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38 YAI Lily
Features of the emotional states
. of cancer patients.
69 KAUNENKO Iirina
The problem of the transformation
of ethnic identity of Moldovans
. migrants.
88 ANTSIBOR Ludmila
, The study of the factors causing
satisfaction with marriage.
.
Psihologie, 4, 2011
PSIHOLOGIA DEZVOLTRII
Trstura esenial a tehnicii psihodramatice,
a visului este aceea c visul nu este povestit, ci pus n act..,
J. L. Moreno
Summary
The work reflects the research and examination of the psychodrama role as a working in-
strument with the self-confidence at teenagers. Respectively clarifying the tangent between the
psychodrama as a therapeutic method through which we live here and now and self-confidence
at teenagers, initiative, social courage which they express or not express, fact that could em-
phasize their psychological and behavioral adjustment, school, social success or failure, and
own self-overcoming as a free and integrated personality.
We precedes from the idea that psychodrama could provide that opportunity to young
generation to develop the feeling of safety, confidence, self-appreciation at the fair value, fact
that would facilitate that they themselves will raise their wings, and so building up a safe, har-
monious and integral way in life.
3
Liliana CHISARI, Ina MORARU
teatrul social, prin rolurile care odat ce preciere la justa valoare, fapt ce i-ar ajuta
fac parte din propria via, o reorienteaz s-i creasc propriile aripi, construindu-
terapeutic spre rezolvarea constructiv a i astfel un drum sigur, armonios i inte-
problemelor personale sau sociale. gru n via.
Problema cercetrii Scopul cercetrii:
n mare parte confruntarea tinerei Elucidarea procesului de influ-
generaii cu problema identitii de sine, en a tehnicilor psihodramatice asupra
a gsirii propriului Eu n societate, por- dezvoltrii i evolurii ncrederii n sine
nind de la propria sa familie, de la propria la adolesceni.
sa imagine indus de membrii ei sau de Ipoteza tiinific a cercetrii:
coal, de strad, prieteni, care, de fapt, Presupunem c tehnicile psiho-
nu sunt prieteni, colegi, fa de care de dramatice iniiate n cadrul teatrului social
fapt tinerii nu simt coeziune i nici dorin influeneaz dezvoltarea autoaprecierii de
de a-i deschide sufletul, ca urmare a unor sine i a ncrederii n sine la adolesceni.
trdri ce continu s triasc n aminti- Ipoteze practice:
rile lor, putem meniona c ncrederea n Presupunem c tehnicile psiho-
sine a adolescenilor de astzi constituie o dramatice condiioneaz reevaluarea con-
problem stringent i actual. structiv a ncrederii i autoaprecierii la
Observm c n societate, mai ales adolesceni;
n rndul tinerei generaii, se simte o fri- Presupunem c psihodrama in-
c de-a evidenia propria personalitate, flueneaz iniierea contactelor sociale,
de-a fi tu nsui, de-a avea propria pre- favoriznd creterea ncrederii n sine la
re, trecnd-o prin subiectivitate i prin adolesceni.
facultatea de-a gndi, neajustndu-se la Obiectul cercetrii:
mulime. Respectiv n mare parte tinerii Procesul de dezvoltare a ncrede-
sunt blamai pentru ncercarea de-a fi ei rii n sine prin psihodram.
nii modeti, constructivi, lupttori, Baza experimental a cercetrii:
coreci, neindifereni, liberi de frustrri, Adolesceni, 70 la numr, 17-18
fermi, calmi, altruiti etc. Nu mai este ani, alei aleatoriu pentru experimentul de
att de important pentru muli s fii mai constatare i 10 adolesceni: gen mascu-
bun dect ai fost ieri, s dai mai mult din lin 2, feminin 8, alei aleatoriu pentru
inima ta, s faci mai mult, s iubeti mai experimentul de formare, L.T. M. Vitea-
mult, s cedezi mai mult... zul municipiul Chiinu.
Urmarea acestui fapt este c tinerii Baza metodologic a cercetrii:
se nchid n propriile gnduri, preri, r- Constatare:
mn fa n fa cu propria singurtate, cu Testul Romek ncrederea n
propriile nenelegeri, cu propria realitate sine [1972];
dur i obscur. Testul Toulouse Stima de sine
Noi premergem de la ideea c psiho- [1986];
drama ar oferi acea posibilitate de a dez- Testul Rubentein: Autoaprecie-
volta la tnra generaie sentimentul de re [1983];
siguran, de ncredere n sine, de autoa- Programul statistic SPSS 15;
4
Psihodrama ca metod de dezvoltare a ncrederii n sine la adolescenii
5
Liliana CHISARI, Ina MORARU
6
Psihodrama ca metod de dezvoltare a ncrederii n sine la adolescenii
poate ajuta subiectul sau poate s devin fost considerarea spontaneitii ca un fel
problema, fiind ajutat de subiectul de de energie psihic o cantitate care se
pe scen. n ajutarea subiectului, devin o autodistribuie ntr-un cmp care, dac nu
cutie de rezonan a opiniei publice. Rs- gsete actualizare ntr-o direcie, curge
punsurile i comentariile sale sunt impro- n alt direcie, pentru a menine echili-
vizate, ca i cele ale subiectului; acestea brul.
pot varia de la rs la protest violent. Cu Formarea spontaneitii are drept
ct subiectul este mai izolat, de exemplu, preludiu teoretic mai multe metode ex-
pentru c drama pe scen este conturat perimentale cu privire la spontaneitate.
de iluzii i halucinaii, cu att devine mai ntr-una dintre ele, subiectul se cufund
important pentru el prezena unei audi- ntr-o stare, ntr-o emoie, un rol sau o
ene dispuse s l accepte i s l neleag. relaie cu alt subiect, fiecare dintre aces-
n situaia n care audiena este ajutat de te stri opernd ca un stimul. Aceasta nu
subiect, devenind astfel subiectul nsui, nseamn c este de ateptat ca unitile
situaia se inverseaz. Astfel, audiena se care cuprind starea s fie absolut noi i
vede pe sine, adic unul dintre sindroa- fr precedent pentru subiect; nseamn
mele colective, portretizate pe scen. c experimentul este astfel intenionat
Se poate spune, foarte bine, c psi- nct s aduc subiectul, ca ntreg, s se
hodrama ofer subiectului o experien a sprijine pe actul su, s creasc numrul
realitii nou i mai extins, o realitate de combinaii i variaiuni posibile, i n
plus un ctig care justific, cel puin sfrit, s prilejuiasc o astfel de flexibili-
parial, sacrificiul pe care 1-a fcut co- tate subiectului nct el s convoace orice
labornd la producia psihodramatic [7, cantitate de spontaneitate necesar pentru
p. 22]. orice situaie cu care poate fi confruntat.
Respectiv aceste instrumente psiho- Prin urmare, este clar c factorul (sponta-
dramatice, aplicate prin intervenia psi- neitatea) care i permite subiectului s se
hologic adolescenilor, pot constitui un pregteasc pentru astfel de stri nu este,
antidot al formrii i dezvoltrii ncrede- n sine, un sentiment, o emoie, un gnd
rii n sine, al ridicrii autoaprecierei jus- sau un gest care se ataeaz singur unui
te i-a spiritului de iniiativ, cooperare lan de improvizri, pe msur ce are loc
i integrare social constructiv n viaa procesul de nclzire. Spontaneitatea este
adolescenilor. o stare de pregtire a subiectului pentru
Teatrul social prin spontaneitate psi- a rspunde aa cum i se cere [5, p. 82].
hodramatic ca instrument de lucru Este o condiie a subiectului, o pregtire
cu ncrederea n sine. a sa pentru aciunea liber. n acest fel,
ncrederea n sine nu poate fi forma- libertatea unui subiect nu poate fi atins
t i dezvoltat de la sine. Adolescentul printr-un act de voin. Ea crete n grade,
urmeaz a nelege rostul acelor situaii ca rezultat al formrii n ceea ce privete
n care urmeaz s-i antreneze att in- spontaneitatea. Prin urmare, pare sigur c,
telectul ct i spiritul, i anume datorit prin formarea spontaneitii, un subiect
spontaneitii. devine relativ mai liber de produsele con-
Una dintre dogme, spre exemplu, a servate trecute sau viitoare comparativ
7
Liliana CHISARI, Ina MORARU
8
Psihodrama ca metod de dezvoltare a ncrederii n sine la adolescenii
psihodramei face din fiecare spectator din ce, exprimnd dimensiunile fiziologice;
auditoriu un complice silenios al celor de i rolurile psihodramatice, care exprim
pe scen, indiferent de ce este dezvluit dimensiunea psihologic a sinelui. Ilus-
acolo. trri ale rolurilor psihosomatice sunt ro-
Rolul poate fi definit ca forma actua- lul celui care mnnc i rolul sexual. n
l i tangibil pe care o ia Sinele. Astfel, procesul de hrnire, tiparele caracteristice
definim rolul ca forma de funcionare pe ale interaciunii dintre mam i bebelu
care i-o asum individul n momentul produc constelaii de rol ale celui care
specific n care reacioneaz la o situa- mnnc, care pot fi urmrite pe parcur-
ie specific, n care sunt implicate i alte sul diferitelor perioade de via. Formele
persoane sau alte obiecte. Reprezentarea psihodramatice ale jocului de rol, ca de
simbolic a acestei forme de funcionare, exemplu inversarea rolului, identificarea
perceput de individ i de ceilali, se nu- de rol, jocul dublu i n oglind, toate
mete rol. Forma este creat de experiene contribuie la dezvoltarea mental a indi-
trecute i de tiparele culturale ale socie- vidului [4, p. 204].
tii n care triete individul, i poate fi Rolurile sociale se dezvolt ntr-o
satisfcut de tipul specific al productivi- etap trzie i se bazeaz pe roluri psi-
tii sale. Fiecare rol este o fuziune de ele- hosomatice i psihodramatice, ca forme
mente private i colective. Fiecare rol are timpurii de experien. Funcia rolului
dou laturi, una privat i alta colectiv. este aceea de a intra din lumea social n
Conceptul de rol se ntretaie cu tiinele incontient i de a-1 modela i ordona.
umaniste, fiziologie, psihologie, sociolo- Relaia rolurilor cu situaiile n care ope-
gie, antropologie i le unete ntr-un nou reaz individul (status) i relaia de rol ca
plan. Sociologii G.H. Mead i R. Linton fiind semnificativ relaionat cu Eul. Ro-
au limitat teoria rolurilor la o singur di- lul este unitatea de baz a culturii; Eul i
mensiune, cea social. rolul se afl n continu interaciune. Per-
Teoria psihodramatic a rolului care cepia rolului este cognitiv i anticipeaz
opereaz cu o orientare psihiatric este rspunsurile la ndemn.
ceva mai cuprinztoare. Aceasta cuprin-
de conceptul de rol n toate dimensiunile Rezultatele cercetrii.
vieii; ncepe la natere i continu pe tot Analiza cantitativ i calitativ a re-
parcursul vieii individului i a sociumu- zultatelor obinute a celor trei teste: Testul
lui. A construit modele n care rolul nce- Romek ncrederea n sine; Testul Tou-
pe s funcioneze de la natere. Nu pu- louse Stima de sine; Testul Ruben-
tem ncepe procesul de rol n momentul tein: Autoapreciere pe eantionul din
dezvoltrii limbajului, ci pentru ca acesta 70 elevi cu vrsta cuprins ntre 17-18
s fie consistent, trebuie s l ducem prin ani, alei aleatoriu a evideniat urmtoa-
etapele nonverbale ale vieii. Prin urmare, rele rezultate: Prin corelarea rezultatelor,
teoria rolului nu poate fi limitat la roluri aplicnd Programul statistic SPSS, am re-
sociale; trebuie s includ cele trei dimen- levat c exist corelaie ntre ncrederea
siuni: rolurile sociale, care exprim di- n sine i Curajul social: cu ct ncrede-
mensiunile sociale; rolurile psihosomati- rea de sine crete, cu att curajul social
9
Liliana CHISARI, Ina MORARU
scade. Deci, ncrederea n sine este invers borare i coeziune a grupului, pornind de
proporional cu curajul social r=-0,350 i la teatrul social;
p=0,003. n acest caz noi presupunem c Antrenarea capacitilor de co-
elevii au o ncredere n sine la nivel nalt, municare i relaionare social armoni-
dar aceasta nu le motiveaz curajul i ma- oas prin intermediul tehnicilor psihodra-
nifestarea acestuia n grupul de referin matice;
colar. Ei se simt mplinii de sine i nu Definirea modurilor eficiente de
este neaprat s se manifeste social prin manifestare a propriilor dorine i senti-
curaj i iniiativ. mente n relaiile cu alii, pornind de la
trirea aici i acum n teatrul social.
Training orientat la dezvoltarea ncre- De atitudini:
derii n sine i a imaginii de sine prin Formarea abilitilor de autoana-
psihodram liz i orientare spre autoperfeciune prin
Pentru experimentul formativ, am se- psihodram;
lectat aleatoriu 10 adolesceni la care s-a Aprecierea capacitii de utiliza-
depistat ncrederea n sine sczut: 2gen re a cunotinelor n diverse medii i n
masculin, 8feminin, pe care ne-am pro- soluionarea diferitor probleme n care se
pus s-o dezvoltm prin intermediul tehni- integreaz Sinele personal i cel social al
cilor psihodramatice. adolescenilor;
n continuare descriem succint inter- Exersarea tehnicilor de comuni-
venia psihologic n dezvoltarea ncre- care sincer i armonioas prin interme-
derii n sine prin psihodram. diul rolurilor psihodramatice.
Scopul interveniei psihologice: Termenul realizrii interveniei
Dezvoltarea ncrederii n sine la psihologice:
adolesceni, a imaginii de sine la nivel 26.10.2010 30.11.2010. Trai-
personal i social prin psihodram. ningul a durat 11 edine a cte 90 min.
Obiectivele interveniei psihologice:
De cunotine: Propunem selectiv proiectele didactice
Prezentarea noiunii de ncre- a ctorva edine realizate de noi:
dere n sine i a componentelor ei: ca-
paciti de autoprezentare, autoapreciere edina 1. Ce nseamn ncrederea
adecvat, optimism; n sine. Noiuni de psihodram
Prezentarea conceptului de psi- Scopurile edinei:
hodram i a tehnicilor de intervenie Cunoaterea reciproc a partici-
terapeutic; panilor, dezvoltarea coeziunii de grup
Asimilarea modurilor de identi- prin tehnici psihodramatice;
ficare a scopurilor primordiale la vrsta Concretizarea intereselor i sco-
adolescentin i stabilirea traseelor de re- purilor fiecrui participant i ale grupului;
alizare a acestora prin intermediul tehni- Instituirea unei atmosfere favo-
cilor psihodramatice. rabile lucrului n grup prin confirmarea
De capaciti: unor reguli ale participanilor;
Dezvoltarea capacitilor de cola- Informarea asupra noiunii de
10
Psihodrama ca metod de dezvoltare a ncrederii n sine la adolescenii
11
Liliana CHISARI, Ina MORARU
12
Psihodrama ca metod de dezvoltare a ncrederii n sine la adolescenii
13
Liliana CHISARI, Ina MORARU
edina 11. ntrirea Sinelui perso- celor din jur ntr-un alt mod, mult mai
nal i social prin psihodram aproape de sufletul lor, respectiv, ntr-una
Scopurile edinei: dintre aceste situaii cotidiene, persoanele
Posttestare [testele aplicate na- vor renuna la eschivri, reticene i am-
inte de training]. biguiti i vor scoate la iveal emoiile i
ntrirea imaginii de sine la nivel sentimentele lor reale, aa cum sunt ele,
personal i social prin intermediul tehni- orientndu-le spre constructivitate i ar-
cilor psihodramatice. monia vieii proprii n raport cu a celor
1. Tehnica Proiectarea psihodra- din jur.
matic prin desen: Cltorie n Lumea n mod esenial, pe scena psihodra-
Fericirii... matic, adolescenii rmn aceiai indi-
2. Tehnica Oglinda vizi care, cu o clip n urm, au pit pe
3. Tehnica Monologul terapeutic: scen, dar sunt dezvluite faete ale na-
Eu ntr-o lume imaginar... turii lor de existena crora uitase fieca-
4. Tehnica Monolog re dac, ntr-adevr, au fost vreodat
Prezentm mai jos un model al evidente. Tocmai aici, la acest nivel, este
exerciiului 1 efectuat de adolescenii din dezvluit adevratul punct central al con-
grupul experimental: flictului care, prin tehnicile psihodramti-
ce precum Monologul, Oglina, Dublarea
CONCLUZII Eului, Autorealizarea, Scaunul gol, Lu-
Pe scena psihodramatic a vieii ado- mea auxiliar etc. i gsete eliberarea i
lescentine, prin studiul dat, relevm o im- renaterea spiritual protagonistul.
portan major a tehnicilor acestei me- Formele psihodramatice ale jocu-
tode care a permis tinerilor contemporani lui de rol, ca de exemplu inversarea ro-
-i simt personalitatea, s simpt viaa lului, identificarea de rol, jocul dublu i
14
Psihodrama ca metod de dezvoltare a ncrederii n sine la adolescenii
15
Liliana CHISARI, Ina MORARU
16
Psihologie, 4, 2011
Summary
In this article the authors highlight too aspect: gender differences in terms of self image,
and interpersonal relationships; relation between self image and interpersonal relationships
in teen age.
Concerning to the first aspect, the authors indicate the following differences: girls are
considered with a higher level of intellect, authority on others and look, and boys are consid-
ered with a higher level of courage and skill.
As at the second aspect the authors shows statistics that there are mutual relationship be-
tween teen self image and their interpersonal relationships with parents and their peers, and
these variables are mutual influences.
Imaginea de sine are la baz fenome- minat fiind, pe de-o parte, de ctre mo-
nul percepiei sociale, se realizeaz treptat dificrile ce survin n sistemul general de
n procesul de socializare, prin raportarea cerine ce se manifest fa de adolescent,
la sistemul de norme i valori socio-cul- iar, pe de alt parte, de ctre schimbrile
turale ale grupului. Ea reflect statusurile prin care trece personalitatea cu structurile
familiale, profesionale, civice, organiza- i substructurile ei. Schimbrile survenite
ionale i rolurile persoanei n decursul n situaia social de dezvoltare, noile ro-
vieii exprimate n respectul de sine, ati- luri i relaii necesit intensificarea auto-
tudini, opinii, comportamente. controlului i autoreglrii. Aceast necesi-
Vasile Pavelcu sublinia c aceast tate i face pe adolesceni s se concentreze
cunoastere de sine este cheia aproprierii asupra lumii interioare. Ca urmare, ncepe
de cei din jur, m cunosc prin alii, iar pe descoperirea Eu-lui, considerat de psiho-
alii i identific prin mine obiectivarea logi drept una din cele mai importante re-
Eului, cristalizarea imaginii adevrate alizri ale adolescenei. Lumea interioar,
despre Sine se produce prin reversibili- propriile triri emoionale, gnduri, capa-
tatea imaginii despre Sine cu imaginea citi devin pentru adolescent principala
altora despre noi cu capacitatea de a ne realitate, pe cnd realitatea fizic capt
privi cu ochii altora i de a privi pe altul semnificaia unui fundal pe care se desf-
cu ochii notri[1]. oar experiena subiectiv a personalitii
Perioada adolescenei are un rol deci- n aceast perioad. Are loc dezvoltarea
siv n dezvoltarea imaginii de sine, deter- sensibilitii fa de problemele psihologi-
17
Maria VRLAN, Cristina URCAN
18
Relaia dintre imaginea de sine a adolescenilor
Imaginea de sine
60 56,96
56,36
50
40
10
0
Imagine autoapr. sntate intelect caracter Autor la
Autorit. iscusina
exterior ncredere
de sine semeni
semeni
biei
fete
Tabelul 1
Diferena statistic la scalele privind imaginea de sine ntre fete i biei
Imaginea Autoritatea
Intelectul Iscusina Exteriorul
de sine la semeni
Mann-Whitney U 210,000 203,500 202,000 206,000 205,500
p 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05
Datele din figura i tabelul de mai sus n faa semenilor, exteriorul, pe cnd b-
ne indic urmtoarele diferene statistice ieii i apreciaz mai nalt iscusina.
ntre imaginea de sine a bieilor i cea a n continuare vom prezenta rezultatele
fetelor: fetele se autoapreciaz mai nalt obinute de subiecii experimentai la pro-
la aa parametri ca intelectul, autoritatea bele de studiere a relaiilor interpersonale.
19
Maria VRLAN, Cristina URCAN
3,45
3,5 3,25
3,18
3,07
2,95 2,96
3 2,81 2,75
2,5 2,5
2,5
biei
2
fete
1,5
0,5
0
Poz tata Dir tata Hos tata Aut tata Ned tata
3,5
3,18 3,14
3,07
2,95
3 2,85 2,82
2,54
2,5 2,27 2,28
2,09
2
biei
fete
1,5
0,5
0
Poz mama Dir mama Hos mama Aut mama Ned mama
20
Relaia dintre imaginea de sine a adolescenilor
30%
28%
25%
22%
20%
16% 16%
Biei
15%
Fete
10%
10%
8%
5%
0%
Izolai Preferai Lideri
2,85, dect bieii 2. Atitudinea pozi- Datele analizate mai sus denot unele
tiv bazat pe acceptarea psihologic este deosebiri gender cu privire la particulari-
perceput de ctre fete ca atitudinea ma- tile imaginii de sine ale adolescenilor
mei specific unui copil mic, ce necesit i relaiile interpersonale ale acestora cu
atenie, grij, ajutor, acolo unde el ntm- prinii i cu semenii.
pin dificulti. Pentru biei acceptarea n continuare vom analiza rezultatele
psihologic este perceput ca o atitudine privind relaia dintre imaginea de sine a
critic a mamei fa de ei. Adolescenii adolescenilor i relaiile interpersonale
au trebuina de a fi susinui de mam, n ale lor cu semenii i prinii.
multe situaii iau n considerare prerea Datele din figura 5 ne arat c ado-
ei, sunt de acord adesea cu ea. ns com- lescenii cu imagine de sine nalt ocup
portamentul autoritar, tendina de lider n i o poziie social mai nalt n colectivul
familie, suspiciunea sunt respinse. clasei.
Ca i n cazul tailor, i aici, n ce pri- Ct privete influena imaginii de
vete atitudinea mamelor fa de copii, re- sine asupra stabilirii relaiilor n colecti-
zultate mai mari se nregistreaz la scala vul clasei, am obinut urmtoarele rezul-
Inconsecven. Fetele explic inconsec- tate (tab. 3).
vena mamei prin schimbarea brusc a stilu- Cele ilustrate mai sus ne arat c re-
lui, procedeelor de educaie. Bieii percep laiile interpersonale ale adolescenilor n
inconsecvena n educaie din partea mamei colectivul clasei sunt determinate n mare
ca o alternare, n funcie de importan, a parte de o imagine de sine nalt n ce pri-
stilului de dominare cu stilul de supunere. vete caracterul propriu, exteriorul, auto-
Relaiile adolescenilor cu semenii: ritatea n faa semenilor.
La aceast tehnic am obinut o dife- Vom analiza n continuare rezultatele
ren statistic de U-210, la un prag de sem- care denot rolul relaiilor adolescenilor
nificaii p<0,05, fetele nregistrnd valori cu prinii asupra imaginii lor de sine.
medii mai mici (4,5) dect bieii (5,8). Imaginea de sine a adolescenilor co-
21
Maria VRLAN, Cristina URCAN
50
47 imag.de sine nalt
45 44
40 39 imag.de sine sczut
35
30 29
27
25
20
15 14
10 Fig. 5 Rezultatele obinute la
5 tehnica sociometric de ctre
0 adolescenii cu diferite nivele
izolai preferai lideri ale imaginii de sine
Tabelul 3
Corelaia dintre rezultatele la tehnica sociometric i imaginea de sine a adoles-
cenilor cercetai (Spearman)
Imaginea Autoaprecierea Autoritatea
Caracter Exterior
de sine general la semeni
r 0,373 0,571 0,369 0,379 0,744
sociometria
p 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,01
releaz cu urmtoarele scale ale testului prin mutruluial, dac este sever i pedant
de studiere a atitudinilor prinilor fa de cu copilul, atunci adolescentul nu poate s-
copii: i formeze o imagine de sine adecvat, mai
Scala interesului pozitiv (tata): mult ca att are una sczut.
r=0,371, la un prag de semnificaie Scala inconsecvenei (tata):
de p<0,05, Scala interesului pozitiv r=-0,483, la un prag de semnificaie de
(mama): r=0,416, la un prag de semni- p<0,05; Scara inconsecvenei (mama):
ficaie de p<0,05, adic, dac printele se r=-0,500, la un prag de semnificaie de
strduie s obin simpatia i respectul p<0,05 (corelaie negativ, invers propor-
autoritii de printe fr s recurg la de- ional). Dac prinii sunt inconsecveni
clararea diferitor dogme, i accept ne- n educaia copiilor lor, sunt imprevizibili
condiionat copilul, stabilete cu el relaii n ce privete reacia proprie la compor-
bazate pe ncredere atunci adolescentul tamentul copiilor, acest fapt se rsfrnge
are o imagine de sine mai nalt. negativ asupra imaginii acestora despre
Scala ostilitatea tatlui: r=-0,413, propria persoan.
la un prag de semnificaie de p<0,05. Aici Autoaprecierea sntii adolescen-
avem o corelaie negativ, invers propor- ilor coreleaz cu:
ional. Adic, dac tatl manifest fa de Scala direcionrii: r=-0,322, la un
adolescent o atitudine ostil, dac el tinde prag de semnificaie de p<0,05 (corelaie
s satisfac trebuinele altora fiind un tat negativ, invers proporional). n cazul
bun i s menin relaii bune mai degrab cnd prinii impun copiilor lor sentimen-
cu alii dect cu propriul copil, dac l educ tul de vin n raport cu acetia, cnd le de-
22
Relaia dintre imaginea de sine a adolescenilor
23
Psihologie, 4, 2011
PSIHOLOGIA EDUCAIEI
Viorel ROBU
Summary
The racism is conceived as an ideological orientation having cultural, social, political,
legal and economic implications. In some extent, the racism is opposed to the principles of
interculturalism and multiculturalism. In Romania, the racial attitude is central to public ques-
tioning. The public opinion is divided: some voices believe that Romanians tend to express a
racial and xenophobic attitude, while others shows that Romanians seem to be more tolerant.
The present paper addresses the issue of racism, as well as racial attitude. The psychologi-
cal coordinates of the racial attitude among Romanian university students are explored. The
students represent a populational category which is very exposed to the interracial, intereth-
nic, and intercultural contexts. Racial attitude was operationalized by social distance toward
people of other races. The findings suggests the Romanian students are open to people of other
races, tending to express a low social distance. However, the phenomenon seems to be more
complex than appears at first glance.
24
Distana social fa de persoanele de alte rase n rndul studenilor romni
10). Ca atare, biologia modern nu confir- mod normal, termenul este folosit pentru a
m viziunea unei umaniti net divizate n descrie aciunea unei majoriti dominan-
categorii rasiale distincte. te n raport cu o minoritate, care cauzeaz
Cuvntul rasism este folosit pentru a un prejudiciu unei persoane sau unui grup
descrie un comportament abuziv sau agre- de persoane. Cnd puterea este asociat
siv, ndreptat mpotriva membrilor unei cu discriminarea rasial, se manifest ra-
aa-numite rase inferioare. Istoria ne do- sismul. Discriminarea rasial este expresia
vedete c, de-a lungul timpului, rasismul credinelor i a atitudinilor care i au rd-
a mbrcat diverse forme. Cea mai nou cina n rasism i include violarea drepturi-
form de rasism ntlnit este diferenierea lor civile sau marginalizarea unei persoane
etnic i cultural (avnd o fa social i sau a unui grup de persoane pentru simplul
politic subtil), care susine neamestecul fapt c aparine (aparin) unei anumite rase.
raselor i al culturilor, n vederea pstrrii Discriminarea rasial poate fi intenionat
originalitii fiecreia (Encyclopedia of sau neintenionat, contient sau inconti-
Race and Racism, 2008, p. 467). Rasismul ent (Jackson, 2006, p. 407).
nu este numai o construcie teoretic, ci i Este foarte important s facem dife-
un cmp disciplinar, lichidnd identitatea rena ntre rasismul modern i rasismul
cultural a altora, tratnd fobia de melanj tradiional. n mod tradiional, rasismul a
i exaltnd dispreul pentru altul care este fost direct i ,,dureros (evreii, negrii, ara-
ntotdeauna inferior (A. Palicar; citat de bii sau est-europenii etc. erau considerai
Neculau i Ferrol, 1996, p. 11). lenei, violeni, mincinoi etc.) n timp
Conform literaturii de specialitate, ce noul rasism este mai ascuns i ,,drept
rasismul se manifest la mai multe ni- (Rex, 1998, p. 604). Cercetrile au pus n
veluri, ntre care exist interdependene: antitez rasismul de mod veche, care se
individual, instituional i cultural (Yang, manifest n mod deschis, cu forma mo-
2000, p. 146). Astfel, la nivel individual, dern a rasismului, mai subtil. Rasitii
se vorbete de rasism reflectat n atitudi- moderni sunt persoane ambivalente care,
nile, valorile i credinele personale ale datorit influenei societii (de exemplu:
unui individ despre superioritatea propriei cultura american), tind s reacioneze
rase. La nivel instituional, vorbim despre negativ fa de anumite minoriti etnice
practici i legi care cauzeaz sistematic sau rasiale, dar, n acelai timp, posed
inegaliti rasiale n societate, organizaii valoarea sau ideea de egalitate, care este
sau instituii. La nivel cultural, trebuie s promovat de societatea dominant. Dato-
lum n calcul tradiiile, obiceiurile, va- rit acestei particulariti, rasismul modern
lorile i normele de comportament social nu mai poate fi msurat folosind metodele
care promoveaz propria cultur, ca nor- clasice (de exemplu: scalele sau chestiona-
m i standard n societate. rele), deoarece rasitii moderni nu doresc
ntr-o accepiune foarte general, ter- s par, n mod deschis, c sunt rasiti.
menul discriminare desemneaz tratarea Scopul studiului
inegal a indivizilor sau a grupurilor n Fiind un concept clasic n sociologie,
raport cu unele trsturi specifice, cum ar distana social desemneaz ,,gradul de
fi apartenena etnic sau cea religioas. n nelegere i afeciune pe care persoanele
25
Viorel ROBU
26
Distana social fa de persoanele de alte rase n rndul studenilor romni
alte rase (de exemplu: negri nativi, afro- Romnia pe motive rasiale ?). n coni-
americani, hispanici, asiatici etc.). Din- nutul itemului 7, a fost adugat, n mod
tre acetia, aproximativ 31 % intraser intenionat, expresia ,,pe motive rasiale,
foarte rar n contacte cu persoane de alte pentru a spori validitatea itemului i a nu
rase, 34 % - rar, aproximativ 30 % - des- crea confuzii respondenilor. ntruct nu
tul de des, iar restul des. ne-a interesat atitudinea expres a studen-
Scalele utilizate pentru colectarea ilor fa de persoanele de o anumit ras
datelor (de exemplu: negri nativi, afro-americani,
A. Scala pentru msurarea distanei asiatici, hispanici, mixturi etc.), am re-
sociale, elaborat de Emory S. Bogardus, nunat la categoriile de persoane diferen-
reprezint cel mai vechi i mai utilizat iate dup ras.
instrument pentru msurarea atitudinii et- Rspunsurile favorabile la toi primii
nice. Publicat pentru prima dat n anul ase itemi ai scalei, respectiv respingerea
1925, n Journal of Applied Sociology, ultimului item valideaz protocolul unui
aceast scal a fost revizuit n 1933 i re- respondent, despre care vom spune c ma-
publicat n Sociology and Social Resear- nifest o atitudine foarte favorabil fa de
ch (cf. Chelcea, 1994). Bilanul prezentat persoanele de alte rase (distana social
de Bogardus, dup 40 de ani de cercetri, este absent). Un rspuns favorabil la ite-
este impresionant. n Romnia, adapta- mul 7, nsoit de rspunsuri favorabile la
rea i publicarea scalei pentru msurarea toi ceilali itemi, invalideaz protocolul
distanei sociale a fost fcut de profeso- cu rspunsuri al unui respondent, ntruct
rul bucuretean Septimiu Chelcea (1994, rspunsul la ultimul item intr n con-
2004). Plecnd de la coninutul variantei tradicie cu acceptarea tuturor celorlali
din 1933, autorul a modificat unele enun- itemi. Rspunsul favorabil la itemul 7,
uri din scala original, pentru a cpta n condiiile n care, la toi ceilali itemi,
sens n contextul socio-cultural romnesc. rspunsurile sunt tot favorabile, trebuie
Itemii adaptai de noi au fost formu- s-l determine pe cercettor s se chestio-
lai pornindu-se de la varianta stabilit neze cu privire la atenia, seriozitatea sau
de Chelcea (1994, 2004). Spre deose- sinceritatea de care un respondent a dat
bire de varianta adaptat de S. Chelcea, dovad, n etapa de completare a scalei.
am schimbat forma n care respondenii n fine, dac itemii 1-6 ar fi respini, iar
puteau oferi rspunsurile la itemii scalei, itemul 7 ar fi acceptat, protocolul cu rs-
difereniind pe coloane variantele DA/ punsuri trebuie considerat ca fiind valid
NU. Itemii au fost prezentai n ordinea (respondentul manifest, la extrem, o
descresctoare a intensitii atitudinii fa atitudine nefavorabil fa de persoanele
de persoanele de alte rase, i anume: de de alte rase).
la cea mai favorabil atitudine (itemul 1: n cadrul prezentului studiu, rspun-
,,Ai accepta s v cstorii cu o persoa- surile pe care le-a oferit un participant la
n de alt ras dect cea a dvs. ?) pn Scala pentru msurarea distanei socia-
la cea mai nefavorabil atitudine (itemul le fa de persoanele de alte rase au fost
7: ,,Ai accepta ca o persoan de alt sintetizate n trei indicatori (semnifica-
ras dect cea a dvs. s fie expulzat din ia acestor indicatori este prezentat, pe
27
Viorel ROBU
28
Distana social fa de persoanele de alte rase n rndul studenilor romni
este un indicator care exprim, de fapt, nu trebuie s depeasc 10-15 % din nu-
msura n care pattern-urile rspunsurilor mrul total de rspunsuri la itemi (egal cu
date de subiecii dintr-un lot la itemii unei produsul dintre numrul de subieci crora
scale de tip ierarhic sau cumulativ co- li s-a administrat scala i numrul de itemi
respund pattern-ului ideal de rspunsuri ai scalei). Atunci cnd numrul total de
(fr nici o eroare). Pentru un subiect, CR erori, pentru ansamblul itemilor unei sca-
arat msura n care rspunsurile acestuia le, este egal cu numrul total de rspunsuri
sunt scalabile adic sunt conforme cu posibile la scal, valoarea coeficientului de
modelul teoretic de rspunsuri preconizat reproductibilitate este egal cu 0 (n acest
de Guttman. Pentru o scal, n ansamblul caz, scala nu are nimic de-a face cu mode-
ei, coeficientul de reproductibilitate se lul de tip Guttman).
calculeaz dup formula: Pentru calcularea valorii coeficientu-
lui de reproductibilitate (CR) al scalei pe
E ,
CR = 1 - care am administrat-o studenilor, am de-
Nk terminat mai nti numrul total de erori,
pornind de la rspunsurile furnizate de cei
unde: E este numrul total de erori pen- 155 de studeni. Astfel, toate rspunsurile
tru scal (rspunsuri care nu corespund favorabile la unul sau altul dintre itemii
matricii ideale), N este numrul total de 1-4, n condiia n care la itemul 7 rspun-
subieci care au rspuns la scal, iar k este sul era NU (deci, protocolul era valid), la
numrul de itemi ai scalei. Pentru un su- itemul 6 DA, iar la itemul 5 NU, au
biect, formula de calcul este aceeai, doar fost considerate erori. Tot aa, toate rs-
c N = 1. Pentru un item, coeficientul de punsurile de DA la unul sau la altul dintre
reproductibilitate se poate obine cu ace- itemii 1-3, n condiia n care la itemul 7
eai formul, nlocuind pe k cu 1. rspunsul era NU, la itemii 6 i 5 DA,
n cazul scalelor perfect ierarhice iar la itemul 4 Nu, au fost considerate
(situaie foarte rar), valoarea lui CR este erori. La fel, rspunsurile de DA la unul
egal cu 1 (aceasta fiind limita superioar sau la ambii dintre itemii 1 i 2, n condi-
a intervalului de variaie pentru CR). Este ia n care, la itemul 7, rspunsul era NU,
situaia n care nu avem nici o eroare, pe la itemii 6, 5 i 4 DA, iar la itemul 3
ansamblul rspunsurilor date de subiecii NU, au fost considerate erori. n fine,
dintr-un lot la itemii scalei. Cum, n prac- rspunsul de DA la itemul 1, n condiia
tic, o astfel de situaie este cvasiinexis- n care, la itemul 7, rspunsul era NU, la
tent, Guttman a stabilit valorile ipotetice itemii 6, 5, 4 i 3 DA, iar la itemul 2
CR = 0.850.90 ca fiind limite critice, n NU, a fost considerat eroare.
funcie de care putem stabili dac un an- n total, dintre cele 155 (studeni)
samblu de itemi formeaz sau nu o scal 6 (itemi) = 930 de rspunsuri, 12 (sau
ierarhic sau cumulativ (cf. Chelcea, 1.2 %) au fost erori (abateri de la pattern-
2004). Aceasta nseamn c numrul total ul ideal al unei scale de tip Guttman). Va-
de erori pe care subiecii dintr-un lot le pot loarea coeficientului de reproductibilitate
obine la un ansamblu de itemi despre care a fost egal cu 0.98. Pentru cei ase itemi
presupunem c alctuiesc o scal ierarhic care au fost luai n calcul, n operaia de
29
Viorel ROBU
30
Distana social fa de persoanele de alte rase n rndul studenilor romni
fa de persoanele de alte rase, obinut pul acestor valori a fost urmat de grupul
n lotul de studeni care au participat la valorilor egale cu 20 (24.5 % din totalul
studiu (m = 0.39; s = 0.71). valorilor), corespunztoare acceptrii de
Datele referitoare la indicele contac- ctre studeni a patru dintre cele ase po-
telor sociale cu persoane de alte rase tre- sibiliti de contact social cu persoane de
buie analizate corelativ cu datele care se alte rase.
refer la indicele distanei sociale. Astfel, Pentru atitudinea fa de diversitatea
media valorilor indicelui contactelor so- rasial n rndul studenilor care au parti-
ciale cu persoane de alte rase (ICS), n- cipat la studiu, am obinut o distribuie a
registrat n lotul studenilor romni care scorurilor pronunat asimetric spre stn-
au participat la studiu, a fost egal cu 5.60 ga (tendina studenilor de a obine scoruri
(s = 0.71) o valoare ridicat, n raport ridicate). Peste 47 % dintre studeni au
cu valoarea maxim posibil a acestui in- obinut la Scala pentru msurarea atitu-
dice (= 6). Rezultatul este absolut firesc, dinii fa de diversitatea rasial scorurile
dac avem n vedere complementaritatea ridicate 18, 19 sau 20. Rezultatele la care
indicilor referitori la distana social i la ne-am referit s-au reflectat i n media sco-
contactele sociale (care au semnificaii rurilor obinute de ctre studeni: 17.04
exact opuse). Cu ct valoarea indicelui (s = 2.40). Aadar, studenii romni care au
contactelor sociale este mai ridicat, cu participat la studiu au manifestat tendina
att atitudinea unui student (deschiderea de a exprima o atitudine pozitiv (de des-
spre contacte sociale) fa de persoanele chidere) fa de diversitatea rasial.
de alte rase este mai accentuat. Tabelul 1 prezint comparaiile me-
De asemenea, ntruct indicele cali- diilor indicatorilor distanei sociale fa
tativ al contactelor sociale fa de persoa- de persoanele de alte rase, respectiv ale
nele de alte rase (ICCS) este strns legat mediilor scorurilor la atitudinea fa de
de indicele contactelor sociale (numrul diversitatea rasial, n funcie de religia
posibilitilor de contact social cu per- studenilor i de frecvena participrii la
soane de alte rase acceptate de ctre un activitile cultului religios. n rndul stu-
student), este normal ca tendina distri- denilor romni care au participat la studiul
buiei valorilor indicelui calitativ al con- nostru, att variabila religie, ct i variabila
tactelor sociale s fie aceeai cu tendina frecvena participrii la activitile religi-
distribuiei valorilor indicelui contactelor oase au avut un efect nesemnificativ din
sociale. Astfel, n lotul de studeni romni punct de vedere statistic asupra nivelului
care au participat la studiu, media valori- distanei sociale fa de persoanele de alte
lor indicelui calitativ al contactelor soci- rase. n cazul religiei, studenii ortodoci
ale cu persoane de alte rase a fost egal au obinut o medie a indicelui distanei so-
cu 24.45 (s = 4.39). Valorile indicelui au ciale foarte apropiat de media nregistrat
fost cuprinse ntre 9 i 20, cu o prepon- n rndul studenilor de alte religii. Aceeai
deren a valorilor egale cu 27 (69 % din tendin a fost constatat atunci cnd varia-
totalul valorilor), corespunztoare num- bila dependent a fost reprezentat de indi-
rului maxim (= 6) de posibiliti de con- cele contactelor sociale cu persoane de alte
tact social cu persoane de alte rase. Gru- rase, aspect care este logic, dac inem cont
31
Tabelul 1
Comparaii n funcie de: gen, vrst, statut academic, religie, activitatea religioas
i existena contactelor anterioare cu persoane de alte rase
Indicele Atitudinea fa
Indicele distanei Indicele calitativ al
Variabile contactelor sociale de diversitatea
Grupuri N sociale contactelor sociale
independente rasial
m s t m s t m s t m s t
masculin 31 0.25 0.44 5.74 0.44 25.45 2.81 16.48 2.52
gen - 1.60 1.60 1.88 - 1.46
feminin 124 0.42 0.76 5.57 0.76 24.20 4.67 17.18 2.35
18-20 ani 65 0.40 0.76 5.60 0.76 24.43 4.69 17.30 2.33
vrst 0.09 -0.09 - 0.06 1.15
21-26 ani 90 0.38 0.68 5.61 0.68 24.47 4.18 16.85 2.44
student 131 0.38 0.71 5.61 0.71 24.54 4.36 17.16 2.25
32
statut academic - 0.48 0.48 0.60 1.49
masterand 24 0.45 0.72 5.54 0.72 23.95 4.57 16.37 3.04
Viorel ROBU
ortodox 138 0.39 0.73 5.60 0.73 24.41 4.45 17.02 2.36
religie 0.06 - 0.06 - 0.21 - 0.28
altele 13 0.38 0.65 5.61 0.65 24.69 4.15 17.23 2.97
cu religie i merge
103 0.38 0.75 5.61 0.75 24.49 4.59 17.03 2.25
ocazional la biseric
frecvena activitate
cu religie i merge - 0.57 0.57 0.72 - 0.45
religioas
permanent la 43 0.46 0.66 5.53 0.66 23.90 4.21 17.23 2.61
biseric
contact anterior cu NU 67 0.53 0.87 5.46 0.87 23.49 5.27 16.65 2.79
2.07 * - 2.07 * - 2.29 * - 1.69
persoane de alte rase DA 88 0.28 0.54 5.71 0.54 25.19 3.43 17.34 2.02
* p < 0.05
Distana social fa de persoanele de alte rase n rndul studenilor romni
de complementaritatea celor doi indici. n sociale (t = 2.07; p < 0.05), media indicelui
fine, dei, comparativ cu media nregistrat contactelor sociale (t = - 2.07; p < 0.05), re-
de studenii ortodoci (m = 24.41), sublotul spectiv media indicelui calitativ al contac-
studenilor de alte religii a nregistrat o me- telor sociale (t = - 2.29; p < 0.05). Studenii
die uor mai ridicat a valorilor indicelui care nu avuseser experiena unor contacte
calitativ al contactelor sociale cu persoane anterioare cu persoane de alte rase au n-
de alte rase (m = 24.69), din nou, diferena registrat o medie (m = 0.53) mai ridicat a
a fost nesemnificativ din punct de vede- indicelui distanei sociale (ceea ce nseam-
re statistic. Aceeai tendin s-a constatat n tendina de a fi mai nchii fa de per-
n cazul comparaiei mediilor scorurilor la soanele de alte rase), comparativ cu media
atitudinea fa de diversitatea rasial. (m = 0.28) nregistrat de ctre studenii
n cazul comparaiilor n funcie de care avuseser contacte anterioare cu per-
variabila frecvena participrii la activi- soanele de alte rase. Corelativ, pentru stu-
tile religioase, valorile testului t-Stu- denii care nu avuseser anterior contacte
dent au fost ceva mai ridicate, dar tot cu persoane de alte rase, media indicelui
nesemnificative din punct de vedere sta- contactelor sociale (m = 5.46) a fost mai
tistic. Totui, este de remarcat c, n com- sczut, comparativ cu media nregistrat
paraie cu studenii care declaraser c au de studenii care avuseser astfel de con-
religie i merg permanent la biseric, cei tacte (m = 5.71). Aceeai tendin a fost
care declaraser c au religie i merg doar constatat i n cazul indicelui calitativ al
ocazional la biseric au obinut o medie contactelor sociale, strns legat de indice-
uor mai sczut a indicelui distanei so- le contactelor sociale.
ciale fa de persoanele de alte rase (ceea n schimb, n cazul atitudinii fa de
ce nseamn o deschidere mai mare). diversitatea rasial, studenii care au de-
Aceast tendin s-a exprimat n valori clarat c nu avuseser contacte cu per-
mai ridicate ale mediilor la indicele con- soane de alte rase au obinut o medie mai
tactelor sociale i la indicele calitativ al sczut (m = 16.65), comparativ cu media
contactelor sociale, pentru studenii care nregistrat de ctre studenii care au de-
au declarat c au religie i merg doar oca- clarat c avuseser contacte cu persoane
zional la biseric. de alte rase (m = 17.34). Dei diferena a
Pentru atitudinea fa de diversitatea fost nesemnificativ (t = - 1.69; p > 0.05),
rasial, tendina a fost invers: studenii datele indic tendina studenilor care
care aveau religie i mergeau ocazional la aveau experiena unor contacte anterioare
biseric au nregistrat o medie mai sczu- cu persoane de alte rase de a manifesta o
t dect cea a studenilor care aveau reli- atitudine mai favorabil fa de diversita-
gie i mergeau permanent la biseric. tea rasial, comparativ cu atitudinea ma-
Din Tabelul 1, se pot constata diferen- nifestat de ctre studenii care nu aveau
e semnificative ntre studenii care au de- astfel de contacte.
clarat c nu avuseser contacte cu persoa- n rndul studenilor care au par-
ne de alte rase i studenii care au declarat ticipat la studiu, frecvena contactelor
c avuseser anterior astfel de contacte, n sociale anterioare cu persoane de alte
ceea ce privete: media indicelui distanei rase a avut efecte nesemnificative asu-
33
Viorel ROBU
Tabelul 2
ANOVA One-Way n funcie de facultatea, anul de studiu
i frecvena contactelor anterioare cu persoane de alte rase
pra valorilor indicelui distanei sociale rativ cu studenii care avuseser rar (m =
(F = 0.29; p > 0.05), ale indicelui contac- 5.80) sau destul de des astfel de contacte
telor sociale (F = 0.69; p > 0.05), respec- (m = 5.69). Aceeai tendin a fost con-
tiv ale indicelui calitativ al contactelor statat n cazul mediilor pentru indicele
sociale (F = 0.69; p > 0.05) (Tabelul 2). calitativ al contactelor sociale: m = 24.70
Totui, n cazul studenilor care au decla- pentru studenii care au declarat c avu-
rat c avuseser foarte rar contacte ante- seser foarte rar contacte cu persoane de
rioare cu persoane de alte rase, media in- alte rase, m = 25.73 pentru studenii care
dicelui distanei sociale (m = 0.37) a fost avuseser rar astfel de contacte, respectiv
mai ridicat (ceea ce nseamn tendina m = 25.00 pentru studenii care avuse-
de nchidere), comparativ cu cea nregis- ser destul de des contacte cu persoane de
trat de ctre studenii care au declarat alte rase. Datele pe care le-am obinut nu
c avuseser rar (m = 0.20) sau destul de au prezentat un trend foarte clar.
des astfel de contacte (m = 0.30). De asemenea, frecvena contactelor
Corelativ, media indicelui contactelor anterioare cu persoane de alte rase a avut
sociale a fost mai sczut n rndul studen- un efect nesemnificativ asupra scorurilor
ilor care avuseser foarte rar contacte cu pe care studenii care au participat la studiu
persoane de alte rase (m = 5.62), compa- le-au obinut la atitudinea fa de diversita-
34
Distana social fa de persoanele de alte rase n rndul studenilor romni
tea rasial (F = 0.66; p > 0.05), chiar dac a unui grup rasial asupra altuia ntrind,
studenii care avuseser destul de des con- astfel, rasismul.
tacte cu persoane de alte rase au nregistrat Studiul pe care l-am realizat a abor-
o medie mai ridicat (m = 17.53), compa- dat problema atitudinii fa de persoane-
rativ cu media nregistrat de ctre studen- le de alte rase n rndul studenilor de et-
ii care avuseser rar (m = 17.13) sau foarte nie romn. Datele pe care le-am obinut
rar astfel de contacte (m = 17.22). au indicat, n rndul studenilor romni,
Corelaiile dintre valorile indicelui o distan social sczut (o deschidere
distanei sociale fa de persoanele de accentuat) fa de persoanele de alte
alte rase, valorile indicelui contactelor rase. La prima vedere, am putea spune
sociale, respectiv valorile indicelui cali- c rezultatul se datoreaz unei erori de
tativ al contactelor sociale, pe de o parte selecie a participanilor: faptul c majo-
i, pe de alta, scorurile pe care studenii ritatea (72.9 %) era format din studeni
care au participat la studiu le-au obinut n domenii (istorie, litere sau filosofie,
la Scala pentru msurarea atitudinii fa tiine social-politice) care implic (sau
de diversitatea rasial au fost semnifica- ar trebui s implice) deschiderea fa
tive din punct de vedere statistic, au avut de varietatea social i cultural de pe
sensurile ateptate (negativ pentru in- mapamond. ns, am abandonat aceast
dicele distanei sociale fa de persoane- explicaie, de vreme ce variabila facul-
le de alte rase, respectiv pozitiv pentru tate a avut un efect nesemnificativ din
indicele contactelor sociale i indicele punct de vedere statistic asupra valorilor
calitativ al contactelor sociale), ns va- indicatorilor distanei sociale, precum
lori modeste spre sczute (r = 0.21 pen- i asupra scorurilor la atitudinea fa de
tru indicele distanei sociale i indicele diversitatea rasial. Prin urmare, rezulta-
contactelor sociale, respectiv r = 0.19 tele pe care le-am obinut pot fi puse mai
pentru indicele calitativ al contactelor degrab pe seama experienelor sociale
sociale). anterioare pe care studenii care au parti-
Concluzii cipat la studiu le-au avut cu persoane de
Chiar dac genetica a artat c nu alte rase, a ,,deschiderii n mentalitate a
putem conchide asupra existenei unor acestora, precum i a faptului c, n pe-
diferene clare i semnificative ntre di- isajul social i cultural romnesc actual,
ferite rase (cu alte cuvinte, rasele nu au prezena strinilor de diverse etnii (rase)
numai baze pur biologice), rasismul con- este o constant, care nu poate s nu lase
tinu s fie o ameninare la adresa sta- ,,urme.
bilitii sociale din partea a diverse gru- Societatea romneasc este din ce
puri ideologice. Rasismul implic diver- n ce mai cosmopolit. Romnii de pre-
se prejudeci i stereotipuri, precum i tutindeni i de aproape toate condiiile
atitudini negative fa de persoanele de social-economice au ocazia unor in-
anumite rase. O serie de practici sociale, teraciuni cu persoane de alte etnii i/
politice, culturale i instituionale, ca i sau rase. Cu att mai mult putem vorbi
o serie de structuri politice i economi- despre categoria socio-demografic a
ce susin i faciliteaz puterea ierarhic studenilor, care nva n universiti n
35
Viorel ROBU
care exist numeroase schimburi inter- etnii i/sau rase prilejuiesc schimburi in-
naionale i triesc n campus-uri (ora- formaionale, mprtirea unor opinii i
e) universitare, n care au ocazia unor atitudini cu privire la diverse aspecte ale
interaciuni cu studeni de alte etnii i/ vieii sau fenomene sociale, mprtirea
sau rase. Alturi de schimbarea menta- i trirea n comun a unor emoii, demon-
litii tinerei generaii de romni (faci- tarea unor stereotipuri evaluative (gene-
litat i de numeroasele ieiri peste ho- ratoare de conflicte), ajustarea reciproc
tare), aceast caracteristic a contribuit, a imaginii despre cellalt etc. Contactele
probabil, la deschiderea studenilor ro- repetate cu persoane de alte etnii i/sau
mni fa de interaciunile cu persoane rase creeaz premisa unui pluralism al
de alte rase. opiniei i al atitudinii exprimate de ctre
Datele obinute de la studenii ro- actorii sociali care interacioneaz, ge-
mni care au participat la studiul nostru nernd fie relaii de comunicare asertiv,
au evideniat anumite tendine n ceea bazat pe toleran reciproc i pe coo-
ce privete relaia dintre apartenena la perare, fie relaii conflictuale (bazate pe
o confesiune religioas (respectiv frec- prejudeci i stereotipuri etnice i/sau
vena participrii la activitile cultului rasiale). Este i cazul studenilor care
religios) i distana social fa de per- pot coopera cu studeni de alte etnii i/
soanele de alte rase, ns relaiile obi- sau rase, n implementarea unor proiec-
nute au fost nesemnificative din punct de te interculturale. Astfel de activiti nu
vedere statistic. Acest rezultat sugereaz pot fi dect benefice pentru meninerea
c, n rndul studenilor, religia tinde s i/sau creterea toleranei interculturale,
nu fie un factor care blocheaz deschide- interetnice i interrasiale, adic n asi-
rea fa de persoanele de alte etnii i/sau gurarea unei atitudini i a unor modele
rase. Totui, pentru a clarifica relaia din- comportamentale pacifiste.
tre religie i distana social fa de per- Rezultatele studiului pe care l-am
soanele de alte rase n rndul studenilor realizat sugereaz c, cel puin la nivel
romni, este necesar un volum mai mare declarativ, studenii romni par s fie des-
de date de teren obinute de la studeni la chii i tolerani fa de persoanele de alte
faculti mai variate. rase. Totui, nu putem ignora posibilitatea
Din rspunsurile pe care le-au dat unei discrepane ,,ascunse n structura
studenii romni care au participat la stu- atitudinii fa de persoanele de alte rase
diu, a rezultat c experiena contactelor n rndul studenilor: la nivel declarativ,
cu persoane de alte rase pare s conteze atitudinea unui student poate prea favo-
n raport cu ,,nivelul distanei sociale: rabil, ns, la nivel comportamental, este
n rndul studenilor care avuseser ex- posibil s se reflecte un anumit nivel al
periena unor contacte cu persoane de intoleranei. Aceast posibil inconsisten-
alte rase, distana social a manifestat ntre declaraii i potenialele compor-
tendina de a fi semnificativ mai sczut tamente manifeste merit s fie studiat,
dect distana social n rndul studeni- n cadrul unor studii experimentale de
lor care nu avuseser astfel de contacte anvergur.
sociale. Contactele cu persoanele de alte
36
Distana social fa de persoanele de alte rase n rndul studenilor romni
37
Psihologie, 4, 2011
PSIHOLOGIE CLINIC
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adaptation to the diagnosis is usually difficult and adversely affects quality of life of people.
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depression, lack of confidence in the future. These components have led us to conduct studies
that would highlight some of the psychological problems that may affect the intensity of the ex-
perience of fear of death as a reaction to cancer, because the treatment of cancer in the modern
world is impossible without the involvement of psychological services.
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46
Psihologie, 4, 2011
PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS
OF THE COUPLE DURING KIDNEY FAILURE.
Abstract
Acest relatare reflect viziunea autorilor asupra unui studiu de caz prezentat de ctre un
psihoterapeut care a fost conveuit cu soia ce suferea de insuficien renal timp de 29 de ani.
Persoanele care ingrijesc bolnavii cronici nu sunt pacieni, deaceea nevoile lor psihologice
tind s fie neglijate de ctre profesioniti. ns acestea afecteaz n mare msur sntatea i
calitatea vieii lor, plintatea relaiilor lor cu persoana bolnav, alegerile de via, cum ar fi s
pun capt sau nu sau s limiteze relatia lor de ngrijire. O puternic influen asupra nsoito-
rilor o are metafora, aleas in mod constient sau inconstient, cu privire la soarta sa, modul de
via i de relaia lor. Asistenii profesioniti trebuie s fie contieni de potenialul conflict de
interese, care poat exista ntre ingrijitori i bolnavii cronici persoane dragi i importante. n
lucrare se propun soluii practice pentru grija de ingrijitorii de ctre medici, asistente medicale
si profesionistii din sfera sanatii mintale.
The work was not done at a hospital his chair. (Maggie Strong, 1988)
or institution and no support was received. If you live facing the challenge of
This is adapted from a paper supervised chronic illness in your life or in the life
by Dr. Kenneth Keeling and accepted as of someone you love, you have no choice
a degree requirement by the Adler School but to master the dance. Once you put on
of Professional Psychology. your dancing shoes, find the proper mu-
The undercurrent of chronic illness sic, create the appropriate atmosphere,
is like the volcano: it does not go away. you will lead your chronic illness, your
It menaces. It erupts. One damned thing partner, onto the dance floor like a world-
follows another. (Arthur Kleinman, M. D. champion dancer, with dignity and grace.
1988) (Louise Giroux, 1998)
Once you [the support person] decide Introduction
you have to talk, the problem is to whom? There are roughly five to eight mil-
The loved one is probably not the best lion well spouses of chronically ill people
person to discuss some of your problems in the United States alone (see Strong,
with, simply because they often are your 1988). The strain of caregiving may seri-
problem. (Ken Wilber, 2000) ously affect the health of these caregivers
I do know Ill never walk down the (Haug, 1999).
street with my man, feeling part of an The incidence of diseases may be
ordinary couple. Ill be holding [my hus- estimated somewhat more precisely. By
bands] hand to support him, or pushing one account, 14 percent of all Americans
47
Mahdi TARABEIH, Victoria GONA
are limited in their activities by a chronic the support person may find it necessary
medical condition (McDaniel Hepworth to rely on a support group or on psycho-
and Doherty, 1992). This includes peo- therapy (Wilber, 2000).
ple afflicted by dementia (Alzheimers It is all too easy for both a kidney
syndrome, vascular dementia and other failure patient and a well spouse to be
causes), cancer, multiple sclerosis, seri- noble victims, willingly accepting their
ous mental illness (including substance suffering as Christ accepted his crucifix-
dependence and PTSD), Crohns dis- ion. This metaphor is limiting. It severely
ease, congenital birth defects and retar- restricts the ability to embrace and enjoy
dation, and AIDS (Lindqvst, Carlsson life (Dreikurs, 1997), to enhance the qual-
and Sjoden, 2000). Kidney failure af- ity of a marital relationship and to make
fects about 200,000 people in the United sound decisions, including whether to
States, or four out of every 10,000 people adopt a child. As Rudolf Dreikurs (1997)
(Cameron, 1996). wrote, [W]e are all the masters of our fate
This article reflects my personal expe- to an unbelievable degree, but we feel and
rience of 29 years of marriage to a spouse act as if we were the victims of circum-
with kidney failure. My wife and I experi- stances beyond our control. To live their
enced the effects of two kinds of dialysis lives fully and successfully, the chronical-
and of kidney transplantation. We had many ly ill and their well spouses might choose
warm and loving times, including some in another, more life-sustaining metaphor
the midst of health traumas, and there were than the willing suffering or martyrdom
other times of frustration, fear and despair. (Dreikurs, 1997). One powerful metaphor
My wife demonstrated great courage, perse- -- dancing with chronic illness -- has been
verance and love in the face of overwhelm- suggested by a person who dances with
ing setbacks. By living with her, I became a multiple sclerosis (Giroux, 1998).
more compassionate, caring person.. Short- The patient, the well spouse and their
ly before she died, I left her. therapist should be aware of the important
Caregivers are entitled to respect for place that metaphor plays in the quality of
their own personal suffering (McDaniel life. As Kopp (1995) has written:
1992; McDaniel, Hepworth and Doherty, Metaphor carries meaning over from
1995; Strong, 1988; Wilber, 2000). The one domain to another. When Romeo de-
well spouse, with support from the ill clares, Juliet is the sun, for example, the
partner, can seek an equal relationship suns qualities convey the meaning that is
in which each supports the other through carried over to Juliet.
times of suffering. It should not be as- Metaphors suggest the existence of
sumed that the interests of the well spouse imaginative-cognitive processes, which
should be subordinated to that of the pa- combine the mental processes that char-
tient or that they are identical to that of acterize both the left and right sides of the
the patient (Strong, 1988). It also should brain (Kopp, 1995). By working with and
not be assumed that the ill person is too modifying metaphors, new patterns and
weak to provide support for her well part- connections can be established and a cli-
ner (but see Wilber, 2000). If she is, then ent may be encouraged to take an entirely
48
Psychological needs of the couple during kidney failure
new approach to existing life circum- or sexual contact? Are they communicat-
stances. In the context of chronic illness, ing well (Ehrlich, 2000)? Are they cooper-
metaphor work is promising because it ating with their doctors in effective care of
may powerfully affect the quality of life the patient? Are they hurting the quality of
(Kopp, 1995). As trauma follows trauma, their life by abusing substances (Giroux,
the quality of life can continue to be im- 1998)? Are they appropriately involved in
proved. The extent to which metaphors socially useful and personally satisfying
can cope with the descending ladder of activities (Dreikurs, 1997; Wilbur 2000)?
disease is as yet uncertain because there Are they using metaphors that support the
are no data about the consistent use of this quality of their lives (Kopp, 1995)? Are
method of therapy. they being real (Scott, 2000)? These im-
Chronic disease may also be thought portant questions, whose answers may be
of as necessitating grief concerning losses elusive, can be pursued with the affected
that have occurred or are clearly foresee- couple by the primary care physician, a
able. The well spouse and the patient both capable nurse or a psychotherapist. Then,
experience enormous loss as the result of if appropriate, referrals can be made for
the chronic illness and its complications, group, couples, family or individual psy-
and it may well be necessary for both to chotherapy or for a caregiver support
grieve this loss in order to go beyond the group (Strong, 1988; Well-Spouse Foun-
sadness, anger and fear that may at first dation, 1992; Wilbur 2000).
engulf them (Giroux, 1998; Strong, 1988). Professional caregivers should guard
After they grieve, they may be freer to de- against overprotecting their patient by un-
termine the direction in which each is go- derstating the seriousness of their condi-
ing to move (Dreikurs, 1997). tion. Whether or not this lack of truth may
Whether or not a couple is coping at times be justified for avoiding harmful
well with a chronic illness requires a effects on the ill person, it is very likely
complex, sensitive clinical judgment. It is to have harmful effects on those who care
common even among healthy people for for them.
them to justify themselves and to ignore A purpose of this article is to improve
the possibility of further enriching their the care given by health care profession-
lives, so a therapist cannot necessarily als to all well spouses and caregivers,
count on the client to know what changes particularly those coping with End Stage
are possible (Ehrlich, 2000; Scott, 2000). Renal Disease (ESRD), more commonly
(See Strong, 1988, who assumes that her called kidney failure. The article inter-
husband could not face some personal sperses citations to the existing literature
truths that she withheld from him; Wilber, with personal insights and reflections
2000; but see Scott, 2000.) about caring for my late wife during her
A professional caregiver may won- chronic kidney failure.
der, in light of the patients known physi- Literature Review
cal ailments, how well a patient and well For the most part, the caregiver of the
spouse are coping with difficulties. Are chronically ill has been a forgotten per-
they unnecessarily avoiding interpersonal son. One exception to this rule is a superb
49
Mahdi TARABEIH, Victoria GONA
50
Psychological needs of the couple during kidney failure
ter on, Building on Your Relationship. In addition, as Strong (1988) and Wil-
They state that, If your relationship was bur (2000) I have observed, it is important
healthy before dialysis, it still can be. . . . for a well spouse to develop independent
Nothing is more important than a loving spiritual resources and interests, including
relationship, which can be preserved and activities outside of the home and activi-
grown, even with kidney failure. Phillips ties separate from patient (The Life Op-
provides helpful advice about living with tions Rehabilitation Advisory Council and
someone with kidney failure and about AAKP, 2000). I found meditation to be a
how a kidney failure patient may improve particularly useful spiritual practice and
family interactions and learn to cope with I also took comfort from prayer and the
difficult emotions. However, both of these worship of Jesus Christ (Bloch, 1997).
sources are developed from the standpoint There appear to be two principal rea-
of the patient. sons why the needs of caregivers may
The Life Options Rehabilitation Advi- sometimes be overlooked. One reason
sory Council and the AAKP (2000) surface may be deduced from the first sentence of
various important life issues, including an article by Ann Burack-Weiss (1995),
some very difficult feelings that caregiver- who states, A commitment to families
spouses may experience. It does not recog- is the hallmark of the social work pro-
nize, as Strong (1988) does, that the well fession, and the emphasis is nowhere
spouse has one option the ill spouse does more evident than in the intervention of
not have: to be relieved of the continuous enhancing informal supports in cases of
blows dealt by the sick spouses illness by illness and disability. [Emphasis added.]
leaving the relationship. It also does not That statement, also endorsed by some
recognize that caregivers may need to seek family physicians (Doherty & Macaran,
separate psychotherapy or group support 1983), implies that the client is the kid-
to find a constructive resolution that is suit- ney failure patient and that the caregiver
ed to their particular interests. is support. I infer that another reason that
In the area of sexual compatibility, the needs of caregivers are not fully appre-
The Life Options Rehabilitation Advisory ciated, is greater empathy for the patient
Council and the AAKP (2000) acknowl- and the likelihood that the caregiver may
edge that chronic illness may affect a cou- not represent or understand their own best
ples sex life. Dr. David Schnarch also ad- interest because of guilt about the greater
dresses this problem, stressing that couples suffering of the patient.
who are fused may need to become more The well spouse and the patient
individualized or differentiated in order to make the physicians job harder because
improve their relationship and their sexu- they often cope through harmful denial,
ality (Schnarch, 1998). Unless a couple also called optimism (Lindqvst, Carls-
undertakes serious work on their relation- son and Sjoden, 2000). For example, my
ship, they will never discern whether their spouse and I implicitly decided, early in
couple problems are psychological due her illness, that I would not express my
to their metaphors and misunderstandings emotional reactions to her physical de-
or physiological. terioration, permitting her to deny the
51
Mahdi TARABEIH, Victoria GONA
impact of her disease on me (see Strong, tors responded to specific medical con-
1988). My spouse tried always to do her cerns but not to honest fears that my wife
best with her illness, but she acknowl- was dying.
edged that she needed support. I took the These omissions, while important to
role of the strong supporter. When I once me, do not seriously affect my gratitude
broke this unspoken rule by mentioning that my wife received superbly effective,
that I felt a heavy weight on my chest caring medical attention under very dif-
when I approached our home, my spouse ficult circumstances. I am grateful to all
responded that she was happy during the the medical people who assisted both of
same time period in which I felt distress. us, including two psycho-therapists: a
In this way, the importance of my feelings psychologist, Rudi Bauer, who gave me
was dismissed, much in the same spirit superb care (Bloch, 1997) and another
as Strongs pain was dismissed by her psychologist who cared for my wife and
husbands remark that, He hurt more. met with us a few times in joint session.
(Strong, 1988). In addition, I was very fortunate to have
Professionals May Mislead Caregivers attended EST (Erhard Seminar Training,
and Provide Incomplete Information now called The Forum) and Lifespring,
During my late wifes lengthy ill- both marathon experiential courses. These
ness, there were times when doctors pro- controversial courses helped me greatly to
vided incomplete information or told us understanding myself and to recover from
less than they knew -- though there were misconceptions about my life and from
times when they also knew less than we the numbness that developed as a defense
wanted them to know. They may have to my wifes illness and my sons serious
failed to reveal some things because they difficulties (Bloch, 1997).
had many patients with complex illnesses Despite these superb therapeutic ex-
and felt that they did not have the time periences, there were a few unresolved
to explain things fully. They also may couples issues whose importance I never
have remained vague in part because they appreciated. This did not keep my wife
wanted to spare their patient additional and me from having a loving relationship,
mental pain related to an uncertain future. with many wonderful high points. But I
However, the result was poor information now am aware that the relationship could
about her illness (Lindqvst, Carlsson and have been even better.
Sjoden, 2000). For example, before we At the time my wife and I adopted
were married a doctor misled us by reas- a child, we were unaware of the special
suring us (without a sound basis) that she problems of adoption. Since I now believe
probably would not have serious conse- that all adopted children have a pre-verbal
quences from her glomerulonephritis un- awareness of abandonment by their natu-
til she was 80. Later on, poor information ral mother (Mat 2000; Verrier 1999), our
was given about the effects her illness son was less able to withstand the special
might make have on her ability to care pressures of chronic illness and the fear
properly for an adopted child. And in the that his mother might die, representing a
last year of my wifes final illness, doc- second abandonment.
52
Psychological needs of the couple during kidney failure
Illness also prevented my wife from and the caregiver. This may depend both
giving our son the attention a healthy on the perspective or metaphor that the
mother can freely give. We were not chronically ill and their caregivers adopt
aware of the extent to which my wife (Kopp, 1995; Wilbur 2000), and also on
would be handicapped as a mother or the the course of the illness (Strong, 1988).
extent to which the home of a chroni- Many complications occur during an
cally ill mother might be affected by extended course of kidney failure (Cam-
tension and anger that is harmful for a eron 1996; Phillips 1999). No simple list
child (Bowlby 1998; Mat 2000; Strong is adequate to describe the events that oc-
1988; see also AAKP Patient Plan 2000). cur. My wifes illness predated the use of
We also were not aware that the pres- erythropoietin so she suffered from ex-
sures of chronic illness would keep us treme anemia, necessitating regular blood
from becoming educated, effective par- transfusions. She had osteodystrophy, a
ents. While there may be some chroni- more profound deterioration of the bones
cally ill mothers whose condition and than osteoporosis, and she had so many
strength-of-spirit permit them to be good small fractures of the rib that x-rays were
mothers, caution should be exercised be- incapable of identifying recent breaks.
fore adopting a child because the job of Osteodystrophy also contributed to sev-
mother is difficult and demanding even eral broken bones, including spontaneous
for healthy mothers. Because the mother breaks in both of her large leg bones and
often is the primary attachment figure the upper bone in the left arm.
(Bowlby 1998), the fathers illness may Access clotting and infection and the
be important primarily as it affects the need for surgical revision or reloca-
mother, but caution also should be taken tion was a regular source of anxiety and
about having or adopting a child into a of frequent local, relatively minor sur-
home with a chronically ill secondary at- gery. My wife would sometimes say that
tachment figure. she could not take even one more setback.
Caretaking During Repeated For one ten year period, peritoneal dialy-
Medical Setbacks sis was appropriate for my wifes kidney
There are some chronically ill peo- failure (Cameron 1996; Phillips 1999).
ple whose perspective on their own ill- In this process, dialysate was introduced
ness permits them to live so fully that into her belly through a surgically im-
they inspire their families and loved ones planted catheter. The flesh around the
rather than only burdening them (Klein- catheter was an open wound, and my wife
man, 1988). Two particularly noteworthy suffered several incidents of peritonitis,
examples are Dr. Richard Kopp, a psy- a life-threatening infection treated only
chologist and author with kidney failure, by powerful intravenous antibiotics. My
and Louise Giroux, a psychotherapist and wife also suffered peri-carditis, a painful
author with multiple sclerosis. However, event that could be distinguished from an-
it is more often the case that the course of gina and aneurysm only by the emergency
kidney failure or end stage renal disease catheterization, requiring the insertion of
(ESRD) is traumatic, both for the patient a plastic tube through a large artery in the
53
Mahdi TARABEIH, Victoria GONA
leg and into the heart area, for necessary der, bi-polar II disorder, and substance
dye studies. dependency. It was not uncommon for
My wife also suffered systemic strep- his crises to occur simultaneously with
tococcus infections, primarily from in- his mothers. I have a particularly vivid
fections of access sites. These infections memory of leaving the hospital where
slowly hardened her heart valves. my wife was being treated for seizures to
Kidney transplants did not work take my son to the hospital because he
well for my wife (Cameron 1996; Phil- was suicidal.
lips, 1999). Data on the survival of The need to deal simultaneously
transplanted kidneys are becoming more with both kidney failure and serious
encouraging, making transplantation an mental illness caused repeated trauma
increasingly attractive alternative, but to everyone, including my wife, my son
my wife and I delayed transplantation, and myself.
fearing complications that might lead to The Need for Truth and Sensitivity
serious illness or death (Cameron 1996, Doctors ordinarily should tell the
Phillips 1999). My wifes first transplant truth. Accurate information is needed
occurred after 15 years of dialysis. The both by dialysis patients and their spouses
kidney never functioned fully, being lost at different stages of the illnesses that pre-
through an incident of peritonitis. During cede kidney failure (McDaniel, Hepworth
this transplant, anti-rejection medications and Doherty, 1992). When a medical per-
caused delirium, with psychotic symp- son is too gentle on the kidney failure pa-
toms and fear that she might commit sui- tient, this conveys the implicit message
cide. A second transplant was given after that the doctor does not think he or she
my wifes 29th year on dialysis, when she can bear up under the stress. This gentle-
was in a noticeably weakened condition. ness has the effect, therefore, of increasing
The second transplant led to a respiratory anxiety when the stresses actually materi-
collapse and to death. alize. In addition, gentleness requires
There were many other complica- that inaccurate impressions be conveyed
tions, each less significant that those to the patient, assuring that these same in-
already discussed. These complications accuracies will be passed on to those who
included surgical alteration of the body, care for the chronically ill.
loss of physical vigor, brain deterioration For clarity, I discuss the illness in the
causing speech seizures, an increased ten- following stages: (1) preliminary: illness
dency to fall, and general seizures. The that may progress to the stage of kidney
disease caused my wife to age more rap- failure, (2) imminent: illness resulting
idly than others, so that hospital person- from serious loss of kidney function, (3)
nel often inquired whether my wife was kidney failure: illness that would be fatal
my mother. in the absence of dialysis or transplant,
During my spouses chronic illness, (4) complications: loss of some important
our energies were absorbed by her illness bodily functions, including the skeletal
(Strong, 1988; Verrier 1999). Our son system, the neurological system, the skin
developed borderline personality disor- and the desire for sexuality, and (5) deteri-
54
Psychological needs of the couple during kidney failure
oration: loss of multiple bodily functions, forming this assessment may, of course,
necessitating adaptation to a restricted life have a negative social cost to others be-
and to approaching death. cause the caregiver may decide to make
Preliminary. At this stage, the physi- a limited commitment or even to leave,
cian knows that the patient has a disease preventing society from depending on the
that may at some point result in kidney potential caregiver. However, the welfare
failure. This is a shock, and the patient of the caregiver is also worth considering
may cope with it by denial or by mourn- and no one should undertake such a heavy
ing the loss and preparing to accept the burden unless fully and accurately reflect
future. on their situation.
Doctors monitor the patient carefully Imminent. There are many physical
during this stage. It is common for the pa- and emotional problems that occur as
tient to be anxious. Blood pressure read- kidney failure nears, including a change
ings may be even higher than they should in patterns of urination, edema (swelling
be due in part to fear from being in the of the face, feet, belly and other areas),
physicians office. Doctors may suggest high blood pressure, loss of appetite or
that the patient get a blood pressure cuff nausea, bad tastes (often described as an
and measure blood pressure at home. This odor of ammonia), feeling tired or weak,
deals with the need for an accurate blood mental changes such as an inability to
pressure reading, but it ignores the need concentrate or confusion, and headaches
to address the patients underlying anxi- (AAKP, 2000; Cameron, 1996). Some pa-
ety, which has serious implications for tients may have spikes in blood pressure
coping with chronic illness. and retained fluid, threatening possible
The preliminary stage is an opportu- congestive heart failure.
nity for a complete psychological diagno- The imminent stage is an important
sis and for therapy that may help both the time for psychological adjustment. The
patient and prospective caregivers to face changes in the body clearly signal that
the future. It also is an excellent time to something wrong is going on. The
educate the patient and potential caregiv- sense of mortality may be heightened.
ers in detail about the likely course of the There may be emotional symptoms, in-
disease and the resources that are avail- cluding severe anxiety or panic attacks.
able to them. The best available sources These panic attacks may be related to
are Cameron 1996, The Life Options serious, physiological irregularities and
Rehabilitation Advisory Council and they may trigger trips to hospital emer-
AAKP (2000), and Phillips (1987). This gency rooms.
education may be an inoculation that will These are also times that people begin
prevent or reduce future trauma (Carson, to consider the effect of chronic disease
Butcher & Mineka, 1998). because their kidneys are failing. A wom-
For prospective caregivers, the pre- an patient may consider whether or not to
liminary stage can be particularly impor- bear a child. Consideration may also be
tant. It is at this time that a potential care- given to adoption as an alternate way to
giver can assess the burden of care. Per- add a child to the family (AAKP Patient
55
Mahdi TARABEIH, Victoria GONA
56
Psychological needs of the couple during kidney failure
57
Mahdi TARABEIH, Victoria GONA
independent and hoping or praying for a out on a new life while the chronically ill
restoration of comparative health. After spouse is dying.
all, there have been better periods in the Psychotherapeutic Issues
past. Why should those periods not recur The principal therapeutic issue is that
in the future? the extent of a caregivers trauma may de-
The spouse, on the other hand, ob- pend on perspective. New metaphors may
serves the deterioration, sometimes more be created by the well spouse, either alone
objectively than the patient. Emotionally or with professional help (Kopp, 1995).
this is difficult, but the caregiver is not Depending on the course of the illness,
personally losing physical capacity. Each this may make it possible for medical
loss means that caretaking becomes more difficulties to be accepted and life to be
arduous. There can be increasing resent- more fully embraced, even with the dif-
ment at the increasing caretaking load ficulties.
and, if it occurs, at the spouses denial of With the losses and stresses caused
the reality that is occurring. It is natural by illness and its effects, pre-existing per-
in this stage to be ambivalent toward the sonal psychological problems, interper-
spouse. There is hope that the spouse will sonal problems or sexual problems may
get better, at the same time wishing that be even more difficult to resolve than if
the caretaking load would be lightened. the couple were healthy (Life Options Re-
The death of the spouse may be seen as habilitation Advisory Council and AAKP,
an ambivalent event, marking the end of a 2000). For example, if the caregiver has
loving relationship and also of a very great been emotionally shut down before the
burden. It is also quite natural to long for kidney failure occurred, the increased
another, lighter, more carefree relation- tension may lead to emotional numbing
ship that is more reciprocal and that de- (Bloch, 1997 ).
mands less day-to-day personal strength I found that I was proud to be a
from the caregiver (Strong, 1988). caregiver. This means that I told others
During the stage of deterioration, the that I was doing well and had developed
patient may want to deny the seriousness spiritual wisdom with which to cope
of what is occurring. The well spouse may with my difficulties. This was, however,
well want accurate information, even if the only partly true for I was often close to
patient does not. If the spouse has already tears. Fortunately, I benefitted from two
devoted many years of care, it is natural major experiential courses, from the
not to want to be a deserter in the final ill- practice of meditation, and from superb
ness. On the other hand, if there is no way individual psychotherapy. I also benefit-
to estimate realistically how much longer ted from physical exercise, which is both
the illness may last, then the spouse may palliative coping (Lindqvst, Carlsson
decide to leave, as I did. Accurate infor- and Sjoden, 2000) and an effective way
mation concerning the progression of the to maintain continuing health (Life Op-
disease and the increased risk of mortal- tions Rehabilitation Advisory Council
ity may well induce the caregiver spouse and AAKP, 2000; Strong, 1988). How-
to stay the course rather than to strike ever, these practices did not remove the
58
Psychological needs of the couple during kidney failure
entire burden. It was only after my wife emotional responses to avoid imposing
died and I developed a new, loving re- extra, unnecessary stress on the spouse
lationship that is not clouded by chronic (Strong, 1988; Wilbur, 2000). While this
illness that I appreciated the freedom and coping mechanism may, to some degree,
the fulness of life that I had been missing be necessary,it may prevent the couple
(Strong, 1988). from being equal partners and may pre-
The proud caregiver may also be vent the patient from experiencing a sense
an enabler, preventing the patient from of communion or a full loving relation-
full involvement and commitment to self- ship (Dreikurs, 1997; McDaniel, Hep-
care (McDaniel, Hepworth and Doherty, worth and Doherty, 1992). The caregiver
1992). Though the patient suffers from may try to bear-up emotionally for both
many ailments, including pre-existing of them and may even feel guilty that the
emotional weaknesses, the patient and patient suffers so much in their illness. In
spouse may be capable of living a far rich- the process, there is an implicit contract
er, more fulfilling life than they choose. If that the caregiver is not entitled to express
the caregiver does too much, then the pa- negative feelings toward the chronically
tient may give in to the natural tendency ill person including feelings of burden,
of sick children (or adults) to be overly embarrassment, lack of physical compan-
dependent and momish (Bowlby, 1998). ionship, sexual frustration, or even the oc-
This may reduce the incentive to resolve casional wish that the stress might be re-
pre-existing emotional weaknesses. It lieved by the spouses death. Indeed, this
also may reduce the patients self-esteem secrecy may be the hardest burden. Yet,
by validating their retreat from socially sharing this feeling might be threatening
useful activities (Life Options Rehabilita- to a dependent spouse (Strong, 1988; Wil-
tion Advisory Council and AAKP 2000). bur, 2000).
According to Doherty and Baird (1983), Several different kinds of therapy are
It is especially difficult diagnostically to potentially helpful to the caregiver, in-
differentiate families that are appropriate- cluding individual therapy, homogenous
ly supporting their disabled member . . . group therapy with other caregivers,
from families that are over-supporting the general group therapy, family therapy,
members by keeping these persons de- and a non-facilitated support group for
pendent. (See Life Options Rehabilita- the family or for the well spouse. Some
tion Advisory Council and AAKP, 2000; support groups for the well spouse may
Strong, 1988.) be so concerned with the welfare of the
An important couples issue may arise patients, that they may find it difficult to
directly from the caretaking relationship. concentrate on the well spouses needs
If the chronically ill person is upbeat and rather than those of the patients (Strong,
independent, then this issue may not be 1988). Support groups appear to be ef-
of major importance. However, if the fective, whether they are led by peers or
chronically ill person is overprotected by trained facilitators (Park & Folkman,
or emotionally dependent, then the care- 1997; Wilbur, 2000).
giver may either suppress or repress The literature also suggests that the
59
Mahdi TARABEIH, Victoria GONA
caregiver take vacations from caretaking failure (or other chronic illness) was a se-
duties (Life Options Rehabilitation Ad- rious risk.
visory Council and AAKP, 2000; Strong, An important issue, highlighted in
1988). Consideration might be given to this paper, is the need to study the meta-
taking these vacations in pastoral set- phors used by patients and by well spous-
tings, which are as relaxing as possible. es and the possible effectiveness of meta-
Some caregivers may also choose, as I phor therapy. What effect do these meta-
did, to have sexual affairs. While this is phors have on the quality of life? How do
labeled immoral and may weaken or de- metaphors change as time passes? How
stroy the existing marital bond, some well successful are well spouses in their mar-
spouses may consider this alternative to riage and in the quality of their lives?
be attractive and acceptable. It may even What limitations, if any, does the course
be in keeping with the more democratic of the illness place on the effectiveness of
spirit of our times (Dreikurs, 1997). Some metaphors?
therapists may address this question by There also is a need for the publica-
asking the well spouse the Rawlsian ques- tion of subjective story telling. What are
tion, What would you want the other to the stories of well spouses and patients
do if the situation were reversed (Strong, (Giroux, 1998; Kleinman, 1988; Strong,
1988)? 1988)? In addition, it would be helpful to
When psychotherapy or support compile case studies written by knowl-
groups are utilized, care should be taken edgeable therapists. It could be that the
to inform the caregiver how much the Well Spouse Foundation can play a role
work will focus on the patient and how in stimulating these studies.
much on the well spouse. In some groups Conclusion
and in family therapy, the caregivers Spouses and others who care for pa-
thoughts about dissolving their relation- tients with kidney failure have a variety
ship may not be welcomed. Even in in- of physical, emotional and spiritual needs
dividual psychotherapy, the therapist that have not yet been adequately consid-
may not be willing to fully explore all ered by medical and psychotherapeutic
possibilities out of personal concern for professions. A heightened awareness of
the patient and a fear that a full explora- these needs may be dawning. Well spous-
tion of alternatives may leave the patient es experience stress from the multiple
without a caregiver. crises in the life of their loved one. Their
Future Research needs are significant and are not always
This article is based on personal ex- the same as the needs of the patient. Some
perience and on a few sources that ad- of the impact on them depends on the
dress the long-term issues of being the metaphors they use to adapt to this trying
well spouse of a kidney failure patient. life situation.
Additional information could be gained The well spouses of kidney failure
by panel studies of well spouses and other patients and of other chronically ill peo-
caregivers, following them from the mo- ple need separate, distinct consideration.
ment that they became aware that kidney As we become more effective in keeping
60
Psychological needs of the couple during kidney failure
the chronically ill alive for longer peri- Holistic medicine. Individual Psychology
ods, the needs of their caregivers become 53(2), pp. 128-205.
increasingly important. 9. Ehrlich, F. M. (2000). Dialogue,
Acknowledgments couple therapy, and the unconscious.
My wife, Mary Anna, who suffered Contemporary Psychoanalysis 36(3), pp.
with me. My wife, I-Ping, who has taught 483-503.
me the full meaning of love. Kenneth 10. Giroux, L. (1998). Taking the
Keeling, Ph.D., who was my supervisor lead: Dancing with Chronic Illness. Kel-
in developing this research paper. Rudi owna, British Columbia, Canada: North-
Bauer, Ph.D., who was my insightful, stone Publishing Inc.
loving psychotherapist and who reviewed 11. Haug, M. R., Ford, A. B., Stange,
this paper and encouraged me to seek K. C., Noelker, L. S. & Gaines, A. D.
publication. Sheldon Kopp, Ph.D., who (1999). Effect of giving care on caregiv-
contributed essential ideas about the im- ers health. Research on Aging 21 (4).
portance of metaphors and who encour- 12. Kleinman, A. (1988). The illness
aged me in developing this paper. narratives: Suffering, healing & the hu-
man condition. New York: Basic Books,
References Inc.
1. Burack-Weiss, A. (1995). The 13. Kopp, R. (1995). Metaphor ther-
caregivers memoir: A new look at family apy: Using client-generated metaphors in
support. Social Work 40(3), pp. 391-395. psychotherapy. New York: Bruner/Ma-
2. Bowlby, J (1998). Attachment and zel.
Loss. London: Random House. 14. The Life Options Rehabilitation
3. Cameron, S. (1996). Kidney fail- Advisory Council and the American As-
ure: The facts. New York: Oxford Univer- sociation of Kidney Patients (AAKP) and
sity Press Inc. the (undated, about 2000). New life, new
4. Carson, R. C., Butcher, J. N. & hope: a book for family and friends of re-
Mineka, S. (1998). Abnormal Psychology nal patients. Tampa, Florida: AAKP.
and Modern Life (10th ed.). New York: 15. Lindqvst, R., Carlsson, M. &
Longman. Sjoden, P. (2000). Coping strategies
5. Cockerill, R. & Warren, S. (1990). and health-related quality of life among
Care for caregivers: The needs of family spouses of continuous ambulatory peri-
members of MS patients. Journal of Re- toneal dialysis, haemodyalisis, and trans-
habilitation (January/February/March). plant patients. Journal of Advanced Nurs-
6. DeCasper, A. J., & Fifer, W. P. ing 31(6), pp. 1398-1408.
(1980). Of human bonding: Newborns 16. Mat, G. (2000). Scattered Minds:
prefer their mothers voices. Science, A new look at the origins and healing of
208, 1174-1176. attention deficit disorder. Toronto, ON
7. Doherty, W. J. & Baird, M. A. (Canada): Alfred A. Knopf.
(1983). Family therapy and family medi- 17. McDaniel, S. H., ed. (1995).
cine. New York: The Guilford Press. Counseling families with chronic illness.
8. Dreikurs, R. (deceased, 1997). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling
61
Mahdi TARABEIH, Victoria GONA
62
Psihologie, 4, 2011
PSIHOCORECIE I PSIHOTERAPIE
TERAPIA MULTISISTEMIC A
TULBURRILOR DE CONDUIT LA PREADOLESCENI
Lucia SAVCA
Termeni-cheie: tulburri de conduit, minciuni, furt, fuga de acas, vagabondaj, meca-
nism de aprare, protecie psihologic, disfuncionalitatea familiei, terapie multisistemic.
Summary
The article analyzed conduct disorder and antisocial type of refuge, in particular, lying,
stealing, running away from home, the preadolescent homelessness. Recovery of the behavior
is focused on systemic therapy, involving parents in changing their attitude towards the child,
providing affection, attention to achieve success.
63
Lucia SAVCA
64
Terapia multisistemic a tulburrilor de conduit la preadolesceni
65
Lucia SAVCA
66
Terapia multisistemic a tulburrilor de conduit la preadolesceni
la nivel sarcinile colare din cauza sarci- nora, desfurate de 2-3 ori pe sptmn,
nilor suplimentare n familie, care adesea 4 consultaii cu mama individual i cu mi-
ntrec posibilitile ei (pe care le ndepli- nora, s-au ameliorat: relaiile n familie,
nete parial cauz a conflictelor cu sora nu s-au repetat cazuri de furt de bani, fuga
mai mare, mama). de acas, nu s-au nregistrat minciuni. O
Programul dezvoltativ-corecional a zi n sptmn familia i organizeaz
inclus cteva direcii: timpil liber mpreun. Cina este organiza-
ameliorarea relaiilor cu membrii fa- t pentru toi membrii familiei, n timpul
miliei; dezvoltarea ajutorului reciproc din- creia se discut realizrile zilnice, pro-
tre membrii familiei; repartizarea concret blemele fiecrui membru.
a obligaiilor dintre membrii familiei; Costel, 12 ani.
consilierea repetat a mamei i su- A venit la consultaie cu mama. Acu-
rorii n vederea schimbrii atitudinii fa zele prezentate de mam: chiul de la lecii,
de minor, stabilirea ajutorului reciproc i dup lecii pn trziu nu vine acas, fur
organizarea timpului liber cu membrii fa- bani de la prini, este n evidena inspeciei
miliei; implicarea mai activ a mamei n pentru minori de doi ani, prinii au ncer-
efectuarea menajului, stimularea materia- cat diverse metode educaionale, inclusiv
l a minorei pentru sarcinile ndeplinite la pedeapsa fizic, dar situaia se nrutete.
nivel, pentru a avea propriii bani de buzu- Manifest neascultare, este nervos, se ceart
nar. Sancionarea prin pltirea amenzilor cu sora, mama. De tata, care aplic pedepse
pentru nendeplinirea sarcinilor (ntoarce- fizice severe - se teme, dar oricum nu-l as-
rea n bugetul familiei n egal msur ca cult. La coal este agresiv fa de colegi.
i stimularea 5 lei) - pentru o singur Din anamnez: Familie complet. O
abatere comis: note negative, eschivarea perioad de 8 ani cu familia au locuit i bu-
de la lucrul casnic; neii, n ngrijirea crora a fost mai mult co-
dezvoltarea proceselor cognitive, pilul. Minorul a suferit traumatism cerebral
gndirii abstracte, abilitilor de analiz i n timpul naterii i la vrsta de 10 ani, a
rezolvare a problemelor, formarea planu- urmat tratament n staionar. Sora mai mic
lui de perspectiv, orientarea n carier; s-a nscut cnd minorul a intrat n clasa I.
lichidarea traumelor psihice suporta- Programa colar o nsuete pe note de
te din frageda copilrie pn la momentul 5-7. Are mai mari dificulti la matema-
psihoterapiei prin aplicarea tehnicilor NLP; tic. Adesea acuz cefalee, obosete uor
sugestia, aromoterapie, antrena- cnd face leciile. Ambii prini lucreaz
mentul autogen, orientat la nlturarea de la 8:00-18:00. Copilul, ncepnd din
nervozitii, ntrirea ncrederii n sine, clasa a II-a, este lsat de unul singur toat
exerciii de relaxare Yoga; ziua, fr supraveghere.
formarea unei noi imagini de sine, ri- Examenul psihologic a evideniat:
dicarea autoritii n colectivul de copii, sta- QI mai jos de mediu, nivel jos al ateni-
bilirea planului de manifestare n plan pozi- ei, memorie slab. Aplicarea chestionaru-
tiv n grupa de elevi, dezvoltarea abilitilor lui caractereologic ( Bontil) a evideniat
organizatorice, ndeplinirea unor activiti dorina de a camufla eecurile, de a fi n
stabile n clas (consilierea dirigintelui). centrul ateniei, exigent fa de cei din
Dup o perioad de 8 edine cu mi- jur, ncpnat, ambiios, mndru. Teh-
67
Lucia SAVCA
68
Psihologie, 4, 2011
OPINII I DISCUII
: , , -
, .
Summary
In the article the empirical material about transformation of ethic identity of Moldavian
labour migrants is analyzed. The ethnic stereotypes, the attitude towards ones ethnic group,
motives of affiliation, cultural valuables were studied. The comparative analyze is carried out
between ethic identity of labour migrants and the Moldavian residents. Generally the migrants
have positive ethic identity. However the transformation processes which take place latently,
the increase of negative feelings concerning the ones ethnical group, the change of prefer-
ences hierarchy, the process of moving off relative the ones ethnical group were revealed. In
the article is pointed out the necessity of systematic and profound examination of the identity of
labour migrants as important component of social group.
- ,
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80
Psihologie, 4, 2011
Angela VERDE
Summary
This article aims to study the relationship between self-esteem and partner autonomy in
couple. Couples in cohabiting relationships have higher level of self-esteem, than married cou-
ples, and married couples show more self-determination, expected more positive attitude from
others, conflict less because of partner autonomy and because of jealousy.
Men, who have formed cohabiting relationships have a greater degree of autonomy, U
unlike women in the same experimental group. Older people (25-32) are more self-determined
with higher self-esteem, are more sympathetic and less so because of jealousy conflicts as well
as autonomy and dominance partner because unlike younger people (18-21).
As a general result of research, we determined that persons with high level of self-esteem,
have high level of partner autonomy to the couple.
82
Studiu experimental asupra relaiei dintre stima de sine i autonomia
83
Angela VERDE
84
Studiu experimental asupra relaiei dintre stima de sine i autonomia
85
Angela VERDE
rului (0,26 i -0,6) i a geloziei (0,46 i nalt (U= 76,5, la p=0,01, mediile: 20,89
-1,8). Diferenele, ns nu sunt semnifica- i 16,45), sunt n ateptarea unei atitudini
tive din punct de vedere statistic. pozitive din partea celorlali (U= 132,5,
Am comparat rezutlatele femei- la p=0,05, mediile: 9,88 i 8,6). Acest fapt
lor n relaie de concubinaj i brbailor n vine s confirme ipoteza precum c Per-
relaie de concubinaj. Brbaii au un grad soanele cu stim de sine ridicat au un
mai mare de autonomie (33,7 i 31,8), un nivel mai nalt al autonomiei fa de par-
sentiment integral al Eului mai nalt (17,86 tenerul de cuplu.
i 16,86), se ceart mai mult din cauza au- Studiul experimental realizat ne-a
tonomiei partenerului (-1,13 i -0,66), din permis s tragem un ir de concluzii pe
cauza dominrii unuia dintre parteneri care le vom expune n continuare.
(-1,0 i -0,2) i din cauza geloziei (-0,53 i Cuplurile ce au format relaie de con-
-0,2). Diferenele ns nu sunt semnificati- cubinaj n raport cu cuplurile cstorite au
ve din punct de vedere statistic. o stim de sine mai ridicat, un sentiment
Am comparat rezultatele cupluri- integral al Eului mai nalt, se simpati-
lor ce sunt n relaie de 1 an cu rezutatele zeaz pe sine mai mult, au mai frecvent
cuplurilor ce sunt n relaie de 4-5 ani. Cei conflicte din cauza dominrii unui parte-
cu o experien mai mare de via n cuplu ner, iar cuplurile cstorite manifest mai
sunt mai autodeterminai (mediile: 34,37 mult autodeterminare, ateapt mai mult
i 31,83), cu o stim de sine mai nalt o atitudine pozitiv din partea celorlali,
(8,3 i 7,5), au mai rar conflicte din cauza au mai puine conflicte din cauza autono-
dominrii unui partener (-0,37 i -0,75), miei partenerului i mai multe din cauza
dar mai mult din cauza geloziei (-2,12 i geloziei.
0,79). Diferenele ns nu sunt semnifica- Att brbaii cstorii, ct i cei ce
tive din punct de vedere statistic. coabiteaz n concubinaj se stimeaz mai
Am comparat rezultatele persoa- mult, au un grad mai mare de autonomie,
nelor de 18-21 ani cu cele ale persoanelor manifest mai mult simpatie fa de ei
de 25-32 ani. Cele mai n vrst sunt mai nii i mai puin se ceart din cauza
autodeterminate (33,65 i 30), cu stim autonomiei partenerului i a geloziei n
de sine mai ridicat (8,7 i 7), se simpa- comparaie cu femeile incluse n studiul
tizeaz mai mult (10 i 9,3) i au mai rar nostru.
conflicte att pe motiv de gelozie (-0,45 i Brbaii ce au format relaii de concu-
-0,85), ct i din cauza autonomiei (-0,5 binaj au un grad mai mare de autonomie,
i -0,78) i dominrii partenerului (-0,4 i un sentiment integral al Eului mai nalt,
-0,78). Diferenele ns nu sunt semnifi- au mai des conflicte din cauza autonomiei
cative din punct de vedere statistic. partenerului, din cauza dominrii unuia
Diferene semnificative am con- dintre parteneri i din cauza geloziei, spre
statat ntre persoanele cu nivel diferit al deosebire de femeile din acelai grup ex-
stimei de sine. Cele cu stima de sine mai perimental.
ridicat au un grad mai nalt de autono- La compararea rezultatelor cupluri-
mie (U= 87,5, la p=0,01, mediile: 38,2 lor ce sunt n relaie de 1 an i a cuplurilor
i 32), un sentiment integral al Eului mai ce sunt n relaie de 4-5 ani am determinat
86
Studiu experimental asupra relaiei dintre stima de sine i autonomia
87
Psihologie, 4, 2011
: , , ,
, , , -
.
Abstract
Conform datelor cercetrilor efectuate de noi, nivelul de satisfacie de la relaiile intrafamili-
ale depinde de poziia vital a partenerilor. Machiavellismul personalitii are o influen negativ
asupra calitii relaiilor familiale. Ali factori care influeneaz relaiile sunt calitile empatice
ale personalitii, precum i capacitatea partenerilor de a face fa situaiilor de via dificile.
Summary
According to the research promoted, the level of satisfaction by intra-familial relations
depends of the position of vital partners. Machiavellismul personality has a negative influence
on the quality of family relationships. Other factors that influence relationships are empathetic
qualities of personality and ability of partners to cope with difficult life.
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/- . ., 1982.
- 3. , . ., -
: . .: ,
. - 2009, . 325-326.
, 4. , . .,
, (- ). -
, , - . , 1988.
. 5. , . ., --
, , -, . . . .
. , 1979. 141 .
; -, 6. , . ., , . ., -
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. . 2005. 3. .65-75.
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95
Psihologie, 4, 2011
AUTORII NOTRI
ROBU Viorel, Lector universitar doctor, Universitatea Petre Andrei din Iai,
Departamentul de tiine Socio-Umane, Facultatea de Psihologie i tiinele
Educaiei, Centrul de Consiliere Educaional i Formare Creativ Ion Hol-
ban, Romnia.
SAVCA Lucia, dr., conf. univ., psiholog, gr. did. sup., director CDR Armo-
nie al DGETS Chiinu
TARABEIH Mahdi, dr., conf. univ., Rambam Health Care Campus, Israel.
VERDE Angela, dr., conf. univ., prodecan, UPS Ion Creang, Chiinu.
VRLAN Maria, dr., conf. univ., ef catedr asisten social, UPS Ion Crean-
g, Chiinu.
96