpse, all he thinks is that the dead person is in a bad condition in that
particular moment, but the same person is just fine in plenty of other
moments (p. 23).
In this fragment, except for the general idea expressed, that time is
circular and not linear, one may notice the circularity conveyed at a
linguistic and stylistic level as well.
The main stylistic devices used here are repetition, comparison and
exemplification.
As far as repetition is concerned, Vonnegut uses the noun moment,
in the singular or plural, eight times in this nine-line paragraph. On a
surface level, the reader might be annoyed by this repetition but, on a
deeper level, he might take into account the authors intention to
stress, on the one hand, the Tralfamadorian view of time and, on the
other hand, the circularity of the fragment. Vonnegut begins and ends
the paragraph with the noun moments, thus stylistically and
linguistically rendering its circularity. Also, every sentence contains at
least one time the noun moment(s), proving the consistency of
Vonneguts argumentation.
Here there can also easily been detected the use of words that
indicate the permanence of time, like the adverbs always (repeated
twice) and forever and the adjective permanent. By the use of the
comparison like beads on a string, Vonnegut manages to render a very
plastic image of time as seen by humans on earth. This comparison is,
afterwards, opposed to the two exemplifications Vonnegut employs in

order to describe the Tralfamadorian perception of time.
The first exemplification is also a comparison of time to a stretch of
the Rocky Mountains, which is again a very plastic image, while the
second exemplification is a very good sample of black humour intrusion
(When a Tralfamadorian sees a corpse, all he thinks is that the dead
person is in a bad condition in that particular moment, but the same
person is just fine in plenty of other moments), expressed by the light
and optimistic tone with which Tralfamadorians regard death and
corpses.
Nevertheless, although the events taking place in the novel jump
back and forth in time and place, a linear story does emerge out of the
jumble of time-shifted details, which is linguistically supported by the
skilful use of definite and indefinite reference.
Examining the narrative style of Slaughterhouse-5 from the point
of view of given and new information, it could be said that its third
person narrative technique corresponds with the commonly used
strategy of sequencing descriptive details using indefinite reference
for unknown details and definite reference for known or already
mentioned information. As a consequence, the readers tend to get a
distanced birds-eye view of the scene, characters and happenings,
enabling them to perceive the story as outsiders who are allowed to
take their own stand of what is described, although Vonnegut
carefully and masterfully guides them all through the novel.
There are at least two examples of a deviating viewpoint from the
common norm, which indicate, as asserted before, the fine
manipulation of the reader by the author.
Chapter Two, which is basically the first chapter of the fictional
part of the novel and therefore the beginning of the plot, opens with
giving details on the main character Billy Pilgrim. There is nothing
unusual about the narrative technique of this chapter as the third
person narrator employs a typical strategy of indicating the new
information by indefinite article and further reference to the given
details is preceded by definite article. But this referential system is
unexpectedly disrupted towards the end of the chapter when in the
middle of a scene-describing paragraph, a definite reference appears
among indefinite ones:
Weary kicked and shoved Billy for a quarter of a mile. The scouts were
waiting between the banks of a frozen creek. They had heard the dog. They
had heard men calling back and forth, too-calling like hunters who had a
pretty good idea of where their quarry was. (p. 48).
The paragraph depicts the moment of Billy and Weary catching up

the scouts who, being ahead, are waiting for them in the banks of a
creek. The place as well as the happening is new to the characters and
readers, too, so the reference to the creek and men is indefinite. At the
same time, the narrator uses a definite article referring to the dog. This
is not surprising because there is an earlier reference to the same dog a
few pages backwards. However, the way Vonnegut uses definite and
indefinite reference is rather unusual. The first mention of the dog can
be found on page 42 and it just colours the situation of Weary being
deep in his thoughts not paying attention to any outer sounds:
Somewhere a big dog was barking. Weary didnt hear that, either.
(p. 42) The next reference to the dog is the one mentioned above,
which, with the reference to the past happening, basically points at the
same barking. The dog is mentioned next on the same page:
Somewhere the big dog barked again, and once again in the same
chapter: But then Weary saw that he had an audience. Five German
soldiers and a police dog on a leash were looking down into the bed of
the creek (p.51).
Such a technique of re-emerging the same subject or situation
affects the readers in three possible ways.
First, as the plot is neither continuous nor chronological and
especially in the part where the phrase with the dog appears, it is
heavily fragmented, the repeated mention of the dog helps the reader
follow the line of the plot and find the connection between fragments
of the story.
Second, it creates the sense of tension and alarm appealing to the
readers perception as there is obviously something that the narrator
hides from them and therefore it increases their appetite to continue
reading.
Last but not least, it is positioning the readers as people who are
familiar with the scene and helps them to feel involved with what is
going on.
This technique called in medias res can be found once more in
chapter Three of the novel:
Billy and his group joined the river of humiliation, and the late afternoon
sun came out of the clouds. The Americans didnt have the road to
themselves. The westbound lane boiled and boomed with vehicles which
were rushing German reserves to the front. The reserves were violent,
windburned, bristly men. They had teeth like piano keys (p. 64).
Thanks to the usage of definite reference in the extract, Vonnegut

achieves that the reader shares the perspective of the prisoners of war
and gets an intensive impression of the situation. Nevertheless, such
an involvement of the reader into the story is in contrast with the
preceding paragraph which basically describes the same scene but
obviously from a different angle. Here, the hordes of American
soldiers are seen as if from a birds eye view, looking like moving
water being compared to a Mississippi of humiliated Americans
flowing through the valley. The contrast created by ordering these
passages one after another is a very powerful means that helps the
readers perceive the situation from the perspective of an outer
observer as well as somebody in the middle of things. Hence,
Vonnegut manages to render the black humour of the paragraph by
wonderfully blending emotion and the omniscient perspective.
Besides the use of definite reference, the paragraph is rich in stylistic
devices that Vonnegut manages to combine in an ingenious manner in
order to give rise to black humour. In the first sentence, Vonnegut uses
a beautiful metaphor, the river of humiliation, which together with the
positive, optimistic and, at the same time, somewhat ironic assertion,
the late afternoon sun came out of the clouds, form one instance of
black humour. The black humour here is also supported by the use of
the coordinating conjunction, and, which brings together the negative
and the positive.
Another instance of black humour is the ironic last sentence They
had teeth like piano keys, which contains a surprising comparison,
meant to render the image obtained more plastic for the readers and,
thus, emotionally involve them in the scene.
Moreover, other contributors to the black humour of the excerpt
are the hendiadys boiled and boomed, by means of which Vonnegut
manages again to provide a plastic image that perfectly matches the
metaphor from the first sentence, and the enumeration of the
adjectives violent, windburned, bristly, which make up a triple
syntactic structure on the sentence level, used to describe the German
reserves, and which have a great force of assertion.
The most prominent stylistic device which attracts notice of
anybody reading the novel is repetition of phrases.
The phrase So it goes is one example out of a number of repetitive
devices in the novel. There is a sense of embittered humour with this
Tralfamadorian phrase, which is repeated over one hundred times in

the novel. This fatalistic comment follows almost every mention of
death or dissolution in the novel, from disinfecting clothes in which
bacteria and fleas were dying by the billions (p, 32) to the peculiar
death of Billys father having been shot dead by a friend while they
were out hunting deer (p. 84) and the massacre of Dresden. Vonnegut
seems to use this phrase consciously in order to fuse his
autobiographical narrative comments into the fictional part but, and
this is more surprising and puzzling, the other way round. This phrase
follows every mention of death in the novel, equalizing all of them,
whether they are natural, accidental, or intentional, and whether they
occur on a massive scale or on a very personal one. The phrase is
consistent with the Tralfamadorian idea that although a person may be
dead in a particular moment, he or she is alive in all other moments of
his or her life, which coexist and can be visited over and over through
time travel. Nevertheless, at the same time, the obsessive repetition of
the phrase keeps a tally of the cumulative force of death throughout
the novel, thus pointing out the tragic inevitability of death, on the one
hand, and the black humour of the text as a whole, on the other.
At first, the saying can be looked upon as funny in an ironic way.
However, as one reads further, the phrase becomes irritating and
irreverent. At one point, the reader cannot fathom so many deaths
meaning so little. This punctuation phrase forces the reader to look at
the novels deaths one after the other and not omit any of them.
Ultimately, the repetition creates a feeling of resentment that too many
people are killed. The saying is, in fact, a grim reminder that means
exactly the opposite of what its words say.
In addition there are two other phrases which penetrate the factual
as well as the fictive part of the novel. It is the phrase and so on,
which helps to establish and hold the colloquial manner of the
narration. The other parallel interwoven in the whole novel is the
smell of mustard gas and roses, referring first to Vonneguts drunken
breath in chapter One, then to an anonymous man on the phone, the
drunken breath of whom, Billy could almost smell through the
receiver, and, finally, the smell is mentioned once more towards the
end of the book in the simile the bodies rotted and liquefied, and the
stink was like roses and mustard gas (p. 214), when depicting the
process of ruins removal after the firebombing of Dresden.
All the three phrases are used throughout the autobiography-like
chapter One and the remaining nine fictional chapter, and therefore
help to unify the narrative perspective of the whole novel. Moreover,

they contribute to the group of poetical devices, the use of which is
quite extensive in Slaughterhouse-5.
All through the novel there are other stylistic devices that are part
of the class of poetical devices and that bring an important contri-
bution to the novels black humour, such as alliteration (pattered their
horny palms with potato-mashed grenades p. 121; The third bullet
was for the filthy flamingo p. 55), assonance (They were jerky little
scissors. It was a chilly night, and Billy came indoors after a while
p. 63), polysyndeton (There was food in the wagon, and wine, and a
camera, and a stamp collection, and a stuffed owl, and a mantel clock
p. 32), and allusions to high literature (there are numerous allusions
used in the novel among which we can mention those to the Gideon
Bible in chapter One, to the novel The Brothers Karamazov by Fyodor
Dostoevsky in chapter Five, to the New Testament also in chapter
Five, to the land of Oz from The Wonderful Wizard of Oz in chapter
Six, to Uncle Toms Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe in chapter Nine
or to Ivanhoe by Sir W. Scott in chapter Eight or to The Three
Musketeers by Alexandre Dumas in chapters One and Five).
Although Slaughterhouse-5 may not be filled with delightful satire
and comical scenes, there are accounts which force the reader to laugh
although the situation is extremely serious.
The following excerpt, depicting the scene of the Germans
guarding the imprisoned Americans, crammed up in wagons, waiting
to be transported to the prisoners camp in Dresden, is a typical
example of Vonneguts black humour in which the reader is puzzled,
not knowing whether to laugh at Vonneguts description and use of
words or to cry about the grotesque image and inhumane treatment of
the Americans:
Nobody was to let off until the final destination. To the guards, each car
became a single organism which ate and drank and excreted through its
ventilators. In went water and loaves of black bread and sausage and
cheese, and out came shit and piss and language. Human beings in there
were excreting into steel helmets which were passed to the people at the
ventilators, who dumped them. Billy was a dumper. When food came in,
the human beings were quiet and trusting and beautiful. They shared (p. 70).
The stylistic device that is pervasive in this excerpt and that brings
an important contribution to its black humour is the polysyndeton,
which is used four times: ate and drank and excreted; water and
loaves of bread and sausage and cheese; shit and piss and language;
quiet and trusting and beautiful. One may easily notice that more
things go in the box-car than go out of it. There is no account of the
prisoners emotions, so the logical assumption may be that the items
that dont go out of the car are emotions of the people inside it. Other
stylistic devices employed by Vonnegut are personification (each car
became a single organism, which we assume is alive since we are told
that it eats, excretes and talks) and fronting (Vonnegut stresses the
noun the guards by using them in front position in the sentence in
order to emphasize the perspective from which the fragment is
written, i.e. of the guards). In this excerpt, too, Vonnegut combines
trivial and high literature, the former becoming manifest by means
of the nouns piss and shit and the latter by means of the verb excreted.
On the surface level, the language is concrete, to the point and it
lacks any involvement from the part of the author. But, this surface
detachment is misleading because the initiated reader can easily realise
that the emotionless description is made from the perspective of the
German guards. Nevertheless, on a deeper level, emotional involvement
from the part of the author is apparent by the use of the polysyndeton, of
personification, of the verb to let off (which seems like an
encouragement from the part of the author) and of the highly expressive
and almost poetic language.
The fragment ends in a positive and optimistic note, by the use of
the polysyndeton made up of three adjectives having a positive conno-
tation, quiet and trusting and beautiful, and of the verb shared. This
makes its black humour lighter and easier to assimilate by the reader.
Thomas F. Marvin claims that:
Vonneguts writing resembles telegraphic messages because all unnecessary
words are left out. Short chapters are divided up into even shorter sections
and placed side-by-side without the usual connections to lead readers from
one to the next. This technique forces readers to make their own connections
and highlights the subjective nature of reading a novel [2].
Marguerite Alexander alludes to Vonneguts fragmented style in

the novel by claiming how the experience of Dresden has transformed
his fictional mode:
The restraint of language implies that language itself lacks the resources to
deal with such events. The omnipresent authorial voice benign, decent,
accepting, despairing registers the response of hopeless and powerless
humanity when confronted with such catastrophes [3].
Patrick W. Shaw declares that:

Vonneguts sight parody also encompasses the myth of poetic vision a
myth accepted and propagated by writers such as Ralph Waldo Emerson
and Walt Whitman who announce that they possess all-seeing eyes that can
gaze into the essence of natures purpose. Vonnegut denigrates such
romantic self-delusion. He realises that human insight is limited and offers
at best a distorted view. The artist has no more perspicacity than the fool [4].
To sum up, Kurt Vonneguts well-known Slaughterhouse-5 is not

only a work of fiction which describes the absurdity of war, it may
also be called an anti-novel as to its narrative technique. By means of
his original and extremely inventive style, the traditional devices of
chronology and causality lose their value, and the chaotic situation in
war is reflected in a seemingly arbitrary collection of mental
associations.
Notes
[1] K. Vonnegut, Slaughterhouse-5, Dell, New York, 1991, p. 14.

[2] Th. F. Marvin, Kurt Vonnegut: A Critical Companion, Greenwood Press,
Westport, 2002, p. 17.
[3] M. Alexander, Flights from Realism: Themes and Strategies in Postmodernist
British American Fiction, Edward Arnold, London, 1990, p. 56.
[4] P. W. Shaw, The Modern American Novel of Violence, Troy, Whiston Press,
New York, 2000, p. 107.
References
Alexander, M., Flights from Realism: Themes and Strategies in Postmodernist British
American Fiction, Edward Arnold, London, 1990.
Lundquist, J., Kurt Vonnegut, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., New York, 1971.
Marvin, Th. F., Kurt Vonnegut: A Critical Companion, Greenwood Press, Westport,
2002.
Schatt, S., The World of Kurt Vonnegut Jr., in Critique, vol. 12, issue 3, 1971.
Shaw, P. W., The Modern American Novel of Violence, Troy, Whiston Press, New
York, 2000.
Vonnegut, K., Slaughterhouse-5, Dell, New York, 1991.
Widdowson, H. G., Stylistics and the Teaching of Literature, Longman, London,
1991.
Rewriting the Past: John Fowless The French

Lieutenants Woman, A Maggot and Mantissa
Cristina Mlinoiu Ptracu
Rsum: Les uvres de John Fowles prsentent une des caractristiques

paradoxales de la fiction postmoderniste, c'est--dire lassimilation et
ladaptation parodique des modles littraires du pass. Fowles revient
constamment au canon littraire, mais son approche de la tradition raliste
est toujours subversive et conteste les prmisses du roman raliste et tout
particulirement du roman victorien. Deux romans de Fowles, The French
Lieutenants Woman et A Maggot sont considrs et mme interprts par
les critiques traditionalistes comme des romans historiques, malgr le
proteste de lcrivain qui na jamais accept cette opinion et sest dclar
contre une telle catgorisation. Mme si les deux uvres se prsentent, au
moins au premier regard, comme des romans historiques, elles nen sont pas,
tout simplement parce-que Fowles reprend et rcrit le pass en utilisant
dune faon pas du tout innocente la manire dcrire et tous les autres
lments caractristiques du roman historique.
Mots-cls: John Fowles, fiction postmoderniste, canon littraire, roman
historique.
On the contemporary literary stage, John

Fowless writing finds itself a place within a vast rank of fictions
which had a constant evolution after the 1950s. This new kind of
experimental writing whose main concern is to explore the
complexities of the relationship between fiction and reality through
the opposition between constructing and then destroying the mimetic
illusion is known under the name metafiction, a term invented by
William Gass in 1970. One of the main characteristics of metafictional
texts which is the foregrounding and exaggeration of the tension
existing between technique and counter-technique, frame and
frame-breaking, construction and deconstruction of illusion (see
Waugh: 1984) may be attributed also to Fowless novels. His fiction,
as many other metafictional works, includes both innovation and
familiarity (Waugh: 1984) since it starts from a familiar ground or
code, the conventions of the realist novel, which the writer employs
and subverts through a parodic reworking. Thus Fowles challenges the
traditional conventions of the novel from within these very

conventions trying to find new, more experimental forms, from inside
the old ones. Amongst a host of metafictional experimentalists Fowles
is considered to belong to a category represented by those who,
although taking fictionality as a theme to be explored, still preserve
the humanist value of communicating a meaningful message to the
readers. This group of writers who do not sacrifice meaning altogether
in favour of form differentiate themselves from those who create
radical fiction. If fiction which falls in the first category is still
readable at least at one level and despite its use of deconstructive
strategies still offers the reader the possibility to recuperate a coherent
meaning and to reconstruct the projected world, radical fiction
explodes or destabilizes the projected world (McHale: 1996) to the
point that it denies any meaning and ontological status.
However placing Fowles in one or another of these categories
remains problematic. Even if his novels present some or all of the
features inherent in all metafictional writings, they still resist
classification being at the same time traditional and experimental,
Victorian and neo-Victorian. Hence the difficulty faced by critics who
seem unable to make up their mind between considering Fowles an
experimentalist writer or a realist one. Consequently Fowles was
ranged successively amongst writers of metafiction, neo-realism,
historical novels, and even magic realism or fantastic postmodernism.
John Fowless novels display one of the paradoxical features of
postmodernism, namely its appropriation and parodic reworking of
models of the past. Fowles returns constantly to the literary canon, but
his approach to the realist tradition is always subversive and clearly
challenges the realistic premises on which the nineteenth century
novel was based.
The relationship between Fowless fiction and Victorian literature
remains a problematic one, since it presupposes a double, ambivalent
attitude towards the crushing sort of literary tradition Fowles was
speaking of. This relationship, though implicitly stemming out of the
writers fascination for the great Victorian masters, has always a
revisionist dimension and shows clearly his rebellion against the
realist canon and his will to undermine it by breaching its rules. In his
effort to break free from the norm of the conventional writing, Fowles
uses parody as a playful and ironic reworking of the nineteenth
century novel in order to reconceptualise and reshape the experience
of the past into a new form. However his search of a new form of
expression for his novels takes place inside the old ones and this is
one of the reasons why so many critics have mistakenly considered
Fowles a realist writer, being misled by the realistic traps he so
carefully displays. One of the most important of these realistic traps
that may be found in all his novels is Fowless use of the conventions
of the realist novel, as well as of a series of reality-enhancing
mechanisms.
Two of his novels, The French Lieutenants Woman and A Maggot
are considered by many realist-biased critics as pertaining to the
historical genre, despite Fowless declared disapproval and discontent
with such a categorization. In spite of their apparently taking as a form
of expression the historical novel, both The French Lieutenants
Woman and A Maggot only play with the modes of writing and
constituents of the historical genre by a ludic and seditious rewriting
of the (textual) past. Consequently none of these two novels is a truly
historical one.
In The French Lieutenants Woman, Fowles places his story in the
tradition of the Victorian novel. From the opening paragraphs, the
omniscient narrator establishes all the elements of a realistic
introduction: he describes the setting where the events of the novel
will take place and delineates it in spatio-temporal terms; he
introduces the characters, describes their physical appearance and
habit in detail and makes allusions to a possible love relationship. If at
a first glance, the beginning of the novel clearly abides by the rules
of literary realism, a more attentive reading discloses a series of
subversive clues which take the text out of the Victorian context. The
first of these clues is the ludic juxtaposition of intertextual allusions.
In this respect, the first sentence seems to be borrowed from Jane
Austen, a literary reference which is made all the more transparent by
mentioning her novel Persuasion whose events are also (partially) set
in Lyme Regis. Then, the ironic comments on the characters vanity
definitely call to mind Thackerays Vanity Fair, whereas the criticism
of womans expected behaviour seem reminiscent of George Elliot.
But the most unusual of all these allusions is the anachronistic
reference to Henry Moore, a twentieth century artist, as well as the
narrators commentary on the narrowness of Ernestinas skirt, a
commentary which is surely addressed to a non-Victorian reader who
is thus made to take an active part into the reading process.
Another device, usually employed as a reality-enhancing
mechanism and whose main function is to authenticate the fictional
world to which it refers, is the use of epigraphs and footnotes.

Fowless novel begins by reintroducing the Victorian tradition of
epigraphs. The first chapter opens on a fragment quoted from Thomas
Hardys poetry, which perfectly fulfils the traditional function of the
epigraphs, as the sites of aesthetic ornaments and authoritative
thematic announcements (Gutleben 2001: 111). But when, in the
second chapter, Fowles quotes from statistics indicating the
impossibility for all women in the Victorian age to get married, the
occurrence of this type of epigraphs raises some suspicions as to their
authenticity and their conventional handling by the narrator. Then,
when further on, in chapter four, what the epigraphs cite are a local
medical report and a letter from a prostitute, the subversion of the
epigraphs is clearly identifiable. In fact it becomes obvious that
epigraphs will not be handled in the traditional, old-fashioned way,
but they will be used to connote in the exact opposite direction: that is
instead of reinforcing the reality effect, they will point to the
fictionality of the world projected by the text. All these paratextual
samples, placed at the outward frame of the text, do not simply
announce or introduce the diegetic world they accompany, but they
criticise it, they do not pay homage to the famous voices of the past,
but make audible voices of the silenced, repressed ones. Fowless
manipulative use of the epigraphs and openings illustrates his
remarkable art of parody as a new synthesis of an old and new code,
as a repetition with critical distance, as imitation and then transfer
and reorganization of the conventions of the past (Hutcheon 1985).
The subversive play with genre may also be seen at work in the
confusion and interplay of different modes of writing. The French
Lieutenants Woman* mixes the constituents of the Victorian novel
with elements of the Gothic novel. The Gothic literature of the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was first of all an expression of
the revolt of passion against virtue. Liminal figures, like monsters,
vampires or witches, stand in fact for the erotic desire the black
horses of carnal passion buried deep down in the human
unconscious, but which, sometimes, threaten to take control over
reason. It is in this context that Charless fear to engage into the
forbidden, as embodied by Sarah, should be interpreted. As in one of
the famous Gothic tales, The Mysteries of Udolpho, the woman, in this
*
All references will be made to the 1981 Triad/Granada edition of John Fowless
The French Lieutenants Woman.
case Sarah, represents such a temptation for Charles that he is no

longer able to control his instinctual passion which leads to his
making love with her at the Endicott Family Hotel. This is the reason
why, after this climactic encounter with Sarah, Charles not only feels
the satisfaction of sexual desire, but also a whole ungovernable
torrent of things banned, romance, adventure, sin, madness,
animality(304). To his horror, Charles finds out a little later that
Sarah is not the outcast maiden with no one to protect her, but an
unnaturally passionate virgin who seduced him and lured him in an
irreversible situation. Charless vision of Sarah as a succuba, a satanic
figure whose only purpose is to destroy him, corresponds to the
representations of women in the Gothic novel. The evil heroines of the
Gothic are nothing but an embodiment of mens fear of being
possessed and killed by women. Charless thoughts are symbolic in
this sense.
And all those loathsome succubi of the male mind, their fat fears of a
great feminine conspiracy to suck the virility from their veins, to prey
upon their idealism, melt them into wax and mould them to their evil
fancies these, and a surging back to credibility of the hideous evidence
adduced in the La Roncire appeal, filled Charless mind with apocalyptic
horror (307-308).
The interplay between the Victorian and the Gothic novel serves
two purposes: one purpose is to undermine the seriousness of the
great realist novel by mixing its code with a minor one (abolishing
the distinction between high and low culture). The other purpose is
to bring to the fore a different kind of representation of femininity
than those in the Victorian era. Fowless intention is to undercut the
Victorian notion according to which women were not supposed to feel
sexual pleasure. This concept had as a result the common Victorian
representation and categorization of women as either virgin or whore.
Sarahs behaviour defies the rules of Victorian society and seems to
justify womens depictions as demon lovers in the Gothic novel.
A Maggot, like The French Lieutenants Woman, seems at first
sight a historical novel. Again, the opening chapter situates the events
in time and space. It is the eighteenth century England, 1736, which
this time Fowles revisits. From the start, the narrator plays with the
temporal dimension to which is added a mythic quality, since a story
which begins In the late and last afternoon of an April long ago (A
Maggot* 1986: 3) may be very well said to take place in an illo

tempore described as some strange doldrum of time, place and spirit
(11). The setting and then blurring of the temporal line is the first sign
that the reader must not expect an accurate historical account of some
events that took place in 1736. Though the details given in the first
half of the opening chapter seem to re-create the atmosphere of that
time, soon it appears that what is constructed is the feeling or
illusion of that world and that constantly the reader is made alert to the
textual signs which unable him/her to see through the illusion. Again,
Fowles uses the conventions of the novel against themselves, choosing
this time the eighteenth century mode of writing. Fowless choice is
surely determined by the fact that the period saw the rise of the novel
as a genre, fighting its way out of other modes or forms of literary
expression, especially the romance. It is the time of Swift and Pope, a
time when the novel strives for the recognition of its moral value and
social utility. In order to hide its fictionality and claim that the events
depicted are real, the novel takes various forms of expression, such
as the letter, the memoir, the confession, enclosed between a prologue
and an epilogue which are meant to reinforce the impression of the real.
In A Maggot, Fowles draws on all these literary conventions, the same
way he has drawn on the narrative conventions of the Victorian novel in
The French Lieutenants Woman. Thus, Fowles opens his novel with a
Prologue and ends it with an Epilogue that he signs with his name.
Then he creates a fictional persona as the heterodiegetic narrator of the
events who identifies with the twentieth century author of the Prologue
and Epilogue. The narrator who takes the stance of a historian and
objective witness of the events resembles very much its pedantic
forerunner in The French Lieutenants Woman. Even if he is historically
accurate, the narrator cannot refrain from commenting on the social life of
eighteenth century England from a twentieth century perspective and he
is often anachronistic, as when he comments on the urban landscape
which conveyed nothing but an antediluvian barbarism, such as we can
experience today only in some primitive foreign land in an African
village, perhaps, or an Arab souk (11).
Besides the two paratexts at the beginning and end of the novel,
Fowles, apparently observing the laws of objectivity, hands over to the
reader several genuine documents from that time: several excerpts
*
All references will be made to the 1986 Totem Books edition of John Fowless
A Maggot.
from The Gentlemans Magazine dated back in 1736 and 1737, letters,
and the depositions of several witnesses to the events that led to the
mysterious disappearance of Mr. Bartholomew and the death of his
servant, Dick Thurlow. In an interview with James R. Baker, Fowles
says that he used the chronicles from The Gentlemans Magazine to
give the reader a taste of the real thing (in Onega 1989: 139).
Consequently, it turns out that the historical chronicles do not function
as a device which authenticate the world that Fowles creates, but, on
the contrary, they are meant to highlight the difference between the
real thing and its fictional projection. In the same way, the Prologue
and Epilogue, which are expected to sustain the reality of the
characters and events described in the novel, are used to the exact
opposite purpose, expressing Fowless refusal to enhance the reality of
his constructed world. Once more, the expectations of the reader (and
critic) are undermined, much in the same way in which the narrator of
The French Lieutenants Woman destroyed the carefully created
illusion of reality by his infamous intrusion in the Chapter Thirteen of
the book.
Another genre which A Maggot parodies is the detective novel,
because the mystery of Mr. Bartholomews disappearance and Dicks
death are never solved. There is no answer to the riddle despite Henry
Ayscoughs efforts to find out the truth. As in Umberto Ecos The
Name of the Rose, which in its turn distorts the pattern of the detective
genre, Ayscough, the cunning barrister, has gathered all kinds of
evidence about the journey undertaken by Mr. Bartholomew. This
amount of evidence includes an analysis of a sample of the soil around
the Dollings Cave where Mr. B was seen for the last time. According
to the traditional rules of the detective genre, the enigma of a murder
is always solved out and the murderer is found and thus the ontology
of the fictional world though destabilized is re-established with the
discovery of the truth. But in A Maggot the expectations of the reader
who believes that Ayscoughs investigation will in the end have the
desired outcome, leading to the discovery of a murderer, are betrayed
by a continuous postponement of the answer to the question that
haunts everybody: What really happened in the Dollings cave? In fact
the conclusion, formulated by Ayscough at the end of his research, in
a letter-report he sends to the Duke, includes his own speculations
about what might have happened, but not the absolute truth. Because,
as the two competing versions of Rebeccas deposition point out, there
is no absolute truth, as there is no absolute reality, but versions or
constructions of reality, or what we, humans, might understand as and

take for reality. This seems to be the message that Fowles wants to
convey to his readers through his writing of a novel that is and at the
same time is not an eighteenth century novel.
Mantissa, the shortest of all Fowless novels and the most unusual
of them all, was intentionally left at the end of this article because it
parodies the modern novel, as well as Fowless own novels and the
poststructuralist and deconstructive theory. Fowless piercing irony is
directed against the contemporary novel which takes itself too
seriously. Several times his aversion is overtly expressed and comes to
the surface with unrestrained vigour:
The reflective novel is sixty years dead, Erato. Even the dumbest
students know its a reflexive medium now, not a reflective one. .
Serious modern fiction has only one subject: the difficulty of writing
serious modern fiction The natural consequence of this is that writing
about fiction has become a far more important matter than writing fiction
itself.
At the creative level there is in any case no connection whatever between
author and text. Our one priority now is mode of discourse, function of
discourse, status of discourse. Its metaphoricality, its disconnectedness,
its totally ateleological self-containedness (Mantissa* 2009: 117-118).
But what Fowles attacks even more fiercely is the kind of

unimaginative literary criticism which fosters and praises the kind of
novel he criticizes and takes into derision. In one of his numerous
dialogues with Erato, Miles Greens gives voice to his piercing irony
against literary criticism:
What I was actually rather wondering was this (colon) whether there
arent really areas that merit further investigation by both the written
and the writer (comma) or (comma) if you prefer (comma) between the
personified as histoire and the personifier as discourse (comma) or in
simpler words still (comma) by you me (comma) and as I feel sure we
have at least one thing in common (colon) a mutual incomprehension of
how your supremely real presence in the world of letters has failed to
receive the attention of the campus faculty-factories (comma) the
structuralists and deconstructivists (comma) the semiologists (comma) the
Marxists (comma) academic Uncle Tom Cobbleigh and all (comma) that
it deserves (semi-colon) (64).
*
All references will be made to the 2009 Vintage edition of Mantissa.
The strategies that Fowles applies in Mantissa are meant to

undermine the contemporary criticism which has the tendency to over-
intellectualise literature and suppress its more human purposes to
preserve some intelligible meaning, to educate, to entertain which in
Fowless opinion are more important than experimentalism for the
sake of experimentalism.
Though meant to be a joke, as Fowles himself explained in an
interview with Susana Onega (1989: 182), the novel was taken very
seriously by many critics who considered that the novel was a
regression in the direction of the existential metafiction that William
Palmer predicted for the writer (Gotts, I. in Onega 1989: 124). In the
light of Fowless explanation, Mantissa should be regarded as a sort of
jeu desprit, in the European tradition of light fiction. Constantly
bringing to surface its intertextual play with other literary sources,
including Fowless own novels, and placed in the shadow of one
particular writer, Flann OBrien, as the cuckoo in Miles Greens
hospital room clearly indicates, the novel expresses Fowless playful
and satiric feelings about the problems of being a writer he analysed
very seriously in his previous novels, especially Daniel Martin.
Disrupting the conventions of the realist and of the serious
modern novel, by a parodic rewriting and by a playful fusion of their
elements with other minor genres, Fowles manages to create a new
form for each of his novels which defy categorization and restrictive
interpretation.
Bibliography
Fowles, John, The French Lieutenant's Woman, Great Britain: Triad/Granada, 1981.
Fowles, John, Mantissa, London: Vintage, 2009.
Gotts, Ian Fowless Mantissa: Funfair in Another Village, 1985, quoted in Onega,
Susana, Form & Meaning in the Novels of John Fowles, London: Ann Arbor, 1989.
Gutleben, Christian, Nostalgic Postmodernism, The Victorian Tradition and the
Contemporary British Novel, Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2001.
Hutcheon, Linda, A Theory of Parody, New York: Methuen, 1985.
McHale Brian, Postmodernist Fiction, London: Routledge, 1996.
Onega, Susana, Form & Meaning in the Novels of John Fowles, London: Ann Arbor, 1989.
Praisler, Michaela, On Modernism, Postmodernism and the Novel, Bucureti: Editura
Didactic i Pedagogic, 2005.
Waugh, Patricia, Metafiction. The Theory and Practice of Self-Conscious Fiction
London: Routledge, 1984.
Istoria mentalitilor, comunicarea
intercultural i cultura media
245
Early Modern Body Politics: From Effacement

to Celebration through Costume
Andreea-Roxana Constantinescu
Rsum : Lapproche du corps, linterprtation et la reprsentation du corps

proviennent de la mentalit dune poque mais aussi de divers discours
circuls dans une socit donne. Dans le Moyen Age le discours religieux
prvalait; celui-ci tait concentr sur lidal spirituel et insistait sur lide
que le corps devait tre cach, camoufl, effac parce quil tait une source
de tentation peccable et un indigne lment dexprience humaine. Lpoque
pr-Renaissance a t tmoin de lessor de lindividualisme et de la
scularisation de lart et de la pense. Lhomme de lpoque pr-
Renaissance a t libr des contraintes et de la rigidit mdivale;
lindividualisme lui a donn la libert de sexprimer et dvaluer, nourrir et
instruire son corps comme son esprit. Cela a dclench lintrt et laccent
sur le corps humain comme un atout prcieux qui doit tre tal pour sa
beaut, mais aussi utilis comme une forme dexpression du statut social de
lindividu. Par consquent, le corps a t tal avec ostentation et orn de
tissus et bijoux chers.
Mots-cls: reprsentation du corps, costume, mentalit, statut social
Social representations place the body in a

certain position within the general symbolism of the society. The body
is never a given fact, it is the effect of a social and cultural construct.
Within the framework of the transformations that occurred in the early
modern times, the approach to the body also shifts: the body is no
longer repealed, condemned, and effaced; on the contrary, it is
celebrated as a valuable part of human experience.
The body, as an element which can be isolated from the person
who owns it, can only exist in individualist societies, where people are
separated from each other, relatively autonomous in their initiatives
and values, and where the body functions as a boundary separating
one person from the rest of the community. In traditional societies like
the medieval one, the body, on the contrary, establishes the
connections with the community.
The rise of individualism in the early modern period gradually
leads to the human beings separation from their body, not from a
religious, but a profane perspective. In the Middle Ages, the human
Istoria mentalitilor, comunicarea intercultural i cultura media 247
being was separated from their body from a religious perspective: as

opposed to the soul, which was the only important element in the
human experience and the only one capable of reaching God, the body
is discredited as leading only to temptation and sin. In the early
modern times, the human being is separated from the body in the
sense that he/she perceives his/her body as an asset, or as an
instrument, which should be taken care of, used, or displayed.
Individualism emerged in the late Middle Ages, as a result of the
development and increase in importance of the fields of commerce and
banking. The merchant is the prototype of the modern individual a
cosmopolitan, whose ambitions go beyond the pre-established limits. He
is therefore less influenced by the community and by traditions. He is
aware of his social importance, and therefore he knows that he is the only
one to create his destiny. On the other hand, secularization, liberation
from all the restraints imposed by religion, leads to the awareness of
personal responsibility.
The rise of individualism is also reflected in the approach to the
body. In the early modern times, the portrait becomes one of the most
important forms of painting, gradually removing and replacing
religious painting and the subsequent tendency of representing the
human being only with reference to a religious figure. The church
considered that portraits were sources of temptation, and the sitters
were likely to become victims of magic. Therefore, the only portraits
in the early Middle Ages were portraits of high dignitaries of the
church, who were protected against magic, because they were
portrayed as participants in religious episodes and surrounded by
divine characters. Individualism and secularization made it possible
for the portraits to increase in number and to become devoid of any
religious reference.
As a result of the human beings self-awareness as an individual,
not as a member of a community, the body becomes the boundary
between individuals. As a factor of individualization, the body
becomes the target of specific interventions: the anatomic research,
through the dissection of the human body, is the most remarkable in
this sense.
In the Middle Ages, the human body was studied in relation to the
universe. The body was defined in terms of the four humours: the
blood, the phlegm (mucus), the yellow gall, and the black gall. Health
and illness depended on the exchanges between the four humours. The
vital fluids had to have a constant level, ensuring mans relation with
the world. Illness was thought to appear when one of the humours was
either in excess, or insufficient [1]. Each of these humours was
believed to cause specific illnesses, and the doctors task was to
reestablish the balance between the human being and universe. The
movements of the stars were thought to decisively influence the
balance of these humours, as well as the cycle of the seasons. Medical
care, consisting in the taking of blood, diets or some surgical
interventions, tried to reestablish the humoral balance and harmony.
The medicine of correspondences contributed to this representation
which unites the human being with the entire universe. The moon, for
instance, was said to influence the taking of blood, womens
menstruation, the moment of birth or death etc. By analogy, an
element of nature an object, a colour, a smell, a shape could act
upon an organ, a wound, a disorder etc. [2]. A multitude of beliefs
which link the human body with the stars, with the universe and with
the elements of nature was what medieval medicine consisted in.
Popular beliefs were based on the same idea: the human being was
part of a holistic network, in which everything intertwined, and in
which a simple gesture could influence the universe and unleash
forces, either on purpose (magic, witchcraft), or accidentally. The
frontiers of the individual are beyond his/her body; the individual is
defined not by his/her body, but by his/her family, his/her assets, by
everything that surrounds him/her, in a network which is typical of the
community structure where the human being is not an individual, but a
man/woman in a relation or a network of relations.
In the Middle Ages, the human being couldnt be separated from
his/her body, not even after death. It was believed, for instance, that the
victims dead body bleeds in the presence of the assassin. The
murderers body, on the other hand, could be subjected to any kind of
torture, because the murderer is someone who imposed his individuality
against the will and values of the community. This is the murderers
destiny: his separation from the society is a dismemberment of the
social group, metaphorically punishable by the dismemberment of his
body. As a consequence of this belief, the first corpses offered to
anatomists for dissections belonged to criminals sentenced to death.
Saints relics were also dismembered, so that the relics could spread
in the whole Christian world. In the sanctified body fragment a
metonymy of the glory of God is celebrated. It was believed that the
state of a corpse, even if mutilated or destroyed by time, could not
prevent revival, but this belief was professed by the members of the
clergy. The popular belief was that an alteration of the body could affect
the deceased persons destiny in the afterlife, and, therefore, the dead
body provoked fear. The body, therefore, was thought to continue to
accompany the person even in death.
In a world which was governed by superstition, by popular beliefs,
by magic, and in which the human being was seen as inseparable from
his/her body, the idea of shedding blood, even in order to treat the
body, meant breaking the sacred alliance, destroying a taboo. This is
why the surgeons profession was one of the most disregarded in the
Middle Ages. Surgeons are suspect characters, who generate their
contemporaries unrest. In the 12th century, the medical profession was
divided into three categories: the university doctors, the clerical
doctors, who were experts in speculations rather than therapy, and
surgeons. The first two categories treated the body against external
illnesses, without touching the patients body. Surgeons acted at the
level of the interior of the body, going beyond the sacredness of the
blood and the frontier of the skin. They were generally laic, despised
by the clerical doctors for their ignorance in the scholastic science.
Ambroise Pare, a surgeon who discovered the ligature of arteries for
avoiding hemorrhages and as a consequence saved numerous lives,
was ridiculed by the clerical doctors for not speaking Latin [3]. It was
therefore more important for a doctor to speak Latin than to cure. The
doctor held the privileged position of a person who is assumed to have
the knowledge, but who does not touch the impure blood, and thus his
profession is not among the most despised.
A sign of the shift in mentalities which makes the individual
autonomous and throws some light on the human body is the
inauguration of the anatomic science in Italy in the 14th century. With
the first official dissections, a huge anthropological and ontological
mutation takes place: the distinction between the person and the body,
the human beings separation from his/her body. Dissociated from the
person, the body is studied as an autonomous reality. The treaties
dating before the 16th century were based especially on the porcine
anatomy, considered not to differ too much from the human. This is
because until the 16th century the human body was untouchable, since
the human being, a fragment of the community and of the universe,
was untouchable.
One of the sources of our representation of the body dates back in
the 16th century. Starting with Vesalius, a new anthropology develops,
announcing a break with the previous one, which saw man as a part of
the cosmos.
At the end of the 16th century a new feeling appears: curiosity, in
close connection with individualism and with the distinction between
the public and the private. Private persons create in their homes their
own anatomic cabinets, where they collect unusual things associated
with the human body, or even mummified bodies. Corpses and body
fragments are collected for their originality or for the direct
knowledge they provide, thus enriching the medical practice. As the
body is dissociated from the person it used to incarnate, becoming the
anonymous relic of someone who no longer exists, collecting and
studying body fragments, tumours, stones, fetuses, limbs with
malformations or preserving mummified bodies become legal [4].
With the development of the anatomic and medical sciences, the
approach to the body changes. The human being is separated from his/her
body, and the body becomes an autonomous reality. Popular traditions
and beliefs lose their significance. At the level of the higher social
categories, the body is depreciated, objectified. Two attitudes polarize:
one that depreciates the body, objectifying it, and identifying it as it
actually is different from the person it incarnates the attitude of having
a body; the other one identifying the person with the body the attitude
of being your own body.
However, the depreciation of the body is not the medieval rejection
of the body as unimportant or unworthy. On the contrary, seen as
autonomous, separate from the person, the body lets itself be studied,
cured, taken care of, adorned, and used. It is no longer a taboo. If it
suffers, it should be treated. If it is healthy, it has to be taken care of,
in order not to become ill. And, since according to the early modern
mentality, the body is a personal asset contributing to the public image
of the self, it should also be adorned, and its image should be used.
The body is therefore no longer effaced, on the contrary, it is
displayed and emphasized. There are new criteria for evaluating the
body, from the ideal of beauty, to fashion and manners. The ideal
shape of the body is reconsidered: the flesh colour is emphasized; the
female body, especially, acquires a density and a flesh tint which it
didnt have until then, its aspect becomes fleshier, and its contours
more consistent. A discreet sensuality hints to the sap pulsating under
the skin, suggesting the milk and the blood [5]. Roundness is the
term most widely used to describe a beautiful body, indicating the
balance between plumpness and thinness. The medieval slim shape is

no longer an ideal.
The early modern idea of beauty implies a hierarchy,
distinguishing the upper and the lower parts of the body. Beauty is
present in the upper part, and this is why the upper part is displayed.
The lower part is concealed, as it is seen merely as the support of the
upper part, where beauty actually resides. The neck, the shoulders, the
chest, and the arms, not to mention the face, are the actual indicators
of beauty, and hence the fashion of the dcolletage.
But beauty does not only involve the natural beauty of the body,
but also the dress, which is meant to emphasize the body, the posture,
and the manners related to the body. The body is therefore not only
displayed and celebrated for its beauty, it is also used as a symbol of
status. Social distance is also expressed at the level of the manners.
Dress is obviously a marker of the wearers status, but it has to be
accompanied by the appropriate posture and manners.
The history of fashion gives us valuable information in this respect.
Beyond its variations, the costume has the primary function of entirely
concealing the female body including the hair. The bust has to be
leveled, flat, because the ideal of virtuous beauty presupposes the
absence of breasts.
The shape of the early medieval costume was characterized by
extreme simplicity. Both mens and womens costumes were loose
and generally not much adorned. A typical mens costume consisted
of a tunic with a wide neck, three-quarter-length sleeves and
embroidered borders, very loose and pouched over a belt at the waist,
worn over a linen shirt and braies. The latter were loose, trouser-like
items, which were held up by means of a cord running through the
hem at the waist; crossed linen bands kept them secured to the lower
legs. Other common elements were the semicircular cloak, sometimes
fastened over a shoulder with a brooch. Shoes were very simple and
high-fitting to the ankles. Armours were also very simple: a cone-
shaped helmet and a hood of chain covering the head, and a coat of
mail (hauberk) with short sleeves.
The only changes that emerged during this period were the
appearance of the hose and the adornment of a few items. Towards the
end of the twelfth century, a new style of tunic appeared, with unusual
sleeves that were wide from the elbow but narrowed to the wrist.
Other new elements were the ornate girdle, the full woolen cloak, the
Phrygian cap, very popular among the rich, and the boots with
coloured lining.
A typical womens costume consisted of plain woolen and linen
clothes, with some embroidery. The gown was similar in style to a
mans tunic, very loose and with an opening at the neck. The neck,
cuffs and hem of the gown were embroidered, and the gown was
gathered at the waist with a girdle. A veil was used to cover the head,
wound around the neck so that the hair was completely covered. The
hair was not supposed to be visible, as it represented a temptation.
Over the gown a voluminous woolen cloak was worn for warmth. The
shoes were also very simple, with no embroidery or garments.
The style slightly changed at the beginning of the twelfth century.
The gown was more or less the same, except for the fact that the
sleeves became very wide from the elbow. The girdle was long and
jeweled, and worn high around the waist, crossed at the back and
brought forward low onto the hips. For covering their head women
wore a veil and a coronet, and the hair was arranged into two long
plaits bound with a silk ribbon. The rest of the twelfth century saw
little change in womens clothes, except that the long plaits and the
wide sleeves gradually went out of fashion. In 1170 the barbette was
introduced. This was a linen band that passed under the chin and over
the head. In 1190 a linen covering for the neck appeared. It was called
a wimple and was tucked into the dress at the front and often veiled
the chin. These items became very popular and, after a few years
respite, ladies concealed their hair once again.
Real changes in style did not appear until the first half of the
fourteenth century, when revolutionary ideas were introduced and the
whole silhouette was transformed. Instead of being loose and flowing,
garments were made to fit the figure, emphasizing the male and
female shapes, and so the tailoring began. These innovations were due
in part to natural evolution, but also to the stirring of the Renaissance
in Italy, where the human body was being studied and glorified in art
and literature, and tailored fashions helped to display the figure better.
Brilliant colours, costly fabrics, fur and fur linings, patterning, motifs
and jeweled embroideries were all popular, culminating in
ostentatious displays during the reign of Richard II.
The new styles developed further in the fifteenth century with an
even greater variety of designs and fabrics. The most interesting
change in fashion that has occured since the late fourteenth century is
the disappearance of the slim silhouette. Expensive, rich fabrics like
velvet, brocade, silk, and gold and silver cloth were imported for the
upper classes and beautifully woven fabrics were produced in England
due to the influx of Flemish weavers who came to England under the
patronage of Edward III. Fashion became more exaggerated and
flamboyant: there was great scope for display and extravagance,
which sometimes caused much inconvenience to the wearer. Good
examples of this were the exaggerated pointed toes of mens shoes
and the large, unusual headdresses worn by ladies.
However, by law, high fashion was defined as being the
prerogative of the upper classes with diminishing privileges given to
those in the middle and lower classes. This meant that wealthy
middle-class people would not be allowed to wear clothes as
sumptuous as those of the nobility. Sometimes royalty would hand
down or bequeath garments to their servants, but only after the costly
trimmings had been removed. The servants would later sell them to
second-hand clothes dealers and eventually the same garments would
be seen, worn out, on the backs of the poorer. Clothes were a mark of
status and it was possible to determine a persons rank by the length of
his tunic or size of her headdress. As fashions became more
extravagant, strict sumptuary laws were passed in an attempt to curb
any excesses. For example, it was ordained that: 1) only royalty and
nobility could wear pearl embroidery and ermine; 2) cloth of gold,
jewels and miniver (plain white fur) linings could be worn only by
knights and people of higher rank; 3) cloth of silver, silver girdles and
fine quality wool were restricted to squires and people of higher rank;
4) commoners were permitted to wear only the coarser quality wools,
and even if they could afford jewels and silk, they were not allowed to
wear them [6].
At the end of the Middle Ages a radical change occured, which (as
we have shown above) was translated into a similarly revolutionary
womens fashion. The decolletage became so deep, that breasts were
half visible. A novelty was the dress a la grande gorge, which
opened at front to the navel. But, as opposed to the medieval dress
code, where the body was completely concealed and effaced, the early
modern permissiveness went even further: sometimes the breasts
remained completely uncovered, the nipples were ornamented with
red, with precious stones, and sometimes they were even pierced to
allow for gold chains to be hung up. This permissiveness will later be
depicted in some of Herricks poems: A sweet disorder in the
dress/Kindles in clothes a wantonness:/A lawn about the shoulders
thrown/Into a fine distraction:/An erring lace, which here and

there/Enthralls the crimson stomacher:/A cuff neglectful, and
thereby/Ribbands to flow confusedly:/A winning wave (deserving
note)/In the tempestuous petticoat:/A careless shoestring, in whose
tie/I see a wide civility:/Do more bewitch me than when art/Is too
precise in every part. (Delight in Disorder). Whenas in silks my
Julia goes,/Then, then (methinks) how sweetly flows/That liquefaction
of her clothes.//Next, when I cast mine eyes and see/That brave
vibration each way free,/O how that glittering taketh me! (Upon
Julias Clothes)
In the fifteenth century, if the topless style is only rarely adopted
Simonetta Vespucci painted by Piero de Cosimo a new ideal of
beauty emerges, which emphasizes the charms of nature at the
expense of the charms of virtue. The preference for the round, ripe
shapes increases with the progress of the early modern period. The
lithe young men and fragile young ladies of the Trecento and
Quattrocento became powerful and determined men with broad
shoulders and vigorous women with ample lines in the Cinquecento,
as we know them from the masterpieces of the time (Leonardo da
Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, Giorgione, Titian, Corregio and
others). The shape of the body was sometimes revealed, and other
times emphasized by clothing. This tendency will still have echoes
later, in the seventeenth century. Richard Lovelace, for example, made
an apology of the vigorous body in his La Bella Bona Roba (a
common expression for a whore, but literally meaning a pleasantly
plump girl): I cannot tell who loves the skeleton/Of a poor marmoset,
naught but bone, bone./Give me a nakedness with her clothes
on.//Such whose white-satin upper coat of skin,/Cut upon velvet rich
incarnadine,/Has yet a body (and of flesh) within.
The Italian fashion in the fifteenth century was with the waist high,
emphasizing the breasts. This can be seen on the funerary monument
of a matron from Lucca, carried out by Jacopo della Quercia (around
1438), a sculptor of the round shaped maternity. We find the same
high waist fashion in Jan van Eycks famous painting, The Marriage
of Giovanni Arnolfini and Giovanna Cenami. In the sixteenth
century, the Italian fashion provides for the waist down, the bust being
covered by a short singlet with a square dcolletage. Francesco del
Cossas fresco The Weavers is a real parade of the high waist
fashion; on the contrary, Raphaels portraits are proofs of the lowering
of the waist and the evolution of the dcolletage. There is a certain
balance in this variation in womens fashion: the high waist

emphasizes the breasts, which still remain covered; the low waist
flattens the breasts, but the dcolletage, sometimes large enough to
stretch over the shoulders, reveals the upper part of the female body.
An English example of the topless fashion is to be found in Robert
Peakes Portrait of Lady Elizabeth Pope. Popes portrait shows a
young lady seated under a laurel tree in a pastoral landscape. Her
upper body is partially covered with a classical mantle of heavy black
cloth, knotted at her shoulder. The fabric is embroidered with pearls in
an elaborate feather design. Her hat displays the same feather pattern.
Her hair falls loose across her shoulders and upper arms, hiding but
also suggesting the line of her exposed left breast. She is represented
wearing a necklace with a pendant reaching between her breasts. Her
neck is encircled by a choker whose large hanging pearl points to the
pendant. The painting is an illustration of the tensions between
voluptuousness conveyed by the loose hair, the curves of the feather
pattern, the uncovered breast and the relaxed and graceful position of
Lady Elizabeth Popes hands and the more rigid codes of
Elizabethan fashion and portrait convention. Lady Elizabeths head is
held in a precise vertical position, and the slight angle of the line
between the pearl and the pendant implies that her body is not equally
upright. Yet even this intimation of a relaxed pose is effectively
denied by the rigid axial coordination of the necklaces and the
awkward position of her arms. Both are bent, the rigid arm resting
lightly on a green stump, the left stiffly away from her body [7].
In Peakes painting, with its formal and symbolic complexities,
meaning is conveyed through a play of oppositions and contrasting
elements: the public display of the full-scale portrait and the private
experience of the miniature (the painting is designed and framed as a
miniature); the heraldic flatness of Lady Popes body and the sensuous
physicality of her costume. And although her image belongs to the
heraldic tradition, the depictions of movement, the display of the
body, and the space and depth within the painting suggest an attempt
to change the conventions of the English icon. Within this frontal
plane, symbolic framing devices define a parameter or boundary for
Lady Elizabeths image. Laurel branches fill the top of the panel,
focusing the viewers glaze, while sheltering Lady Elizabeth within a
private bower. This reframing of her image is repeated in a self-
generating frame. Lady Elizabeths arms are positioned so that a
powerful circular movement through hands, arms, hair and head
creates a little world of her body within that protected bower. With
this enframing device Peake seems to re-create for the viewer the
Renaissance conception of the human body as a miniature or
microcosm of the world [8].
The position of Lady Elizabeths hands suggesting modesty and
passivity was typical of many Elizabethan and Jacobean portraits of
women: hands are clasped together or rest at their side or on a table or
a chair. However, the image of Lady Elizabeth Pope, as depicted by
Peake, is a sensuous one. Despite the fact that it belongs to this
tradition and to a certain extent participates in the above described
convention, Peakes portrait is atypical through its sensuality. In her
left hand, Lady Elizabeth feels a thick fold of cloth between her thumb
and her ring finger. The material presence of the cloth is described in
precise detail: each fold and drape are revealed by the distortions
imposed on the pearls of the feather pattern. The fabric is the only
real volumetrically conceived space in the painting. Its descriptive
power, as Elizabeth Pope touches it, quite literally fashions her
identity, and at the same moment she seems to invite the beholder to
share the intimacy of that touch and to feel the palpable fabric that
creates her presence [9]. So both the materiality and the sensuality
within the portrait are actually given by the fabric rather than by the
body itself. The cloth complements the body, it both hides and reveals
the body.
Elizabethan and Jacobean paintings have been described as
miniatures blown up under glass. The image appears as if it were
held in hand, and the full-scale portrait resembles the miniature
through the way in which it couples the real and aesthetic space. The
portrait of Lady Elizabeth Pope is full-sized, but Peake has
deliberately evoked many of the formal and associative qualities of
the miniature: not only the very different physical relation between
viewer and image, but also the miniatures courtly origins, its
representational function and its expression of private emotion [10].
The detailed depiction of the fabric and jewels that Elizabeth Pope
wears invites the viewer to compare the real and the represented, to
measure and acknowledge the value of the image. In addition, this
precise, detailed description of the fabric and jewels is meant to reflect
the status and wealth of the sitter. In this and other paintings, as well
as in the mentality of the time, dress defined the social status of the
sitter, as evidenced by the English sumptuary laws which defined the
dress code for every social rank and which were designed to preserve
the established order and hierarchy.
Although Peake alludes to an Italianate figure, his portrait fits in
the long-established convention of English portraits: Lady Elizabeths
figure is not an object of desire, nor is it an ideal of beauty or a means
of expressing or inspiring emotion. What this figure emphasizes is the
voluptuous display of rank and status rather than mere eroticism.
Therefore the portrait of Lady Elizabeth Pope reveals a play of
contradictions and a juxtaposition of dualities: exposure and
concealment (suggested by the fabric and jewels), public display and
private possession (full-scale portrait, inviting public admiration of
Lady Elizabeths beauty, painted in the style of miniatures, suggesting
a private exchange between lovers), voluptuousness and chastity
(loose hair, exposed body). And this play of contrasts and dualities is
typical to the early modern mentality, as reflected in portraits and in
the art of costume and jewelry: public and private, erotic
voluptuousness and the voluptuousness of status, concealment and
display, permissiveness and restrictions.
If in the medieval times the body was seen as worthless, sinful, a
source of both pain and defiling sinful temptation and pleasure, in the
early modern times it was regarded as a valuable asset, a beautiful
creation, and a source of pleasure, which is no longer associated with
sin. Therefore, while the medieval body was almost invisible, veiled
and concealed under specially designed clothes, the early modern
body started to become visible, sometimes to an exaggerated extent
the increasingly deep decolletage led to the topless fashion.
The visibility of the body does not only involve the body itself, but
also the dress and jewels adorning it, which are symbols of the
wearers status. The early modern costumes and luxury objects
become increasingly sophisticated. Moreover, the medieval somptuary
laws which prescribed the costume models and fabrics for each social
category, preventing the lower categories from wearing the intricate
models and expensive fabrics and jewels which were the mark of the
aristocracy, became more lax in the early modern period, as a result of
the rise of the bourgeoisie.
All the early modern representations of the body converge towards
the same idea: Not only is the body effaced any longer, it becomes a
constant preoccupation of the early modern individual. It is a means of
expression, a beautiful creation, an object of desire, a valuable asset, a
means of deception, an instrument of manipulation, a means of
figuratively challenging the established order, a model of perfection to

be used even in architecture. The body is no longer hidden; it is taken
from the margins where it was banned by the medieval society and
brought to the centre of the human beings preoccupations.
Notes
[1] in Le Breton, David, Antropologia corpului i modernitatea, Editura Cartier,

Chiinu, 2009, p. 67.
[2] in Le Breton, op. cit., p. 68.
[5] in Vigarello, Georges, O istorie a frumuseii. Corpul i arta nfrumuserii din
Renatere pn n zilele noastre, Editura Cartier, Chiinu, 2006, p. 19.
[6] in Ruby, Jenifer, Costume in Context. Medieval Times, B.T. Bradsford Ltd.,
London, 1995, p. 38.
[7] Chirelstein, Ellen, Lady Elizabeth Pope: The Heraldic Body, in Gent,L. and
Llwellyn, N. (eds.), Renaissance Bodies The Human Figure in English Culture
c. 1540-1660, Reaktion Books Ltd., London, 1994, p. 36.
[8] Chirelstein, op. cit., pp. 37-38.
[9] Chirelstein, op. cit., p. 38.
[10] Ibid.
Bibliography
Aries, P., G. Duby, Istoria vieii private, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, vol.3-6, 1995.
Chirelstein, Ellen, Lady Elizabeth Pope: The Heraldic Body, in Gent, L. and
Llwellyn, N. (eds.), Renaissance Bodies The Human Figure in English Culture
c. 1540-1660, Reaktion Books Ltd., London, 1994.
Duby, Georges, Arta i societatea 980 - 1420, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 1987.
Duby, Georges, Evul mediu masculin, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 1992.
Duby, Georges, Doamnele din veacul al XII-lea, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 2000.
Elias, N., Procesul civilizrii, Polirom, Iai, 2002.
Ford, B. (ed.), The Cambridge Guide to the Arts in Britain, vol. 3 Renaissance and
Reformation, Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Garin, Eugenio (ed.), Omul Renaterii, Polirom, Bucureti, 2000.
Goffman, Erving, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, Penguin, London, 1990.
Le Breton, David, Antropologia corpului i modernitatea, Editura Cartier, Chiinu,
2009.
Le Goff, J., Pentru un alt ev mediu, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 1986.
Le Goff, Jacques (ed.), Omul medieval, Polirom, Bucureti, 1999.
Ruby, Jenifer, Costume in Context. Medieval Times, B.T. Bradsford Ltd., London,
1995.
Vigarello, Georges, O istorie a frumuseii. Corpul i arta nfrumuserii din Renatere
pn n zilele noastre, Editura Cartier, Chiinu, 2006.
Die sozialistische Ideologie im Spannungsfeld
der DDR Rezeption in der BRD
Oana Vieru (Gorbnescu)
Abstract: After the Second World War, Germany was divided into two
occupation zones, each marked by different political, social and cultural
influences. Imposed socialist ideology in the GDR has an overwhelming
effect on the mentality of the East Germans, leading to the transposing of the
political border in culture, especially in the literature. Initially, writers
struggled to keep the spirit of German culture alive through numerous
conferences and proclamations. However, their efforts could not overcome
the barriers imposed by the antagonism of the two ideologies, the Eastern
real socialism and the Western liberalism. Since 1964 they speak openly
about the existence of "two independent and different literatures" whose
cleavage was determined by "political and social censorship" (Zwei deutsche
Literaturen? Zu G. Grass, U. Johnson, H. Kant, U . Plenzdorf Ch und Wolf,
Eberhard Mannack, Athenum Verlag, 1977, S. 1). Despite this
classification, there are still writers and critics who, relying on linguistic
criteria, common historical past and common themes addressed in the
literature in this period, categorically refuse the division of the German
literature after 1945 by the mean of politics. This issue becomes crucial in
the process of reception of a literary work and its author, as the membership
of a specific literature creates a sum of factors that contribute directly to the
perfection of the creation act.
Keywords: socialist ideology, mentality, literature, GDR, FRG
Nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg spaltete sich

Deutschland in zwei sowohl politisch als auch gesellschaftlich und
kulturell geprgte Besatzungszonen. Diese Grenze bestimmte auch die
Literatur in den zwei neu entsandenen Staaten, Eine Tatsache, die zum
Diskussionsthema verschiedener Schriftstellerskongresse wurde.
Von Anfang an war es deutlich, dass der Einflu der jeweiligen
Besatzungsmacht sich ganz unterschiedlich auf die literarische
Entwicklung in Deutschland auswirkte. Am Anfang bemhten sich die
Schriftsteller, besonders durch Kongresse und Proklamationen, den
kuturellen deutschen Geist zu bewahren. Ihre Bemhungen aber
konnten dem Widerstand der gegenstzlichen Ideologien nicht
entgegentreten. Ab 1964 fngt man an, sich zu der Existenz zweier
deutschen Literaturen zu uern. Obwohl die Frage bei dem
259
Schriftstellerkongress unbeantwortet blieb, beginnt man sich dem

Problem nher zu stellen. Die Publikationen der Zeit vertraten die
Thesis, dass die politische und gesellschaftliche Zsur zwei
selbststndige und verschiedenartige Literaturen schuf.
1972 entwirft Fritz J. Raddatz in seiner Studie Traditionen und
Tendenzen ein Portrt der DDR-Literatur. In seiner Darstellung
bezieht er sich auf mehrere der drei groen Gattungen Lyrik, Prosa
und Drama - zugehrende Texte. Es geht um die neuesten Beitrge der
Autoren aus der DDR, bei deren Werken Raddatz gemeinsame Zge
bemerkt hat, die ihn zu besttigen veranlassen, dass eine neue
sozialistische Literatur entsteht.
1974 begann Marcel Reich-Ranicki sein Vorwort zu einer
Sammlung von Rezensionen mit der Frage
Gibt es zwei deutsche Literaturen? [1].
Der Frage, ob es wirklich zwei verschidene deutsche Literaturen
gebe, steht noch immer keine endgltige Antwort gegenber. Trotz der
politischen unterschiedlichen Systemen, der Kulturpolitik der SED, der
Rolle der Zensur und der besonderen Funktion der Literatur in dem
Sozialismus gab es fr viele Wissenschaftler, ber die oben genannten
Unterschiede hinaus, verschiedene Bindeglieder zwischen der DDR und
der BRD, vor allem im Bereich der Literatur [2].
Gnter Grass, fr wen die Literatur beziehungsweise die
nichtteilbare Kultur das einzig Verbindende zwischen den beiden
deutschen Staaten bedeutete, war nicht der einzige der diese Meinung
vertrat [3]. Heinrich Bll schtzt die Spaltung Deutschlands im
politischen, kulturellen und literarischen Sinn als perfekt: Kaum zwei
Literaturen sind weiter voneinander entfernt als die beiden der Hlften
Deutschlands, von denen man nur in sentimentalen Augenblicken
sagen kann, da sie die gleiche Sprache sprchen [4].
Wilhelm Vosskamp analysiert in seinem Artikel Zwei deutsche
Staaten eine deutsche Literatur [5] die unterschidene Rolle des
Schriftstellers in der BRD und DDR, welche sich in deren
literarischen Schaffensakt wiederspiegelt haben. Laut seiner
gesellschaftlichen Funktion ist der Autor im Osten verpflichtet, die
fhrende Rolle der Arbeiterklasse und der Partei in der Kulturpolitik
anzuerkennen. Infolge dieser Manahme gehrte DDR neben Japan
und der Sowjetunion zur Spitzengruppe, was die Pro-Kopf-Produktion
von Bchern angeht, indem allen Bereichen des sozialistischen
Lebens zahlreiche Texte gewidmet wurden.
In der DDR spielt das Erbe eine entscheidende Rolle. Es verweist

auf einen Besitzanspruch auf bestimmte kulturelle Traditionen im
Horizont einer eigenen Identittsbildung. Das Verhalten gegenber
der faschistischen Geschichte begrndet eine Perspektive fr die
Zukunft. Viele Autoren beschftigen sich mit einem
antifasschistischen literarischen Stoff, wobei der Sozialismus im
Gegensatz kommt und die Hoffnung auf eine bessere Zukunft gibt.
Der Sozialismus brachte die Klassik, d.h. Weimarer Klassik mit
Goethe und Schiller, in eine unmittelbare Verbindung mit seinem
eigenen sthetischen Programm des sozialistischen Relaismus. Es
wurden das Sonett, der Bildungs- und Entwicklungsroman bevorzugt
und die kritische Aktualisierung Goethes und Schillers bildete die
Basis fr die marxistische Literaturtheorie.
Vosskamp ertert also den entscheidenden Einflu der politischen
Lage auf das kulturelle Ebene des stlichen Autors und dessen Werk.
Auf der anderen Seite der Grenze war zum Beispiel das Problem der
NaziZeit in dem Gedchtnis der Gesellschaft immer wach, das zeigt
auch das Programm der Gruppe 47, deren Konzept war den Kern
unseres Erlebens, den Krieg und Faschismus als ein Zeichen der
apokalyptischen Situation des Menschen zu lesen [6]. Aber Autoren
wie Gnter Grass, Heinrich Bll, Hans Werner Richter, Alfred
Andersch, Martin Walser, Wolfgang Koeppen, Siegfried Lenz oder
Peter Weiss setzten die Vergangenheit in Beziehung zu anderen
Ansichtspunkten, die unterschiedlich von denen des Sozialismus sind.
Aus diesem Hintergrund also, schliet Vosskamp, dass es zwei
unterschiedliche Literaturen in Ost und West waren.
Andere Schriftsteller und Kritiker, darunter Helmut Mssener,
lehnten die Existenz zweier Literaturen ab. Mssener benutzt fr seine
Theorie einer einzigen deutschen Literatur die gemeinsamen
literarischen Themen aller Schriftsteller: Es drfte sichtbar geworden
sein, dass die gleichen geistigen Tendenzen der Literatur im stlichen
wie im westlichen deutschsprachigen Raum ihr Geprge gaben. Es
dominierten, grob vereinfacht, Flucht in die Individualitt,
Auseinandersetzung mit der Vergangenheit und der eigenen Herkunft
sowie Resignation und Defensive gegenber Problemender eigenen
Zeit, die man nicht bewltigen zu knnen glaubt. Es ist im Osten wie im
Westen, um Hans Mayer zu zitieren, eine Literatur ohne Glauben und
eine Literatur ohne Hoffnung [7]. Seiner Ansicht nach sollte man nur
ber die politische Grenze hinaus schauen, um die gleiche Tendenz in
der Literatur sowohl im Osten als auch im Westen zu spren. Den
Einfluss der sozialistischen Ideologie beseitigt er und ruft den

Patriotismus deutscher Schriftsteller in den beiden Teilen Deutschland
vor, die unaufhrlich in ihren Texten nach der Wiedervereinigung
gestrebt haben.
Die Autorin der vorliegenden Arbeit sttzt sich auf die Einteilung
der deutschen Literatur nach zeitlichen und rumlichen Grenzen,
indem zum einem Christoph Hein selbst, der sich im Zentrum ihres
Forschungsnteressen befundene Schriftsteller, die Existenz einer
DDR-Literatur anerkannt hat, zum anderen, weil ab der Grndung der
DDR und in noch grerem Mae nach dem 1961 erfolgten Bau der
Mauer sich die Rezeption der aus DDR stammenden Werke ihrerseits
in zwei Gruppen von Kritikern eingeteilt hat. Geschweige denn die
Zensur und die Selbstzensur, die zugleich die Autoren und die Kritiker
im Osten geprgt haben. Eine reine objektivische Rezeption, die sich
nur auf den literarischen Sachverhalt bezieht, wre utopisch, weil in
diesem Prozess, wo Autor und Adressat einbegriffen werden, die
menschliche Natur immer einen bestimmten Anteil an Subjektivismus
mit sich bringt.
Laut der Werktheorie von Roman Ingarden [8], besteht ein Werk
aus mehreren Schichten, wie die der Wortlaute und der
sprachlautlichen Gebilde bzw. Charaktere hherer Ordnung, die der
Bedeutungseinheiten, also der Sinne des Satzes beziehungsweise der
ganzen Zusammenhnge, die der Ansichten ber die Art und Weise in
welcher die Gegenstnde im Werk vorkommen und die der
dargestellten Gegenstndlichkeiten. Die Materie und die Form der
einzelnen Schichten ergeben die formale Einheit des Textes.
Die Literatur arbeitet mit quasi-echten Urteilen, die dazu bestimmt
sind, dem Text den Anschein der in der Verschriftlichung
gewnschten Realitt zu verleihen. Hier besteht einer der wichtigsten
Unterschied zwischen dem fiktionalen und dem wissenschaftlichen
Werk. Dazu kommen noch die fr jede Schicht entsprechende
knstlerischen und sthetischen Qualitten. Die Konkretisierung eines
Textes durch Lesen oder durch die Betrachtung von
Theaterinszenierungen, beseitigt manche Unbestimmtheitsstellen,
die der Text selbst enthlt, sie ist noch weniger schematisch als das
Ursprungswerk. Die Unbestimmtheiten werden durch Festlegungen
des betreffenden Gegenstandes ergnzt und sozusagen teilweise
aufgefllt. Aber je nach Art der Ausfllungen kann es sein, dass man
zu verschiedenen Konkretisationen gelangen kann. Der Seinkern des
literarischen Werk liegt in der schpferischen Absicht des Autors,
aber der Leser kann dank seiner eigenen Bewusstseinserlebnisse einen

anderen finden.
Damit die Ansichten des Autors dem Leser aktuell sind und
dadurch Teil des Werkes zu werden, soll er ale Schichten
konkretisieren und zugleich ein lebendes Vorstellen beim Lesen [9]
bekommen. Es werden also die Bhne und der Film gemeint. Im Fall
Hein aber wurden sowohl die geschriebenen Stcke als auch deren
Auffhrungen im Westen falsch aufgenommen, weil zum Beispiel die
Kritiker in den 80-Jahren kaum den Wandel in der Thematik der ost-
deutschen Literatur empfunden haben, und sich bei der Interpretation
und der Rezeption eines Textes immer wieder auf den faschistischen
Schuld kamen, ohne die Zivilisationskritik der Gegenwart richtig zu
spren und zu schtzen.
Das Werk enthlt nach Ingarden schematisierte Ansichten, die
konstante Strukturen sind, welche der Leser mit Einzelheiten ausfllt,
die seinem Feingefhl, seinen Gewohnheiten des Wahrnehmens,
seiner Vorliebe fr gewisse Qualitten und qualitative
Zusammenhnge entsprechen und die somit je nach Leser verschieden
sind oder sein knnen [10]. Manchmal aber stt der Leser auf einen
nie in seinem Leben wahrgenommenen Gegenstand und in diesem
Fall gibt es zwei Mglichkeiten: entweder ist das Werk so suggestiv
gebaut, dass es ihm gelingt, die Ansichten annhernd zu aktualisieren,
oder bildet er sich fiktive Ansichten, die nicht dem Werk entsprechen.
Es gibt also auch Leser, die in einem solchen Fall darauf verzichten,
den Gegenstand wahrzunehmen und verliert so den Kontakt mit der
dargestellten Welt. Die sthetische Erfassung eines Werkes hngt von
der Art und Weise ab, in der der Leser die Ansichten des Autors
aktualisiert und konkretisiert hat.
Ein wichtiger Aspekt im Verstehen ist fr Hans Georg Gadamer
der Vorgang der Verschmelzung von Horizonten. Hierzu schreibt er:
Es gibt so wenig einen Gegenwartshorizont fr sich, wie es historische

Horizonte
gibt, die man zu gewinnen htte. Vielmehr ist Verstehen immer der
Vorgang der
Verschmelzung solcher vermeintlich fr sich seiender Horizonte. [...] Im
Walten
der Tradition findet stndig solche Verschmelzung statt [11].
Im Bezug auf die Rezeption und ausgehend von der

fenomenologischen Theorie von Schtz und von der Semiotik von
Peirce, analysiert Andrei Corbea in Despre teme die Beziehung
zwischen ich und dem anderen und das Verstehen des Sinns der
von dem anderen gemachten Ttigkeit, und stellt fest, dass man damit
die Taten eines anderen verstehen kann, sollte man diese Erfahrung
als seine eigene, d.h. in seinem eigenen Erwartungshorizont
wiederaufbauen und bis zu seinem Ende erleben. Um den anderen zu
begreifen, wird alter von ego in alterego umgeformt [12]. Mit
Erwartungshorizont bezeichnete Jauss das Vorverstndnis gegenber
Literatur, das von verschiedenen Faktoren bestimmt wird, darunter
zhlt, neben Bezugnahmen auf bereits kanonisierte Texte, auf Fiktion
bzw. Faktualitt oder auf Textgattungen, die eigene Erfahrung des
Lesers. Laut der zu der Konstanzer Schule gehrigen Vertreter der
Rezeptionssthetik knnten sich deutlich die Auslegungen eines und
desselben Leser ber eines und dasselbe Werk unterscheiden, je nach
der Zeit, nach dem Ort, nach den gesellschaftlichen, politischen,
wirtschaftlichen, kulturellen und sogar seelischen Umstnden.
Endnoten
[1] Reich-Ranicki, Marcel: Zur Literatur der DDR, , Mnchen 1974, S. 7f.
[2] Granzow, Rene: Gehen oder Bleiben? Literatur und Schriftsteller der DDR
zwischen Ost und West, Verlag fr wissenschaftliche Literatur, Berlin, 2008, S.
31-41.
[3] Grass, Gnter: Kopfgeburten oder die Deutschen sterben aus, Darmstadt 1980, S.
153f., zit. nach: Vokamp, Wilhelm: Zwei Staaten eine deutsche Literatur?
Eine Rede zum 17. Juni, in: Diskussion Deutsch, Jahrgang 19, Heft 101, 1988,
zit. nach Granzow, Rene: Gehen oder Bleiben? Literatur und Schriftsteller der
DDR zwischen Ost und West, Verlag fr wissenschaftliche Literatur, Berlin,
2008.
[4] Bll, Heinrich: Nationalliteratur eine Einheit von Wiedersprchen, ziriert nach
Dresen, Adolf, in Deutsche Akademie fr Sprache und Dichtung, Jahr 1980, I.
Lieferung, Heidelberg 1980, S. 19.
[5] Vosskamp, Wilhelm: Zwei deutsche Staaten - eine deutsche Literatur? Eine Rede
zum 17. Juni, in: Diskussion Deutsch, Jahrgang 19, Heft 101, 1988, zit. nach
Granzow, Rene: Gehen oder Bleiben? Literatur und Schriftsteller der DDR
zwischen Ost und West, Verlag fr wissenschaftliche Literatur, Berlin, 2008.
[6] Andersch, Alfred zitiert von Torben Fischer, Matthias N. Lorenz in: Lexikon der
Vergangenheitsbewltigung in Deutschland Debatten- und Diskursgeschichte
des Nationalsozialismus nach 1945, transcript, 2007, S. 111.
[7] Mssener, Helmut: Deutsche Literatur oder Deutschsprachige Literaturen?
Tendenzen und Fragezeichen, Stockholm 1980, S. 28.
[8] Rainer Warning, Hrsg.: Rezeptionssthetik. Theorie und Praxis, Wilhelm Fink
Verlag, Mnchen, 1988.
[9] Warning, Rainer Hrsg.: Rezeptionssthetik. Theorie und Praxis, Wilhelm Fink
Verlag, Mnchen 1988, S. 51.
[10] Ebd. S. 52
[11] Gadamer, Hans-Georg.: Wahrheit und Methode.Grundzge einer
philosophischen Hermeneutik, Mohr Verlag, Tbingen 1975, S. 311
[12] Corbea, Andrei: Despre teme. Explorari in dimensiunea antropologica a
literaritatii, Editura Universitatii Al.I.Cuza, Iasi, 1995, S.168-169.
Bibliographie
Andersch, Alfred zitiert von Torben Fischer, Matthias N. Lorenz in: Lexikon der
Vergangenheitsbewltigung in Deutschland Debatten- und Diskursgeschichte des
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Bll, Heinrich: Nationalliteratur eine Einheit von Wiedersprchen, ziriert nach
Dresen, Adolf, in Deutsche Akademie fr Sprache und Dichtung, Jahr 1980, I.
Lieferung, Heidelberg 1980.
Corbea, Andrei: Despre teme. Explorari in dimensiunea antropologica a literaritatii,
Editura Universitatii Al.I.Cuza, Iasi, 1995.
Gadamer, Hans-Georg.: Wahrheit und Methode.Grundzge einer
philosophischenHermeneutik, Mohr Verlag, Tbingen 1975.
Grass, Gnter: Kopfgeburten oder die Deutschen sterben aus, Darmstadt 1980, S.
153f., zit. nach: Vokamp, Wilhelm: Zwei Staaten eine deutsche Literatur? Eine
Rede zum 17. Juni, in: Diskussion Deutsch, Jahrgang 19, Heft 101, 1988, zit. nach
Granzow, Rene: Gehen oder Bleiben? Literatur und Schriftsteller der DDR zwischen
Ost und West, Verlag fr wissenschaftliche Literatur, Berlin, 2008.
Mssener, Helmut: Deutsche Literatur oder Deutschsprachige Literaturen?
Tendenzen und Fragezeichen, Stockholm 1980.
Rainer Warning, Hrsg.: Rezeptionssthetik. Theorie und Praxis, Wilhelm Fink Verlag,
Mnchen, 1988.
Reich-Ranicki, Marcel: Zur Literatur der DDR, , Mnchen 1974.
Vosskamp, Wilhelm: Zwei deutsche Staaten - eine deutsche Literatur? Eine Rede
zum 17. Juni, in: Diskussion Deutsch, Jahrgang 19, Heft 101, 1988, zit. nach
Granzow, Rene: Gehen oder Bleiben? Literatur und Schriftsteller der DDR zwischen
Ost und West, Verlag fr wissenschaftliche Literatur, Berlin, 2008.
Acknowledgements: This work was supported by the European Social Fund

in Romania, under the responsibility of the Managing Authority for the
Sectoral Operational Programme for Human Resources Development 2007
2013 [grant POSDRU/CPP107/DMI 1.5/S/78342].
Nazism in Recent Alternate Histories
Petru Iamandi
Abstract: Recent alternate histories of Nazism reveal a tendency to

universalize the significance of the Third Reich in order to comment on
contemporary events. This agenda is subtle in some works and more explicit
in others, but it is never far from the surface. Given that all works of
alternate history reflect the circumstances in which they are written - with
writers views of the present influencing whether they envision the alternate
past as better or worse than the real past - it is no surprise that the works of
the last decade reflect the complex realities of the post-9/11 world. The rise
of Al Qaeda, the US invasion of Iraq, the ongoing Israeli-Palestinian conflict,
and the threat of a nuclear Iran have directly influenced the portrayal of the
Nazi past in alternate history.
Keywords: history, alternative history, nazism, Hitler, holocaust.
Alternate histories exploit a point of

divergence, a fork in the path of history which goes in a different
direction (Seed, 2011: 110). Performing a retrospective time loop
that converges on the readers present, their purpose is frequently to
speculate on the contemporary world. Therefore, they are inherently
presentist (Rosenfeld, 2005: 10).
The history of Nazi Germany has provided plenty of material for
counterfactual speculation since the end of WWII. In Great Britain,
the US, Germany, and elsewhere, hundreds of alternate histories have
appeared in the form of science fiction novels and short stories. These
diverse works have explored an equally diverse range of questions:
What if the Nazis had won WWII? What if Adolf Hitler had escaped
from Nazi Germany in 1945 and become an international fugitive?
What if Hitler had been assassinated or had never been born? What if
the Holocaust could somehow be undone? What if Holocaust I had
been followed by Holocaust II?
According to some scholars, these alternate histories focusing on
Nazism reflect the emergence of an increasingly normalized view of
the Nazi era. By normalization, these scholars mean the process
whereby an unusually sensitive historical legacy, such as that of the
Third Reich, ceases to be viewed from an entirely moralistic
perspective, being seen as a past like any other. This process can be
266
advanced deliberately through strategies of relativization (the pasts

uniqueness is minimized through comparisons to other historical
events), universalization (the pasts singularity is explained as merely
an outgrowth of timeless forces continuing into the present), or
aestheticization (the pasts moral dimensions are neutralized through
different narrative modes of representation) (Rosenfeld, 2005: 17-18).
While early post-war accounts of a Nazi victory in WWII bleakly
portrayed a Nazi-ruled world as hell on earth, later narratives have
depicted it less harshly, as a relatively tolerable place. Similarly, while
early accounts of the world without Hitler showed it to be far better in
his absence, later works have portrayed the world as being no better, if
not worse. Finally, while early narratives of Hitlers survival depicted
the fugitive Fhrer being brought to justice, later ones have shown
him eluding justices grasp. These diverging portrayals have reflected
various motives, mostly related to the generational identities and
political agendas of their authors, as well as the shifting social,
economic, and political conditions in their respective countries. On
balance, however, these fictitious representations reveal that the
emotional impact of Nazism especially the fears and fantasies it
originally spawned has begun to fade in Western consciousness.
How do recent alternate histories of Nazism compare? No unifying
trend links the major narratives of the last several years, but many
have exhibited a tendency to universalize the significance of the Nazi
era. Produced, for the most part, by younger writers of left-liberal
backgrounds, these accounts have explored alternate histories related
to the Third Reich in order to comment on, and usually criticize,
contemporary political trends, especially the growing turmoil in the
Middle East in the wake of 9/11. In linking their narratives to present-
day agendas, however, these accounts have diminished the Nazi eras
singularity and have contributed to the larger process of
normalization.
The Nazis Victory

The most popular topic related to the Third Reich remains the
nightmare scenario of the Nazis winning WWII. This premise is
especially popular among Anglophone writers, several of whom have
recently published novels exploring what life would have been like in
England if the Nazis had triumphed in the war. The most prominent
example is the Welsh-born Canadian novelist Jo Waltons trilogy

called Farthing (2006), HaPenny (2007), and Half a Crown (2008).
The series features a British detective named Peter Carmichael who
becomes enmeshed in his countrys descent into fascism after its
leaders forge a separate peace with the Nazis.
As described in Farthing, the alternate history point of divergence
is Rudolf Hesss flight to England in May of 1941, which succeeds in
convincing
British leaders to sign a negotiated peace agreement. The novel is
set in 1949 and centres on the murder of one of the agreements main
negotiators, a prospective candidate for prime minister. The sequel,
HaPenny, shows England sliding deeper into fascism, and describes
Carmichaels effort to prevent the assassination of the prime minister
and his visitor, the Fhrer of Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler. The
trilogys final instalment, Half a Crown, is set a decade later, in 1960,
and portrays England as having fully embraced fascist rule.
Throughout the post-war period, British alternate histories of a
German victory in WWII have varied considerably in portraying the
British peoples behaviour in a Nazi-ruled world. While Noel
Cowards 1947 play, Peace in Our Time, patriotically identified
British collaboration as exceptionally rare, later works in the 1960s
and 1970s, such as Len Deightons 1978 novel, SS-GB, portrayed
collaboration as commonplace. Waltons novels resemble these latter
works in pessimistically affirming Britains potential to turn fascist.
A similar theme can be found in alternate histories that appeared at
about the same time. Philip Roths The Plot against America (2004)
has Charles Lindbergh, known as a Nazi sympathizer, defeat
Roosevelt in his third bid for the US presidency to show the
prevalence of anti-Semitism in the US. Roth analyzes the effect of
larger historical forces on an individual, and the decision to make the
story an alternate history destabilizes the happy ending (Nazisms
defeat) that the reader thought he knew was to come. Owen Sheers
Resistance (2007) empathetically explores the circumstances that
prompt the women of a Welsh farming village to collaborate with
their German occupiers following the Nazi invasion of Britain in
1944. Sheers humanizes his main German characters, but includes
numerous reminders of German brutality in occupied England to pre-
empt charges of normalizing Nazi evil.
These narratives suggest that both writers and readers have
become more comfortable de-heroizing their own likely behaviour
under Nazi rule, a trend that may reflect the emergence of a more self-
critical streak in the nations identity in the years since 9/11.
(Rosenfeld in Buttsworth and Abbenhuis, 2010: 7) Whatever the case
may be, Anglophone alternate histories of a Nazi victory in WWII
point to the ongoing normalization of memory.
A World without Hitler

Another popular question related to the Third Reich is that of Hitler
being removed from history. One of the more prominent works to tackle
this theme in recent years is French writer Eric-Emmanuel Schmitts
novel, La Part de lautre (2001). The novel juxtaposes two parallel
narratives: one, a dramatic retelling of Hitlers real life story; the other,
a speculation of how different his life would have been if he had been
granted admission to the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna in 1907.
Schmitts answer is that this lucky break would have been decisive in
keeping the young man from embarking upon a life of political
extremism. Thanks to his admission to art school, Hitler is able to
undergo a profound psychological change, one that allows him to
experience joy for the first time, arrive at a deeper sense of self-
realization, and finally become a man.
At first glance, Schmitts novel appears to be an exercise in
normalizing Hitlers evil. The novels alternate narrative humanizes
Hitler to an extraordinary degree. It explains his evil as inherently
circumstantial the result of sexual dysfunction and thus implies
that it is easily treatable. Moreover, the author successfully convinces
the reader to root for Hitlers redemption. And yet, due to its clever
narrative structure, Schmitts novel shrewdly avoids the charge of
ethical relativism. It interweaves its portrayal of Hitlers alternative
development with a loosely fictionalized account of his life as it
occurred in real history. This juxtaposition of historical fiction with
alternate history prevents readers from sympathizing too much with
Hitler by reminding them of his real historical crimes.
On the other hand, Schmitts universalization of Hitlers evil
challenges the triumphalistic Anglo-American memory of the Nazi
era. Ever since 1945, most British and US alternate histories of the
world without Hitler have confidently asserted that his removal from
history would have done little to improve its course. Works such as
Norman Spinrads novel, The Iron Dream (1972) and Stephen Frys
novel, Making History (1996) have insisted that the structural realities
of German nationalism, militarism, and racism would have produced a
disaster even without Hitler. This claim reflects a sense of
contentment with the course of real history among Anglophone
writers and a corresponding lack of desire to wish it had happened
otherwise.
Kenneth Browns traditional realist novel Hitlers Analyst (2001)
also goes against this sense of contentment presenting the CIA as
capable of creating a Hitler double that convinces even a psychiatrist for
a while that he is treating Hitler himself. While the novel exposes
Hitlers character as the result of simple brainwashing, it suggests to the
reader that Hitlers behaviour is culturally produced and not the
manifestation of an ontological evil. Showing the US generating a
Hitler of its own, the novel implies that, from an American perspective,
it could happen in the US, too.
Holocaust II or No Holocaust
Alternate histories on the subject of the Holocaust have
traditionally been few in number, but several important narratives
have appeared in recent years. For example, David Charnays
Operation Lucifer: The Chase, Capture, and Trial of Adolf Hitler
(2002) features Hitler being detained and tortured in Guantanamo.
Moreover, the novels epilogue, added after 9/11, seeks to associate
them with the Holocaust, and Osama bin Laden with Hitler. The
novel opens in 1952 when the CIA discovers that Hitler has escaped
from the bunker. Having undergone plastic surgery, he now poses as a
Jew, and, with all the money he has stolen from the victims of the
Holocaust, he is now the richest man in the world. He sells weapons to
North Korea, sponsors neo-Nazi groups throughout the world, and
supports virtually every existing terrorist group, the Hamas as well as
the ETA, the Basque separatist organization. That these organizations
were, in reality, only founded after the events described in the novel
(the ETA in 1959, the Hamas as late as 1987) indicates the narratives
presentist orientation from the outset: The novel projects concerns of
the late 1990s back to the 1950s, reconfiguring Hitler as a terrorist and
showing terrorist action as the continuation of WWII by other means.
More than that, 9/11 is seen as another Holocaust, a direct
consequence of the extermination of the Jews. The two events are
linked as cause and effect: Holocaust II could not exist without

Holocaust I. Conceiving of 9/11 as a consequence of the Holocaust
equates the American victims with the Jewish victims of the Nazis. It
reaffirms the special relationship between the US and Israel, and casts
the war against terrorism as a repetition of WW II with the crucial
difference that the Americans now do not come to rescue the victims
but are victims themselves. Consequently, a new Holocaust can still
happen anywhere, even on American territory, because the American
borders are no longer impenetrable.
Ignoring the ideological roots of terrorism, the novel suggests that
the reason for the attacks of 9/11 consists in the generic evil which bin
Laden and Hitler share and which naturally turns them into Americas
enemies. Such an approach is problematic because it does not engage
the roots of Islamist terrorism: To reduce Nazism and Islamist
terrorism to the evilness of Hitler and bin Laden, respectively, may be
very reassuring for US culture, because it draws a strict boundary
between its own goodness and the evil various others come to
embody, but it prevents it from taking into account the historical
and political conditions that give rise to terrorism when devising
strategies to combat it. (Butter, 2009: 140)
Another prominent exploration of an alternate holocaust is Michael
Chabons 2007 novel, The Yiddish Policemens Union. The novels
alternate historical elements unfold on the margins of its main plot, a
political thriller about the murder of a Jewish chess prodigy. The
narrative is based upon a clear point of divergence: the decision of the
US government in 1940 to establish a homeland for European Jewish
refugees in Alaska. This decision ends up changing history in numerous
ways. Thanks to President Roosevelts passing of the Alaska
Resettlement Act, two million Jews are able to escape from war-torn
Europe to the US territory and establish a community full of social,
cultural, and religious diversity. The Holocaust, as we know it in real
history, never occurs. Although two million Jews fall victim to what is
called the Nazi Destruction, the lives of four million others in Europe
are spared. The novel thus seems to endorse the fantasy that averting the
Holocaust - or at least diminishing its magnitude - would have made
history turn out for the better.
In reality, however, The Yiddish Policemens Union casts doubt on
whether the course of alternate history would really have been
superior to that of real history. On the one hand, far more European
Jews survive the Nazi onslaught and many are privileged to take part
in the creation of a Yiddish-speaking homeland in Alaska. Moreover,

the defeat of the Soviet Union by the Nazis (which takes place in
1942) means that there is no Cold War. On the other hand, however,
the state of Israel is never created, as the Jews lose the 1948 War of
Independence and are driven into the sea by the Arabs. The Jews of
Alaska are themselves in a precarious situation. The Roosevelt
administrations original granting of independence to the Alaskan
Jewish settlement is only intended to last for sixty years, at which
point it is supposed to be reconsidered.
At the time the action takes place our present the American
president is inclined to have the territory return to the US (a process
called Reversion), thereby ending the Jews dreams of political
autonomy. Against this background, the author spins out his main
plot, a complicated conspiracy meant to destroy the Dome of the Rock
in Jerusalem and prepare the groundwork for a massive Jewish return
to Palestine.
At the novels conclusion, the police discover the reason for the
murder of the chess prodigy he is killed because he is unwilling to
play the role of the messiah in the conspiracy and learn the
distressing news that the Dome of the Rock has, in fact, just been
bombed. Even without the occurrence of the Holocaust, the future
looks bleak, with international strife on the horizon between Jews and
Arabs. In short, alternate history is little better than real history.
Chabons narrative aims to point out the tragic elements of the
modern Jewish historical experience, especially those surrounding the
Zionist movement. By portraying Jewish life as precarious even in the
absence of the Holocaust, he shows how the effort to establish a
Jewish national home was destined to cause problems wherever it was
created, whether in Alaska or Palestine. In making this point, Chabon
does not so much explore the Holocausts ramifications for their own
sake as use them to comment on the challenges facing Israel.
(Rosenfeld in Buttsworth and Abbenhuis, 2010: 17) In other words, he
universalizes the Holocausts significance for larger purposes,
advancing the process of normalization.
Conclusion
Recent alternate histories of Nazism reveal a presentist tendency to
universalize the significance of the Third Reich in order to comment o
contemporary events. This agenda is subtle in some works and more

explicit in others, but it is never far from the surface. Given that all
works of alternate history reflect the circumstances in which they are
written - with writers views of the present influencing whether they
envision the alternate past as better or worse than the real past - it is
no surprise that the works of the last decade reflect the complex
realities of the post-9/11 world. The rise of Al Qaeda, the US invasion
of Iraq, the ongoing Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and the threat of a
nuclear Iran have directly influenced the portrayal of the Nazi past in
alternate history.
Bibliography
Butter, Michael, The Epitome of Evil. Hitler in American Fiction, 1939-2002, New
York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
Buttsworth, Sara and Maartje Abbenhuis (eds.), Monsters in the Mirror.
Representations of Nazism in Post-war Popular Culture, Santa Barbara, Praeger,
2010.
Rosenfeld, Gavriel D. The World Hitler Never Made: Alternate History and the
Memory of Nazism, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2005.
Seed, David, Science Fiction. A Very Short Introduction, New York, Oxford
University Press, 2011.
Une anamnese du concept dideologie dans les
medias
Petru Ioan Marian
Abstract: Our study revisits a difficult and controversial concept, namely

ideology, starting with the earliest recordings of the concept, successively
going through orthodox marxism structuralism, deconstruction and cultural
approaches. We aim to validate the concept as a means of investigating mass
media phenomena.
Keywords: ideology, mass-media, political economy, structuralism,
culturalism
1. Introduction
Cest un lieu commun de dire que lidologie est un concept
difficile et vasif. Dans cette communication, nous nous proposons de
vrifier dans quelle mesure le concept didologie reste oprationnel
pour ltude de la communication et des mdias.
Beaucoup dauteurs approchent prudemment, avec scepticisme et
mme agacement, ce sujet caution, mais qui attire nanmoins
comme un Eldorado spectaculaire et trompeur.
En mesurant lutilit du concept pour la psychologie sociale
Thomas Ibanez affirme que dans le foisonnement de dsaccords que
suscite la notion didologie, une convergence semble poindre et
restaurer lunanimit: lidologie est une notion polmique et
polysmique[1].
Ernesto Laclau [2] nonce les termes dun paradoxe thorique qui
lui semble vident : dans aucune autre poque, rflchir sur
lidologie na tenu une place aussi importante que dans les thoriques
marxistes; en mme temps, dans aucune autre priode, les limites et
lidentit rfrentielle de lidologie nont t si effaces et
problmatiques.
Raymond Boudon dclare que lexamen de la littrature consacre
lidologie lui voque le sentiment quelle est domine par une
grande confusion [3], en partageant lopinion rpandue parmi les
spcialistes que la notion didologie apporte aux sciences sociales
plus de dgts que des occasions de clarification.
274
Mettant en opposition labondance des commentaires et luvre

originale menue quelle avait mane, Serge Moscovici, est encore
plus caustique lorsquil nomme lidologie une notion critique et
strile: voil qui explique pourquoi on a plus crit sur elle que cr
partir delle quoi que ce soit doriginal [4].
Phil Thomson [5] souligne la tendance du discours acadmique
contemporain de se dbarrasser de la notion didologie avec sa
plurivocit dconcertante et notamment son hritage marxiste, en
ajoutant que lidologie avait acquis tant de significations quelle est
actuellement dpourvue de sens.
Notion confuse, complexe, difficile, problmatique, strile peut-
tre, lidologie serait de plus une notion devenue totalement inutile
de nos jours si lon prte crdit ceux qui prsentent notre poque
comme tant celle de la fin des idologies [6]. Cest ainsi que Teun
van Dijk [7] exprime son dsaccord envers le syntagme la fin des
idologies , notant que le monde contemporain est truff
didologies, notamment de celles qui se reconnaissent mal comme
telles.
Dans son introduction aux sciences de la communication, John
Fiske [8] fait le bilan des trois types demploi que Raymond Williams,
lun des pres fondateurs des tudes Culturelles, a trouv au terme
didologie : un systme de croyances caractristique une certaine
classe sociale ou un groupe ; un systme de croyances illusoires
ides fausses ou une fausse conscience qui contrastent avec la
connaissance vraie et scientifique ; un processus gnral de production
de sens et dides [9].
Dans son approche barthsienne, lidologie dveloppe des sens de
deuxime degr parmi lesquels les mythes et les valeurs connotes.
Dans Mythologies [10], Barthes envisage la notion didologie comme
une naturalisation symbolique et une projection des rsultats de la
rhtorique discursive dans les caractristiques de lobjet lui-mme.
Prsupposer que ces valeurs les dominantes taient si
fondamentales, si largement rpandues et naturelles, quil ne serait
plus besoin dy rfrer, reprsenterait ce que Barthes nommait
exnomination , cest--dire de lidologie mise en pratique [11].
Dans le prambule de son anthologie dtudes marxistes [12],
Slavoj iek identifie, sur les pas de Hegel dans la religion, les trois
paliers de lidologie : doctrine, rituel et foi. Cette classification
convient la systmatisation de significations associes lidologie
et ressemble globalement aux sens que, parmi dautres, Raymond

Williams avait attachs la notion.
Chez Slavoj iek, lidologie est un ensemble dides (thories,
convictions, croyances, argumentations) peru dans son
externalisation, cest--dire dans sa matrialit, les appareils
idologiques dtat et, enfin, dans son aspect le plus rude, lidologie
spontane , prsente au centre de la ralit sociale elle-mme.
Larticle de Slavoj iek passe en revue une srie de contributions
thoriques, applications et noms illustrant lapproche idologique dans
les sciences sociales et celles de la communication. On y rejoint la
thorie de largumentation dOswald Ducrot qui rclame
essentiellement limpossibilit de dlimiter les niveaux descriptifs et
ceux argumentatifs de la langue tout tant subjectif. Le sens neutre
est une illusion, chaque dsignation intgrant dj la dmonstration
argumentative; les prdicats descriptifs sont, en consquence, des
gestes argumentatifs naturaliss.
Lanalyse critique du discours (ACD) propose une approche
interdisciplinaire qui comprend la langue en tant que pratique sociale
et qui suit les voies par lesquelles le discours produit et reproduit les
puissances sociales et politiques. Partant du constat de laccs
disproportionn aux ressources sociales et linguistiques, ressources
contrles institutionnellement, Teun van Dijk, Norman Fairclough,
Ruth Wodak, mais galement Gunther Kress ou Theo van Leeuwen
[13] revendiquent un rle davocat auprs des communauts atteintes
par les discriminations sociales, faisant dissidence envers ceux qui
justifient labus de pouvoir par des moyens discursifs. LACD illustre
une orientation critique du discours explicitant les relations de pouvoir
camoufles dans la structure du discours.
Pour lACD, lidologie cre et maintient des relations ingales de
pouvoir, tandis que le langage demeure le principal vhicule de
lidologie. Ltude critique de lidologie vise les modalits par
lesquelles les sens sont construits et transmis en tant que formes
symboliques. Ce type dtude interroge aussi le contexte social o ces
formes symboliques sont employes.
Le but de lACD concerne lmancipation de la conscience des
domins par la dmystification des discours et le dcryptage des
idologies.
Au cur de la tradition marxiste, Ernesto Laclau [14] identifie
deux approches majeures de lidologie. Dune part, lidologie
reprsente un niveau de la totalit sociale, dautre part elle est une
mauvaise conscience. Les deux approches sont fondes sur une

conception essentialiste de la socit de laction sociale, o la socit
et lagent social sont des ralits, des entits homognes.
Laclau remet en question cette vision, postulant que tout systme
structurel est accompagn par une agglomration incontrlable de
significations quil est incapable de matriser et, en consquence, la
socit en tant quobjet qui fonde ses processus est une impossibilit [15].
Laclau identifie le social au jeu infini des diffrences, au discours,
compris dans le sens large du terme. Le social prsupposerait la fois
la tentative dapprivoisement de linfini dans la structure. Cependant,
cet ordre ou cette structure ne constituent pas lessence prioritaire du
social, mais une tentative instable dagir sur le social, de le sparer. Il
en dcoule que la distinction base / superstructure choue et amne la
comprhension de lidologie comme niveau ncessaire pour toute
formation sociale.
Cest dans le domaine de la subjectivit aussi que Laclau retrace le
caractre prcaire de toute structure. La notion de fausse conscience
exige la fixation de lidentit de lagent social. Si le sujet social est
dcentralis et que son identit renvoie larticulation instable des
positions dans un tat de changement permanent, la base thorique qui
nourrit le concept de fausse conscience perd tout soutien. Mme si ces
deux lments qui fondent la notion didologie ne sont plus valides,
Laclau ne gomme pas ce concept toujours oprationnel, expliquant le
phnomne de reconnaissance: On peut maintenir le concept
didologie et de non-reconnaissance si lon renverse leur contenu
traditionnel. Lidologique ne consistera pas dans la non-
reconnaissance dune essence positive, mais prcisment dans son
contraire : dans la non-reconnaissance du caractre prcaire de toute
ralit. Lidologique consisterait dans ces formes discursives par
lesquelles une socit essaie de se construire soi-mme sur une
fermeture, une fixation des sens, de la non-reconnaissance du jeu
infini des diffrences. Lidologie serait la volont de totalit de tout
discours totalisant [16].
Paralllement avec ce courant dinterprtation de lidologie,
volue un autre courant qui ne peroit pas un lien inextricable entre
lidologie et la distorsion, o le terme en perd la rfrence marxiste.
Cette cole interprte lidologie comme une grille de lecture, un
dispositif utile lindividu afin de donner du sens et de la cohrence
la ralit. Cest la position thorique de Geertz qui tudie lidologie
en tant que systme culturel [17] ou celle de Deconchy, o
lidologie est un ensemble ...de reprsentations et dexplications du

monde et notamment du monde des interactions sociales o le mobile
premier nest pas dabord dordre vrificateur [18].
Michel Foucault [19] quant lui sloigne du marxisme et renonce
lillusion du grand rcit totalisateur. Selon lauteur, la tentative de
construire une mta-critique de lidologie capitaliste serait aussi une
ruse, puisquil tait impossible de concevoir une perspective objective
qui chappe aux relations de pouvoir que prsuppose lidologie.
La notion didologie semble inoprable pour le philosophe
franais. La question du pouvoir remplace chez Foucault le thme
marxiste de lexploitation de classe. Le pouvoir ne se rduit pas
lidologie et il nest pas toujours impos par quelquun se situant au
sommet de la pyramide sociale. Foucault dmontre que le pouvoir
vient den bas et que ce qui semble comme idologique chez
Althusser sera pour Foucault la consolidation des effets du pouvoir, et
cette consolidation sera elle-mme un acte de pouvoir [20].
Plus tard, lidologie est proche, sans se superposer, des concepts
apparents comme vision du monde , systme dides ou
prjugs , dans le sens employ par Gadamer [21] lorsquil dcrit
ainsi lensemble des prsupposs dfaut desquels il ny aurait plus
dinterprtation.
II. Trois paradigmes thoriques

marxistes dans ltude de la
communication de masse
Parmi les coles de pense marxistes des mdias, Michel
Gourevitch [22] souligne trois principaux paradigmes : lconomie
politique, le structuralisme et le culturalisme. Ces coles de pense
emploient la notion didologie avec au moins un des sens que nous
avons passs en revue plus haut et postulent que les mdias ont le
pouvoir idologique de ne pas se mettre daccord sur sa nature et ses
limites.
A. Connecte directement la tradition marxiste orthodoxe,

lconomie politique peroit lidologie subordonne sa base
conomique. La proprit et le contrle conomique des mdias sont
les facteurs clefs qui dterminent le contrle des messages de presse.
a) Dans le marxisme traditionnel, lidologie est la fausse

conscience qui rsulte de limposition de lidologie dominante aux
subordonns. Conformment lconomie politique marxiste, le rle
des mdias est celui de masquer la base conomique de la
confrontation de classe.
Karl Marx est responsable de la conceptualisation des positions
conflictuelles de lidologie. Le noyau thorique de la pense marxiste
sappuie sur une philosophie matrialiste de laction, en opposition
avec lidalisme dHegel, Lidologie allemande [23] tant une tude
quon peut lire comme un vritable manifeste matrialiste.
Si la philosophie hglienne sappuyait sur la conception dun
esprit universel qui met lhistoire en route, Marx renverse ce
raisonnement, tant convaincu que les conditions matrielles de la
socit dterminent la conscience et le dveloppement historique. Un
point intressant dans la pense de Marx est la question de la
reprsentation [24] entre idal et matriel. La reprsentation serait le
produit de lesprit humain. Le problme surgit au moment o la
reprsentation devient indpendante lorsque les hommes lassimilent
faussement la ralit.
Lutilisation que Marx donne au terme didologie lie le matria-
lisme au problme de la fausse autonomie de la reprsentation :
Lidologie consiste dans limpossibilit de reconnatre la fonction
mdiatrice de la reprsentation, en la considrant comme une sphre
autonome. Lidologie prsuppose un aveuglement devant le fait
quun concept est entremis par sa relation avec un autre concept. Cette
autonomie de la reprsentation est ncessaire au projet de la
prsentation fausse des intrts particuliers dune classe comme les
intrts gnraux de lhumanit [25].
Pour Marx, lidologie reprsentait lacte par lequel la vision de la
classe dirigeante tait finalement transplante, comme une fausse
conscience, la classe domine, tant accepte par la socit comme
naturelle. Le concept de fausse conscience est important parce quil
explique dune manire convaincante les raisons pour lesquelles les
individus se conforment un systme social dfavorable.
Les mdias sont, en termes marxistes traditionnels, un moyen de
production parmi dautres qui dans la socit capitaliste appartient la
classe dirigeante. Les mdias dissminent les ides la classe
dirigeante et nient ou dsamorcent les ides alternatives, en produisant
la fausse conscience au sein de la classe subordonne. Les produits
mdias sont vus comme une manation de valeurs de la classe
dirigeante, en ignorant la diversit des valeurs et la possibilit dune

lecture oppositionnelle des messages vhiculs.
b) Hritire directe de la tradition marxiste, lcole de Francfort
inaugure les tudes critiques de la communication dans les annes 30,
en joignant lconomie politique des mdias, lanalyse culturelle du
texte et les tudes daudience, en se concentrant notamment sur les
effets sociaux et idologiques de la culture de masse et de ma
communication. Les plus notables thoriciens qui lient leur nom
lcole de Francfort sont Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, Erick
Fromm, Walter Benjamin, Max Horkheimer tous de formation
marxiste qui sont associs lInstitut de Recherche sociale fond en
1923 Francfort. Un continuateur plus rcent de la tradition de
lcole de Francfort est Jrgen Habermas [26]. Le groupe offre une
analyse des contradictions structurelles de la socit de classes et des
crises qui fracturent le capitalisme.
Dans la thorie des mdias, cette orientation, qui est une variante
du marxisme occidental nomm thorie critique [27], est
importante puisquelle offre la premire tentative marxiste explicite
pour thoriser et analyser les mdias.
Lcole de Francfort comprend les produits culturels mis en
circulation par les mdias comme une industrie culturelle dont la
fonction principale est de lgitimer idologiquement la socit
capitaliste et dintgrer lindividu dans un cadre prtabli par cette
socit. Theodor Adorno et Max Horkheimer sont les auteurs du
syntagme industrie culturelle [28], dans le livre La Dialectique de la
Raison. Le livre est lorigine de la thorie de gauche de la culture de
masse, se rfrant aux moyens de communication de masse dont le
produit final est leffet narcotique des mdias sur la conscience
critique. Lanalyse de lindustrie culturelle suggre le fait que la
productibilit culturelle est une extension de la logique de production
de bien commerciaux.
Cette ide est dveloppe dans le livre de Marcuse, LHomme
unidimensionnel [29] qui explore le pouvoir de lidologie de mentir
les individus sous son influence lintrieur de la socit de
consommation.
Herbert Marcuse dcrit les mdias comme une force irrsistible qui
modle la socit : Les moyens de transport, la production de plus
en plus envahissante de lindustrie des loisirs et de linformation
impliquent des attitudes et des habitudes imposes et certaines
ractions intellectuelles et motionnelles qui lient les consommateurs
aux producteurs. Les produits endoctrinent et conditionnent ; il

faonnent une fausse conscience insensible ce quelle a de faux.
Ainsi prennent forme la pense et les comportements unidimen-
sionnels [30].
La thse de lindustrie culturelle suggre quil y a de faux besoins
qui sont propags par les mdias empchant les individus de
reconnatre leurs propres besoins. Les faux besoins sont imposs et
plus tard auto-imposes. Lindustrie culturelle bombarde les individus
avec ce que Baudrillard [31] nommera plus tard des simulacres.
Selon Marcuse, les faux besoins sont gnrs par la circulation de
biens culturels dans un seul sens, des producteurs vers les
consommateurs, tat de chose qui caractriserait toutes les relations
dchange capitaliste.
Lcole de Francfort est convaincue que les mdias uniformisent et
font le public passif. De l dcoule aussi sa principale faiblesse
thorique, puisquelle sous-estime le rle critique de laudience, en
concevant en change un modle abstrait de communication dans un
seul sens, capable de produire de effets forts, certains et indiffrencis.
B. Lanalyse structuraliste se concentre sur les articulations

internes du systme de signification des mdias [32]. Le structu-
ralisme remplace le matrialisme historique par la structure, privi-
lgiant la forme au dtriment du contenu. La signification de laction
humaine est construite par son inscription dans un schma darticu-
lation prexistante. Ainsi le structuralisme conoit-il ltre humain
comme tant parl par la structure [33].
Louis Althusser [34] est le philosophe politique franais dorien-
tation marxiste qui a peru lidologie en tant que pratique. Althusser
mettent les bases dune thorie de la superstructure. Fredric Jameson
[35] caractrise le projet structuraliste comme ltude de la super-
structure ou, dans un sens plus limit, comme ltude de lidologie.
Althusser rejettera la notion marxiste de fausse conscience,
soulignant que lidologie est le moyen par lequel nous exprimentons
le monde. Le marxisme althussrien met en vidence lirrductibilit
et la matrialit de lidologie. Lidologie est alors une force gnrale
et impossible viter. Le fonctionnement de lidologie dans la
socit contribue la production de sujets et la reproduction du
systme.
Dans Idologie et appareils idologiques dtat [36], Althusser
introduit lide dinterpellation : Lune des pratiques idologiques les
plus prsentes et les plus insidieuses est celle quAlthusser nomme

interpellation ou appellation. Tout acte de communication nous
interpelle ou nous appelle dune certaine faon. Toute communi-
cation sadresse un quelquun et le fait de sadresser met ces
rcepteurs dans une relation sociale. Quand nous nous reconnaissons
nous-mmes comme les destinataires dun acte de communication et
nous y rpondons, nous participons notre propre construction sociale
et donc idologiques [37]. Les individus sont interpells principa-
lement par lordre discursif on comprend par discours plus que la
manire dorganisation du texte face laquelle il ny a pas dissue, ou
par des actions concrtes des plus banales.
Lagent interpellatif de cette vision de lidologie est un ensemble
quil nomme appareil idologique dtat [38]. Ces appareils
idologiques comprennent la religion, lducation, la famille, le
systme de lois, le cadre politique, les mdias, la sphre de la culture
en gnral et qui se trouve sous la tutelle de ltat. Ensemble, ces
institutions tissent un rseau interpellatif dont personne ne peut viter
laction. Les individus sont toujours considrs comme sujets suite
leurs pratiques, suite leur dpendance au langage en tant
quinstrument essentiel de lorientation dans la ralit et ne peuvent
jamais franchir lidologie.
Les thoriciens marxistes distinguent entre sujet, reprsent par les
agents humains et objets, en signifiant la matrialit de lexistence.
Lidologie a le rle de construire lindividu comme sujet, larrachant
la nature et lui attachant une identit culturelle.
Louis Althusser sloigne de la comprhension de lidologie
consolide dans le marxisme orthodoxe . Lidologie cesse dtre
la fausse conscience, tant dfinie comme une srie de pratiques [39]
vcues et non pas imposes de lextrieur. Conformment cette
conception qui accorde lidologie le pouvoir maximal, les effets de
lidologie sont invitables puisquelle agit de lintrieur, tant
profondment enracine dans la pense et la manire de vivre des
sujets.
Par lintroduction des concepts dinterpellation et dappareils
idologiques dtat, le marxisme structuraliste althussrien rend
possible lexplication plus lgante de la fonction politique des textes
des mdias.
Cependant, la vision althussrienne de lidologie a ses faiblesses.
Althusser est proche dun fonctionnaliste lorsquil imagine la
construction sociale et aussi lindividu comme un tout structur autour
dun principe de cohrence. Une telle approche exclut la possibilit

des conflits ou des contradictions internes.
La thorie althussrienne met entre parenthses le rle actif de
lindividu dans la construction du sens, en le transformant dans un
simple relais qui perptue des contenus par ses pratiques. La position
dAlthusser est contredite par les thories actuelles des mdias qui
soutiennent que le sujet projet lui-mme des sens dans le texte, la
signification se construisant la rencontre du texte avec les valeurs et
lexprience dinterpellation du consommateur culturel. Stuart Hall
ajoute que dans la thorie althussrienne il est difficile de discerner
comme tout en dehors de lidologie dominante peut se reproduire
dans le discours [40].
Le marxisme althussrien noffre pas de crdit la capacit de
lindividu de rsister au processus dinterpellation des mdias,
rsistance qui pourrait gnrer des lectures contradictoires ou mme
adverses. En change, il imagine un sujet unitaire, tandis que les
thories marxistes plus rcentes acceptent un sujet contradictoire,
effet lexposition la srie des discours o elle participe [41].
La thorie althussrienne est encore responsable de la lecture close,
formaliste [42] du systme de signification des formes des mdias,
renonant tout intrt pour les manires de production et rception.
C. Lapproche culturaliste des mdias reflte le travail de

recherche du Centre d'tudes des cultures contemporaines de
lUniversit de Birmingham. Les recherches de Stuart Hall
reprsentent le marxisme dans sa variante culturaliste [43]. Il envisage
les mdias comme une force qui faonne en profondeur la conscience
publique. Le culturalisme suit la voie du structuralisme althussrien
dans le rejet de lconomisme vulgaire, mais, par contre, il capitalise
les contributions du marxiste italien Antonio Gramsci et met laccent
sur lexprience concrte des sous-groupes dans la socit. Les tudes
culturelles renoncent la notion didologie, en prfrant celle, moins
problmatique, dhgmonie.
La dcouverte du marxiste italien Antonio Gramsci est un moment
essentiel de lhistoire des tudes culturelles. Ces dernires adopteront
une vision qui dessine la socit, la culture et la politique comme le
terrain de la dispute entre divers groupes et classes.
Antonio Gramsci [44] introduit dans le domaine de la thorie de
lidologie le terme dhgmonie. Ds lors, lidologie se met oprer
sur le sol anim des conflits. Gramsci pense que lchec de la
rvolution du proltariat que Marx voyait invincible est d au

contrle idologique que le capitalisme exerce sur la socit, non pas
comme une force coercitive, mais comme une autorit, par lentremise
des institutions idologique.
On peut considrer Gramsci plus rductif que Marx ou Althusser,
puisquil vhicule lide de la lutte idologie, mettant laccent sur la
rsistance et la confrontation. Gramsci emploie terme dhgmonie
afin dexpliquer la domination dune classe sociale sur une autre.
Lhgmonie serait leffort permanent de conserver le consensus de la
majorit face au systme dominant : Lhgmonie est ncessaire
parce que lexprience sociale des groupes domins contredit
constamment lidologie dominante. Lidologie dominante croise
constamment des rsistances quelle doit vaincre. Ces rsistances, on
peut les dpasser, mais jamais les liminer (). Tout contresens qui
triomphe est absolument instable [45].
Stuart Hall dfinit lidologie comme la matrise temporaire dun
thtre particulier de lutte [46]. Les positions subalternes
naccepteront point les ides des classes dirigeantes, elles ngocieront
selon de leur exprience, construite sur le sens commun.
La stratgie principale de lhgmonie est la construction du sens
commun. Celui-ci reprsente la catgorie de connaissance dont les
vrits sont prsupposes naturellement invitables, ternelles,
incontestables et que nous connaissons depuis toujours [47]. En
oprant sur le champ de la conscience quelle nourrit avec des
reprsentations du monde, lhgmonie atteint son but lorsque la
totalit des expriences sociales, culturelles et individuelles arrive
rflchir dans les termes dfinis, consacrs et mis en circulation par le
pouvoir [48].
Mihai Coman distingue deux positions fondamentales afin
dapprocher la consommation culturelle dans les tudes Culturelles:
Les significations des produits culturels ne sont pas assimiles
mcaniquement, mais ngocies: le modle de codification/dco-
dification tel que dcrit par Stuart Hall. Les significations sont refaites
par les rcepteurs : le modle de la libert smiotique de John Fiske
[49].
Les deux approches font confiance un public actif lintrieur de
la relation de communication publique. Selon la premire approche, le
public peut ngocier la rception des messages. Par la deuxime, Fiske
transforme la culture de consommation dans un terrain de lutte o les
diffrentes catgories de public sopposent la domination, se
donnant du mal afin du produire leurs propres sens pour chapper au

contrle social.
On peut fixer la contribution de Fiske ltude de la
consommation culturelle en invoquant des concepts quil emploie
dans lanalyse idologique. Dabord la dislocation qui reprsente le
phnomne par lequel un sujet ou une anxit sont rprims soit dun
point de vue psychologique, soit idologique, prenant la forme des
anxits acceptes socialement [50]. Ensuite, lincorporation, qui se
rfre au processus par lintermdiaire duquel les classes dirigeantes
incorporent les rsistances dans lidologie dominante, privant les
classes domines de lexpression de leur opposition [51].
Lune des thses des tudes culturelle est que les mdias
naturalisent lidologie. En sappuyant sur le modle hgmonique de
la communication, les tudes culturelles jettent un coup dil sur ces
institutions parmi lesquelles les mdias aussi qui dissminent les
sens de classe en tant que vrits gnralement valables, ayant comme
principal objectif la dconstruction du sens commun, dans dautres
mots, la mise en relief du caractre politis des actes de
communication.
Pour les tudes culturelles, le rle des mdias est damplifier les
prsupposs existants dans la culture dominante, non pas de leur
engendrer. Les chercheurs affilis cette cole remarquent la tendance
des mdias dviter le non-conventionnel, limpopulaire et de
fournir des valeurs et des hypothses qui sont de plus en plus
largement lgitimes [52].
Chez John Hartley [53], la fonction sociale de la nouvelle est celle
dclare - fournir des informations -, les mdias participant avec
dautres institutions la cration et la consolidation du climat
dominant dopinion dans les limites duquel se structurent la
connaissance sociale et les valeurs sociales.
Lcrivain prcit met au-dessus du dsquilibre du capital la
distribution ingale du capital culturel . Les comptences
linguistiques et culturelles reconnues et accrdites comme
suprieure toutes les autres, tendent de correspondre aux
postions favorises par la classe [54]. Afin dexpliquer le
mcanisme du consentement hgmonique, Hartley introduit la notion
de translare, synonyme la naturalisation par laquelle il comprend le
phnomne qui se produit lorsquon confre aux conditions
spcifiques le statut de vrits absolues [55].
Analysant les relations entre les mdias et les institutions du

capital, Hartley aboutit la conclusion dune relative autonomie des
institutions des mdias. Cette autonomie ne conduit pas des
nouvelles et des articles inertes de point de vue idologique, mais, par
contre, selon Hall et al. (1976), lautonomie relative des institutions
dinformation de masse et lengagement dimpartialit reprsentent les
conditions ncessaires pour la production des significations
idologiques dominantes [56]. Des analyses du sens de deuxime
degr conduisent vers le concept didologie. Importantes pour les
tudes culturelles ne sont pas uniquement les textes culturels, mais ce
que la culture dit explicitement, comme des sous-textes et valeurs
codifies dans les signes culturels.
En guise de conclusion, en paraphrasant Ernesto Laclau [57],
jaffirmerais que la notion didologie, notamment dans son sens de
pratique active, est indispensable aux sciences de la communication,
la critique des sens naturaliss tant impossible se formuler,
dfaut, en dehors de ses limites.
Notes
[1] Ibanez, Thomas, Idologie et relations intergroupes, in Richard Y. Bourhis,

Jacques-Philippe Leyens (coord.), Strotypes, discrimination et relations
intergroupes, ditions Mardaga, Hayen, 1999, p. 321.
[2] Laclau, Ernesto, The impossibility of society, dans Ideology and power in the age
of Lenin in ruins, Canadian journal of political and social theory, volume 15,
numbers 1, 2 & 3, Canada, 1991, pp. 24-27.
[3] Ibanez, Tomas, op. cit. , p. 321.
[4] Ibidem.
[5] Thomson, Phil, Althusser and Foucault: On the Limits of Ideology
[6] Ibanez, Thomas, op. cit., p. 322.
[7] van Dijk, Teun A., Ideology and Discourse Analysis, Ideology Symposium
Oxford, 2004.
[8] Fiske, John, Introducere n tiinele comunicrii, Polirom, Iai, 2003.
[9] idem, p. 210.
[10] Barthes, Roland, Mythologies, Seuil, Paris, 1970.
[11] Fiske, John, op. cit., p. 215.
[12] iek, Slavoj, The Spectre of Ideology, in Mapping Ideology, Slavoj iek,
Verso, London and New York, pp. 1-34.
[13] Wodak, Ruth, What CDA is about a summary of its history, important concepts
and its developments, dans Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis dit par
Ruth Wodak et Michael Mayer, Sage, London, 2001, p. 4.
[14] Laclau, Ernesto, op. cit., pp. 24-27.
[15] Ibidem.
[16] Ibidem.

[18] Ibidem.
[19] Edgar, Andrew, Sedgwick, Peter, Cultural Theory - The Key Thinkers, Routledge,
London and New York, 2002, p. 71.
[20] Thomson, Phil, op. cit.
[22] Chandler, Daniel, Marxist media theory, http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/
Documents/marxism/marxism11.html
[23] Hawkes, David, Ideology, Routledge, London and New York, 1996.
[24] Idem, p. 95.
[25] Idem, p. 97.
[26] OSullivan, Tim, John Hartley, Danny Saunders, Martin Montgomery, John
Fiske, Concepte fundamentale din tiinele comunicrii i studiile culturale,
Polirom, Iai, 2001, p. 335.
[27] Ibidem.
[28] Ibidem.
[29] Agger, Ben, op. cit.
[30] Chandler, Daniel, op.cit.
[31] Baudrillard, Jean, Societatea de consum. Mituri i structuri, Comunicare. ro,
Bucureti, 2005.
[32] Chandler, Daniel, op. cit.
[33] Peck, Janice, Itinerary of a thought - Stuart Hall, Cultural Studies, and the
unresolved problem of the relation of culture to not culture, in Cultural Critique
48 - Spring 2001 - Copyright 2001, Regents of the University of Minnesota, p. 209.
[34] Edgar, Andrew, Sedgwick, Peter, Cultural Theory - The Key Thinkers,
Routledge, London and New York, 2002.
[35] Peck, Janice, op. cit., p. 208.
[36] Edgar, Andrew, Sedgwick, Peter, op. cit., p. 4.
[37] Fiske, John, Introducere n tiinele comunicrii, Polirom, Iai, 2003, p. 221.
[41] Ibidem.
[42] Ibidem.
[43] Ibidem.
[44] Fiske, John, op cit, p. 222.
[45] Ibidem.
[47] OSullivan, Tim, John Hartley, Danny Saunders, Martin Montgomery, John
Fiske, op. cit., p. 304.
[48] Idem, p.161.
[49] Coman, Mihai, Introducere n studiile culturale, dans Tim OSullivan, John
Hartley, Danny Saunders, Martin Montgomery, John Fiske, Concepte
fundamentale din tiinele comunicrii i studiile culturale, Polirom, Iai, 2001, p. 14.
[50] Fiske, John, op. cit., p. 228.
[51] Ibidem.
[53] Hartley, John, Discursul tirilor, Polirom, 1999.
[54] Idem, p. 69.
[55] Idem, p. 68.

[56] Idem, p. 64.
[57] Laclau, Ernesto, op. cit., pp. 24-27.
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York, 2002.
Mediating Filmic Discourse. The Case of

Subtitling
Alexandru Praisler
Abstract: Contemporary culture is consensually defined in terms of its being

dominated by audiovisual communication, which is intermedial and functions
along the multimodal coordinate and the multimedial coordinate. The filmic
text, as audiovisual communicative enterprise and complex semiotic event,
uses utterances, gestures, background noises, captions, pictures and music to
shape meaningful contexts which address the viewer and allow individual
responses, whose multiplicity reinforces the openness of the cultural message.
Consequently, for the receiver and, especially, for the translator, film poses
numerous difficulties, which range from linguistic choice to cultural equivalence,
mediation requirements, translation strategies, technical confines and computer
literacy. The paper looks into these difficulties, as obvious in the subtitling of
Horaiu Mleles Nunt mut [Silent Wedding].
Keywords: audiovisual communication, film, subtitling.
1. Introduction
In the last fifty years or so, the domination of audiovisual commu-
nication channels of communication has left a strong imprint on
translation studies, with theoreticians and practitioners alike focusing
on the pluses and minuses of film dubbing and film translation
(following the growth of the motion picture), TV translation and
media translation (as a result of the emergence of television), screen
translation and multimedia translation (with the rapid development of
electronic and digital media). The main specificities of audiovisual
communication in todays world are its inner intricate patterning and
outer border crossings, its intermediality in short.
Intermediality may be approached in various ways, but relevant
here are its definitions in connection with Mikhail Bakhtins
dialogism and Julia Kristevas intertextuality. As pointed out by
the former in The Dialogic Imagination (1975), cultural texts find
themselves in a permanent dialogue with other texts/authors, being
informed and, in turn, informing previous work, thus conferring a
sense of dynamism to the process of cultural production, seen as
constantly in the making. Along similar lines, in Desire in Language:
A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art (1980), the latter suggests

that texts are structured along the horizontal axis (which connects a
texts author with its reader) and the vertical axis (which connects the
text with other texts), structural axes whose intersection consists of a
number of codes shared with previous or synchronic texts.
Technically, intermediality observes three subcategories: medial
transposition (the transformation of a given media product or of its
substratum into another medium); media combination (film, theatre
performance etc or mixed media); intermedial reference (references to
painting in film, to photography in painting etc) (Rajewsky 2005: 51-
52) If the emphasis is placed on the filmic text as audiovisual
communicative enterprise, it results that all the above mentioned
coordinates and specificities of this particular type of discourse need
special consideration.
Via its complex semiotics, films hyperreality simulates the reality
that is or a possible, recognisable reality, that the consumer may
engage with and be part of, while at the same time inhabiting his/her
own [1]. Furthermore, being a markedly cultural product, film does
not come out of the blue. It is part of a long line of tradition, engaging
in a dialogue with precursor productions and leaving traces to be
remodelled in future ones. More often than not, it involves an
adaptation or a collage of other media products and refers to one or
more of the other arts. It may therefore be seen as crossing medial
frontiers and as representing hybridity. These aspects increase the
number of difficulties that the receiver is confronted with and that the
translator/mediator is undertaking when embarking upon its subtitling.
The film selected as corpus for the present demonstration is
symptomatic for the recycling of the past and its subsequent
reproductions, for evoking elements or structures specific to other
media, for processing history and politics, for the implied act of
intercultural communication. Its script has not yet been translated into
English officially, the only version available on DVD not having been
subtitled or dubbed.
2. Theoretical framework
In todays computer age, reading, writing and translation are
conceptualised differently than before, mostly due to the environment
and format of the new interface of the hypertext, which makes it
possible to arrange and rearrange text, to disperse fragments of text,

insert them into other texts, connect, dis- and interconnect texts as
well as images (Baker 2010: 435). Since the new technology has
impacted on the notion of original text, which is steadily undergoing
a process of multiple reproductions, translation too has to be perceived
as one possible rewriting of a rewritten original. The changes in
format and layout trigger changes in content, decoded under the
influence of different stimuli, and ask for equivalent multimodal and
multimedial translating efforts.
The visibility of the translator [2] increases as a result of such
interventions at the level of the hypertext, his/her role consequently
changing and becoming more significant as compared to the
traditional situation in which, working with inscriptions on the page or
with the print medium of the book, the only means of foregrounding
his/her presence is the preface, the footnote, the critical commentary
or the modification in font. The myth of authorship is thus also
deconstructed, together with that of the original. This comes in
support of the intercultural mediating task of the translator, raises the
awareness of mid-way textual interferences and opens up the text to
multiple readings and interpretations.
The Babel myth of translation [3] represents the perfect trope for the
postmodern condition that it functions within, having been contaminated
by the indeterminate mix of texts, languages, traditions, cultures and
peoples which compose endless kaleidoscopic representations of our
global universe.
Translation is characterised by in-betweenness: caught as it is between

the demands of the source system and that of the target system, the
demand to make familiar that which is other and to do justice to the other
as other, to mediate meaning and negotiate the very instability of
signification, translation is always a hybrid. As such, the translated text
flaunts and re-emphasises the intertextual basis upon the exclusion of
which the myth of textual, or authorial, autonomy is founded: always
bearing the marks of (at least) two writers, always bearing the traces of
other texts and contexs (Littau in Baker 2010: 437).
2.1. Philosophical aspects

Besides Bakhtin, Kristeva and Baudrillard (already referred to),
other scholars having contributed to the consideration of translation
studies within a postmodern(ist) frame and of translation practice
within a hypermedia context are Roland Barthes, Jacques Derrida and
Michel Foucault. In what follows, a synthetic presentation of their

theories will be given special attention to, in view of outlining the
main hypostases of translation during the last several decades, where
translation is one possible reading against the grain of a cultural text
which is polyphonic and whose palimpsest bears traces of the texts
precursors and engages in a dialogue with the texts followers. Once
achieved and inscribed on traditional or electronic support, the
translation as writing is involved in a similar process of continuous
becoming.
2.1.1. Roland Barthes

In The Death of the Author, Roland Barthes argues that a text is
a tissue of quotations drawn from the innumerable centres of culture
(1977: 146), that the writer mixes together to produce yet another
quotation which will be processed further in the not yet written; along
the way, meaning thus evaporates. Refusing to assign an ultimate
meaning to the text (and to the world as text), writing liberates what
may be called an anti-theological activity, an activity that is truly
revolutionary since to refuse to fix meaning is, in the end, to refuse
God and his hypostases reason, science, law (147).
Taking the author and the critic off the pedestal that traditional
thought has placed them on, stripping them of their authority,
omniscience and God-like altitude, Barthes replaces them with the
scriptor and the reader. In his own words,
Succeeding the Author, the scriptor no longer bears within him passions,
humours, feelings, impressions, but rather this immense dictionary from
which he draws a writing that can know no halt: life never does more than
imitate the book, and the book itself is only a tissue of signs, an imitation
that is lost, infinitely deferred. (146)
As for the reader, he/she becomes the space on which all the
quotations that make up a writing are inscribed without any of them
being lost. (148) It is the conceptual reader (without any personal
attributes deriving from history, biography or psychology) who is
ultimately expected to decode the traces of multiple writings and their
mutual relations of dialogue, parody and contestation that go into the
making of a text. It is this unconventional reader and his/her reading
that most of the critics of the twentieth century give prevalence to.
2.1.2. Jacques Derrida

In his deconstructionist approaches to cultural texts, collected under
The End of the Book and the Beginning of Writing, Jacques Derrida
also argues in favour of dialogism and of the necessity of overturning
the myth of stable conceptual oppositions and violent hierarchies, the
most common of which being speech/writing, nature/civilisation,
good/evil. (1997: 6-26) Developing an intricate method of exposing the
way in which the latter contradict or undermine their own authority,
Derrida starts from assuming that identity is a construct, therefore it
produces meaning through the interplay of differences inside a system
of distinct signs. Meanings are never absolute; they derive from the
reciprocal determination with the opposing other, both synchronically
and diachronically. The term he operates with is that of diffrance,
synchronically defined as
the systematic play of differences, of the traces of differences, of the

spacing by means of which elements are related to each other. This
spacing is the simultaneously active and passive (the a of diffrance
indicates this indecision as concerns activity and passivity, that which
cannot be governed by or distributed between the terms of this
opposition) production of the intervals without which the full terms
would not signify, would not function. (1981: 28)
Diachronically, diffrance is associated by Derrida with the

process of deferring or postponement, whereby an element functions
and signifies, takes on or conveys meaning, only by referring to
another past or future element in an economy of traces (1981: 30) In
short, the idea he is advancing is that, presupposing difference and
differance, writing is beginning to go beyond the extension of
language, actually comprehending language in its historical and
cultural evolution. As signifier of the signifier, the text/writing (be it
cinematographic, choreographic, pictorial, musical, sculptural,
military, political, electronic) coexists with other texts/writings and
polyphonically contributes to inscribing the world by means of
devices other than the word.
2.1.3. Michel Foucault

Like Barthes and Derrida, in his The Archaeology of Knowledge,
Michel Foucault emphasizes the relativity of meaning, which he
tackles in close connection with the relativity of truth and which he
observes as deeply at work within discourse. Of interest to him remain
the discursive and practical conditions for the production of truth and
the existence discursive meaning, his well known thesis being that
truth claims emerge during various epochs on the basis of what was
actually said and written during these periods, not the other way
around, as was customarily believed (with truth/reality influencing
and being reproduced in oral or written texts). Historically determined
rather than pre-existing all forms of social organization and
interaction, both truth and discursive meaning are found by Foucault
to lie at the basis of the human subject, of subjectivity therefore
predominant in the word of the text and in the world as text. In
drawing up his theory, he invites at dispensing of all notions of
continuity (identified as tradition, influence, development, evolution
and spirit),
those ready-made syntheses, those groupings that we normally accept

before any examination []; we must oust those forms and obscure
forces by which we usually link the discourse of one man with that of
another; they must be driven out from the darkness in which they reign.
And instead of according them unqualified, spontaneous value, we must
accept, in the name of methodological rigour, that, in the first instance,
they concern only a population of dispersed events. (1972: 24)
Also to be questioned are the divisions, categories, principles of

classification, normative rules, institutionalised types which we are
not even sure of ourselves when we use [them] in our own world of
discourse, let alone when we are analysing groups of statements
which, when first formulated, were distributed, divided, and
characterised in a quite different way. (1972: 25) Emerging is an
understanding of texts/writings as open to multiple interpretations and
as determining other texts/writings that lie in the future of the former.
2.2. Technical aspects

The filmic text is part of a manifold process of production,
transmission and reception, which involves communication across
cultures. Its informational core is generally made explicit via a series
of multimodal and multimedial practices, available for all viewers.
More specifically, however, with regard to intercultural communi-
cation facilitated by audiovisual translation, it also presupposes
intermedial ones, forefront among which is the diasemiotic one of
subtitling, which allows the shift from the spoken medium to the
written one. (Baker 2010: 14)
Subtitling adds yet another decoding tool, juxtaposing the written

text at the bottom of the screen to the utterances spoken in visually
delineated contexts. In so doing, they need to observe a number of
relatively strict rules (dictated by the cinematic frames they are part of
and by the speed of language production), so that the simultaneity of
occurrence may not be disrupted.
In approaching a film in view of attempting its audiovisual
translation, the first steps to take are: watching the whole cinema-
tographic production; comparing the existing script/scripts with the
actual utterances and noting the differences; translating the cultural
codes (or picture information); observing the time cuts, breaks,
flashbacks, close-ups etc. (used for dramatic reasons); paying attention
to problems of vocabulary, forms of address, family relations, titles
and other such details; carrying out additional research, if needed
(spelling of names, lyrics that are difficult to hear, historical events,
literary issues etc).
2.2.1. Film script and soundtrack

When available, film scripts have to analysed in terms of what
Halliday and Matthiessen call metafunctions of real life: the ideational
(information exchanged, experiences expressed), the interpersonal
(relationships created and sustained) and the textual (the way speakers
structure their dialogue, syntactically and semantically) (2004: 107)
That is, under the lens for the translator should be the factors of real
conversation taken into account by the scriptwriter when constructing
the dialogues. From among these, the most noteworthy have been
pointed out (Taylor 1999: 264-265) as resulting from: whether the
speakers know each other; who establishes centrality in conversation
and who proves to be the weaker party; who generates and who
accepts involvement in conversational events; how authority is
assumed and how modality is expressed etc.
Actors, nevertheless, do not always observe the exact instructions
given in the film script, choosing or being forced, at times, to
improvise or to bring their own contribution to the overall filmic
situation. Listening carefully to the soundtrack and taking notes
imposes itself as the next step in subtitle preparation. This activity
lends itself to considerations on the intention and result of creating
and reproducing genuine language in film, mainly due to the fact that
there are a number of factors working against it and thus the
translators task will be rendered even more challenging, since his/her
choices will have to eventually satisfy all requirements technical,

linguistic and cultural alike. Many of the difficulties are a direct
consequence of the fact that everyday speech is extremely hard to
render on screen. Actual conversation is banal, garbled, full of phatic
devices; it flows with ease, has a normal feature attached and gives
rise to numerous subtopics all the time. By contrast, film language is
dramatic, pertinent or creative and tends to stick to the point; its
content is more ideational or factual; artificial pauses are created to
stimulate tension or to raise expectations; it helps to build character
based on immediate context rather than cultural heritage. (Taylor
1999: 265-267)
2.2.2. Subtitling policy

As for the subtitling techniques and constraints proper, they are
determined by the specificities of what has come to be known as the
language of subtitling, one which involves further synthesising,
because it is usually expected to be even less sophisticated than that of
written texts, being built on simple sentence structures, with no
excessive use of subordinate clauses, with digressions kept to a
minimum, with longer segments broken into readily digestible chunks.
For clearly outlining the main coordinates (Ivarsson 1992) that
subtitling activities should be carried out along, attention needs to be
focused upon: target language/audience; the spoken/written medium;
time issues; spatial boundaries; worksheets (cueing, pre-coding);
editing (condensing the text, omission or paraphrase, muddled speech,
ellipsis, merging short dialogues, simplifying syntax and vocabulary,
dialogues, displays and captions, punctuation, other conventions
regarding fonts numbers, time, currency, units of measurement, song
lyrics, opera, poetry, abbreviations, presentation of characters, titles
and institutions, proper names and brand names, forms of address,
strong language, film/programme/episode titles, credits, subtitlers
credit and copyright).
All in all, what may be stated at this point is that a much more
detailed and restrictive translation policy emerges in the case of
subtitling under the conditions of the norms and conventions
presented above. It is of recent date, permanently subject to
modification, as obvious in the reference to filmed opera, whose
subtitling is still not fully regulated by the specialists in the field.
Although extremely fixed and authoritative, it cannot however be used
by the translator to justify harsh interventions, overlooking questions
of alterity and national specificity and thus prove scholars like Annie
Brisset right in saying that
At the most basic level, translation is born of an inability: the inability to

express oneself in the language of another. By empowering the individual
to overcome this obstacle, translation is tantamount to an entrustment. It
is a fiduciary action that clearly carries with it a danger of confiscation
and censure. Hence the exorbitant power of the translating agent (in
Petrili 2003: 102).
Instead of being perceived as a potential for influencing and for

manipulation, the power of the translator is accepted here as more of a
commission to communicate on national characteristics, local
manifestations and historical determinations in a language familiar to
many and in keeping with the arbitrary system of signs represented by
the internationally recognised subtitling practices. The case study
chosen and presented in what follows will hopefully illustrate that the
translating effort contributes to communicating the cultural self and
prove rewarding to the scriptors self.
3. Under focus: subtitling Nunt mut

[Silent Wedding]
3.1. Film synopsis

Nunt mut [Silent Wedding] includes a number of 25 scenes, two
of which are set in 2008, focusing on a journalistic investigation and a
narration of past events (1 and 25), the rest being set in 1953 and
focusing on the slow pace of Romanian rural life in the fifties (2-24).
Eighteen of the scenes (1, 3, 5-11, 13, 15-19, 21, 23, 25) give a
voice to the characters and outline the images and representations of
the Romanian spirit. Seven scenes are marked by silence to different
degrees, contributing to rounding up the narration with details which
escape linguistic formulation: two (the love-making ones: 2 and 12)
have positive, natural and human, sounds in the background; one (the
circus comes to the village late at night: 14) brings sinister music
anticipating disaster; two (with the Russian armed forces: 4 and 24)
background, then foreground the communist repression; two (of the
wedding proper: 20 and 22) are governed by an overwhelming silence
that one can almost hear. Moreover, what seems symbolical is that,
when Russian is spoken (19 and 24), the Romanians are reduced to
silence, the only exception being that of the translator.
3.2. Subtitling in practice

To illustrate the compiling of subtitles for this film, but also to
emphasise its political substratum, a selection of three relevant scenes
was made (Scene 4, Scene 5 and Scene 7 Part 1).
ROMANIAN ORIGINAL ENGLISH SUBTITLES COMMENTS

TRANSLATION
SCENE 4. [00.10.10-00.10.55]
1953: Russian tanks against
the background of the
countryside
Frame 131 - blank frame

[00.10.10-
00.10.15]
(cemetery in the
background;
total silence)
[00.10.16-
00.10.20]
(cemetery in the
foreground;
total silence)
[00.10.21-
00.10.25]
(shots are
heard)
[00.10.26-
00.10.28]
(Russian tanks
in sight)
[00.10.29-
00.10.30]
(Iancu, Sile,
Gogonic
watching,
facing the
camera)
[00.10.31-
00.10.43]
(Iancu, Sile,
Gogonic
watching, their
backs to the
camera)
[00.10.44-
00.10.55]

TRANSLATION
(Iancu, Sile,
Gogonic in
the woods,
coming towards
the village)
SCENE 5. [00.10.56-00.12.03]
1953: Life in the rural
environs, interrupted by
communist activity
Iancu: Iancu: Frame 138 - 18/15 characters,

S trieti, nea Gogonea. Good day, [00.10.56- with spaces
Gogonea, Primarul: Mayor. 00.10.58] - dashes used to
Noroc, Iancule. Mayor Gogonea Good day, show 2 speakers
[Pickle] : Mayor. - the Romanian
Hello, Iancu. Hello, Iancu. familiar nea
could not be
preserved;
Mayor, instead
of Mr. Mayor
was preferred
Gogonea, Primarul: Mayor Gogonea Frame 139 - 21/16 characters,
Gogonic, hai tat, hai. [Pickle] : [00.10.59- with spaces
Come along, 00.11.01] - utterance split on
Gogonic [Little Come along, two lines
Pickle], come Gogonic, - the idea of tat
along, son. come along, was preserved in
son. son
- the note on
Gogonic =
Little Pickle, to
be made in the list
of characters, at
the beginning of
the film
[00.11.02-
00.11.04]
(Iancu, Sile,
Gogonic in
the woods,
coming towards
the village)
[00.11.05-
00.11.10]
(Gogonea and
Gogonic enter
the village pub)
Iancu: Iancu: Frame 142 - 29 characters,
Coriolane, vezi m, c ai Coriolan, [00.11.11- with spaces
pan, m. youve broken 00.11.13] - the wording was
down. Coriolan, changed, for a pun
youve broken to remain
down. operative (break
down/breakdow
n)
-

TRANSLATION
Coriolan: Coriolan: Frame 143 - 12 characters,
Unde m, unde? What? Where? [00.11.14- with spaces
00.11.15] - two separate short
What? Where? questions were
preferred, for
conciseness
Sile, Piticul: Sile, the dwarf: Frame 144 - 19 characters,
La cap, b, la cap! Upstairs! [00.11.16- with spaces
Upstairs! 00.11.17] - two separate short
Upstairs! answers were
Upstairs! preferred, for
conciseness and
symmetry reasons
[00.11.18-
00.11.19]
Coriolan laughs
Coriolan (rznd): Coriolan (laughing): Frame 146 - 7 characters, with
Boilor! Idiots! [00.11.20- spaces
00.11.21] - the animal refe-
Idiots! rence is not ope-
rative in English;
idiot seemed
more appropriate
in connection with
the previous
remarks
[00.11.22-
00.11.23]
(Iancu and Sile
walk towards
the village
centre, facing
the camera)
[00.11.24-
00.11.29]
(Iancu takes
Sile by the
shoulders;
they walk
towards the
village centre)
[00.11.30-
00.11.35]
(Troop marches
in the village;
someone
whistles the
pace)
[00.11.36-
00.11.37]
(Iancu turns a
corner, with
Sile on his
shoulders)

TRANSLATION
[00.11.38-
00.11.39]
(Troop marches
in the village;
someone
whistles the
pace)
[00.11.40-
00.11.41]
(Iancu walks
around, with
Sile on his
shoulders)
Agitator comunist: Communist agitator: Frame 153 - 12 characters,
Trup, stai! Troop, halt! [00.11.42- with spaces
00.11.43] - military terms
Troop, halt! used
Agitator comunist: Communist agitator: Frame 154 - 31 characters,

Mi tovari, ce vrem Comrades, [00.11.44- with spaces
noi? comrades are we 00.11.45] - modification made
sure? Comrades, and repetition
comrades are used for rhyming
we sure? purposes
Trupa: Troop: Frame 155 - 35/12 characters,
Noi vrem pace, nu We want peace, [00.11.46- with spaces
rzboi! we dont want 00.11.48] - dashes used to
war! We want show 2 speakers
Agitator comunist: Communist agitator: peace, we dont - rhyming pattern
Asta e. Thats it. want war! employed
Thats it.
Sile, Piticul: Sile, the dwarf: Frame 156 - 14/14 characters,
Pace vou Go in peace [00.11.49- with spaces
Iancu i Sile, piticul: Iancu and Sile, the 00.11.53] - clerical nuance
Paaaceeeeeee dwarf: Go in peace preserved
Peeeeaaaace - repeated vowels
Peeeeaaaace included to show
mimicry and
mockery
Iancu: Iancu: Frame 157 - 20 characters,
Ce faci, mutule? How are you, [00.11.54- with spaces
dumbie? 00.11.56]
Mutu (face semn c se duce s
bea ceva) Dumb man (signals he How are you, - the more familiar
is going for a drink) dumbie? dumbie
preferred instead
of dumb man
[00.11.57-
00.12.00]
(The dumb man
stumbles
towards the
village pub)
[00.12.01-
00.12.03]

TRANSLATION
(People walking
around the
village)
SCENE 7. [00.13.30-00.16.40]
1953: At the village pub

[00.13.30-
00.13.33]
(Cloggy, smoky
atmosphere in
the pub; flies
everywhere)
[00.13.34-
00.13.36]
(People
drinking; hens
on tables)
[00.13.37-
00.13.38]
(Marinela, the
village
prostitute,
drunk,
smoking)
Coriolan: Coriolan: Frame 177 - 27 characters,
Doamna Marinela, deci e Its simple, [00.13.39- with spaces
simplu, pui la roat un Mrs. Marinela, 00.13.40] - reversed word
dinam, din dinamul al you attach a Its simple, order in English
vin dou fire, pui un bec dynamo to the Mrs. Marinela.
i electrificm tot satul, wheel, from Frame 178 - 33 characters,
domnule. E simplu! that dynamo [00.13.41- with spaces
come two 00.13.43] - the more familiar
wires, you add a You attach a you used
light bulb and dynamo to the instead of the
the village is wheel, imperative
electrified. Its Frame 179 - 34 characters,
simple! [00.13.44- with spaces
00.13.45] - deliberately
from that reversed word
dynamo come order
two wires, - suspension dots
for continued
sentence
Frame 180 - 22 characters,
[00.13.46- with spaces
00.13.47] - the more familiar
you add a you used
light bulb instead of the
imperative
- suspension dots
for continued
sentence
00.13.49] - suspension dots

TRANSLATION
and the for continued
village is sentence
electrified. - the Its simple!
at the end was
omitted; it would
have been
confusing after the
suspension dots
[00.13.50-
00.13.52]
(Villagers play
games, place
bets on
catching flies)
[00.13.53-
00.13.55]
(Pub owner,
Pitcher, blows a
trumpet)
[00.13.56-
00.13.57]
(Everyone
laughs)
Stean: Villager: Frame 185 - 31 characters,
Ulcior, nc patru la Pitcher, bring [00.13.58- with spaces
picior! us another four! 00.14.00] - nickname
Pitcher, bring preserved
us another four! - the rhyme was
overlooked for
clarity reasons
[00.14.01-
00.14.04.02]
(Gogonea, with
a straight face)
Gogonea: Mayor Gogonea Frame 187 - 17 characters,
Tovaru Coriolan, [ [00.14.03- with spaces
lumina vine de la rsrit. P 00.14.04] - communist form
Cnd or vrea ei s i Comrade of address
electrificm, c Coriolan, preserved,
electrificm. k although
l uncommon in
e English
] Frame 188 - 32 characters,
Comrade [00.14.05- with spaces
Coriolan, the 00.14.07] - suspension dots
light comes the Light for continued
from the East. comes from the sentence
When they want East. - capital letters
us to electrify, were used to
we electrify. underline the
communist
message
00.14.10] - order of sentences

TRANSLATION
When they preserved to
want us to support further
electrify, commentaries
made
well for continued
electrify. sentence
- future tense used
to express strong
volition/implication
[00.14.14-
00.14.16]
(Silence; people
laugh)
Stean: Villager: Frame 192 - 25 characters,

O s electrificai o p! Youll electrify [00.14.17- with spaces
my arse! 00.14.18] - jargon preserved;
Youll electrify term replaced to
my arse! tone down strong
language
[00.14.19-
00.14.21]
(Everyone
laughs out
loud)
[00.14.22-
00.14.26]
(People go on
drinking,
talking)
Marinela: Marinela: Frame 195 - 28 characters,
Numai s-o electrificai i Thats all youll [00.14.27- with spaces
p-aia electrify 00.14.29] - changed pattern,
Thats all youll idea of impotence
electrify preserved
- disbelief
suggested through
suspension dots at
the end of the
sentence
[00.14.30-
00.14.34]
(Everyone
laughs out
loud)
Gogonea, Primarul: Mayor Gogonea Frame 197 - 30 characters,
Coriolane, bag-i [Pickle] [00.14.35- with spaces
minile-n cap, s nu crezi Come to your 00.14.37] - separate
c dac ai Virtutea senses, Come to your exclamatory
Militar i nu tiu ce Coriolan, dont senses, sentence used for
coal m impresionezi. think that Im Coriolan! clarity
impressed if Frame 198 - 30 characters,

TRANSLATION
you have the [00.14.38- with spaces
Military Virtue 00.14.39] - main clause
and I dont Dont think that separated from the
know what Im impressed rest
schooling. Frame 199 - 33/32 characters,
if you have for continued
the Military sentence
Virtue - logical, digestible
and I dont chunks used
know what
schooling.
[00.14.44-
00.14.45]
(Coriolan
makes faces)
[00.14.46-
00.14.48]
(Marinela
laughs and
continues to
smoke)
The three scenes representing the corpus of the discussion on

multimedia translation progressively take the viewer along the path of
silenced politics and are symptomatic for the filmic strategy as a
whole.
The first has a proleptic force which announces the stereotypical
behavioural patterns of the Romanian peasants and the plots tragic
dnouement, through the crafty handling of camera angle and cart,
through strong imagery and the symbolical breaking of natures peace
and quiet. The fact that no words are spoken increases the tension; the
viewers attention is focused solely on the visuals and on the sounds,
which seem to tell the story in reverse. The cemetery foregrounded
connotes death, death may be caused by shooting, shots are fired by
the Russian tanks. The whole succession of frames is firstly reflected
in the characters as mirrors, and only then directly zoomed in on. The
fact that they remain impassible and then turn their backs on the whole
situation somehow emphasises the idea that they deserve the
punishment that will be inflicted on them, since they pretend the
problem does not exist and do nothing about it in advance (a typical
Mioria attitude). In the case of a silent scene like this, the
translator/subtitler will just have to hope that the images do, indeed,
communicate meaning on Romanianness, because he/she cannot
actually intervene on the screen to provide additional cultural

information. The only way this might be achieved is to have it
included in a separate text file which customarily accompanies the
film proper on the DVD.
The second scene, immediately following the first, features a
number of rural characters, mostly peasants, but Coriolan too,
someone with an education, a teacher interested in scientific
experiments, standing for progress as against inertia. Coriolan,
however, is a somewhat ridiculous character, that the villagers do not
take seriously, especially since he may frequently be seen wearing a
pair of man-made wings and working on developing the capacity to
fly. Their happy cohabitation is troubled by the appearance of a troop
of pro-Russian communist agitators who, despite the fact that no one
pays attention to them, introduce a cutting edge message, almost
resonant of a threat (We want peace, we dont want war!). This remark
is proleptic also, enforcing silence and acceptance on the small
community, non-compliance coming at a price (evident in the violent
repression of the wedding party towards the end). Everyone else
seems to be either coming from or heading towards the heart of the
village its pub linking most of the scenes, groups of characters and
subplots. The few subtitles asking for translation efforts involve
cultural and stylistic appropriation (rhyming schemes, clerical diction,
rural register), together with a separate note on Romanias tradition in
flight engineering, with Aurel Vlaicu or Henri Coand at the forefront,
which might be read into the film invited by Coriolans hobbies.
The last scene introduces more metonymical characters, making the
filmic text polyphonic, revealing the multiple strata of the local society
and offering insight into the effects of national politics on individual
lives. Particularly interesting in this respect is Mardare the former
local landlord, now disowned by the communists, spending most of his
time drinking after having gambled what was left of his money.
Amongst the villagers is Mayor Gogonea, with his characteristic
speeches on the benefits of the Russian intrusion. He stands for the
uneducated man at the head of the community and, as in the previous
scenes, what he has come to represent is not taken seriously; people
mock at his treasonable deeds, laugh at his newly acquired convictions.
The danger, nevertheless, remains and the part he plays is a destructive
one, for which he himself will pay the supreme price in the end. The
whole atmosphere is one of poverty, filth, promiscuity and drunkenness,
seemingly in need of thorough forced sanitation. The flies everywhere
enforce a recurrent symbol for death, decay, corruption, the devil all,
in turn, associated in the film with silence or the prohibition of free
expression. When things are extremely silent, one cannot even hear a
fly buzzing, according to the Romanian phrase a nu se auzi nici
musca [you might hear a feather/pin drop] which runs through Nunt
mut [Silent Wedding] from beginning to end. Again, for the translator,
the challenges arise from cultural specificity and stylistic difficulty
(pun, repetition, inversion, strong language, familiar forms of address,
ironical remarks etc). As for the translators notes, separate information
may be given on the persecution of the landed gentry and of the
intellectuals of the time, but only after careful documentation based on
informed historical writing.
4. Concluding lines
Induced by present day developments in technology, the subtitling
policy adds to the main coordinates of audiovisual communication (the
multimodal and the multimedial), functioning as an essentially
intermedial mode or as medial transposition. It translates sound into
image, spoken language into written text and constructs the hyperreal
under the form of a subtle representation of the way in which
communism brought about a reversal of natural and social order and
had it installed on Romanian territory (certified by documents and
confirmed by personal histories). The films memorable symbolism,
overtly conveyed through the already mentioned symbol of the fly and
covertly, playfully resumed by the overwhelming symbol of the sign
(on Maras neck) shaped as a map of Romania allows for it to be read
simply as about the marriage of a nation with communism.
At a deeper level, the world of Nunt mut [Silent Wedding] as
filmic text may only be accessed meaningfully if the traces of the other
writings that it carries are decoded (Barthes). In other words, to
understand the inner message of the drama, or to derive meaning from
the reciprocal determination with the opposing other, both
synchronically and diachronically (Derrida), incursions into other
cultural texts which have previously written Romanianness are
necessary. It is these texts that the film engages in a dialogue with, that
it parodies or contests. It is these that it rewrites. However, since no two
people have the same identical set of readings, interpretation remains a
subjective enterprise shaped by historically determined truth and

discursive meaning (Foucault).
The translators intervention serves to limit its range and facilitate
intercultural communication through the subtitles provided and the
notes on essential factual data (Romania exiting the Second World
War on the losing side and its having been banned East of the Iron
Curtain) and the cultural heritage of a nation (classical popular
ballads, the inter-bellum novel of rural inspiration, the socialist realist
prose of the post war years) all texts which have created contexts for
other texts and which have gone into the making of the drama under
focus.
Notes
[1] An interesting proposition of interpretation in this respect is made by Jean

Baudrillard in Symbolic Exchange and Death (1976), where he speaks of our
world as a world of simulacra (the counterfeit from the Renaissance to the
Industrial Revolution; production in the industrial era; simulation in the
current code-governed phase). Identified are four forms of realistic simulation (the
detailed deconstruction of the real paradigmatic close reading; abyssal vision
endless splitting and duplicating, infinite refraction; the serial form syntagmatic
linearity, monotonous similarity; binarity and digitality not simply pure
repetition, but minimal difference) and thus the real is ultimately defined as that of
which it is possible to provide an equivalent reproduction. For Baudrillard, it
follows that, at the end of the process of reproducibility, the real becomes that
which is always already reproduced: the hyperreal.
[2] Two of the most ardent supporters of a translators visibility are Lawrence Venuti
(The Translators Invisibility: A History of Translation 1995) and Barbara
Godard (Translation Poetics from Modernity to Post-Modernity, in Translation
Translation 2003).
[3] A myth that was made famous through George Steiners groundbreaking After
Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation (1975), where conventional theories
of translation are challenged, with translation defined as all human
communication between languages. It is here that Steiner points to the fact that
translation is a systematic hermeneutical task, and proposes a model of analysis
comprising four movements: trust and retribution (in relation to the source text
and its authors intentions), aggression and incorporation (in relation to the target
text and the translators input).
References
Baker, M. (ed), Critical Readings in Translation Studies. London: Routledge, 2010.

Barthes, R., The Death of the Author, in Image, Music, Text. trans. by Heath, S.
London: Harper Collins, 1977, pp. 142-148.
Brisset, A.,Alterity in Translation: An Overview of Theories and Practices, in

Translation Translation, ed. by S. Petrilli, Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2003, pp. 102-132.
Derrida, J., Semiology and Grammatology. Interview with Julia Kristeva, in Positions.
trans. by Bass, A. USA: The University of Chicago Press, 1981, pp. 15-36.
Derrida, J., The End of the Book and the Beginning of Writing, in Of Grammatology.
trans. by Spivak, G. USA: The John Hopkins University Press, 1997, pp. 6-26.
Foucault, M., The Archaeology of Knowledge. London: Routledge, 1972.
Halliday, M. A. K.; C. Matthiessen, An Introduction to Functional Grammar, London:
Hodder Education Publishers, 2004.
Ivarsson, J., Subtitling for the Media. A Handbook of an Art, Stockholm: Transedit,
1992.
Rajewsky, I., Intermediality, Intertextuality and Remediation: A Literary Perspective
on Intermediality. Intermdialits, No. 6, Automne, 2005, pp. 43-64.
Taylor, C., Look Whos Talking. An Analysis of Film Dialogue as a Variety of
Spoken Discourse, in Massed Medias. Linguistic Tools for Interpreting Media
Discourse, L. Lombardo et al., Milan: LED, 1999, pp. 247-277.
The Cultural Model of British Theatre. The

Influence of the In-Yer-Face Theatre Paradigm
Florin Toma
Abstract: Even though Romanian culture people have been restrained by the
communist ideology, they have always tried to somehow connect themselves
to Occidental ideals. This natural impulse to adopt European cultural values
started to become more intense once the isolation imposed by the Iron
Curtain has disappeared. Following such political constraints, the young
Romanian playwrights turned their face to the West, being able to access
dramatic writing workshops under the Royal Court Theatre or Royal
National Theatre, thus gaining the ability to adapt their literary speech to the
new social realities.
The theme of this paper focuses on the influence of the British theatre model
regarding new developments in Romanian modern theatre, which occurred
after the revolution of 1989. My interests in this analysis are related to the
influence of Royal Court dramatic playwriting workshops on the evolution of
theatrical thinking of the new 2000 generation and focus on the new
paradigm that emerged at the crossroads between the British model and its
rendition in Romanian theatre. Referring to the British influences on
Romanian dramaturgy, I am interested in discovering whether the relation is
mimetic or inspirational.
This study focus on the use of direct and violent language, which is typical of
this generation, and we shall attempt to discover the mechanism of this
language, by also determining whether it constitutes a novelty in the
development of the Romanian contemporary theatre model or it is just
fashion.
Keywords: communist ideology, in-yer-face theatre paradigm, Romanian
dramaturgy, British model.
Argument
Remarcnd c dramaturgii din Romnia au ncercat, ori de cte ori

a fost posibil, s se conecteze la reperele occidentale nc din perioada
comunist, aceast analiz pune n lumin modul cum au neles
acetia s se elibereze de balastul comunist dup cderea sistemului.
Reflexul firesc al culturii de a se ralia la setul valorilor europene, care
a devenit mult mai intens odat cu dispariia izolrii impuse de
Cortina de Fier, se accentueaz n perioada postdecembrist printr-o
febril cutare a vocii scenice. Afirmaia Savianei Stnescu [1] susine

ideea expus n aceste pagini referitoare la modul cum au fost preluate
modelul teatral britanic al anilor 90 i filosofia de la Royal Court
Theatre, pe fondul unui interes crescnd pentru valenele marginalului.
Toate frustrrile i refulrile declanate de teatrul comunist, cumulate
cu schimbtorul context cultural n continu definire, nasc voci
teatrale furioase, violente, fr perdea.
n urma dispariiei condiionrilor politice, tinerii dramaturgi
romni, ntori cu faa spre Vest, au putut accesa atelierele de scriere
dramatic din cadrul Royal Court Theatre, dobndind abilitatea de a-i
adapta discursul literar la noile realiti sociale create. ncercrile i
zbuciumul scriitorilor de teatru britanici de la sfritul anilor 80 de a
readuce dramaturgia britanic n atenia publicului i-au influenat pe
cei din spaiul teatral autohton n cutarea noilor formule teatrale care
s captiveze publicul i, n acelai timp, s distrug prejudecile
teatrului tradiional. Climatul de libertate postdecembrist a permis
apariia unui tip de teatru foarte direct, a unei dramaturgii prin care
relaia Teatrului cu Societatea apare cu natura evidenei.
Se remarc, n acest context, faptul c modul aluziv i, implicit,
practica de a pune n scen frecvent opere clasice i diminueaz
gradual aria de aciune, fenomen asociat cu atacarea direct a unor
probleme actuale. Dup 1990, teatrul se raporteaz altfel la societate,
trecnd de la a fi un mijloc eficient de manipulare ideologic regizat
de centru la form de art cu destinaie comercial. Aceast evoluie
prezint un interesant paralelism cu Anglia, unde eliminarea cenzurii
din 1968 declaneaz un proces similar.
La nceputul anilor '90, teatrul britanic, dominat de piese socialiste,
este dinamitat de apariia unui nou curent, supranumit de criticii
germani theatre of blood and sperm iar de cei englezi new brutalism.
La fel ca n Romnia postdecembrist, noua avangard teatral
britanic, reprezentat de o generaie tnr de dramaturgi propune un
teatru visceral, cu un mesaj simplu i direct. n introducerea volumului
In-Yer-Face Theatre: British Drama Today Aleks Sierz specifica:
generaia de noi dramaturgi britanici a ocat criticii i publicul prin
mixtura de sex, violen i poezia strzii [2]. Piese ca Trainspotting,
Blasted sau Shopping and Fucking sunt mai mult dect o colecie de
tactici de a oca: luate mpreun, reprezint o critic consistent
asupra vieii moderne, care se concentreaz pe problema violenei, a
masculinitii, a mitului post-feminist i pe futilitatea consumismului
[3], preciza autorul.
Aceste similitudini ntre teatrul britanic i cel romnesc sunt

nuanate de conotaiile pe care le-a avut cenzura n primul caz. Aa
cum remarca i John Elsom [4], cenzura englez a fost o prelungire a
codului social, a aa-numitului class-system i nu rezult dintr-o
doctrin politic, cum este cazul Romniei, unde statul comunist
reaaz structurile societale pentru a-i ndeplini scopurile totalitariste.
Totui, n ciuda acestor diferene politico-sociale, cenzura i
factorul politic au influenat dramaturgia britanic, iar acelai lucru s-a
petrecut i n spaiul teatral romnesc. Sfritul acestor influene este
marcat, n cazul ambelor spaii, de o renatere teatral, de un
dinamism accentuat i de o creativitate revigorat, toate declannd o
explozie de noi piese ce propun o nou paradigm i o nou
mentalitate.
Trebuie precizat c abordarea comparativ a celor dou modele
teatrale se dezvolt pornind de la cteva premise de baz. n primul
rnd, condiiile similare legate de libertatea de expresie au dus la o
reacie intens exprimat la nivel dramaturgic i scenic. Indiferent de
condiiile politice concrete care au marcat societatea britanic, respectiv
pe cea romneasc, cenzura a declanat aceeai efuziune a eliberrii de
reguli, mecanism care se ilustreaz nu numai n aceste dou literaturi.
n al doilea rnd, similitudinile sunt vzute n contextul unei
influene manifeste pe care desctuarea britanic a avut-o asupra noii
generaii de dramaturgi de dup 89. Nu este un mister faptul c
teatrul britanic a reprezentat un model i o surs de inspiraie
constant. Totui, trebuie analizat msura n care reacia romneasc a
fost una strict mimetic i identificate elementele specifice, de
originalitate, care o disting de modelul folosit.
2. Violena i necesitatea limbajului dur

n teatru caracteristic a teatrului in-
yer-face
Singura influen la ora asta n teatrul din Romnia e Royal Court

Theatre [5] declar rspicat dramaturgul Saviana Stnescu, iar n ce
privete trsturile sale, ele se refer cu prioritate la noul val britanic
de la mijlocul anilor 90 ai secolului trecut, promovat de autori ca Sarah
Kane, Mark Ravenhill, Anthony Nielson etc. Stilistic, tinerii dramaturgi
romni preiau practica dezinhibrii limbajului, textele lor strnind
adesea controverse legate de vulgaritate i necesitatea folosirii unui

astfel de limbaj. Dup 1989, restriciile la cuvinte cad. De acest lucru a
beneficiat mai ales teatrul unde limbajul crud este folosit i azi din
belug pentru a sublinia realismul aciunii [6], constat dramaturgul
Horia Grbea. Reflexul teatrului, dintotdeauna, a fost s scape de orice
constrngere i s i exercite dreptul de liber exprimare. Una dintre
consecinele fireti, ntlnite n spaiul teatral, n urma dispariiei
formelor de cenzur, pe lng explozia de nuditate i sex, violen,
macabru i mizerie, toate pentru a surprinde realitatea n goliciunea ei,
se regsete i folosirea limbajului direct, dur, violent. Chiar dac vine
dintr-un elan compensatoriu n unele dintre cazuri, aceast explozie
devine un indicator al libertii depline a artitilor care i iau revana,
inclusiv la nivel verbal.
Primele semne ale liberalizrii limbajului care i fac apariia n
peisajul teatral romnesc pot fi asociate cu ptrunderea pieselor strine
n circuitul autohton. Textele acestor piese din repertoriul universal,
care conineau expresii interzise pn n 1989 pe scen, dau semnalul
unor ncercri de a aduce n atenia publicului subiecte i un tip de
limbaj neexplorate spectacologic pn atunci n teatrul romnesc.
Referitor la dramaturgia original contemporan, putem s admitem c
schimbarea limbajului a coincis cu apariia unei generaii noi de
scriitori dramatici, cea dup anul 2000, care a luat contact cu filosofia
colii de la Royal Court i cu atelierele de scriere dramatic din cadrul
acesteia. n ce privete revoluia vizibilitii dramaturgiei contempo-
rane, civa dintre ei merg mai departe i pun bazele unui proiect care
urmrete dezvoltarea dramaturgiei autohtone, denumit sugestiv,
dramAcum.
Noii dramaturgi, n ncercarea de a scrie un teatru despre/cu tineri,
ncep s recurg la un limbaj prea colorat, adesea vulgar, pentru a-i
caracteriza personajele sau mediul din care provin. Tendina este de a
aduce pe scen un limbaj cotidian, nefardat (fr precedent pe scenele
romneti) care s confere verosimilitate i naturalee caracterelor, dar
i de a oca publicul. ntrebarea interesant care se degaj din analiza
acestui fenomen este dac aceste tendine tematico-stilistice exprim
doar imitarea modelului teatral al brutalitilor britanici sau, dimpo-
triv, ele au adus o calitate nou n teatrul romnesc contemporan?
Rspunsul la aceast ntrebare poate reiei din analiza unui autor
romn rezident al colii teatrale Royal Court.
2.1. tefan Peca

tefan Peca este un scriitor de teatru aflat n plin ascensiune n
peisajul dramaturgiei romneti contemporane, reprezentant al tinerei
generaii, opiune justificat i de ctigarea concursului dramAcum n
anul 2002 cu piesele Punami i Ziua f... a lui Nils. Un alt argument
care vine s justifice opiunea fcut este faptul c educaia sa teatral
include o burs integral de un an (2003-2004) la New York
University, unde a studiat Dramatic Writing (Scris Dramatic) i
rezidena internaional de la Royal Court Theatre din Londra (2005).
La prima vedere, la nivelul limbajului autorul poate fi cu
indulgen considerat, cel puin prin anumite piese, un continuator al
respectivului curent n dramaturgie. S analizm din acest punct de
vedere piesa Ziua f... a lui Nils. Ideea care se vehiculeaz n jurul
textului este c se vrea a fi primul atac virulent la adresa teatrului
convenional, dar care, n realitate, produce un adevrat cutremur
n peisajul teatral romnesc, ignorat ns destul de repede [7], dup
cum se autoironizeaz nsui autorul. Totui, povestea lui Nils nu trece
total neobservat i trezete simpatia unora care o consider cea mai
obscen pies de teatru punk romneasc [8] i dezgustul altora
tocmai datorit vulgaritii [9] sale, care reiese nc din titlu, atitudine
ce denot superficialitate i arogan [10]. Dac ar fi s form o
comparaie, am putea, bineneles pstrnd proporiile, asocia starea de
agitaie care s-a iscat n jurul piesei tnrului dramaturg cu adevratul
cutremur declanat n lumea teatral britanic de premiera specta-
colului Blasted a lui Sarah Kane. Bineneles c revoluia produs de
evenimentul britanic are un alt parcurs fa de cel autohton.
Revenind la piesa lui tefan Peca, trebuie precizat c, n ciuda
faptului c a fost scris n 2002, nainte de stagiul de la Royal Court,
aceasta a avut premiera n iulie 2008, timp n care a suportat mai
multe modificri pn cnd a ajuns la cea mai bun versiune de text
i spectacol [11], aa cum declar nsui autorul, de unde se poate
deduce faptul c au existat modificri i n funcie de filosofia
scrisului dramatic de la Royal Court. Povestea nu este una complicat
i te transpune ntr-o atmosfer paranoic-apocaliptic nc de la
nceput. Nils se trezete ntr-o zi n care totul i merge pe dos. Proaspt
prsit de prietena lui, i petrece dimineaa cu cel mai bun prieten
Hans, insensibil la drama emoional pe care o triete eroul, fiind
preocupat mai mult s trag un joint sau s se injecteze un pic [12].
Nici dragostea pe care Nils o nutrete pentru Heidi, una dintre
colegele lui de apartament lesbiene nu are nicio ans s se ntmple
vreodat. Nici Peca, dramaturgul care i pltete chiria i idolul

absolut al lui Nils nu pare s fie mai nelegtor cu perioada de
nefericire pe care acesta o traverseaz. Nici tirile care invadeaz
canalele media nu par a prevesti ceva pozitiv. Sprijinul familiei
lipsete i el cu desvrire: mama lui Nils, o fost starlet porno,
moare, iar Pops, fratele mai mare al acestuia, este un dependent de
droguri care cerete disperat pentru o doz. ntr-un acces de furie,
Nils decide s i dea o lecie pentru starea deplorabil n care a ajuns i
i promite o sut de dolari n schimbul unei partide de sex oral. Pops, e
de acord i Nils l omoar cu o bt de baseball, realiznd c nu i
poate schimba nici mcar fratele, cu att mai mult lumea din jurul su.
Va sfri mpucat de mna celui mai bun prieten la ordinul propriului
idol. A doua secven a piesei nfieaz o lume perfect. Toate
personajele suport mbuntiri, mai puin cele feminine, tratate
schematic de autor. De data aceasta Pops este un eminent profesor
universitar, iar Hans un student serios. Heidi i Lola se transform din
colegele lesbiene de apartament din prima parte n colrie uuratice.
Nils i dezamgete pe toi pentru c accept umil ca Peca s-i pl-
teasc chiria, n ciuda faptului c acesta i njur. Nils este omort de
biatul cu pizza. Ultimul tablou l prezint pe Nils n postura omului
contemporan care accept conformarea. Slujba ntr-o companie multi-
naional i costumul Armani, cu tot ce presupune asta viaa mono-
ton i oficial, sunt clieele societii corporatiste la care autorul
apeleaz pentru ilustra cu ironie ipocrizia i aservirea generate de
sistemul capitalist. Subiectul nu aduce nimic nou. Sunt multe texte
care denun cultura consumerist, golul existenial i alienarea din
civilizaia contemporan, dar Ziua fututa a lui Nils gsete un mod
nou, ocant de a spune povestea asta veche. n plus, denunul vine la
pachet cu asumarea lipsei de soluii i a inutilitii totale a gestului.
Autorul propune trei variante ale povetii lui Nils n ce privete
calea spre iluminare [13] de care amintea unul dintre personajele din
Shopping and F***ing. Cele trei tablouri ale piesei, progresiv mai
scurte, arat trei lumi i trei personaliti alternative ale personajelor,
iar tranziiile dintre secvene merg lin i natural. n primele dou Nils
alege s nu aleag nimic, nici mcar sinuciderea [14], gest care vrea
s dea de neles c prefer libertatea n locul aservirii oficiale. ns
libertatea vine cu un pre, iar acesta este moartea care i trage de la cel
mai bun prieten al lui, n prima variant sau de la un copil, n cea de-a
doua. n ultima alternativ propus de autor pentru existena lui Nils,
acesta este programat s accepte nregimentarea ntr-o societate ipo-
crit, corporatist i consumerist. Finalul piesei se vrea, de asemenea,

un rspuns dat conformrii: personajul alege s fac pe placul celor
muli i accept compromisul, dar nu nainte de o ultim ncercare de
a schimba lumea sub forma unui numr de iluzionism. n aceast
privin, semnificativ este discursul ironic din final a lui Nils care
ncearc s transforme spectatorii n oameni mai buni: te mbraci n
costumul tu impecabil i i dai seama c astzi va fi cea mai
frumoas zi din viaa ta [...] i tu, Nils, vei fi n sfrit fericit! Nu asta
ai cutat tu mereu?! Fericirea? [...] Te vei integra perfect n societate i
vei fi un cetean model! [15] Alternativ pare s fie termenul pentru
care autorul face o ntreag pledoarie promovat, la nevoie, chiar de
acesta, devenit personaj n propria pies dramaturgul Peca care a
trit vremea generaiilor alternative autentice [16].
Structural, piesa se ncadreaz n tiparul teatrului in-yer-face al
unitii de loc. ntreaga aciune se desfoar n apartamentului lui Nils,
un loc aflat n dezordine asemeni personajelor i n consonan cu
atmosfera cataclismic de afar unde asistm la devorarea oraului de
ctre dinozauri. Autorul vrea s spun c nicieri nu este bine s fii.
nuntru ceasul cere trezirea la via distrugnd ziua lui Nils, laptele e
stricat i i stric stomacul, iar afar l ateapt distrugerea. O parodie
a sfritului lumi care amintete oarecum de captivitatea personajului
principal din Blasted-ul lui Sarah Kane, prins ntre dou lumi dintre care
orice ar alege i poate aduce distrugerea.
Raportul lui Nils cu lumea nconjurtoare i relaiile dintre
personaje reprezint liniile narative ale dramei amintite. Cel mai
evident nivel al discursului brutalitii, n relaiile personajelor, e n
limbaj i se reduce, desigur, la expresii vulgare. De altfel, afiul
spectacolului menioneaz clar: ATENIE! LIMBAJ EXTREM DE
EXPLICIT FOLOSIT DELIBERAT. I ASUMAT. INTERZIS
MINORILOR I ULTRA-PUDICILOR [17]. n acest caz, atitudinea
de licean rebel a lui Peca care vrea s ocheze nc de dinaintea
nceperii reprezentaiei poate ine i de felul n care acesta nelege s
fie vandabil. Totodat, replica de nceput: ce pula mea!? Bga-mi-a
pula n mta, unde pula mea eti? [18] d de neles c dup asta
nicio alt expresie vulgar nu mai este tabuu totul este permis i
devine posibil ca limbaj. Expresiile vulgare repetate obsesiv devin n
text aproape semn de punctuaie. Prin folosirea excesiv a expresiei
vulgare, Peca ncearc o devulgarizare a vulgaritii. Efectul de oc al
acestei piese este amplificat i de imaginile consemnate de la
nceputul piesei de autor n didascalii care implic desene monstru-

oase, scene violente, un penis n erecie, sex oral... [19].
Prin faptul c triesc adesea momente conflictuale, personajele i
ies din fire i njur ca orice oameni. Cu toate c sunt prieteni foarte
buni, Nils i Hans, sau chiar frai, Nils i Pops, se gratuleaz cu ofense
i vulgariti care, dac am proceda la o interpretare sociologic, i
situeaz pe o treapt social destul de sczut i relev un gol
spiritual i intelectual total. Violena verbal practicat de personaje
se transform deseori n gesturi agresive ndreptate spre lumea
exterioar, fie c este vorba de dragoste, manipulare sau violen n
forma ei cea mai pur. Dei sunt att de agresivi, autorul vrea s
demonstreze c Nils, Hans i Pops sunt ei nii victime naive ale unei
societi consumeriste asemeni personajelor din piesa Shopping and
F***ing a lui Mark Ravenhill. Faptul c brbaii sunt, n special, cei
care comit violena verbal i fizic amintete de trstura specific
masculin a operelor dramaturgiei brutalitilor britanici.
Relaia dintre personaje i poziionarea lor fa de societate con-
centreaz unul din cele mai tipice motive ale dramei noii brutaliti
revolta mpotriva condiiei umane ndreptat asupra celorlali, mpo-
triva cuvintelor i a sexului. La acesta se adaug i violena caracte-
ristic tinerei generaii n marile orae, dependena de droguri, homo-
sexualitatea, prostituia, consumerismul, viziunea asupra lumii, adic
un sistem de valori bazat pe coninutul cel mai trivial al culturii
populare. i totui, n ciuda acestui catalog de teme i motive specifice
curentului teatral in-yer-face theatre exist diferene importante.
Principala deosebire dintre dramele britanice ale acestei sensibiliti i
Ziua f.... a lui Nils const n poziionarea critic fa de societate. n
timp ce autorul romn se mulumete mai mult cu critica brutal a
lumii contemporane, generaia tinerilor furioi britanici critic
brutalitatea din lumea contemporan. Referindu-se la dramaturgia
tnrului tefan Peca, istoricul literar Mircea Ghiulescu observ c
nu avem de-a face chiar cu piese de teatru, ci mai curnd cu
manifeste. Diferena este vizibil: nu este vorba de psihologii, ci de
ideologii, iar Nils nu este un personaj, ci un purttor de mesaje ale
unei noi literaturi, ale unui nou tip de expresivitate [20]. n aceste
condiii, folosirea excesiv a limbajului dur, vulgar poate nate i
ipoteza c ar fi o parodie sau n cel mai bun caz expresia unei
exagerri intenionate (aa cum reiese i din avertismentul de pe afi)
care s evidenieze i mai tare decadena unei societi aflate n deriv
care i manipuleaz cu brutalitate semenii. Autorul se folosete de
limbajul agresiv n textele sale pentru a-i exprima opinia despre felul
n care cei care-l folosesc vd lumea/realitatea i se raporteaz la ea i
mai puin pentru a da natere unor psihologii cum este cazul
dramaturgilor britanici. Personajele lui Peca sunt tineri, exponeni ai
unei generaii postcomuniste revoltate mpotriva societi care te
exclude dac nu te conformezi. La Peca tragismul vine din inadaptare
sau, n final, din compromis. Textul este scris n spiritul brutalist al
dramaturgilor britanici, dar nu reuete s reflecte n scriitur aceeai
ndrzneal sau valoare literar, ci ofer mai mult un limbaj al strzii
din care autorul pare c dorete s fac un stil. Personajele lui Peca
nu pot rosti nicio fraz care nu conine cuvinte convenional
denumite obscene. Cum ele snt relativ puine, dialogul devine
extrem de monoton [21].
Explorarea sexualitii d posibilitatea autorului s speculeze i
mai mult tendina de a oca prin intensificarea manifestrilor deviante.
Toi cei patru liceeni ai lui Peca Nils i Hans, Heidi i Lola sunt
versiunile epocii post sexuale ale omenirii. Fetele se iubesc ntre ele,
bieii sug i se drogheaz, au o grea suferin, un spleen cum l
numeau englezii la sfaritul de secol al XIX-lea pe care, involuntar,
Peca l exprim prin tot ce scrie [22]. Aa cum se ntmpl i n cazul
operelor tinerilor brutaliti, libertinajul sexual folosit de autor este o
consecin a felului n care societatea prezentat vede sexul. Dezin-
hibarea unei societi eliberate de prejudeci, n care sexul de orice
fel ia locul sentimentelor autentice produce, ca i n situaia eroilor din
textele britanice, insatisfacie personajelor. Nils este ndrgostit de
Heidi, dar aceasta o prefer pe Lola poate i pentru c d bine s fii
lesbian [23], c s-a autoconvins s fie lesbian.
Din punct de vedere stilistic, exceptnd limbajul injurios, intenia
principal a autorului urmrete exprimarea unui realism exagerat prin
ct mai mult violen. Dramaturgul aspir la acelai tip de hiperrea-
litate pe care o regsim n theatre of blood and sperm, numai c aici
este vorba despre realitatea romneasc. Marginalii sunt cei care
ocup aici prim-planul. Tinerii abandonai de o societate care nu tie
s asigure niciun fel de asisten i respinge orice fiin care nu se
ncadreaz n planul de bine i frumos creat de capitalism. Cei care
triesc relaii nefericite, avnd o sexualitate deviant, disperai s fac
bani sau s obin droguri cu orice pre, ntr-o societate dezordonat n
care cei care nu merit au i cei care respect regulile sunt cantitate
neglijabil. Fragilitatea relaiilor interumane i alturarea antitezelor
de tipul srac-bogat, iubire-indiferen, fals-autentic dau dimensiune

scheletului construciei dramatice.
n esen, influenele curentului britanic, se pot depista cu prec-
dere la nivelul limbajului care implic folosirea n exces a unor
expresii care i-au gsit cu dificultate loc pe scenele autohtone, autorul
miznd pe setea de senzaie a amatorilor contemporani de art. n lipsa
unui stil dramaturgic propriu el caut modele ct mai spectaculoase
i propune scene ct mai scandaloase pentru a-i atrage publicul,
dorind s i construiasc o reputaie de dramaturg incomod.
3. Concluzii
Ce atrage atenia n ce privete influenele curentului in-yer-face

theatre asupra dramaturgiei romneti contemporane, judecnd din
textul analizat, este un anumit tip de emoie crud, vie, o viscera-
litate a scriiturii care vorbete despre problemele tinerilor ntr-un mod
nou i direct. Ideea principal care se desprinde din noile texte este dat
de revolta generaiei tinere care poate cpta diverse forme i care se
poate face auzit acum prin propriu limbaj mpotriva societii, lucru
imposibil n perioada comunist. Pentru a exprima frmntrile necen-
zurate ale tinerilor, autorii tinerei generaii apeleaz cteodat fcnd
exces la un model de limb romn care este a revoltatutului, a
supratului pe lume, a furiosului care a fost depit de limbaj [24].
Aceast perspectiv presupune utilizarea limbajului ca mijloc de a
defini o fiin eliberat de chingile convenionalului, marcnd refuzul
formalismului de lemn, ct i asumarea realitilor strzii. Aceti revol-
tai mpotriva conveniilor vor s redea lumea aa cum este ea, cu faa ei
urt, necosmetizat, iar primul semn i cel mai pregnant semn al rebe-
liunii este cuvntul tare, care ocheaz i provoac.
Totui, sunt opinii care nu acord aceast prezumpie de bun cre-
din literar, care claseaz limbajul obscen al dramaturgiei con-
temporane n zona gri a eecului de a exprima altfel viaa. Vulgaritatea
semnaleaz, n conformitate cu aceste opinii, o lips de substan,
compensat printr-o reet simplist cu succes la public, public a crui
sete de senzaional trebuie satisfcut.
Sintetiznd cele dou opinii i eliberndu-ne att de entuziasmul
necontrolat pentru noile forme de teatru, ct i de abordarea puritan i
rigid, considerm c noua dramaturgie nc i negociaz limitele i
formele de expresie. Folosindu-se de modele de succes din teatrul
britanic, dar fiind nevoit s le adapteze la particularitile sociale, dar

i ligvistice romneti, aceasta nc nu i gsete fgaul. Astfel,
putem explica deviaiile care coexist cu momente de inspiraie real
i putem spune c, odat finalizat aceast etap a colectrii de
material, teatrul romnesc contemporan, dur i pur, poate s reprezinte
mai mult de o copie forat, depind stadiul de travaliu incipient al
documentrii asupra limbajului i omului postcomunist.
Credem c tocmai acest travaliu poate oferi rspunsul cel mai
adecvat la ntrebarea: oare rmne ceva i ce anume dincolo de provo-
carea produs de discursul brutalitii caracteristic dramei britanice?
La prima vedere, orict de ciudat, licenios, absurd, chiar i brutal ar
arta discursul verbal al personajelor, n final se creeaz impresia c
aceste piese, ca i alte piese importante din drama contemporan
romneac, demoleaz conceptele existente ale societii postcomu-
niste i a conflictului intergeneraionist, oferind rspunsuri la fr-
mntrile tinerei generaii. Mai tot ceea ce mediul teatral i spectatorii
identific drept dramaturgie nou, cu cteva remarcabile excepii care
se pierd n zgomotul de fundal, are n centru problemele, inadecvrile
i frustrrile tinerilor transformai n nite rebeli mpovrai de iubire,
de eec, de butur i droguri, de propria cutare debusolat, de
laiti, de gesturi pripite i naive care transform, ntr-o secund,
dramele n tragedii.
E vrsta modelelor existeniale, a revoltei i fugii de acas. Tot ce
trieti trebuie transformat n teatru [25], pare s fie deviza drama-
turgilor autohtoni, exponeni ai tinerei generaii. i cum rostul
teatrului este s-i pun lumii oglinda n fa... textele nu sunt dect o
reflexie a adolescentului dominat de trebuie i al crui limbaj este
cel reducionist i direct al strzii. Trebuie s fie cool, trebuie s
ctige bani, trebuie s aib via sexual, trebuie s fie fericit cu orice
pre, trebuie s fie cetean model. Trebuie c aa vrea mama, tata sau
societatea. n Ziua futut a lui Nils la putere e negaia. Nu trebuie
devine NU vreau, NU am, NU sunt. Nu vreau s fiu cool sau cetean
model, nu vreau s am o relaie, nu vreau s am un anumit statut
social, astea sunt trsturile unei generaii aparent amorite, dar care,
n realitate, e vie n ideile clieistice, n iubirile totale, n depresiile
sincere sau jucate. Sunt revoltai pentru se nasc vinovai i vor muri
vinovai, fr s-i fi cunoscut vreodat vina. Exponenii generaiei
postdecembriste sufer pn la capt, orice ar nsemna acest capt, dar
n-au vreo vin vizibil. De aceea, personajele nu au de ales ntre dou
drumuri, ci au de ales ntre dou lumi, n fiecare dintre ele fiind la fel
de imposibil de trit. Una pentru c este minunat, paradiziac, dar nu

exist, iar cea de-a doua pentru c este mult prea real. Textele nu
prezint poveti cu o mare miz, dar au la baz experienele de via
ale unor autori tineri, pentru care tezele contemporane despre fericirea
omului, despre emoionalitate sau despre criza identitar devin
obiectul unei reformulri libere, pentru ei nemaiexistnd n aceast
sfer niciun fel de tabu, de aceea toate cuvintele dificile ale limbii
romne i gsesc loc din belug.
Din analiza fcut se pare c dramaturgii romni nu scriu textele
lor ci ale metodei unei generaii. Directeea limbajului pare s fie nsu-
irea cea mai vizibil mprumutat de la tinerii brutaliti. Astfel, se
nate o nou ntrebare: dac aceste opere reflect starea i preocuprile
noii dramaturgii, n general, sau n mare parte preferinele tinerilor
dramaturgi, influenai de artitii britanici puternici cu viziuni subiec-
tiv-radicale? Tendina este c odat cu maturitatea artistic a autorilor,
dorina caracteristic teatrului in-yer-face de a oca printr-un limbaj
adus direct de pe strad i pus n gura actorilor, se diminueaz cu
timpul, acetia apelnd i la alte forme de expresie. n cazul lui tefan
Peca, despre care se putea crede c nu aciunea sau subiectul conteaz
pentru el, ct forma de adresare, dramaturgul face cumva excepie de
la aceast obinuin cu piesa The Sunshine Play (2005). Aici, autorul
ncearc iari s teatralizeze un fapt de via, dar nelege, ntr-un
final, dup texte unde Peca autorul este i Peca personajul, dup
ncercri de reconstituire aproape fidel a realitii, c viaa nu e
teatru, dar c exist poate o modalitate de a le combina.
Note
[1] La ora asta, dramaturgia european e axat pe disfuncionaliti, pe marginali, pe

un tip de realitate extrem. Est-europenii sunt foarte influenai de workshop-
urile Royal Court, care, n ultimele dou decenii, chiar asta face, aa-numitul
teatru al anilor 80- 90 Sarah Kane, Mark Ravenhill, In Yer Face Theatre,
Sperm & Blood Theatre, The New Brutalists pe care l vedem proliferat cu
versiuni autohtone la dramaturgii romni. [...] coala Royal Court, combinat cu
realitatea socio-politic a fiecrei ri, cu lupta ntre generaii, cu faptul c n
sfrit se poate oglindi n text o anumit realitate a strzii, a tinerilor, nate un
teatru angry, dar nu looking back in anger, ci looking forward in anger. Ciprian
Marinescu, Interviu cu dramaturgul Saviana Stnescu: Dramaturgii est-
eruopeni sunt foarte influenai de workshop-urile Royal Court, publicat n
revista Art Act Magazin, nr. 27, 10 iunie 2009,
http://www.artactmagazine.ro/interviu_cu_dramaturgul_saviana_stanescu.html.
[2] Aleks Sierz, In-yer-face theatre: British Drama Today, Edited by Faber and Faber
Limited, London, 2001, p. 5.
[3] Idem.
[4] John Elsom, Cold War Theatre, Publisher Routledge, London, 1992.
[5] Cezar Paul-Bdescu, Saviana Stnescu: Sunt, de fapt, un strin global, publicat
n Adevrul, 1 iulie 2009, http://www.adevarul.ro/actualitate/Saviana-Sunt-
strain-global-fapt_0_71392886.html.
[6] Horia Grbea, nsemnri:Injurii, blesteme, sudalme, publicat n Romnia
literar, nr. 4, 2009, http://www.romlit.ro/injurii__blesteme_sudalme.
[7] tefan Peca despre Ziua f... a lui Nils pe site-ul personal,
http://www.peca.ro/BIO/cronologie.html.
[8] Afirmaia este menionat pe site-ul http://teatru.ubix.ro/detalii/cea-mai-obscena-
piesa-de-teatru-punk-romaneasca-emigreaza i pe site-ul http://www.radiocul
tura.ro/ arhiva_stiri/2011/septembrie/1.php.
[9] O statistic personal arat 274 menionri ale organului sexual masculin n Ziua
futut a lui Nils de tefan Peca.
[10] Mircea Ghiulescu, Istoria literaturii romne. Dramaturgia, Editura Academiei
Romne, 2007, p. 772.
[11] Cristian Alionte, Interviu tefan Peca: Nu mi plac i nu cred n dramaturgii de
sertar, publicat n Ziarul Financiar. Ziarul de duminic, 12 septembrie 2008,
http://www.zf.ro/ziarul-de-duminica/nu-imi-plac-si-nu-cred-in-dramaturgii-de-
sertar-3182167/
[12] tefan Peca, Ziua f... a lui Nils, text disponibil online pe site-ul personal al
dramaturgului, pag. 5, http://www.peca.ro/index1.html
[13] Mark Ravenhill, Mark Ravenhill, Shopping and F***ing, Methuen Publishing
Limited, London, 200, pag. 64. (t.m.)
[14] tefan Peca, site oficial, Piese/Catalog/Ziua f... a lui Nils, http://www.peca.
ro/index1.html.
[15] tefan Peca, Ziua ..., op. cit., pp. 33-34.
[16] Ibidem, p. 14.
[17] Avertismentul a fost trecut pe afiul spectacolului prezentat n premier la
Teatrul Luni de la Green Hours, Teatrul Luni prezint ...piesa al crei nume nu
poate fi pronunat! Ziua f..... a lui Nils, ...text ctigtor al primei ediii
dramAcum (2002) un spectacol de Peca tefan, http://www.greenhours.ro/
index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=157:ziua-futut-a-lui-
nils&catid=65:arhiva-piese.
[18] tefan Peca, Ziua ..., op. cit.,, p. 3.
[19] Idem.
[20] Mircea Ghiulescu, Istoria ..., op. cit., p. 770.
[21] Horia Grbea, op. cit.
[22] Mircea Ghiulescu, Manifestele lui Peca tefan sau literatura n impas, publicat
n Luceafrul de diminea, Nr. 12 / 9 februarie 2008, http://www.romania
culturala.ro/articol.php?cod=9944.
[23] tefan Peca, Ziua ..., op. cit., p. 17.
[24] Mircea Ghiulescu, Istoria ..., op. cit., p. 725.
[25] Cristina Modreanu, Cum a petrecut dramaturgul tefan Peca atentatele de la
Londra, articol publicat n Gndul, martie 2006 i disponibil online pe
www.liternet.ro, http://agenda.liternet.ro/articol/3025/Cristina-Modreanu/Cum-a-
petrecut-dramaturgul-Stefan-Peca-atentatele-de-la-Londra.html.
Bibliografie
Studii
Aragay, Mireia; Klein, Hildegard; Monforte, Enric; Zozaya, Pilar; British theatre of
the 1990s. Interviews with directors, playwrights, critics and academics, Edited
by Palgrave Macmillan, Hampshire, 2007.
Billington, Michael, One Night Stands: a Critics View of Modern British Theatre,
published by Nick Hern Books Limited, London, 1993.
Ghiulescu, Mircea, Istoria literaturii romne. Dramaturgia, Editura Academiei
Romne, 2007.
Saunders, Graham, 'Love me or kill me': Sarah Kane and the theatre of extremes,
Manchester University Press, 2002.
Sierz, Aleks, In-yer-face theatre: British Drama Today, Edited by Faber and Faber
Limited, London, 2001.
Articole de critic teatral

Alionte, Cristian, Interviu tefan Peca: Nu mi plac i nu cred n dramaturgii de
sertar, publicat n Ziarul Financiar. Ziarul de duminic, 12 septembrie 2008,
http://www.zf.ro/ziarul-de-duminica/nu-imi-plac-si-nu-cred-in-dramaturgii-de-
sertar-3182167/
Bdescu Paul, Cezar, Saviana Stnescu: Sunt, de fapt, un strin global, publicat n
Adevrul, 1 iulie 2009, http://www.adevarul.ro/actualitate/Saviana-Sunt-strain-
global-fapt_0_71392886.html
Grbea, Horia, nsemnri: Injurii, blesteme, sudalme, publicat n Romnia literar,
nr. 4, 2009, http://www.romlit.ro/injurii__blesteme_sudalme
Ghiulescu, Mircea, Manifestele lui Peca tefan sau literatura n impas, publicat n
Luceafrul de diminea, Nr. 12 / 9 februarie 2008, http://www.romania
culturala.ro/articol.php?cod=9944
Marinescu, Ciprian, Interviu cu dramaturgul Saviana Stnescu: Dramaturgii est-
europeni sunt foarte influenai de workshop-urile Royal Court, publicat n
revista Art Act Magazin, nr. 27, 10 iunie 2009, http://www.artactmagazine.ro/
interviu_cu_dramaturgul_saviana_stanescu.html
Modreanu, Cristina, Cum a petrecut dramaturgul tefan Peca atentatele de la
Londra, articol publicat n Gndul, martie 2006 i disponibil online pe
www.liternet.ro,http://agenda.liternet.ro/articol/3025/Cristina-Modreanu/Cum-a-
petrecut-dramaturgul-Stefan-Peca-atentatele-de-la-Londra.html
Opere dramatice
Kane, Sarah, Blasted and Phaedra's Love (Modern Plays), Methuen Drama,
London, 1996.
Marber, Patrick, Closer, Methuen Drama A&C Black Publishers Ltd, London, 2007
McDonagh, Martin, The Beauty Queen of Leenane and Other Plays, Publisher:
Vintage, UK, 1998.
Neilson, Anthony, Penetrator, Methuen Drama A&C Black Publishers Ltd, London,
1998.
Peca, tefan, Ziua f... a lui Nils, text disponibil online pe site-ul personal al
dramaturgului, http://www.peca.ro/index1.html
Ravenhill, Mark, Shopping and F***ing, Methuen Publishing Limited, London,
2001.
Bibliografie general
Elsom, John, Cold War Theatre, Publisher Routledge, London, 1992.

Freshwater, Helen, Theatre Censorship in Britain Silecing, Censure and
Suppression, Edited by Palgrave Macmillan, Hampshire, UK , 2009.
Popescu, Marian, Oglinda spart. Teatrul romnesc dup 1989, Editura UNITEXT,
Bucureti, seria Eseu, 1997.
Mass-Media Readiness to Biasing Gendered

Narratives about Criminals
Cristina-Silvia Vlcea
Rsum: Cette recherche vise gommer les modalits selon lesquelles les
mdias de masse instancie les attitudes discriminatoires envers les criminels
masculins et fminins. Ancr dans les tudes de genre qui, bien que varies,
sont toujours venus la conclusion que la masculinit est gnralement
favorise, la recherche analyse contrastivement l'exposition mdiatique d'un
homme et une femme criminelle, tous deux impliqus dans une affaire trs
mdit dassassiner, avec un accent sur les moyens linguistiques (vocabulaire,
morphologie, syntaxe, smantique), qui mettent l'accent sur le traitement de
dclassement que la femme criminelle est donne, bienquelle soit tout aussi
coupable que l'homme est. Il s'agit d'un cas vident d'un biais entre les sexes
lors des mdias de masse renforce les ides-dtenus que les femmes portent
plus le blme sociale que les hommes.
Mots-cls: mdias de masse, tudes de genre, attitudes discriminatoires .
1. Media, Power and Gender

For some time now linguists have turned their interest to the study
of mass-media messages (van Dijk 1988), (Johnson, Ensslin 2007),
(Fairclough 1995) which, researchers claim, encode traditionalist,
paternalistic representations of the society. Moreover, power groups
dictate the orientation of media channels which are meant to permeate
and inoculate social strata to a point where individual judgment
vanishes into socially structured opinions. And if such socially
structured opinions argue that women have a lower social status
(Cameron, 1992) given their traditional household roles, their inferior
training or, in some cases, their acceptance of prostitution, then mass-
media structure and portray women as such. Human power of mental
representation by repetition willingly builds up the intended
representation of womanhood. Contrarily, the perpetuation of the male
representation as social leaders, household masters, scientific
authorities strengthen masculine superiority and makes the compe-
tition between sexes, if existent, a lost battle for women from the very
start.
As empirical as the aforementioned information may seem,

research has tried to identify the existence of solid gender differences
which might solve this long-lasting dispute. First of all,
sociolinguistics (Holmes, 1997: 1) has highlighted that women and
men speak differently which has been explained as either given birth
data (innateness) or as a specialization (Sheldon and Johnson, 1998:
79) which starts from early childhood. In the second place, Critical
Discourse Analysis ((Fowler 1996), (Toolan 1995)) has evidenced
that, when spoken about, women and men are unevenly presented due
to a historical acknowledgement of the masculine power and of the
feminine weakness. It is nevertheless worth mentioning the fact that
the category of women, identified as disadvantaged, ranges among
other categories such as: Afro-Americans, criminals, children, which
is illustrative of womens status. Researchers of both disciplines have
noticed differences, which, either internally or externally generated,
stand for largely-known dissimilarities between the genders. When
internally generated, biology, education, and social community
(Eckert and McConnell-Ginet, 2003) seem to be the elements that
blueprint gender. When externally generated, gender is literally at the
hand of usually man-controlled power interests, which is indicative
of clear distortions and inequalities in the treatment of genders. In the
area of externally generated gender images, mass-media are core
producers of clich images of femininity and masculinity. Irrespective
of their social status, CDA claims, there is a clear unbalance between
the feminine and masculine media representations, with the women
undergoing a process of downgradation and men being in a situation
of stagnation or appraisal.
2. Research Questions
But what happens when, to a representation already downgraded
(being a woman), is added another aggravating fact (that of being a
murderer)? Would it count or contribute in any way to the public
representation that the mass-media offer? What about being a male
murderer? Are there any attributes that could contribute to their final
portrayal? These research questions will help me organize my research
and will provide conclusive data for interpretation.
3. Case Study
For a correct research, a special situation will be needed when a
man and a woman kill somebody with an apparent equal contribution
to the murdering. Consequently, I have looked for and identified a
situation which referred to two murderers (a man and a woman) and I
have analyzed their media representation with the evident purpose of
identifying elements that might suggest a divergent presentation of the
two murderers. In case such divergences exist (I dont start from the
assumption that they do), I will analyze their nature by categorizing
the elements and I will conclude whether the linguistic representation
is downgrading (for whom?) or equal.
The case I have chosen for my analysis is a well-known murder
case in which a young man and a young woman killed a gypsy leader
in the students camp in Timisoara. The case has degenerated from the
very beginning, transforming the trial of the suspects into reality
show with clear intromissions of the murderers and the deceaseds
families into the mass-media representation of the murder. Carmen
Bejan and Sergiu Florea are the two student murderers whose media
representations are of high interest in my study.
3.1 Clarifying the situation of representation

Definitely, the portrayal that the mass-media create is to a high
degree influenced by the suspects statements and by the strategy that
their lawyers have considered appropriate for defending their clients.
Yet, it is the mass-medias role to select the statements or the passages
of statements that the journalists consider in accordance with the
policy of the newspaper they write for. Therefore, I consider that it is
the newspapers responsibility and its own stand in relation to the case
as long as it willingly publishes it.
3.2 Data Interpretation

After having analyzed a number of articles on the topic, I have
identified a series of aspects that I consider worth presenting for the
exemplification of my hypothesis. To begin with, mass-media builds a
contrasting portrayal of the two murderers by selecting statements that
either lift or downgrade the moral representation of the suspects. The
male murderer is represented as somebody who feels sorrow for the
murder he has committed and the fact that he has escaped a suicide
attempt is seen as an opportunity that God gives him in order to reveal
the truth about the murder. The association between a murderer and
God (who presumably has given him a chance) is meant to soften
public judgment as it is largely known that confession and forgiveness
are two Christian values that are appreciated and that may change
public perception of the suspect.
Sergiu perceives his salvation from the suicide attempt as an unexpected

chance, as an opportunity that God has given to him in order to reveal the
truth about the murder and to prove that that he is not a cold-blood
murderer, but a man who has failed under the impulse and tension of the
moment (Cancan, March 13th, 2010) (my translation)
Moreover, Sergiu is built a moral portrait where such features as

honesty and openness outline the spontaneous, unplanned nature of the
murder which somehow is seen as less guilty than the premeditated one:
especially because Sergiu was honst and cooperated with the judges
during the prosecutors investigation and during the trial. (Cancan,
May 20th 2010) (my translation)
On the other hand, the woman murderer seems to be in denial as

she negates any involvement in the murdering of the gypsy leader.
Deniers are less appealing to a public that, faced to a cruel murdering
followed by dissection, is less inclined to show kindness and
comprehension in the absence of confession: I am very sorry for what
happened that day and for the destroyed families. I am very sorry that
the victim had deceased. I do not feel guilty for murdering, but for not
having informed the authorities. (Cancan, March 5th, 2010) (my
translation). Denying any involvement in the murdering, Carmen
Bejan attracts public disapproval which reaches its highest when
mass-media focus on the attire and cosmetic embellishment that the
woman makes use of when coming to the trial. No remorse, no
acceptance of her own involvement and the constant focus on her
physical appearance builds up a representation that is unfavorable to
the woman.
A second issue of status is speculated by media which pay
attention to the current prison preoccupations of the two murderers.
Yet, still suspects supposedly benefiting equal treatment, the two are
represented in utterly different situations, of which one is suggestive
of status and general acknowledgment and the other is illustrative of
limited, freedom-devoid, prison-like activities. Besides the media
responsibility for selecting and offering readers portrayals of
murderers, this special case of unbalance goes further and outlines

institutional biasing towards women murderers who are denied actions
that male murderers are allowed. In fact, Sergiu Florea, after some
testing, has become editor for the prisons magazine and he is highly
appreciated for the activity that he has been doing for the magazine.
Sergius activity is described by using the verb a reuit s devin
redactor (has succeeded in becoming editor my translation) and the
noun-adjective combination o activitate foarte bun (a very good
activity my translation) to outline his success in the new position
that he has acquired. Moreover, Sergiu has evidenced his critic
abilities e apreciat pentru critica literara (hes appreciated for the
literary criticism my translation) which emphasizes the status that he
enjoys in prison.
Contrarily, Carmen Bejan is denied any possibility of practicing
any of her skills because, as the justification goes, being preventively
arrested, she benefits of only some types of activities. When she is
finally sentenced, an intervention personalized plan will be made for
her, just as the procedures require. (Cancan, August 1st, 2010) (my
translation). Yet, the article mentions that Carmen vrea (wants) to
become a teacher for the prisoners in Timisoara jail. The evident
difference between has succeed in becoming and wants shows how
mass-media understands to portray a man and a woman guilty of the
same murder and moreover, it shows how biased public authorities
can be in giving certain social categories equal rights.
Mass-media continues its attempt at portraying the murderers in a
contrastive presentation which is meant to highlight their moral
features for the readers. Thus, after having found out the sentence,
Sergiu Florea seems peaceful, while Carmen Bejan starts crying
expressing her beliefs about her ended-up life. What is actually
targeted at by the use of these descriptions is to show the moral
mastery and control of the situation that Sergiu seems to have and the
almost hysterical reaction that Carmen has when finding out the
sentence. Womens crying or losing their temper is something
traditionally associated to feminine behavior in the sociolinguistic
literature. Moreover, in order to come to terms with the sentence,
apparently, both need to talk to someone. Surprisingly or not, Sergiu
Florea chooses to confess to a priest while Carmen Bejan decided to
go to a therapist. The contrast is again self-speaking. The moral
connotation is evident in Sergius case which can transmit the
message that he is sorry for what he did, looking in this way for divine
forgiveness. Carmen Bejan does not seem to be interested in

forgiveness, but in her own mental sanity which has anyway been
doubted beforehand. The sequencing, the attentive choice of the
vocabulary indicate clearly the mass-medias intention of
downgrading the female murderer and of maintaining the status of the
male murderer. This double-dealing with two persons that are in a
similar situation is called double-standard.
Another way of demeaning the woman is by bringing into
discussion her prostitute-like behavior, which claiming certainly needs
clarifications. Apparently, the woman had agreed to have sexual
relationships for money which was necessary for paying university
examinations and for buying her boyfriend a car. The woman in this
case seems to be the money provider which is a situation accepted and
tolerated by her boyfriend. Yet, publicly, the woman undergoes
judgment and blame. Surprisingly, the man is not held responsible for
her prostitution, although he had been the mediator and beneficiary of
the sexual meeting. It is thus widely considered in the sociolinguistic
literature that female prostitution is blamed although it is men who
actually benefit prostitution services. The ones who make women
prostitute get a gentler treatment or are even invisible in the mass-
media. In accordance to this theory, I have noticed that Sergiu Florea
is not presented in media as a prostitution instigator nor is he
considered guilty for having agreed to her prostitution. His
participation to the act of prostitution which led to the murdering is
inexistent which shows that the whole blame is carried by Carmen
Bejan.
Another element which is highly exploited by the mass-media is
surely the love affair of the two murderers. Carmen Bejan is quoted in
mass-media with the statements where she openly expresses her
feelings for Sergiu Florea. Such quotes as I loved him, I didnt tell
the police because I loved him, you know what a woman does for
her first love are meant to emphasize her weakness in love, her
powerlessness in rejecting him, even when he forces her to prostitute.
Contrarily, Sergiu Floreas feelings are totally absent as if they hadnt
been together when they had committed the murder. This is in
agreement with the sociolinguistic literature which claims that it is
more natural for women for express their feeling irrespective of their
nature, whereas men avoid talking about their feelings which is
perceived by men as lowering their social status.
These examples are enough proofs for claiming that Romanian

mass-media are readily biasing their representations of male and
female murderers. It has also become obvious that mass-media are not
the only institutions that manifest an unbalanced behavior towards
women. Jails and jail regulations are also biasing their behavior in the
sense of cutting down on womens rights and allowing men rights on
the basis of being just men. In this situation, mass-media seem to be a
perpetuator of some unwritten rules that already exist in the society.
Yet, mass-media remarks also as an initiator of new ways and means
of biasing given the traditional, paternalistic perception of the
Romanian society.
Notes
[1] Amy, Sheldon & Diane, Johnson, Pre-school Negociations: Linguistic Differences
in how Girls and Boys Regulate the Expression of Dissent in Same-Sex Groups.
The Sociolinguistics Reader Volume 2: Gender and Discourse.
[2] Deborah, Cameron, Feminism and Linguistic Theory, Macmillan, London, 1992.
[3] Eckert, P. & McConnell-Ginet, S. Language and Gender, CUP, London, 2003.
[4] Janet, Holmes, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, Longman, Harlow, 1997.
[5] Michael, Toolan, Narrative. A Critical Linguistic Introduction, Routledge,
London, 1995.
[6] Norman, Fairclough, Media Discourse, Hodder Arnold, London, 1995.
[7] Roger, Fowler, Linguistic Criticism, OUP, London, 1996.
[8] Sally, Johnson & Astrid Ensslin, Language in the Media, Continuum, London,
2007.
[9] Teun, van Dijk, News as Discourse, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers,
New Jersey, 1988.
[10] www. Cancan.ro. Criminala de la Medicin: "M-am prostituat pentru a plti
paga la examene", 5 martie, 2010.
[11] www. Cancan.ro. Mcelarul de la Medicin: "Dumnezeu m-a scpat de moarte
ca s spun adevrul despre crim", 13 martie, 2010.
[12] www. Cancan.ro. Studenii ucigai de la Medicin, n depresie dup sentin, 20
mai, 2010.
[13] www.Cancan.ro. Via uoar pentru criminalii de la Medicin! 1 August 2010.
Bibliography
Cameron, Deborah, Feminism and Linguistic Theory, Macmillan, London, 1992.

Eckert, P. & McConnell-Ginet, S. Language and Gender, CUP, London, 2003.
Fairclough, Norman, Media Discourse, Hodder Arnold, London, 1995.
Fowler, Roger, Linguistic Criticism, OUP, London, 1996.
Johnson, Sally & Ensslin, Astrid, Language in the Media, Continuum, London, 2007.
Holmes, Janet, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, Longman, Harlow, 1997.
Sheldon, Amy & Johnson, Diane, Pre-school Negociations: Linguistic Differences in

how Girls and Boys Regulate the Expression of Dissent in Same-Sex Groups. The
Sociolinguistics Reader Volume 2: Gender and Discourse.
Toolan, Michael, Narrative. A Critical Linguistic Introduction, Routledge, London,
1995.
van Dijk, Teun, News as Discourse, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, New
Jersey, 1988.
www. Cancan.ro. Criminala de la Medicin: "M-am prostituat pentru a plti paga la
examene", 5 martie, 2010.
www. Cancan.ro. Mcelarul de la Medicin: "Dumnezeu m-a scpat de moarte ca s
spun adevrul despre crim", 13 martie, 2010.
www. Cancan.ro. Studenii ucigai de la Medicin, n depresie dup sentin, 20 mai,
2010.
www.Cancan.ro. Via uoar pentru criminalii de la Medicin! 1 August 2010.
Recenzii 333
Recenzii
Textyles nr. 41/2012, Bruxelles, ditions du Cri, 225 p,

Le Monde de Maeterlinck [Lumea lui Maeterlinck],
dosar dirigat de Michel Otten i Fabrixe Van de
Kerckhove.
Carmen Andrei
N umrul tematic Lumea lui Maeterlinck [Le

Monde de Maeterlinck] aduce un omagiu scriitorului belgian Maurice
Maeterlinck (1962-1949), laureat al premiului Nobel pentru literatur,
cu ocazia aniversrii centenarului evenimentului care reprezint, n
viaa oricrei personaliti culturale sau tiinifice, paaportul recu-
noaterii internaionale a valorii individuale. n 1911, motivaia juriu-
lui era argumentat de importana activitii literare a lui Maeterlinck,
ndeosebi a operei dramaturgice a crei bogie imaginativ i fantezie
poetic l fixa n canonul clasicilor.
n Introducere, cei doi coordonatori ai volumului, Michel OTTEN
i Fabrice VAN DE KERCKHOVE, amintesc c opera lui Materlinck,
aproape uitat, a fost resuscitat n ultimele dou decenii ale secolului
al XX-lea, graie unor tineri regizori care au gsit n micile drame
din primul su teatru o surs de rennoire a reprezentaiei scenice,
motor pentru proiecte ale noului teatru a lui Beckett, Pinget sau
Marguerite Duras.
n primul articol, Figurile tabloului viu la Maeterlinck, Arnaud
KYKNER abordeaz tabloul viu, gen n vog n secolul al XIX-lea,
pe care Maeterlinck l considera ca o perversiune a artei, opusul a
Recenzii 335
ceea ce trebuia fcut pentru c transpunea nsi povestirea pe scen.

Totui, dup Rykner, tabloul viu prezint anumite caracteristici
specifice esteticii din primul teatru al lui Maeterlinck: teatralizarea
gestului, interpunerea ecranelor de tul care confer scenei un aspect
ireal, etc.
Anne DUCREY analizeaz dramaturgia pragului. Spaiile nchise
(castelele sau cavernele) trimit la o structur originar, cea a limitei
care poate s se reveleze fie ca obstacol, fie ca senilizare. Piesele
acestui al doilea tip ar avea nfiarea unei cutri nchise care nu
duce dect la moarte ca n Les Sept Princesses [Cele apte prinese]
sau a unei cutri deschise ca n LOiseau bleu [Pasrea albastr] n
care fiecare trecere a unui prag, a unei frontiere este deschiderea ctre
un nou spaiu poetic.
n Mitul Ofeliei la Maeterlinck, Christian LUTHAUD evideniaz
trsturile care trimit la arhetipul ofelian. Tinerele care mor n
teatrul lui Maeterlinck sunt n general fete care se neac, cea mai
fascinant fiind moarta din piesa Intrieur [Interior]. Ca i n cazul
Ofeliei din Hamlet-ul lui Shakespeare, cititorul ne va ti niciodat
dac este vorba despre un accident sau sinucidere.
Dou articole trateaz adaptrile operelor lui Maeterlinck:
Christian ANGELET despre Ariana i Barb Albastr n care auto-
rul examineaz complexa munc a rescrierilor (ezitrile, revenirile
etc.) fcut de Maeterlinck ca s ofere un texte satisfctor pentru Paul
Dukas. Libretistul i compozitorul au lucrat mpreun la desvrirea
operei; Christian JANSSENS are n vedere adaptarea cinematografic a
piesei Monna Vanna realizat de compania italian SA Ambrosis. Se
pare c filmul s-a pierdut, dar scenariul s-a pstrat, ceea ce permite
studierea transpunerii.
Cea de-a doua parte a volumului studiaz prezena, receptarea lui
Maurice Maeterlinck n lume. Sunt evocate opt ri.
Maria TSOUTSOURA prezint receptarea operei lui Maeterlinck n
lumea greac. Trebuie s distingem aici ntre grecii din Europa, care
sunt oarecum ocai de ndrzneala unui dramaturg a crui modernitate
pare suspect, i grecii cosmopolii de la periferie care sunt mult mai
deschii noutii; astfel, primele versuri ale poetului Constantin
Cavafy sunt influenate n mod evident de Serres chaudes [Serile
calde] ale poetului din Gand.
Bndicte VAUTHIER trateaz receptarea bicefal a primului
teatru a lui Maeterlinck n Spania. n peninsula iberic, n Catalonia i
n Spania castilian, Maeterlinck este descoperit i tradus cu zece ani
nainte de Madrid, ceea ce ne arat alacritatea spiritului spaniol. Piesa

LIntruse [Intrusa] este tradus n catalan n 1893 i n castilian n
1904!
n Polonia, unde receptarea lui Maeterlinck a fost considerabil i
deja ndelung studiat, Katia VANDENBORRE ne prezint un studiu
bine documentat a dou opere profund originale: pictura lui Witold
Wojtkiewicz, influenat de teatrul i poezia lui Maeterlinck. Poetul
polonez produce o oper marcat de lirism i grotesc, pnzele sale
explornd lumea circului i a marionetelor. Gide i descoper opera la
Berlin i l aduce la Paris pentru o mare expoziie ; la cincizeci de ani
dup voga lui Maeterlinck, se ntmpl un fenomen curios : poetul
Jerzy Harasymowicz public La tour de la mlancolie [Turnul
melancoliei], n 1956, care se pare c a fost influenat de Maeterlinck
indirect, prin pictura lui Wojtkiewicz. Un intertext magistral care
exploreaz incontientul, tragicul, grotescul i obsesia morii.
Magda CIOPRAGA analizeaz fenomenul complet al receptrii lui
Maeterlinck n Romnia prin prisma inventarului numeroaselor
traduceri. Impresioneaz aici numrul i importana reprezentrilor
teatrale, subliniindu-se apetitul romnilor pentru artele scenice.
Intrusa i Interior, Sora Batrice i Monna Vanna nu au fost montate
doar la Bucureti, ci i n provincie, la Iai, Craiova, Oradea, Baia
Mare, Cernui sau Cluj-Napoca.
n ce-a de-a treia parte a volumului Mrturii Mariko
ANAZAWA amintete c imaginarul japonez este dominat de fascinaia
pentru ap, ca i cel al lui Maeterlinck. Paralela cea mai interesant
rezid n recursul la marionete, la androizi, n cazul lui Maeterlinck,
care se nrudete cu jocul actorilor din teatrul n ale cror micri sunt
calme i lente, ins intense.
Traductorul bulgar al lui Maeterlinck, Krassimir KAVALDJEV ne
mprtete, ntr-o expunere foarte clar dificultile ntlnite n
traducerea unei poezii care comport o parte de obscuritate, strategiile
la care a recurs pentru a traduce din francez n bulgar, limbi att de
diferite, o poezie simbolist prin excelen.
Un inventar exhaustiv al traducerilor n turc ale lui Maeterlinck
este propus de Hasan ANAMUR care explic i apariia lor tardiv
ntr-un cmp cultural marcat de voina de nchidere, de cenzurare a
strintii exercitat de Imperiul ortoman. Abia n 1922 apare
versiunea turc a piesei Interior, n 1930 dramele lui Maeterlinck sunt
montate pe scenele din Ankara i Istanbul, dar concluzia final a
autorului este c Maeterlinck nc nu a ieit din purgatoriu.
Recenzii 337
n ultimul articol, Hubert ROLAND precizeaz c, datorit tezei de

doctorat foarte documentat a lui Dirk Strohmann, se poate da o idee
de receptare a operei lui Maeterlinck n rile germanofone n 1891 i
1914. L-au citit pe Maeterlinck mai ales marii austrieci (Rilke, Musil,
Hofmannsthal, fraii Thomas i Heinrich Mann).
Volumul consacrat de revista Textyles centenarului lui
Maeterlinck nu are pretenia de a face o incursiune exhaustiv a lumii
i a prezenei n lume a uriaului din Gand, dar permite cititorului
s-i fac o idee precis despre actualitatea ciudat a unui scriitor sau
despre inactualitatea lui.
Isabela Nedelcu, 101 greeli gramaticale,

Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2012, 192 p.,
ISBN 978-973-50-3613-3
Ionel Apostolatu
Lucrarea Isabelei Nedelcu (lect. dr. la

Facultatea de Litere a Universitii Bucureti i, totodat, cercettor n
cadrul sectorului de gramatic al Institutului Iorgu Iordan - Al.
Rosetti al Academiei Romne), cea de a cincea din colecia Viaa
cuvintelor, gzduit de prestigioasa editur Humanitas, se constituie
ntr-un veritabil ghid de bune practici n domeniul, att de vast, al
cultivrii limbii romne literare.
Autoarea, cu o bogat activitate tiinific pe terenul gramaticii
limbii romne, a fcut parte din colectivul de redacie al unora dintre
cele mai prestigioase lucrri n domeniu, dintre care amintim doar
Gramatica limbii romne, Editura Academiei, Bucureti, 2005/2008
(GALR) i Gramatica de baz a limbii romne, Editura Univers
Enciclopedic Gold, Bucureti, 2010 (GBLR). De asemenea, face parte
din colectivul de cercetrori ai Institutului Iorgu Iordan - Al. Rosetti
care, ncepnd cu anul 2007, s-a angajat, sub tutela Consiliului
Naional al Audiovizualului (CNA), ntr-o ampl aciune de
monitorizare a calitii limbii romne utilizate la posturile romneti
de radio i televiziune, din aceast ntreprindere de mare anvergur
rezultnd un bogat material lingvistic (deosebit de util n cercetarea
dinamicii limbii romne actuale), concretizat n nu mai puin de 16
Recenzii 339
rapoarte de monitorizare, publicate pe site-ul CNA i valorificate,

parial, n manualul de popularizare Eti cool i dac vorbeti corect,
Editura Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti (2008 / 2010 ediia
revizuit), ce s-a bucurat de o larg receptare n mediile colare i nu
numai. Avnd, deci, n spate o astfel experien, ce o recomand din
toate punctele de vedere, Isabela Nedelcu ofer n volumul 101 greeli
gramaticale o foarte util sintez a pricipalelor erori de exprimare n
limba romn actual, organizate eficient, pe niveluri de limb.
Dei lucrarea face referire n titlu la greeli gramaticale, n
realitate, aria de investigare a autoarei este mult mai larg, urmrind
nu doar abaterile plasate la nivelul strict gramatical (morfologic i
sintactic). Prin urmare, termenul gramaticale trebuie luat ntr-o
accepie mai larg, cu trimitere la fapte de limb dintre cele mai
diverse (de la aspecte privind flexiunea cuvintelor i relaiile dintre
acestea, pn la probleme de topic i de punctuaie, de ortografie i
ortoepie), din perspectiva modului n care se raporteaz la normele
exprimrii literare, urmrindu-se astfel ceea ce, n general, poart
numele de cultivarea limbii.
Trebuie spus din capul locului c cele 101 greeli (i aici,
desigur, referina numeric, ce se regsete n titlul fiecruia dintre
volumele coleciei, are o ncrctur simbolic) nu alctuiesc un
simplu inventar, un repertoriu al greelilor de limb selectate,
eventual, n funcie de frecvena i gravitatea lor, i judecate apoi,
sumar, din perspectiva raportului corectitudine greeal. Autoarea
nu doar semnaleaz / selecteaz greelile, ci le i supune unei analize
atente, le comenteaz, le explic (cu trimitere la principalele lucrri cu
caracter normativ), ncercnd s releve sursele, cauzele care au dus la
apariia lor, i astfel, ca un medic bun (iar limba, dac e s o
comparm, aa cum s-a ntmplat de multe ori, cu un organism viu,
care triete prin vorbitorii si, are cteodat nevoie de doctori
competeni), i propune s nlture nu doar efectul, ci i cauza care l-a
generat, convins fiind c dac nelegem de ce s-a produs o anumit
greeal, ea nu mai are anse s apar (p. 36).
Plasndu-se n descendena unor modele ilustre, ca Iorgu Iordan,
Alexandru Graur, Mioara Avram, Theodor Hristea, Valeria Guu
Romalo sau G. Grui, a cror bogat activitate n domeniul cultivrii
limbii romne este de notorietate, Isabela Nedelcu, prin lucrarea de
fa, mai aaz o crmid n edificiul ce adpostete valorile limbii
romne literare, un edificiu ridicat nu pentru a izola limba de
vorbitorii si (ceea ce ar, pe de o parte, imposibil, iar, pe de alt parte,
ar nsemna, practic, o anihilare a fiinei ei), ci pentru a o proteja de

feluritele abuzuri i siluiri la care a fost i este supus, cu tiin, dar,
mai ales, cu netiin, de ctre cei care se folosesc zilnic de ea. La
drept vorbind, o asemenea sarcin ar trebui nscris n codul deonto-
logic al oricrui lingvist autentic, rol pe care Isabela Nedelcu i-l
asum din plin.
Materialul supus analizei de ctre autoare nu este unul (pre)fabri-
cat, construit ori excerptat din lucrri mai vechi [1], ci unul viu,
proaspt, puternic ancorat n realitatea limbii. Principalele surse de
care s-a servit autoarea sunt internetul (prin publicaiile electronice,
forumurile sau alte forme de comunicare online pe care le gzduiete
reeaua global) i mass-media (mai exact, rapoartele de monitorizare
la care am fcut referire mai sus), adic tocmai zonele cele mai sensi-
bile i mai generoase n privina nclcrilor flagrante al normelor
de exprimare litarar, dar funcionnd, n acelai timp, i ca adevrate
barometre ale dinamicii limbii romne actuale, ca spaii ale inovrii
lingvistice prin excelen.
Sub aspectul organizrii materialului, lucrarea este structurat n
ase capitole, dintre care, n cel dinti (I. Norma i uzul limbii), se
opereaz cteva delimitri conceptuale necesare, cum ar fi dihotomia
norm abatere, conceptul de dinamic (a limbii, n general, i a
normei, n particular), se prezint cteva dintre cauzele producerii
greelilor i, nu n ultimul rnd, se fac distinciile necesare evalurii
unei exprimri ca fiind n conformitate sau, dimpotriv, n contradicie
cu norma. Reinem, din acest prim capitol, precizarea, foarte impor-
tant, c raportul dintre norm i abatere (respectiv, dintre corecti-
tudine i greeal) nu este unul imuabil, rigid, i asta deoarece norma
limbii [2] (ca de altfel limba, n ansamblul ei) are un caracter istoric,
dinamic, fiind deci supus schimbrii. Norma se schimb n timp, prin
acceptarea i recunoaterea drept corecte a unor foste abateri, impuse
la un moment dat de uzul vorbitorilor (a se vedea, de pild, cazul
construciilor de tipul un prieten de-al meu, admis n norma actual,
dar respins nainte de 2005 data publicrii ediiei a doua a DOOM).
Pe de alt parte, nu ntotdeauna este foarte uor s etichetezi un fapt de
limb ca fiind pur i simplu o abatere, trebuind s se in seama de o
serie de factori, cum ar fi intenia de comunicare a vorbitorului
(marcat sau nu stilistic), adecvarea la un anumit registru al comu-
nicrii, natura canalului de comunicare (oral / scris), interferena tehni-
cii libere a discursului cu tehnica discursului repetat (avnd adesea ca
rezultat, modificri intenionate ale enunurilor aparinnd discursului
Recenzii 341
repetat, mai ales n limbajul publicistic), situaia concret n care are

loc comunicarea, rolul protagonitilor etc. Prin urmare, gravitatea unei
greeli, gradul ei de toleran depind nu doar de factori pur lingvistici,
ci i de o serie de factori socio i psiholingvistici. De plid, o expri-
mare neliterar, cu intenie stilistic evident (ironic, glumea,
ludic etc.), poate fi, n anumite limite, tolerat, cu condiia s se
pstreze ntr-un cadru adecvat situaiei de comunicare i statutului
participanilor la discuii. n afara unui astfel de cadru (familiar, coloc-
vial), nclcrile normei literare constituie greeli (mai mult sau mai
puin grave) i trebuie tratate ca atare, adic sancionate i evitate [3].
Celelalte cinci capitole reprezint tot attea radiografii critice ale
unora dintre cele mai actuale i mai frecvente greeli de limb literar
din sfera gramaticii, n sens larg: II. Greeli de pronunare, III.
Greeli de scriere, IV. Greeli de punctuaie, V. Greeli de
morfologie, VI. Greeli de sintax.
n capitolul rezervat greelilor de pronunare, autoarea se oprete
mai nti asupra celor n care nu se respect regulile privitoare la
pronunarea lui e de la nceput de cuvnt sau de silab, a lui x, precum
i a unor sunete sau grupuri de sunete plasate dup consoanele i j.
Din prima categorie fac parte rostiri greite, de tipul [ieuro, iepok,
iedukaie, ieuropean; ideie, aleie, poiezie], cu [ie] n loc de [e], sau, la
fel de greite, rostiri hipercorecte, fr preiotare, de tipul [el], [ei],
[ea], [este], [era], n loc de rostirile tradiionale, fireti: [iel, iei, ia,
ieste, iera] etc. n ce privete litera x i rostirea acesteia, sunt luate n
discuie pronunii greite, cu [ks], n loc de [gz], ca [eksamen,
ekserciiu, eksil, eksist], scrierea greit cu x, n loc de cs sau s (ce
afecteaz cuvinte ca mbcseal, rucsac, sconcs, a ticsi, respectiv
escroc, escadril, a escalada, a escamota, care nu trebuie scrise cu x),
dar i problemele care apar n flexiunea unor cuvinte terminate n x, al
cror radical la plural trebuie s fie n c (ca n linx - linci, complex -
compleci, sfinx - sfinci, fix - fici etc.). n sfrit, se atrage atenia
asupra pronunrilor neliterare (regionale) cu e la sfrit, n loc de
(ca n *plaje, *mtue, *cenue, *ue, *grije etc.), precum i asupra
necunoaterii regulii care spune c dup i j, n rdcina cuvintelor,
se scrie i se pronun cu a, nu ea, n forme ca aaz, deart, nal
(iar nu *aeaz, *deeart, *neal). n schimb, alternana a / ea
apare n structura unor sufixe (gramaticale sau lexicale): detaez -
detaeaz, nfiez - nfieaz, angajez - angajeaz; grei -
greeal, ora - orean, obloji - oblojeal etc. Alte aspecte ortoepice
urmrite n acest capitol au n vedere pronunarea corect a unor
cuvinte strine neadaptate sau doar parial adaptate (n special

anglicisme) i locul accentului n cteva cuvinte romneti sau
mprumutate din alte limbi. O greeal tot mai frecvent, din pcate,
afecteaz rostirea numelor proprii provenite din nume comune
terminate n sufixele -ariu, -eriu, -(t)oriu, care se accentueaz corect
pe vocalele a, e i o din sufix, i nu pe i, care este (i trebuie s
rmn) asilabic: Morriu, Rotriu, Coriu, Olriu, Ciubotriu,
Funriu etc. Accenturile de tipul Moraru, Rotaru etc. (care duc la
despicarea diftongului iu ntr-un hiat i-u) sunt profund greite i se
explic prin analogie cu accentuarea unor nume mprumutate din
greac, ca de exemplu Gheorghu, Vasilu, Gheorghidu, Atanasu,
Dimitru etc., unde i este silabic.
Din categoria greelilor de scriere (socotite dintre cele mai
dezonorante, ntruct ele trdeaz aproape imediat lipsa de cultur
elementar n materie de gramatic), autoarea le semnaleaz pe cele
implicate n scrierea cu sau cu , n scrierea cu cratim, n scrirea cu
unu, cu doi sau cu trei de i la sfritul cuvintelor, precum i n scrierea
unor omofone (ntr-un cuvnt, n dou sau chiar n mai multe cuvinte).
Grafii aberante, de tipul doi *membrii, banii *notrii, *proprii lui
copii, fata *aceia, *acela gnd, *totu, *creiez, *creem, *agreem,
*nendurtori, *bineneles, *subneles, *rentregire, *sntem,
*lua-i o pauz, *-i vine, *prim ministru, *inspector ef, *showul,
*job-ul etc., precum i confuziile frecvente dintre o dat i odat, vreo
dat i vreodat, alt dat i altdat, numai i nu mai etc. au drept
cauz, pe de o parte, insuficienta cunoatere a structurii i flexiunii
cuvintelor, a modului n care s-au format, a normelor ortografice n
vigoare, iar, pe de alt parte, se datoreaz, mcar n unele cazuri,
influenei pronunrii asupra scrierii, precum i aplicrii abuzive,
analogice a unor reguli de scriere insuficient de bine stpnite, n
situaii n care aplicarea lor nu se justific, la mijloc fiind tocmai
teama vorbitorului de a nu grei (adic principala cauz a fenomenelor
cunoscute sub numele de hipercorectitudine).
Greelile de punctuaie, trdate, de asemenea, n scris (dar cu
efecte i n planul oralului, cci semnele de punctuaie se asociaz cu
mrci suprasegmentale, ca intonaia i accentul sintactic, dar i cu
pauza n vorbire), sunt mai subtile i mai greu de sesizat pentru
nespecialiti. Totui, n unele cazuri, ele constituie nclcri flagrante
ale unor norme deprinse nc din primii ani de coal, cum ar fi, de
exemplu, cea care spune c subiectul i predicatul nu se despart
niciodat prin virgul. Pe de alt parte, lipsa semnelor de punctuaie
Recenzii 343
dintr-un text (fie c e vorba de virgul, de punct, de semnul exclamrii

ori de cel al ntrebrii) poate afecta profund nelegerea mesajului,
fcndu-l ambiguu sau lipsit de logic. Dintre toate semnele de
punctuaie, cele mai numeroase probleme le pune, desigur, virgula, fie
prin absena ei, fie, dimpotriv, prin utilizarea sa abuziv. De aceea, i
autoarea se oprete, n primul rnd, asupra greelilor de acest tip, iar,
n al doilea rnd, asupra greelilor constnd n nemarcarea corespun-
ztoare a exclamrii i a ntrebrii.
Era normal ca spaiul cel mai amplu s fie rezervat greelilor de
gramatic propriu-zise (respectiv, de morfologie i de sintax),
deoarece, aa cum remarc autoarea nsi, acestea sunt cele mai
numeroase i mai diverse, avnd n vedere i complexitatea structurii
gramaticale a limbii romne, att sub aspect paradigmatic (inventar
bogat de cuvinte, forme i mrci flexionare), ct i sintagmatic
(structuri sintactice de naturi diferite, att simple, ct i elaborate,
bazate mai multe tipuri de relaii n care se pot angaja cuvintele, n
funcie de particularitile lor flexionare i de construcie). Dei, n
general, se spune c gramatica (i, n special, morfologia) este
compartimentul limbii cel mai conservator i mai puin deschis
inovaiilor, cu toate acestea, nici gramatica nu se poate sustrage dina-
micii limbii i, implicit, a normei. Astfel, forme i construcii care
pn nu de mult erau n uz, astzi sunt considerate greeli (de
exemplu, singularele bretel, sandal, nlocuite astzi cu noile
singulare analogice bretea, sanda, sau formele verbale cu sufixe
ignoreaz i bombnete, nlocuite prin forme fr sufixe: ignor,
bombne), dar i invers, fapte de gramatic cndva incriminate au
devenit astzi norm (a se vedea, de pild, pluralele feminine cirei,
cpuni, coperi alturi de mai vechile ciree, cpune, coperte;
forma de indicativ prezent, persoana I sg. continui, care a nlturat
forma veche continuu; structura de tipul clasa ntia, cu numeralul
ordinal postpus articulat, dup modelul a doua, a treia .a.).
Fr a intra prea mult n detalii care ne-ar ncrca inutil prezen-
tarea, n dauna lecturii propriu-zise, spre care ndemnm cititorii, ne
vom limita la a meniona, din cuprinsul lucrrii, tipurile de greeli
gramaticale ilustrate i analizate n cartea Isabelei Nedelcu: greeli n
exprimarea numrului la substantive, greeli n exprimarea cazurilor la
substantive, greeli privind flexiunea adjectivului, greeli n expri-
marea categoriilor gramaticale ale verbului, greeli privind ncadrarea
unor verbe la conjugarea a doua sau a treia (treceri de la o clas de
conjugare la alta), confuzia adverbului cu adjectivul (cu referire la
formele maxim, minim / maximum, minimum), nclcarea restriciilor

de utilizare a unor adverbe (cu privire la utilizarea adverbelor numai,
dect, doar), utilizarea unei prepoziii n locul alteia (cu referire
special la prepoziia pe), absena prepoziiei sau utilizarea ei
superflu, nerespectarea regimului locuiunii prepoziionale din punct
de vedere (Ac.) / din punctul de vedere (G), nlocuirea unei conjuncii
cu alta, greeli n utilizarea corelativelor, omiterea conjunciei, greeli
n realizarea acordului, greeli de topic, anacolutul.
Remarcm, n finalul lucrrii, prezena unui foarte util indice, n
care sunt nregistrate i ordonate alfabetic nu doar tipurile de greeli,
ci i exemplele asociate acestora.
Fiind destinat unui public ct mai larg, lucrarea Isabelei Nedelcu
nu caut erudiia, i nici explicaiile savante, fiind interesat, mai
degrab, s explice pe nelesul tuturor, dar mai ales al vorbitorului
(nespecialist) preocupat de cultivarea limbii, de ce un anume tip de
exprimare sau de scriere este greit i, mai ales, cum pot fi evitate
greelile n cauz. n acest scop, terminologia lingvistic utilizat n
text a fost transpus ntr-o form ct mai accesibil, pstrndu-se, n
general, n zona gramaticii tradiionale. Cu toate acestea, coninutul
tiinific nu face niciun fel de concesii, interpretrile oferite fiind nu
doar pertinente, ci cuprinznd toate datele necesare unei ct mai efi-
ciente nelegeri a naturii i a cauzelor producerii greelilor grama-
ticale. mbinnd, n mod fericit i profitabil pentru cititorul nespe-
cialist, concepia tradiional de analiz gramatical cu cea modern,
ilustrat de ultimele dou gramatici ale limbii romne aprute sub
egida Academiei Romne (GALR - 2005 / 2008; GBLR - 2010),
cartea 101 greeli gramaticale reprezint, n primul rnd, un instru-
ment deosebit de util i accesibil de nsuire a normelor minime de
exprimare corect gramatical n limba romn.
Faptul c n cele aproximativ 200 de pagini Isabela Nedelcu
reuete s redea un tablou concis i precis conturat al abaterilor celor
mai frecvente i mai suprtoare din sfera gramaticii, dimpreun cu
soluiile de evitare a acestora, dovedete din plin c nu ntotdeauna
este nevoie de tomuri ntregi pentru a nva ce nseamn s te
exprimi corect, literar n limba romn. Este nc un motiv pentru care
merit salutat realizarea i publicarea acestei cri.
Recenzii 345
Note
[1] Excepiile n acest sens sunt foarte puine i, n general, ele vin s completeze, s
nuaneze un aspect sau altul pus deja n eviden prin exemple nregistrate.
[2] Poate c ar fi fost bine dac s-ar fi operat o distincie ntre norma lingvistic n
general i norma literar. Aceast distincie este, din punctul nostru de vedere,
deosebit de important, pentru c, n vreme ce norma lingvistic n general are un
caracter implicit, natural i abstract (stabilind cum se spune ntr-o limb, n baza
posibilitilor oferite de sistem i n acord cu un anumit uz, care reine aspectele
comune, constante ale vorbirii), norma literar are caracter convenional i
concret, explicit (stabilind cum trebuie s se spun i instituind o serie de reguli
care trebuie respectate cu necesitate de ntreaga comunitate lingvistic, reguli
expuse n lucrri cu caracter normativ).
[3] Ceea ce am dori s adugm aici ar fi c normele literare nu sunt la fel de strns
codificate pentru fiecare nivel sau compartiment al limbii. Astfel, dac n cazul
gramaticii, al ortografiei sau al ortoepiei, normele actuale au un caracter oarecum
stabil, bine precizat, n ce privete lexicul, normele sunt mai elastice, impunnd o
atitudine mai prudent n etichetarea tranant a unor fenomene drept abateri, a
cror evoluie ulterioar este greu de prevzut. Acest lucru se ntmpl mai ales n
domeniul formrii cuvintelor, dar i n semantic.
Petronela Savin, Universul din lingur. Despre

terminologia alimentar romneasc, Institutul
European, Iai, 2012, 194 p.
Oana Cenac
L ucrarea de fa, al crei punct de plecare l

reprezint teza de doctorat susinut de autoare sub ndrumarea
prof. univ. dr. Stelian Dumistrcel, i-a propus s abordeze problema
terminologiei romneti privitoare la alimentaia omului. Studiul
beneficiaz de un titlu incitant (Universul din lingur) care se dove-
dete a fi un caz de discurs repetat obinut prin modificarea enunului
Universul din scoic, un volum de interviuri realizat cu Eugeniu
Coeriu de Gheorghe Popas, Maria leahtichi i Nicolae Leahu i
aprut la Chiinu n 2004. Totodat, merit amintit faptul c lucrarea
apare i n limba francez la aceeai editur ieean cu titlul Un
univers dans une cuillre.
Stuctural, lucrarea este organizat n trei capitole, precedate de o
prefa, un cuvnt-nainte i o list de abrevieri. La sfritul volumului
se afl concluziile, bibliografia, un rezumat, dou anexe i dou
indexuri: de nume i de termeni.
Studiul beneficiaz de un corpus terminologic selectat din
Dicionarul limbii romne, ediia veche i nou, Nouveau dictionnaire
roumain franais, vol. I-IV, de Frddric Dam, Dicionarul universal
al limbii romne al lui Lazr ineanu, Dicionarul limbii romne
literare contemporane, vol. I-IV, Noul dicionar universal al limbii
romne i Micul dicionar academic, vol. I-IV.
Recenzii 347
Primul capitol al lucrrii, Organizarea stratigrafic a terminologiei

alimentare, ofer comentarii pertinente i exemple numeroase n ceea
ce privete originea termenilor care compun terminologia alimentar.
Materialul este concentrat n dou subcapitole: primul urmrete, pe
de o parte, fondul de baz n care sunt enumerate elementele care
provin din stratul latin (alun, gru, par, pepene, porumb, carne,
lapte, ou, pete), din substrat, reprezentat de elemente cum ar fi
brnz, leurd, mazre, mrar, strugure, urd etc., precum i creaiile
realizate pe teren romnesc prin derivare (alvi, nucoar, dovlecel,
afinat), compunere (boia de ardei, foi de dafin, sare de lmie,
ciorb de burt) i metaforizare (gogoa, porumb, cocoei, mititei
etc.); pe de alt parte, sunt analizate mprumuturile din perspectiva
principalelor aspecte ale variaiei lingvistice n diacronie acordnd o
atenie special cuvintelor de origine slav (smntn, hrean, lobod,
drojdie, oet, scrob, ulei etc.), mprumuturilor din slava savant
(slavona), intrate n limba romn prin intermediul cultului ortodox
(anafur, colac, coliv, poman, prescur, post, praznic etc.). La
acest inventar, Al. Graur, n ncercare asupra fondului principal
lexical din limba romn (1954), include din terminologia alimentar
de origine slav termenii colac, oet, smntn, a hrni, lacom, poft,
a prji, sit etc. n ceea ce privete cuvintele de origine greac, se
poate spune c acetia au ptruns n limba romn prin mijlocirea
limbii latine (ciutur, a mcina, pasc, zeam etc.). n continuare,
autoarea analizeaz elementele de origine turc (acadea, baclava,
magiun, sarailie, bostan, fistic, ptlgea, ienibahar, cafea, chebab,
ciorb, chiftea etc.), neogreac (lmie, pricomigdal, portocal,
stafid, conopid, franzel, zahr, saramur) precum i mpru-
muturile din ucrainean (chileag, hrib, dne, chic, poloboc), rus
(bor, brag, ceai, gluc, votc), polonez (cabanos, bulc),
bulgar (castravete, gulie, morcov, orez, viin, rasol, covrig), srb
(clic pine prost fcut, zitin ulei), maghiar (arpaca, gula,
fric, mutar, palinc) i german (cartof, candel, cremnit, glazur,
tort, maripan, trudel, crenvurst, lebrvurst, unc, jumar, niel
etc.). Nu n ultimul rnd, sunt analizate cuvintele de origine francez
(antricot, cotlet, escalop, brio, compot, ecler, mandarin, omlet,
merlot, sos Bechamel, ampanie), italian (lazane, rizoto, spaghete,
broccoli, cappuccino, mozzarella, ravioli, tortellini) i englez (biftec,
chec, grapefrut, rosbif, sandvi, punci, hot dog, snacks, steak, whisky,
coca-cola).
Capitolul II Nuclee ale corpusului terminologic al alimentaiei -

evideniaz organizarea terminologiei alimentare prezentate n capi-
tolul nti din perspectiva unei organizri pe categorii de realii. Pentru
realizarea acestui deziderat, ntreg corpusul este plasat ntr-o gril se-
mantic, dup urmtoarele categorii: nume de alimente, de buturi,
aciuni, stri, activiti, nsuiri, modaliti, organe, simuri, instrumen-
te i instalaii. Aceast organizare ilustreaz, dup cum mrturisete
autoarea, (...) evoluia n diacronie a lexicului, cu relevarea modele-
lor culturale asumate n anumite circumstane istorico-sociale (p. 75).
Prin aceast analiz, se ajunge la concluzia c (...) terminologia
alimentar motenit cuprinde termeni fundamentali ce definesc o
civilizaie agropastoral, n vreme ce terminologia mprumutat ofer
o mare diversitate n ceea ce privete actul alimentar, sugernd drumul
ctre o societate industrializat, bazat pe comer (p. 76).
Dac n primele dou capitole, terminologia culinar a fost abor-
dat din perspectiva variaiei diacronice, diatopice i diastratice, capi-
tolul III, intitulat Privire sintetic de actualizare pe terenul variaiei
diafazice. Discursul meniurilor, analizeaz relaia dintre diferitele
straturi terminologice i valorizarea lor ca mrci ale culturii tradiio-
nale sau ale unei culturi de mprumut pe deplin ilustrate i pe terenul
variaiei diafazice a limbii, n discursul meniurilor. Att componenta
tradiional, ct i cea cosmopolit a meniurilor se constituie ca parte a
strategiei de promovare a ofertei restaurantelor, de fapt, manifestri
ale faticului la nivelul comunicrii de tip comercial. Un principal mij-
loc de concretizare a faticului este diminutivarea termenilor (mmli-
gu, srmlue, colcei, mititei, ciorbi etc.) care marcheaz o relaie
afectiv, emoional sau chiar ironic cu obiectul desemnat.
Valoarea imaginilor alimentare poate fi ilustrat i n contextul
comunicrii literare. n acest sens, autoarea surprinde valenele etnosti-
listice ale terminologiei alimentare cu exemple din operele lui Ion
Creang, N. Filimon i I.L. Caragiale. Se contureaz dou tipuri de
discursuri literare: unul, reprezentat prin creaia lui I. Creang, care
nfieaz lumea rneasc marcat de credine i obiceiuri imemoriale,
i un altul, ilustrat de operele lui N. Filimon i I.L. Caragiale care descrie
lumea urban, profund aezat n epoc, definit prin mod i schimbare.
n concluzie, se poate afirma c demersul Petronelei Savin privind
analiza terminologiei alimentare din perspectiva antropologiei culturii,
relev cele mai intime mecanisme de reflectare a realitii n limb, un
bun prilej de a clarifica anumite aspecte i totodat de a deschide noi
direcii de cercetare.
Recenzii 349
Despre Caragiale, n post(post)modernism Gelu

Negrea, Dicionar subiectiv al personajelor lui I.L.
Caragiale (A-Z), Editura Cartea Romneasc,
Bucureti, 2009, 384 p*
Oana Contoman
ntre definiia ferm i precis a dicionarului, pe

de o parte (formula canonic de luare n stpnire i de configurare
bazat pe un pattern general acceptat a geografiei de ansamblu i a
detaliilor unui spaiu oarecare lingvistic, literar, filosofic, tehnic, artistic,
tiinific etc. p. 5) i fluiditatea semantic a termenului de eseu,
respectiv versatilitatea speciei literare (scopul su este, n primul rnd, de
a problematiza realitatea ori de a-i revela faetele misterioase, ascunse
gndirii comune i mai puin de a oferi dezlegri, soluii, rezolvri
p.6), Gelu Negrea propune, ntr-o carte aprut n 2009, la editura Cartea
romneasc, i intitulat Dicionar subiectiv al personajelor lui
I.L.Caragiale (A-Z), o subdiviziune a acestuia dicionarul-eseu.
Dup nou-patentata metod a struo-cmilei, dup cum mrtu-
risete autorul ntr-un paratext intitulat Un fel de prefa, intenioneaz
s pun n criz rigoarea i pedanteria dicionarului prin supradeter-
minarea subiectiv a structurii ntregului volum. Instrument al lecturii
critice i prghie de recalibrare a metadiscursului centrat pe opera
caragialian, subiectivitatea, deschis asumat, permite, n opinia auto-
rului, un dublu demers nonconformist. Mai nti, selectarea a o sut
*
Lucrare realizat cu sprijinul SOP HRD - TOP ACADEMIC 76822
cincizeci de personaje considerate reprezentative pentru ntreaga

creaie a scriitorului i gruparea celorlalte (dintre care unele se
nscriu n serii tipologice deja tratate separat, altele nu dispun, dup
prerea mea, de pregnana literar necesar, sunt apariii episodice,
sumare, inconsistente, de coloratur sau, pur i simplu, de umplutur,
alctuiesc grupuri nedifereniate, informe sau figureaz n buci fr
valoare estetic, documentar sau de alt natur mcar meritorie
p. 9) ntr-un Inventar exhaustiv al personajelor din proza i drama-
turgia lui I.L. Caragiale. Dac din prima categorie fac parte, n mod
firesc, Mia Baston, Crcnel, Caavencu, Mitic, Lache/Mache, Goe,
Manolache Guvidi, Zia, Zoe i alii, lipsete, ns, nejustificat, nara-
torul. Adic acel personaj al scriiturii prin/n discursul cruia se confi-
gureaz, parial sau decisiv, celelalte personaje, universul de discurs
care le conine i le motiveaz pe toate, precum i nsui textul narativ
caragialian fundamentat pe o dualitate/duplicitate specific a diciunii
i, n egal msur, a ficiunii.
n al doilea rnd, subiectivitatea, ca principiu de articulare a
textului acestui dicionar anapoda cu intenie permite, n termenii
autorului, libertatea de a trata ntregul material ntr-o manier ct mai
personal : relaxat, destins, fr inhibiii, dar i fr prejudeci,
degajat de constrngeri sau limitri de orice factur teoretic,
metodologic, stilistic ; bineneles, cu asumarea tuturor riscurilor
aferente. p. 9.
ntregul demers se justific, de altfel, prin intenia curajoas i
deschis polemic de a schimba faa i instrumentele criticii literare i
de a face, astfel, metadiscursul mai flexibil i mai onest. De vreme ce
nu se poate anula nicicum subiectivitatea celui care scrie, atunci poate
c asumarea deschis a acestei subiectiviti reprezint un act de
eliberare a criticii de vechi prejudeci, de pretenia de autoritate i de
obligativitatea judecilor de valoare. Privind dinspre text i personaje
spre autorul lor, Gelu Negrea crede cu trie n posibilitatea de a
elimina teoretic i, mai ales, procedural atitudinea de pn acum a
criticii literare axate pe textele caragialiene. Adic, n termenii auto-
rului, ce se ntmpl atunci cnd gsim n Caragiale, de exemplu, nu
ce este, ci doar ce cutm, eliminnd sistematic ori survolnd super-
ficial zonele care nu se conformeaz paradigmei inoculate n mentalul
colectiv de inerii edificate n timp pe cultul argumentului autoritii i
ridicate la rang de judecat definitiv. p. 11.
Pe deplin meritoriu, demersul propus de Gelu Negrea are toate
ansele s se nscrie n istoria alternativ a avangardei critice ce
nsoete, doar aparent marginal, opera lui I.L. Caragiale.
Recenzii 351
Repere critice actuale n problematica discursului

identitar Lexil et la diffrence, textes runis par
Danile Sabbah (Eidlon, no. 90), Bordeaux, Presses
Universitaires de Bordeaux, 2011*
Alina Crihan
Prin tematica propus Exilul i diferena

numrul aprut n luna aprilie a anului trecut al revistei Eidlon
(Cahiers du Laboratoire Pluridisciplinaire de Recherches sur
lImaginaire appliques la Littrature LAPRIL) se nscrie n sfera
unor dezbateri de importan major n contextul actual al globalizrii
favorizate, ntre altele, de fenomenul emigraiei. Prezente masiv n
cmpul epistemologic contemporan, studiile dedicate problematicii
identitii, analizat din perspectiv sociologic i sociocritic, feno-
menologic, hermeneutic, mitanalitic etc. nu pot evita ancorarea n
acest teritoriu profund marcat de dinamica diferenei care este literatura
exilului, o diferen ce afecteaz deopotriv poziionarea autorilor (ca
actori) pe scena socio-cultural i formele de scriitur generate de
confruntarea dintre cultura lumii de origine i cea a lumii de adopie.
Este i cazul volumelor rezultate n urma cercetrilor pluridisciplinare
* This paper is supported by the Sectorial Operational Programme Human

Resources Development (SOP HRD), financed from the European Social Fund
and by the Romanian Government under the contract number SOP
HRD/89/1.5/S/59758.
ntreprinse, n 2006-2007, de echipa LAPRIL condus de Danile

Sabbah pe tema Scriiturilor exilului.
Continund i completnd problematica abordat n nr. 85 / 2009 al
revistei, dedicat Scriiturilor exilului (critures de lexil), volumul din
2011 plaseaz dezbaterea ntr-un cadru strict circumscris acela al
experienei exilice a evreilor n raport cu contextul traumatic creat de
cel de-al doilea rzboi mondial. Aa cum arat Danile Sabbah n
Cuvntul nainte, care propune mai mult dect o prezentare a
sumarului revistei un consistent studiu asupra exilului i asupra
textelor de referin care oglindesc aceast problematic n literatura
postbelic european i nu numai, oferind, ntre altele, o tipologie a
poziiilor exprimate de aceti exilai [scriitori i filosofi, n. n.] n raport
cu limba lor matern, volumul se dorete att o incursiune n pro-
blemele filosofice, direcionate spre dimensiunea identitar, etic i
politic a exilului evreiesc, ct i n lumea reprezentrilor literare,
inclusiv memorialistice, crora fenomenul n cauz le-a dat natere.
Studiile care compun prima parte a volumului Penser lexil?
situeaz problematica n cmpul filosofiei contemporane, n ncercarea
de a depi acest aparent paradox ntre exigenele conceptului i
vicisitudinile istoriei individuale sau colective. Preocupat de exilul
din sine ca form a nstrinrii de esena uman, Philippe Solal
urmrete, n studiul intitulat Lexil de soi ou le commencement de
lhumain, metamorfozele conceptului n filosofia european, de la
Rousseau, Kant i Hegel la gndirea marxist, pentru a se fixa n cele
din urm asupra operei lui Emmanuel Lvinas, autorul Lecturilor
talmudice, bntuit de figurile exilului care caracterizeaz poporul
evreu. Punnd n relaie experiena biografic a fostului prizonier ntr-
un Stalag din Germania cu opera ulterioar a filosofului, obsedat de
chestiunea barbariei, precum i de meditaia asupra nceputului
umanitii n om, autorul studiului i plaseaz reflecia n spaiul eticii
levinasiene, n cadrul creia alteritatea, intim legat de experiena
exilului interior, constituie o tem fundamental.
Aceluiai domeniu filosofic i se subordoneaz lucrarea lui
Augustin Giovannoni Transmission, rappropriation et configu-
ration de lexprience de lexil chez Jacques Derrida et Paul Ricur
o fin analiz a raporturilor dintre experiena exilic i punerea ei n
intrig n spaiul scriiturii, locul configurrii pe calea unei
hermeneutici a sinelui a unei identiti narative aparte, purtnd
pecetea diferenei. Dup ce va fi analizat problematica identitii
narative constituite, prin recursul la memorie, n raport cu experiena
Recenzii 353
exilului, pornind de la hermeneutica ricurian (Temps et rcit, Soi-

mme comme un autre, La mmoire, lhistoire, loubli etc.), autorul se
oprete asupra teoriei derrideene a diferenei (la diffrance [qui] nest
pas une distinction, une opposition, mais un mouvement
despacement, un devenir espace du temps et rfrence laltrit),
pus n relaie cu reflecia asupra antinomiei exilului i a formelor de
scriitur care o reflect.
Dac prima parte a volumului traseaz principalele repere filo-
sofice ale problematicii exilului, celelalte trei crire pour les exils,
Langues perdues des exils, Des les en exil mut dezbaterea n
teritoriul literaturii, fixndu-se asupra unui corpus de referin format
din texte ficionale sau aparinnd genurilor biograficului, n studii a
cror trstur comun este deschiderea pluridisciplinar, dublat de
preocuparea constant pentru dinamica diferenei reperabil la nivelul
structurilor imaginarului.
Astfel, n partea a doua, Peter Kuon analizeaz Lexil de tout le
monde dans La Peste dAlbert Camus, oprindu-se asupra exilului ca
tem central i ca fenomen al scriiturii (une criture qui sexile dans
le non-lieu de lallgorie pour prendre ses distances par rapport la
ralit et trouver, au sein de la fiction, une nouvelle identit littraire),
iar Ruth Vogel-Klein se ocup de tema exilului n opera lui W. G.
Sebald (Exil et retour au pays natal chez W. G. Sebald), analiznd,
dintr-o perspectiv tributar naratologiei, problema punerii n text a
extrateritorialitii i a dezrdcinrii distructive.
n cea de-a treia parte a volumului, Solange Guenoun i Aurlia
Kalisky se opresc asupra unor scriitori care i-au pierdut limba
(Alexandrie-sur-Seine: les figures de lexil dans la vie et luvre de
Jacques Hassoun i Lcrivain qui avait perdu sa langue. Lcriture
exile de Soma Morgenstern), prima dintr-o perspectiv psiha-
nalitic fixat asupra rolului pe care l are, n configurarea traseului
identitar al exilatului, travaliul psihic complex, ntre nostalgie, doliu
i melancolie i reversurile lor pasionale, ur fa de sine i fa de
cellalt cnd durerea devine intolerabil; cea de-a doua din
perspectiva criticii imaginarului, preocupat de reprezentrile utopice
ale exilului i ale evreitii n scriitura autobiografic i romanesc.
n fine, partea a patra propune o serie de reflecii asupra repre-
zentrilor insularitii, ca figur dominant a literaturii exilului, n
studii semnate de Timo Obergker care analizeaz problema
deteritorializrii memoriei, avnd drept corolar deteritoria-
lizarea identitii la Georges Perec (Dune le lautre. Mmoire et
insularit chez Georges Perec); Danile Sabbah preocupat de

configurarea identitii exilice pe calea dialogului cu marile mituri
(din Biblie, Odiseea, Divina Comedie) n scriitura dezastrelor a lui
Primo Levi (Au milieu du chaos, la posie (sur Primo Levi)) i
Sylvie Courtine-Denamy care mediteaz asupra exilului n limba
matern perceput ca patrie la Hannah Arendt (La langue pour
patrie?).
Orientarea pluridisciplinar a cercetrilor, focalizarea asupra
problematicii identitare, dublat de reflecia asupra rolului memoriei
n configurarea istoriei Shoahului, precum i diversitatea corpusului
propus spre analiz recomand volumul coordonat de Danile Sabbah
ca pe o lectur obligatorie n bibliografia cercettorului preocupat de
scriitura exilului.
Recenzii 355
Dominique Maingueneau, Discursul literar. Paratopie

i scen de enunare (Traducere de Nicoleta Loredana
Moroan, Prefa de Mihaela Mru), Iai, Institutul
European, 2007, 305 p.*
Laureniu Ichim
P ublicat n 2004 la Armand Colin sub titlul Le

discours littraire. Paratopie et scne dnonciation, studiul lui
Dominique Maingueneau, aprut n traducerea romneasc trei ani
mai trziu, continu i rennoiete, potrivit declaraiei care deschide
Cuvntul nainte al autorului, o lucrare deja celebr pentru specialitii
n analiza discursului literar, Le contexte de luvre littraire (Dunod,
1993). Propunndu-i exploatarea unei concepii de dat relativ
recent asupra fenomenului literar, tributar mai multor teorii i
metode critice (critica lingvistic teoriile asupra enunrii, pragma-
tica i analiza discursului , teoria receptrii, retorica, teoria inter-
textualitii, sociocritica etc.), studiul lui Dominique Maingueneau se
canalizeaz asupra raportului dintre text i contextul su, i ndeosebi
asupra condiiilor de apariie a operelor.
Contient de necesitatea operrii unei distincii ntre discursul
literar, rezervat regimului literaturii moderne i discursivitatea
*
Aceast lucrare a fost realizat cu sprijinul SOP HRD - TOP ACADEMIC
76822.
literar, care ar intra n diverse configuraii, autorul procedeaz, n

prima parte a lucrrii (intitulat Pentru o analiz a discursului literar)
la situarea propriului demers n cmpul teoretic i critic, pe urmele
reperelor oferite de stilistica organic, de critica marxist, de structu-
ralism i noua critic, urmrind ulterior noiunea de discurs, de la
momentul emergenei sale la exploatrile instituiei discursului n
sociologia cmpului literar (P. Bourdieu) i n abordarea arheo-
logic a lui M. Foucault.
n partea a doua, cercettorul i restrnge domeniul de investigaie
la analiza Discursurilor constituente (rspunztoare pentru ceea ce
am putea numi archeion-ul unei colectiviti), oprindu-se n parti-
cular asupra discursului literar i a celui filosofic, a cror raportare la
instituiile culturale o va urmri ulterior pe trei coordonate:
scenografia (care face din discurs locul reprezentrii propriei sale
situaii de enunare), codul lingvistic (a crui nvestire permite
[] producerea unui efect prescriptiv ce rezult din acordul dintre
exerciiul de limbaj pe care l implic textul i universul de sens pe
care el l desfoar) i ethosul (permind raportarea discursului la
imaginarul stereotipic al unui corp enuntor).
Unul dintre aspectele eseniale ale discursurilor constituente,
asupra cruia autorul se va opri pe larg n cea de-a treia parte a
lucrrii, este poziia problematic a celui care enun n cadrul unui
discurs constituent n raport cu contextul social: Enunarea sa se
constituie prin chiar aceast imposibilitate de a-i atribui cu adevrat
un loc. Locaie paradoxal, paratopia nu este absena unui loc, ci o
negociere dificil ntre loc i non-loc, o localizare parazitar, care
triete din nsi imposibilitatea sa de a se stabiliza. Pornind de la
ideea c textul nu este un enun autosuficient care i-ar alipi aleatoriu
un interpret, autorul nscrie analiza discursului literar ca discurs
constituent ntr-un cadru hermeneutic obligatoriu, demers prin
intermediul cruia textul i vede prescris un anumit statut pragmatic,
un mod de existen n interdiscurs.
Acest cadru hermeneutic miznd pe pluralitatea ireductibil a
interpretrilor literare constituie terenul pe care se aeaz analiza
Paratopiei n cea de-a treia parte a lucrrii, demers tributar, sub aspect
teoretic, sociologiei literaturii, i ndeosebi teoriei cmpului i a
spaiului literar fundamentate n lucrrile lui Pierre Bourdieu.
Literatura arat Dominique Maingueneau n capitolul al 7-lea (Un
loc imposibil) , ca orice alt discurs constituent, poate fi pus n
coresponden cu o reea de locuri n societate, ns ea nu se poate fixa
Recenzii 357
cu adevrat n niciun teritoriu. Din aceast perspectiv, apartenena la

cmpul literar ca negociere ntre loc i non-loc poate fi definit prin
apelul la conceptul de paratopie, a crui analiz se cere nscris ntr-un
demers de tip diacronic, n msura n care modalitile ei variaz n
funcie de epoci i de societi: Paratopia, invariant n principiu, ia
diverse forme schimbtoare, dat fiind c exploateaz faliile care nu
nceteaz s se deschid n societate. Convins c viaa literar este
structurat de aceste triburi care se repartizeaz n cmpul literar pe
baza revendicrilor estetice distincte: academie, cerc, grup, coal,
cenaclu, band..., autorul propune n continuare, spre ilustrare, o
incursiune n istoria unor celebre locuri i comuniti paratopice n
subcapitole ca igani i solitari, Solitarii de la Port-Royal, O
literatur de salon, pstrnd mereu perspectiva sociologiei literaturii
care plaseaz socialul i literarul ntr-un raport de interaciune dinamic.
n capitolul urmtor, paratopia este analizat ca parte integrant a
[] proces[ului] creator, cercettorul ncercnd o clasificare a
tipurilor acesteia n funcie de referenii la care se raporteaz poziio-
narea problematic a scriitorilor n cmpul socio-cultural. Exist,
astfel, paratopii de identitate (ndeprtarea de grup), avnd ca subti-
puri paratopiile familiale, sexuale sau sociale, paratopii spa-
iale (ndeprtarea de un loc, ca n cazul exilului), temporale (nde-
prtarea de un moment), cea mai important categorie fiind aceea a
paratopiilor lingvistice, considerate cruciale n materie de creaie
literar. Fidel demersului hermeneutic anunat de la nceput, demers
sprijinit pe condiiile enunrii textelor, autorul procedeaz n conti-
nuare la o analiz a formelor de ambreiere paratopic, dependente
de tipurile de paratopie inventariate n capitolul anterior, apelnd la un
corpus bogat i variat (de la epopeile homerice i Romanele Mesei
Rotunde la romane celebre ale secolului al XIX-lea Notre Dame de
Paris, Doamna Bovary i al XX-lea Muntele vrjit, Deertul
ttarilor etc.)
Ultimele trei pri ale studiului Poziionarea, Mediu i genuri de
discurs, Scena de enunare se fixeaz asupra direciilor trasate n
manier rezumativ la sfritul celei de-a doua pri, dedicat discur-
surilor constituente, punnd n relaie, dintr-o perspectiv care mbin
abordarea lingvistic cu sociocritica i cu teoria genurilor diferitele
tipuri de discurs literar raportabile la diverse contexte lingvistice i
socio-culturale i la cadrele generice inventariate n funcie de cele
dou mari regimuri de genericitate: genurile conversaionale i
genurile instituite. Astfel, din analiza poziionrii n viaa lite-
rar, condiionat att de nvestirea generic, ct i de raportarea la

codurile lingvistice (o poziionare n interlimb), decurge, firesc,
aceea a genurilor de discurs, strns legate de discursurile consti-
tuente i, implicit, de configuraia contextelor mentalitare, ideolo-
gice, politice, socio-culturale n diversele epoci ale istoriei literaturii.
Ultima parte a studiului este consacrat Scenei de enunare, dintr-o
perspectiv pragmatic viznd analiza procesului de comunicare
literar din interior, prin situaia pe care cuvntul pretinde a o
defini, prin cadrul pe care ea l arat [...] chiar n momentul n care se
desfoar. Din acest punct de vedere, textul este urma discursului
n care cuvntul este pus n scen. Autorul distinge, n continuare,
trei scene care acioneaz pe planuri complementare: scena
nglobant (corespunztoare sensului pe care l dm n mod normal
tipului de discurs ), scena generic (configurat n funcie de
competenele generice ale autorilor i de ateptrile publicului) i
scenografia (scena pe care cititorul i vede acordat un loc, [...] o
scen narativ construit de text, descris ca fiind deopotriv lucrul
din care provine discursul i lucrul cruia acest discurs i d natere).
Pornind de la o serie de texte de referin Meditaiile lui
Lamartine, Fabulele lui La Fontaine, Eseurile lui Montaigne,
Tragicele lui Agrippa dAubign, Pedepsele lui V. Hugo, nuvelele lui
Maupassant, romanele lui Camus (Strinul), Cline (Cltorie la
captul nopii), R. Pinget (Libra) etc., cercettorul inventariaz
diverse tipuri de scenografii reperabile graie indiciilor prezente n
texte sau la nivelul elementelor paratextuale. La captul unui astfel de
excurs, devine evident faptul c scenografia nu este un simplu
eafodaj, un mod de a transmite coninuturi : ea este pivotul
enunrii i, deopotriv, articulaia dintre opera considerat ca un
obiect estetic autonom i condiiile apariiei sale. Dezvoltnd consi-
deraiile teoretice anterioare, capitolele dedicate Ethosului i Dupli-
citii enuniative, nsoite, n capitolul final, de analiza unor texte
ilustrative (dou sonete: Uitarea de Jos Maria de Heredia i Boema
mea de Rimbaud) permit articularea celor dou concepte n jurul
crora se organizeaz demersul autorului paratopia i scena de
enunare n scopul identificrii condiiilor care fac posibil faptul
literar, precum i deschiderea ctre pluralitatea interpretrilor.
Recenzii 359
Marius Velic, Aspects of Aspect, Galai, Zigotto, 2012

Anyone who has ever tried to understand the

English verb even for a short period of time could not emphasise
enough the importance of understanding the English Aspect. Placing
this issue under scrutiny, Marius Velics book represents a salutary
endeavour which comes to contribute to the general effort of the
linguistic community to further explain the ramifications that rise
when analysing the English Aspect from one perspective or another.
The book is organised into eight chapters and it approaches the
English Aspect in a progressive manner: from a classical and a little
old-fashioned analysis with clear and unquestionable conclusions to a
somehow modern comprehension of what aspect means, what it does
and how it acts in communication in terms of the laws governing its
behaviour. As the author confesses, the book has its origin in a rather
narrower approach to aspect. He was originally concerned with
finding ways of translating the English Progressive Aspect into
Romanian. He eventually decided to adopt a more general view; thus,
the first chapter of the present book is concerned with outlining some
preliminary remarks regarding the time-tense-aspect relationship.
Chapter 2 analyses from a grammatical viewpoint what happens when
using the Progressive Aspect with the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the
Conditional and the Imperative Moods. The third chapter focuses on
the grammatical, lexical and semantic behaviour of the English verbs
in terms of Aspect offering a classification of verbs according to their
lexical aspect as well as an analysis of verbs that are not usually used
with the Progressive Aspect. The fourth chapter is dedicated to modal
verbs and their specific ways of expressing various aspects with a
special subsection that pays attention to their relation with the
Progressive Aspect. Chapters 5 and 6 approach the Perfect Aspect
with focus on the concepts such as Perfective, Imperfective, Habitual
and other aspectual values. The authors interest in translation
resurfaces in the seventh chapter which has a strong applied nature as
it addresses problems of translating the Imperfective into Romanian.
As expected, the last chapter is dedicated to drawing the conclusions.
This chapter comprises no less than 37 main conclusions many of
them consisting, on their turn, of multiple sub-conclusions; the
manner in which the author organizes this final chapter transforms it
in a somehow independent resource concerning the English Aspect
that could be consulted up to a point on its own without reading the
whole book.
The pinpointed structure of this book, the clearly delineated
conclusions as well as the richness of examples that come to sustain
the theoretical component recommend Marius Velics Aspects of
Aspect as a useful tool for studying the inherent intricacies of the
English verb.
Recenzii 361
Ioana Vintil-Rdulescu, Dicionar normativ al limbii

romne ortografic, ortoepic, morfologic i practic,
Bucureti, Corint, 2009
Gina Necula
A prut la patru ani dup lansarea Dicio-

narului ortografic, ortoepic i morfologic al limbii romne, realizat de
un grup de cercettori de la Institutul de Lingvistic Iorgu Iordan -
Al. Rosetti al Academiei Romne, Bucureti, cartea Ioanei Vintil-
Rdulescu, Dicionar normativ al limbii romne ortografic, ortoepic,
morfologic i practic, vine n completarea celei dinti cu detalii
normative i practice, menite s clarifice o serie de aspecte pe care
autoarea, din poziia de coordonator al dicionarului academic, le-a
considerat utile pentru uzul corect al limbii romne. Astfel, desco-
perim un dicionar atipic care merge pe linia DOOM 2, dar propune o
organizare diferit apelnd la inserarea de casete ce cuprind corecii
sau dezvoltri ale unor aspecte pe care DOOM 2 nu le aprofundeaz.
O astfel de structur dezvluie o carte cu caracter normativ n care se
mbin mai multe componente, chiar mai multe dect n DOOM:
componenta ortografic (cu explicarea modalitilor de desprire la
capt de rnd), o component ortoepic (unde se insist asupra
variantelor de pronunare), o component semantic (cu succinte
indicaii, pentru a identifica corect omografele, paronimele etc.), o
component stilistic (preciznd statutul cuvintelor, precum i limba
de origine), o component gramatical (cu notarea riguroas i
consecvent a formelor flexionare), o component corectiv (atr-

gndu-se atenia prin nu asupra unor posibile greeli) i una practic
(tabele, inserturi plasate la locul alfabetic al termenului n cauz,
referiri la legislaia i la standadele cu inciden asupra unor aspecte
legate de scriere, soluii pentru scrisul la calculator), dar i indicaii de
context, abrevieri i simboluri,.
De remarcat este i faptul c DIN include casete n care apar
informaii referitoare la valorile fonetice ale literelor, precum i
utilizrile speciale, din limba curent.
Ex.
A
majuscula servete i ca abreviere/simbol, printre altele pentru

desemnarea diferitor formate de hrtie: AO (1.582x2.370 cm) A 10
(26x37 mm)
n scrierea limbii romne, a

- este i liter-suport pentru dou semne diacritice, mpreun cu care
noteaz alte sunete: , [, ];
- particip la notarea diftongilor [a, ia, oa, ua, ai, au] prin ea, ia/ea, oa,ua,
ai, au i a triftongilor [ eai, eau, eoa, iai, iau, ioa, oai] prin eai, eau, eoa,
iai, iau, ioa, oai; unele din aceste secvene noteaz uneori vocalele n hiat:
oa/ie.
Varianta @
[a rond/coad de maimu] pentru engl. at la se folosete la adresele
electronice
aa
- pronunat [a a] se ntlnete n:
- derivate cu prefixe sau compusele cu prefixe / elemente de compunere
terminate n a de la teme ncepnd cu a: contraatac, paraaldehid,
supraabundent, a supraalimenta, ultraalglomerat;
- rdcina unor cuvinte (rar): aalerian;
-interjecii: aa (i aaa);
-redarea unor enunuri exclamative sau interogative (accidental): Daa?
Gaata? Taare! (n care se ajunge i pn la patru a);
- pronunat [a] apare foarte rar, n unele nume proprii romneti i strine:
Aachen, Aaron, Isaac, Varlaam.
Recenzii 363
n unele mprumuturi neadaptate i nume proprii strine, a

- apare i cu alte valori dect n cuvintele romneti: magh. [o]: Nagy,
engl. [e]: flashback, player ;
- apare i cu alte semne diacritice /accente / valori dect n cuvintele
romneti :
[a] : it. omert, piet;
[a] : magh. Istvn.
Menionm faptul c niciun dicionar adresat publicului larg nu se

oprete att de meticulos ca acesta asupra unor aspecte att de comune
vorbitorilor.
Autoarea nsi mrturiete n introducere c, n elaborarea DIN, a
urmrit calitatea, i nu cantitatea, fapt care a dus la abandonarea unor
cuvinte rare care i gsesc totui locul n DOOM2. Raiunea
eliminrii unor astfel de cuvinte (ieite din uz sau numai nvechite,
regionale, termeni tiinifici i tehnici prea specializai pentru a figura
ntr-un dicionar general al limbii comune) o constituie faptul c
multe asemenea elemente, care formau un adevrat balast, nu pot fi
normate, cci nu se poate norma astzi pentru trecut i nici pentru
diverse varieti regionale ale limbii populare. S-au pstrat totui
cuvinte din categoriile menionate, atunci cnd s-a constatat apariia
lor n texte literare studiate n nvmnt sau n uzul mai mult ori mai
puin curent. Remarcabil este faptul c apar n DIN cuvinte care nu au
fost incluse n DOOM2. Astfel DIN nregistreaz i cuvintele formate
prin conversiune, ceea ce duce la mbogirea inventarului de cuvinte.
Rigoarea cu care a fost alctuit dicionarul este dovedit i prin
instrumentele auxiliare de care beneficiaz DIN. Aadar, autoarea vine
n ajutorul utilizatorului crii sale cu o serie de anexe: Semne i
convenii grafice, Abrevieri, Semne pentru indicarea pronunrii (cu
meniunea c, pentru a o face accesibil unui numr ct mai mare de
utilizatori, s-a recurs la un compromis ntre transcrierea fonetic i
ortografia romneasc, chiar dac redarea n acest mod a unor sunete
ale altor limbi poate fi imperfect), Schema principalelor tipuri de
articole, Precizri privind structura dicionarului.
De apreciat este i faptul c autoarea include, printre aspectele
discutate, problema romnei electronice i dese referiri la aspectele
ce in de scrierea la calculator.
Toate acestea fac din Dicionar normativ al limbii romne
ortografic, ortoepic, morfologic i practic un dicionar complet i
complex care l recomand, ca instrument de lucru i carte de refe-
rin, att specialitilor, ct i publicului larg.
Le livre des mtaphores Essai sur la mmoire de la

langue franaise de Marc Fumaroli est publi dans la
collection Bouquins chez Robert Laffont (1120 p.),
Paris, 2012
Angelica Vlcu
Le livre de Marc Fumaroli est une

impressionnante collection de mtaphores dont abonde lusage oral et
crit de la langue franaise. Lide dcrire ce livre lui est venue lors
dun voyage dans diverses rgions du monde fait par lauteur en
compagnie damis franais. Au cours de ce voyage, dans la
conversation ou dans la solitude du discours intrieur , M. Fumaroli
a pu se rendre compte de la richesse de la langue franaise en ce
genre dexpressions et de locutions qualifies de gallicismes [1] et
reconnaitre que la mtaphore donne la langue sa mmoire et sa
capacit dapprhension du monde rel c'est--dire du monde
sensible [2].
Les thoriciens de la linguistique (Irne Tamba Mecz, Le sens
figur, PUF, 1981 ; Joel Tamine, Description syntaxique du sens
figur, la mtaphore, Paris, 1978, Paul Ricoeur, La mtaphore, Le
Seuil, 1973) considrent que ces expressions et locutions
appartiennent un lexique convenu et fig et qui ne mriteraient dtre
examines. Mais, affirme Fumaroli, les substantifs, les adjectifs, et les
verbes de la langue ne sont-ils, eux-mmes, figs et conventionnels ?
Recenzii 365
Lauteur affirme quil sest intress ces expressions et locutions

figes, toujours vivantes de nos jours dans lusage et le lexique de la
langue, parce quelles lui ont paru rsulter moins du registre plus ou
moins argotique que de celui des crations littraires se battre
contre des moulins vent (Cervants), ou de la thologie porter
sa croix ou de la navigation jeter lancre , faire avec les
moyens du bord , ou des arts aller dans le dcor , etc.
Dans la rdaction du livre M. Fumaroli a renonc larbitraire
alphabtique, plus commode mais trs abstrait, et a regroup les
mtaphores dans des champs smantiques, en renvoyant chacune,
selon le cas, une aire dexprience quotidienne et circonscrite,
vcue ou imaginable par le locuteur comme par lauditeur : la
chasse et la pche, la maison rurale et son mobilier, la demeure
urbaine, la danse et la musique, les arts, les spectacles et le thtre,
etc. ou bien une exprience ancienne, toujours circonscrite, mais
disparue ou en voie de disparition : la ferme et ses annexes, le cheval
et le voyage en voiture chevaux. Le sens propre et le sens figur de
chacune de ces mtaphores sont illustrs par des citations anciennes
ou contemporaines.
En rompant avec le dsordre alphabtique, en regroupant dans leur

famille les lieux communs dun sens propre souvent bien oubli ou
ignor, ce nest pas seulement une tymologie particulire que lon remet
en vidence, cest toute une rgion dexprience qui refait surface, plus
ou moins lointaine dans le temps, plus ou moins archaque, plus ou
moins dpasse, mais gonfle de vie particulire, de vrit sensible et
dexactitude conceptuelle, faute de vrit scientifique, pour peu quon la
rveille de sa latence [3].
M. Fumaroli considre que si les arts et les artisanats sont les

victimes des technologies qui nous obligent de vivre dans un monde
artificiel loin de la nature, le corps est le grand sacrifi des socits
technologiques qui lexploitent comme une machine plaisir ou
comme un support publicitaire, et qui le sculptent ou le restaurent
comme une idole [4].
Ces expressions et locutions figes partent dune exprience
concrte facile reconnaitre, imaginer et remmorer par tout le
monde et elles la rapportent des situations morales difficiles
dcrire avec justesse sans ce secours et ce raccourci [5]. Cest
toujours M. Fumaroli qui affirme : Les actes, les gestes, les faits et
les choses quelles mettent sous les yeux caractrisent mieux que
de longues analyses la nature du fait moral ou la nuance propre

lide quil sagit dvoquer sans laisser place lquivoque ou au
malentendu [6].
On continue dire le soleil se couche mme si la science
galilenne a dmenti ce rapport naturel au monde. Les astronomes eux-
mmes continuent dire le soleil se lve et le soleil se couche. Cest une
autre sorte de vrit, potique, qui ne remet pas en cause lautre vrit,
scientifique.
A partir des mots de Voltaire qui crivait Mme du Deffand: Le
raisonner tristement saccrdite , M. Fumaroli affirme le monde est
triste quand il parle par slogans et abstractions qui ne disent rien ni
aux sens, ni limagination, ni au cur [7]. En runissant ces
mtaphores, lauteur a russi rcuprer les voies dune langue
joueuse, suggestive, image, appartenant tous et demeurant
enjoue mme linsu de ceux qui la parlent . Le fil rouge qui a
conduit Marc Fumaroli dans sa dmarche, a t celui didentifier les
lieux communs qui runissent les Franais dans la mme conversation,
sur la mme place Royale .
Notes
[1] Marc Fumaroli, Le livre des mtaphores Essai sur la mmoire de la langue
franaise, Collection Bouquins chez Robert Laffont (1120 p.), Paris, 2012, p. 9.
[2] Sbastien Lapaque, Marc Fumaroli: Rien de ce qui est dit en franais ne mest
tranger , Le Figaro littraire, Jeudi 19 avril 2012, p. 8.
[3] Marc Fumaroli, Le livre des mtaphores Essai sur la mmoire de la langue
franaise, Collection Bouquins chez Robert Laffont (1120 p.), Paris, 2012, p. 13.
[4] Idem: 17.
[5] Ibidem.
[6] Ibidem.
[7] Sbastien Lapaque, Marc Fumaroli: Rien de ce qui est dit en franais ne mest
tranger , Le Figaro littraire, Jeudi 19 avril 2012, p. 8.
Date despre autori
Simona ANTOFI este profesor universitar la Facultatea de Litere a

Universitii Dunrea de Jos din Galai i director al departamentului de
literatur, lingvistic i jurnalism. ncepnd din anul 1996 pred cursuri i
seminarii de Literatur romn veche, premodern i modern, Literatura
Marilor Clasici, de cultur i de civilizaie romneasc i de comunicare
intercultural. n 2004 i-a susinut teza de doctorat cu tema Luceafrul
perspectiv pluritextual, coordonat de prof.univ.dr. Dan Mnuc, n cadrul
colii Doctorale de Filologie a Universitii Al.I.Cuza, Iai. A publicat 5 cri
de autor i peste 100 de articole i studii tiinifice n reviste de specialitate de
prestigiu, indexate n baze de date internaionale, din strintate i din ar. A
coordonat o serie de volume colective publicate sub egida Centrului de
Cercetare Comunicare Intercultural i Literatur. Din 2008, este redactor-ef
al revistei Communication interculturelle et littrature, indexat n bazele
de date internaionale MLA (Modern Language Association, New York)
MLA International Bibliography & Directory of Periodicals, Index
Copernicus i Fabula. La recherche en littrature.
Ionel APOSTOLATU este lector univ. dr. la Facultatea de Litere a

Universitii Dunrea de Jos din Galai, departamentul de literatur,
lingvistic i jurnalism. Este doctor n filologie (cu distinia magna cum
laude), cu o tez despre fenomenul analogiei n lingvistic (Analogia factor
de organizare lexico-gramatical. Cu privire la limba romn), coordonat
de prof. dr. Stelian Dumistrcel. Principalele domenii de competen sunt:
istoria limbii romne, morfologia limbii romne, gramatic normativ,
lexicologia limbii romne, teoria comunicrii. Este titularul cursurilor de
Istoria limbii romne, Limba romn contemporan. Morfologia,
Introducere n tiinele limbajului i comunicrii. A publicat mai multe zeci
de articole tiinifice n reviste de specialitate din ar i din strintate,
precum i n actele unor colocvii naionale i internaionale pe teme privind
structura i evoluia limbii romne, formarea cuvintelor n limba romn,
tehnica discursului repetat, limbajul publicistic etc. Este autor al mai multor
cursuri i manuale universitare. De asemenea, a publicat (ca unic autor sau n
colaborare) cinci cri de specialitate, aprute la edituri recunoscute CNCSIS
/ CNCS.
Valeriu BLTEANU, lector dr. la departamentul de literatur, lingvistic i

jurnalism de la Universitatea Dunrea de Jos din Galai; titular al cursurilor
de Etnografie i folclor (la seciile cu profil filologic) i de Cultur i
identitate romnesc (la secia de jurnalism). Cri publicate: Terminologia

magic popular romneasc, Dicionar de divinaie popular, dicionar de
mitologie romneasc, Magie i limb popular, Ecouri mitico-magice n
lexicul popular romnesc, Elemente de dialectologie romneasc,
Spiritualitate i limb popular, Istoria limbii romne, Dicionar de magie
popular romneasc, Folclor literar, Interferene lingvistice romno-slave.
Domenii de interes: folclor, mitologie, etnolingvistic.
Florentina Narcisa BOLDEANU, nscut n 1982, liceniat n limba i

literatura romn, doctorand la catedra de literatur romn din cadrul
Universitataii de Stat din Republica Moldova, a studiat opera poetului
Grigore Vieru n viziunea criticilor din Romnia, dar i de peste hotare.
A participat la conferine organizate n cadrul catedrei, dar i la unele cu
participare internaional, organizate n mediul universitar, unde a
concluzionat viziunea critic asupra operei poetului. A cercetat i elaborat
mai multe idei i considerente care au drept scop definirea unei mediane
literare i filosofice asupra temei ce transcende din creaia vierean.
Actualmente, este profesoar de limba i literatura romn i membr n
colegiul de redacie al revistei ,,Tecuciul literar-artistic din Tecuci, n care a
publicat mai multe articole. A publicat n revistele Akademos - publicaie
tiinific i de cercetare a Academiei moldave, i Philologia: Poetul
dimineii i al bucuriei solare (Akademos, nr. 2-25, iunie, 2012),
Dimensiunile poeticii vierene, farmecul simplitii complexe n dialogul
criticii literare (Philologia, 2012). De asemenea, a publicat n revistele
,,Zona literar i ,,Feed-back din Iai, numeroase articole tiinifice.
Ruxanda BONTIL este conf. univ. dr. la Universitatea Dunrea de Jos

din Galai. Printre ultimele publicaii se numr: American Literary
Postmodernism. Signposts for a Poetics/ Postmodernismul literar americam.
Repere pentru o poetic (Galati University Press, 2012), Photographs n
Leving Yuri (ed.), Anatomy of a Short Story (New York: Continuum
International Publishing Group, 2012); Interstice Narratives: From Mihie
to Roth (Translation Studies: Retrospective and Prospective Views,
Literature and Cultural Studies, Issue 10/2011, Galati University Press);
Our Nabokov: Romanian Appropriations (The Nabokovian, No. 65, Fall 2010,
New York); Errata to life or on autobiography (in Communication
Interculturelle et littrature, Nr 1 (9), Editura Europlus, 2010)
(ruxbontila@yahoo.com).
Oana Magdalena CENAC este lector univ. dr. n cadrul departamentului de

literatur, lingvistic i jurnalism din Facultatea de Litere a Universitii
Dunrea de Jos din Galai. Domeniile de interes sunt lexicologia, semantica
precum i morfosintaxa limbii romne. A publicat numeroase articole n
diferite reviste romneti i strine i coordoneaz, n colaborare cu ali
profesori, revista Lexic comun / lexic specializat. Totodat, s-a implicat,

mpreun cu ceilali membrii ai Departamentului, n organizarea unor
conferine internaionale ntre care amintim Lexic comun / Lexic specializat
(ajuns deja la ediia a VI-a), Cultura i presa n spaiul european,
Reprezentri literare ale feminitii i modele comportamentale reflectate n
plan social etc.
Contact: oanacenac@yahoo.com
Gheorghe CHIVU, membru corespondent al Academiei Romne, este

profesor la Departamentul de lingvistic al Facultii de Litere a Universitii
din Bucureti i cercettor tiinific principal la Institutul de Istorie i Teorie
Literar G. Clinescu al Academiei, unde conduce Colectivul de literatur
veche. A obinut titlul de doctor n filologie la Universitatea din Bucureti, cu
teza Codex Sturzanus. Studiu filologic, studiu lingvistic i ediie de text.
Domeniile de interes: istoria limbii romne, istoria limbii romne literare,
filologia, scrisul vechi romnesc. A publicat peste 200 de articole, studii i
recenzii. Dintre volumele tiprite: Codex Sturdzanus. Studiu filologic,
studiu lingvistic i ediie de text, Dicionarul mprumuturilor latino-
romanice n limba romn veche (1421-1760) (n colaborare), Limba
romn de la primele texte pn la sfritul secolului al XVIII-lea, Istoria
limbii romne literare. Epoca veche (1532-1780) (n colaborare),
Institutiones linguae Valachicae. Prima gramatic a limbii romne scris n
limba latin, Dictionarium Valachico-Latinum. Primul dicionar al limbii
romne.
Georgiana CIOBOTARU este profesoar de limba i literatura romn la

Liceul Tehnologic Transporturi Ci Ferate Galai, doctorand a Facultii de
Litere, Universitatea Dunrea de Jos din Galai. A susinut teza de doctorat
cu titlul Tematizarea identitii n literatura Europei Centrale. Domeniile
de interes : istoria mentalitilor, micarea ideilor istorice, micarea ideilor
culturale, interculturalitate. A publicat o serie de articole din aceast sfer de
cercetare, precum : L'identit fminine et la typologie de la femme dans la
prose roumaine de l'aprs-guerre, La circulation des themes de l'exil dans la
litterature de l'Europe Centrale, Constructions utopiques et distopiques
dans le roman de l Europe Orientale, The Feminine Character of the
Central-European Literature between Parallel Mirrors, Ipostaze identitare
in proza central-europeana, Discourse coordinates of Mittel-European
Exile, Reprezentri ale marginalului n spa iul literar central-european,
Identitary Constructs in the Central-European Novel, The influence of
pangerman ideology on Central Europe , Language and identity in Central
Europe, Des projections fminines dans lespace littraire et social central-
europen, Central-European writers' intellectual and political
views published in emigration, Kultura Magazine, Gombrowicz, a
Reconstructed Central-European Identity, Historical impact on individual's
identity in Central-European prose, The Feminine Character of the Central-

European Literature between Parallel Mirrors, Circulatia temelor exilului in
literatura Europei Centrale, Les coordonnes du discours de lexil
mitteleuropen, Identitary Hypostases in Central-European Prose,
Identitary Constructs in the Central-European Novel, Des projections
fminines dans lespace littraire et culturel central-europen .
Oana Andreea CONTOMAN este doctorand n anul III n cadrul Facultii

de Litere a Universitii Dunrea de Jos din Galai. Tema de doctorat
privete studiul publicisticii lui Ion Luca Caragiale, scriitor i jurnalist romn
din secolul al XIX-lea, creator de gazete i genuri literare. Scopul lucrrii de
doctorat este analiza pragmatic a inseriei jurnalismului n literatur i a
literaturii n jurnalism n opera lui Ion Luca Caragiale, precum i analiza
personajului-jurnalist, privit tot prin prisma celor dou aspecte menionate.
Andreea Roxana CONSTANTINESCU, asistent universitar la Facultatea

de Administraie Public din cadrul colii Naionale de tiine Politice i
Administrative, Bucureti. Absolvent a Facultii de Limbi i Literaturi
Strine, secia Englez Rus, n cadrul Universitii Bucureti, apoi
Masteratului British Cultural Studies, in cadrul aceleiai universiti, susinut
de British Council. n prezent, doctoranda n Filologie subdomeniul
Literatur Englez, la Universitatea Dunrea de Jos din Galai. Publicaii:
manualul Engleza pentru administraie public, Editura Economic,
Bucureti, articole n revista Communication interculturelle et litterature,
traduceri n cadrul unor proiecte NISPAcee.
Ana-Elena COSTANDACHE este asistent doctor n cadrul

Departamentului de Limba i literatura francez, Facultatea de Litere,
Universitatea Dunrea de Jos din Galai. Centrele sale de interes vizeaz
studiul literaturii franceze din secolele XVII-XVIII, XX-XXI. O atenie
deosebit o acord cercetrii i studierii interferenelor culturale din spaiul
romnesc n secolul al XIX-lea; n acest sens a redactat lucrarea de doctorat
cu titlul Interefrene culturale n spaiul romnesc din secolul al XIX-lea
pn la apariia spiritului critic junimist pe care a susinut-o n anul 2011.
Costandache Ana-Elena a participat la nenumrate colocvii i conferine
naionale i internaionale iar cercetrile sale se ndreapt ctre aprofundarea
studierii literaturii franceza, a literaturilor francofone precum i a didacticii
limbii franceze.
Alina CRIHAN este confereniar la Facultatea de Litere a Universitii

Dunrea de Jos din Galai, n cadrul Departamentului de Literatur,
Lingvistic i Jurnalism. A publicat peste 90 de articole i studii n reviste de
specialitate din ar i din strintate (Romanistische Zeitschrift fr
Literaturgeschichte / Cahiers dhistoire des littratures romanes-
Universittsverlag Winter Heidelberg; Europa Novi Sad; Procedia - Social

and Behavioral Sciences; Inter-lignes Toulouse; Dialogues francophones;
Acta Iassyensia Comparationis; Meridian critic. Analele Universitii
tefan cel Mare Suceava, Seria Filologie, B. Literatur; Synergies
Roumanie; Annales de lUniversit Dunrea de Jos, Fascicule XXIII,
Mlanges francophones; Communication interculturelle et littrature;
Revista Transilvania; Caiete critice etc.), precum i n actele unor colocvii
naionale i internaionale, pe teme privind literatura romn interbelic i
postbelic i literatura comparat. Este autoarea a 3 cri (Romanul generaiei
60. Imaginar mitopolitic i ficiune parabolic. De la mitocritic la
mitanaliz, Europlus, Galai, 201;, Ficionalizarea istoriei i exilul utopic n
romanul romnesc postbelic, Europlus, Galai, 2011; Aspecte ale
memorialisticii romneti posttotalitare: ntre pactul autobiografic i pactul
cu istoria, Europlus, Galai, 2011), coautor a 5 volume colective publicate
sub egida Centrului de cercetare Comunicare intercultural i literatur din
cadrul Facultii de Litere a Universitii Dunrea de Jos din Galai i
coautor alCronologiei vieii literare romneti. Perioada postbelic (vol. IV-
VII, aprute n 2011, i vol. VIII-XII, n curs de apariie).
Elena Luminia CRIHAN (ILISEI) s-a nscut la 1 mai 1965 n Bieti,

judeul Suceava. n 1987 a absolvit Facultatea de Filologie din cadrul
Universitii Alexandru Ioan Cuza din Iai. ntre 1997 i 2001 a predat
limba romn la Liceul Teoretic din Trgu-Bujor i la Liceul cu Program
Sportiv din Galai. n intervalul 2001-2009 a fost inspector colar pentru
limba i literatura romn i purttor de cuvnt al Inspectoratului colar al
Judeului Galai. Actualmente este profesor cu gradul I la Colegiul Naional
Alexandru Ioan Cuza din Galai i doctorand la Facultatea de Litere, de la
Universitatea Dunrea de Jos din Galai. A publicat lucrri de didactic a
limbii i literaturii romne: Eseul colar, Editura coala Glean, Galai,
2002; DOOM2 ghid de nvare rapid, Editura Alma, Galai, 2006
(coautor), Limba i literatura romn. Teste pentru bacalaureat, Editura
Nomina, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2011 (coautor).
Mirela DRGOI: nscut pe 10 octombrie 1974, la Galai. Studii:

Facultatea de Litere i tiine, specializarea Limba i literatura francez
Limba i literatura romn, Universitatea Dunrea de Jos din Galai (1997).
Doctor n filologie (2008), cu teza Constantin Virgil Gheorghiu omul i
opera, Facultatea de Litere, Universitatea Ovidius din Constana. n
prezent este lector universitar n cadrul Departamentului de Limba i
literatura francez al Facultii de Litere din Galai, unde pred cursuri de
literatura francez (a Evului Mediu, a Renaterii i a secolului al XIX-lea) i
de analiz de text liric i narativ. Este membru n comitetul de redacie al
revistei Mlanges francophones i face parte din Centrul de cercetare
Comunicare intercultural i Literatur din cadrul Universitii Dunrea de

Jos din Galai.
Stelian DUMISTRCEL, prof. dr., Departamentul de Jurnalistic i

tiinele Comunicrii de la Universitatea Al.I.Cuza Iai, cercettor tiinific
principal I la Institutul A. Philippide al Academiei Romne. Absolvent al
Facultii de Litere, Universitatea Al.I.Cuza, doctor n filologie i
conductor de doctorat la aceeai Universitate; specializri i stagii de
documentare n Germania, Frana i Italia; profesor invitat la Friedrich-
Schiller-Universitt Jena. Cursuri privind stilistica i retorica discursului
jurnalistic din perspectiva pragmaticii; cercetri n domeniul dialectologiei
romne i generale, al romanisticii, al etnostilisticii i al comunicrii. DHC al
Universitilor Dunrea de Jos Galai i Alecu Russo Bli (R. Moldova).
Coordonator al Noului Atlas lingvistic romn pe regiuni. Moldova i
Bucovina (8 volume tiprite: 1987 >); alte publicaii: Influena limbii literare
asupra graiurilor dacoromne (1978, Premiul Timotei Cipariu al
Academiei Romne); Pn-n pnzele albe. Expresii romneti. Biografii
motivaii (2001); Limbajul publicistic romnesc din perspectiva stilurilor
funcionale (2006); Discursul repetat n textul jurnalistic (2006); Lexic
romnesc. Cuvinte, metafore, exprersii (2011).
Petru IAMANDI este confereniar universitar dr. la catedra de limba i

literatura englez, Facultatea de Litere, Universitatea Dunrea de Jos,
Galai, membru al Uniunii Scriitorilor din Romnia i redactor al revistei
Antares. Este autorul volumelor American Culture for Democracy (2001),
English and American Literature Science Fiction (2003), American History
and Civilization (2004), SF- literatura despre viitor (2004), An Outline of
American English (2008), An Introduction to Consecutive and Simultaneous
Interpreting (2010), English for 14 Careers (2011) i al unui Dicionar
englez-romn (2000). Este coautor al mai multor manuale de limba englez i
dicionare. A tradus peste 60 de volume din limba englez n limba romn i
din limba romn n limba englez (proz, poezie, teatru, non-ficiune),
cteva aprute n Marea Britanie i SUA. n 2008, Teatrul Dramatic din
Galai i-a pus n scen traducerea piesei Petrecerea de Harold Pinter. A
publicat articole i traduceri n 14 reviste din Marea Britanie i SUA. Premiat
pentru calitatea traducerilor de revistele Antares, Porto-Franco i Dunrea
de Jos.
Nicoleta IFRIM este conf.univ. dr. la Facultatea de Litere a Universitii

Dunrea de Jos din Galai i membru al Centrului de cercetare
Comunicare Intercultural i Literatur n cadrul Departamentului de
Literatur, Lingvistic i Jurnalism. Ariile sale de interes au n vedere spaiul
cultural romnesc i raporturile acestuia cu marea literatur universal din
perspectiva surprinderii interferenelor i punctelor de conjuncie cultural.
De asemenea, studiul particularitilor literare ale creaiilor romneti este

orientat diacronic n vederea analizei dinamicii textual-creatoare a epocilor
literare, cu o relaionare direct fa de marile modele ale culturii occidentale,
Ifrim Nicoleta fiind autoare a unor numeroase studii i articole centrate pe
validarea marcajului identitar al discursului critic / literar romnesc n context
european.
Petru Ioan MARIAN este absolvent al Facultii de Litere a Universitii

tefan cel Mare din Suceava (2002). Dup un masterat n Hermeneutic
literar la Universitatea Alexandru Ioan Cuza din Iai (2002-2004),
urmeaz studii de masterat la Universitatea tefan cel Mare din Suceava
(2005-2006), n specializarea Comunicare i Relaii Publice i, n perioada
2007-2010, cursurile colii doctorale la Universitatea Bucureti, la Facultatea
de Jurnalism i tiinele comunicrii, n specializarea tiine ale comunicrii.
Din 2012 este doctorand al Universitii tefan cel Mare din Suceava, n
domeniul Filologie. ncepnd din 2007 este asistent titular la Facultatea de
Litere i tiine ale Comunicrii din cadrul Universitii tefan cel Mare,
Suceava. Este membru al Centrului de cercetare Inter Litteras,
Universitatea tefan cel Mare, Suceava, membru al reelei de cercetare
Diversit des expressions culturelles et artistiques, a Ageniei Universitare
a Francofoniei (AUF) i al Asociaiei Romne de Istoria Presei (ARIP).
Domeniile sale de interes sunt mass-media, tiinele comunicrii, socio-
lingvistica, studii culturale, cultura maselor.
Doinia MILEA este liceniat a Facultii de Limba i literatur romn,

Universitatea Bucuresti, doctorat la Universitatea din Bucuresti. Specializarea
n literatur comparat i-a permis publicarea unor cri, cu deschidere spre
cercetarea interdisciplinar ca: Romanul istoric romnesc, 2001, Forme ale
ficiunii narative, 2002, Elemente de poetic a povestirii, 2000, Confluene
culturale i configuraii literare. Despre metamorfozele imaginarului n
spaiul literar, 2005, Spaiu cultural i forme literare n secolul XX.
Reconfigurri, 2006. In calitate de coordonator sau de colaborator apare n
volume ale Centrului de cercetare Comunicare intercultural i literatur ca:
Forme i teritorii ale literaturii i ale discursului critic contemporan. I
Glosar i antologie de texte, 2005, Strategii i convenii literare. Recuperri
critice, 2005, Frontiere culturale i literatur ,2006 Discursul critic
romnesc actual. Antologie de texte. Studii critice, 2008. Profesor univ. dr. i
conductor de doctorat domeniul : literatura romn, teorie literar,
literatur comparat, studii culturale. Director al Centrului de cercetare
Comunicare intercultural i literatur, si al revistei COMMUNICATION
INTERCULTURELLE ET LITTRATURE.
Lili-Carmen NANE este absolvent a Facultii de Litere, Universitatea

,,Dunrea de Jos, Galai, master n Management educaional la Facultatea de
tiine, Galai, doctorand anul III, coala doctoral a Facultii de Litere,

Universitatea ,,Dunrea de Jos, Galai, proiect de cercetare POSDRU. Titlul
tezei de doctorat este Publicistica lui G. Clinescu, sub coordonarea
tiinific a dnei Prof.univ.dr. Simona Antofi.
Iulia Veronica NEAGU este absolvent a Facultii de Litere din Galai,

deine un masterat n Traducere i interpretariat, iar, n prezent, este asistent
universitar doctor n cadrul Universitii Dunrea de Jos, Galai, Facultatea
de Litere, Departamentul de Limba i Literatura Englez i pred seminarii
de limba englez pentru scopuri specifice studenilor de la specializrile
Automatic i Informatic Industrial, Calculatoare i Tehnologia
Informaiei, Inginerie Electric i Inginerie Electronic. A obinut titlul de
doctor n stilistic englez n anul 2012, titlu acordat de Universitatea
Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Iai, pentru teza de doctorat intitulat Black
Humour: A Stylistic Approach. Doamna Iulia Veronica Neagu i-a
materializat cercetarea efectuat n domeniul stilisticii lingvistice i al
umorului negru ntr-un numr mare de lucrri i articole, printre care cele mai
importante sunt: Means of Achieving Black Humour in William Goldings
Lord of the Flies (Iai, 2004), Translating Metaphor in the Dramatic
Discourse of Samuel Beckett (Bucureti, 2005), The Idiosyncrasies of Samuel
Becketts Black Humour (Iai, 2006), Ways of Pleating Stylistic Devices in
Ctlin Mihuleacs Classified Ads (Alba Iulia, 2010), The Role of Negation
as a Means of Achieving Black Humour in Joseph Hellers Catch-22 (Alba
Iulia, 2011).
Gina NECULA este lector dr. la departamentul de literatur, lingvistic i

jurnalism din Facultatea de Litere a Universitii Dunrea de Jos din Galai.
Domeniile de interes sunt socio i psiholingvistic, dar i gramatic
normativ. A publicat numeroase articole n diferite reviste de specialitate,
urmrind aspecte normative ale limbii romne, dar i teme de retorica
discursului jurnalistic din perspectiva pragmaticii. A publicat trei cri ca unic
autor i ase cri n colaborare cu ali specialiti n domeniu. A coordonat o
serie de volume colective publicate sub egida Centrului de Cercetare
Comunicare Intercultural i Literatur. Din 2010 este redactor al
revistei Communication interculturelle et littrature , indexat n bazele de
date internaionale MLA (Modern Language Association, New York) MLA
International Bibliography & Directory of Periodicals, Index Copernicus i
Fabula.
Petrica PAILEA (CRNGAN) este doctorand al colii Doctorale a

Facultii de Litere din cadrul Universitii Dunrea de Jos din Galai;
absolvent a Facultii de Litere, Istorie i Teologie, specializarea Limb i
literatur englez-Limb i literatur romn; cu o experien de nou ani n
presa scris, ca redactor la cotidiene locale; n prezent, director al Cancelariei
prefectului judeului Galai, cu atribuii de purttor de cuvnt al Instituiei

Prefectului judeul Galai.
Florina-Elena PRJOL este n prezent cercettor postdoctoral la Facultatea

de Litere, Universitatea din Bucureti, cu un proiect interdisciplinar dedicat
imaginarului gastronomic autohton i transpunerii acestuia n literatura
secolelor al XIX-lea i al XX-lea. Proiectul, cu deschideri ample spre
antropologia alimentaiei i istoria mentalitilor, nu se limiteaz la textele de
ficiune, ci ia in discuie i crile de bucate aprute n aceast perioad,
ncercnd s creioneze un profil gastroidentitar al epocilor analizate. Studiul
rezultat din aceste cercetri va fi publicat la Editura Trei. n 2010, a susinut o
tez doctoral despre controversatul concept de autoficiune aplicat pe
literatura romn post-comunist; ea st la baza volumului Cri de
identitate, aflat n curs de apariie la Editura Cartea Romneasc.
Alexandru PRAISLER este traductor n cadrul Biroului de Relaii

Internaionale i Comunicare al Universitii Dunrea de Jos din Galai. n
perioada 2009-2012 a fost doctorand bursier POSDRU 61445/2009
EFICIENT (Eficientizarea activitii studenilor din cadrul ciclului de studii
doctorale). Teza sa de doctorat este n domeniul Filologie, subdomeniul
Traductologie (Limba englez) i se intituleaz Language, Power and
Intercultural Communication. Translation Policies and the Politics of
Translation.
Adriana Maria ROBU este doctorand a Facultii de Litere, specializarea

lingvistic, Universitatea Alexandru Ioan Cuza Iai. Este autoare a mai
multor articole i lucrri publicate n reviste i volume. A participat la
manifestri tiinifice n sfera pragmaticii lingvistice i lingvisticii textului.
Intresul pentru lingvistica integral s-a concretizat printr-un stagiu de
cercetare desfurat n Arhivele Eugeniu Coeriu de la Universitatea
Eberhard Karls Tbingen, Germania, i printr-o serie de articole i
interviuri care privesc problemele lingvisticii coeriene.
Florin TOMA este actor al Teatrului Dramatic Fani Tardini din Galai.
Colaborator al teatrului Pygmalion din Viena. Deine roluri n spectacole
regizate de Victor Ioan Frunz, Ion Sapdaru, Mircea Corniteanu, ino
Geirun, roluri n spectacole pentru copii i spectacole de teatru underground.
Doctorand POSDRU al Universitii Dunrea de Jos din Galai i
beneficiar al unor stagii de pregtire doctoral n cadrul Universitii Kent din
Canterbury, Anglia i Universitii din Viena-Institutul de Teatru, Film i
Studii Media."
Cristina VLCEA Activez n domeniul nvmntului universitar de 10

ani, avnd titulatura de asistent universitar doctorand, afiliat Facultii de
Litere din Braov. Cursurile predate vizeaz elemente teoretice i practice de

lingvistic, sociolingvistic, studii de media i studii de gen. Aceste arii de
studiu se regsesc printre domeniile mele de interes att n ceea ce privete
redactarea tezei de doctorat ct i n articolele i studiile publicate. Temele
cele mai frecvente care se regsesc n cercetarea mea sunt diferenele
lingvistice care apar ca urmare a discriminarii sociale, utilizarea stereotipiilor
de gen care duc la anularea diferenelor personale n limbajul media i teoriile
care explic formarea i transmiterea realitii ctre audiene.
Angelica VLCU a absolvit Facultatea de Litere a Universitii Al. I.

Cuza din Iai, specializarea Limba i literatura francez Limba i literatura
romn (1974) i este doctor n Filologie cu teza de doctorat Funcionarea
discursului specializat, susinut la Universitatea Al. I. Cuza din Iai
(2003). Este confereniar universitar la Universitatea Dunrea de Jos din
Galai, Departamentul de limba i literatura francez. Domeniile de cercetare
sunt: pragmalingvistica, analiza discursului, analiza interaciunilor, didactica
FLE i FOS, didactica traducerii. Este autoarea a peste 50 de articole i studii
de specialitate. Cri publicate: Types discursifs et textuels en franais
contemporain. Une approche pragmatique. Ed. Galai University Press,
2011, Les interactions verbales. Thorie et fonctionnement, Ed. Galati
University Press, 2008, lments de pragmatique discursive et textuelle,
Editura tefan Lupacu, Iai, 2004, Funcionarea discursului specializat,
Editura tefan Lupacu, Iai, 2003.
Oana Andreea VIERU (cas. Gorbanescu), este doctorand n anul II (2011-

2012) al Universitii Alexandru Ioan Cuza din Iai, nscris cu
lucrarea Imaginea intelectualului n opera lui Christoph Hein, cercetare
coordonata de ctre Prof. Dr. Dr. h. c. Andrei Corbea-Hoiie. Cercetarea
mbin dou domenii ale studiilor umanistice, literatura i sociologia, prin
intermediul crora autoarea i propune s realizeze o fresc a intelectualitii
germane de Est, corespunztoare perioadei 1945-1989, desprins din operele
scriitorului menionat n titlu i s determine legitimitatea autodenumirii
acestuia de cronicar al timpului su.

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1

Abonamentele se fac la sediul redaciei,

Abonamentele pentru strintate se fac achitnd costul la redacie.

Interferene i conexiuni lingvistice 9

A existat o terminologie politic n limba romn la cumpna 10

Paliere terminologice din perspectiva barierelor lingvistice: 21

Fenomenul analogiei i lingvistica contemporan: de la 44

On the Dynamics of Mytho-Folkloric Vocabulary: 58

Inovaiile lingvistice din discursul public - form de stabilire 66

La gastrolittrature comme discours identitaire de la 72

O nou perspectiv de nelegere a pragmaticii discursului 89

Literatur i interculturalitate 105

De la ideologia revoltei la inovaie n discursul plastic i 106

Lucrare n cuvnt i rolul sugestiei estetice la Grigore Vieru 120

Kazuo Ishiguros Nocturnes of these days 127

Influena ideologiei politice asupra romanului postbelic de 144

Discursul intelectualilor central-europeni. Reflectare 157

Culturalit et inter-culturalit littraire dans les crits du 162

Victor Hugo et lidologie humaniste: le cas de Notre-Dame 169

Rsfrngeri ale personalismului n Paracliserul, de Marin 179

Revizionismul, o anti-ideologie postdecembrist a 206

Despre intelectuali, politic i cultur n spaiul romnesc 216

Kurt Vonneguts Stylistic Inventiveness in His Use of 221

Rewriting the Past: John Fowless The French Lieutenants 236

Istoria mentalitilor, comunicare intercultural i 245

Early Modern Body Politics: From Effacement to 246

Die sozialistische Ideologie im Spannungsfeld der DDR 259

Nazism in Recent Alternate Histories 266

Une anamnse du concept didologie dans les mdias 274

Mediating Filmic Discourse. The Case of Subtitling 289

The Cultural Model of British Theatre. The Influence of the 310

Mass-media Readiness to Biasing Gendered Narratives 325

Textyles nr. 41/2012, Bruxelles, ditions du Cri, 225p, Le 334

Isabela Nedelcu, 101 greeli gramaticale, Editura 338

Petronela Savin, Universul din lingur. Despre terminologia 346

Despre Caragiale, n post(post)modernism Gelu Negrea, 349

Repere critice actuale n problematica discursului identitar 351

Dominique Maingueneau, Discursul literar. Paratopie i 355

Marius Velic, Aspects of Aspect, Galai, Zigotto, 2012 359

Ioana Vintil Rdulescu, Dicionarul normativ al limbii 361

Le livre des mtaphores Essai sur la mmoire de la 364

Date despre autori 367

Interferene i conexiuni lingvistice

A existat o terminologie politic

Abstract: In an era marked by a well known cultural and political

1. L imba romn literar veche i chiar

[4]). La fel cum exist o relaie greu de contestat a structurii, respectiv

2. A existat, desigur, politic i n perioadele vechi ale istoriei

existat astfel o terminologie corespunztoare, fie i incipient, o

3. n texte diverse traduse, adaptate sau redactate la cumpna

Aceste cuvinte ilustrau cteva cmpuri semantice relativ bine

ntr-un text de un calc rar i interesant, zictur), heghemon (i

4. n selecia operat pentru a alctui listele precedente am urmrit

Aceste neologisme sunt cele mai numeroase n cadrul cmpurilor

neatrnare, nespnzurare independen; mpreun-patriot compa-

5. n contextul scrisului literar romnesc de la cumpna veacurilor

mod curent i nelesurile ceremonial, etichet; rnduial stator-

Americi), politici aflndu-se astfel n alternan cu verbele de origine

6. n scrieri diverse alctuite la cumpna veacurilor al XVIII-lea i al

[5] Grigore Brncu, Istoria cuvintelor, Bucureti, 2004, pp. 186-192.

Brncu, Grigore, Istoria cuvintelor, Bucureti, 2004.

O problem asupra creia am struit, de asemenea, i la care revenim

0.2. Dat fiind utilizarea termenului de ncifrare, simim obligaia