Botany

Dr. Mohammad Sarfaraj Hussain

College of Pharmacy
Misurata University
Misurata, Libya

MISURATA UNIVERSITY
 Botany

Botany is...The study of plants.

What is a plant ?

Lives on land

Doesnt move under its own power

Produces food and energy from sunlight (photosynthesis)

multicellular

Excludes algae (live in water) and fungi (no photosynthesis) and bacteria (unicellular).
 Plant cell

Cells

Smallest living unit

Most are microscopic
 Discovery of Cells

Robert Hooke first saw cells - 1665

Observed sliver of cork

Saw row of empty boxes

Coined the term cell

Robert Hooke Hookes Microscope

 Development of Cell Theory of Life

1838 Matthias Schleiden stated all plants composed of cells

1839 Theodor Schwann stated all animals also composed of cells thus
claimed all living things composed of cells

1858 Rudolf Virchow all cells come from preexisting cells

 Cell Theory

All of life is composed of 1 or more cells.

Cells arise only from pre-existing cells, via cell division or cell fusion.

Cells are units of metabolic processes.

Each cell contains set of hereditary information (DNA), transferred from cell to
cell, coding for structural & functional features.
 Cells are the basic units of organisms

Cells can only be observed under microscope

Two basic types of cells:

Animal Cell Plant Cell

 Cell Types

Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Simpler and smaller in size Much larger than prokaryotic cells
Do not have structures Contain organelles surrounded by membranes
surrounded by membranes Most living organisms
Few internal structures
One-celled organisms, Bacteria

Bacterial cell Animal cell Plant cell

 Plant Cells vs. Animal Cells

SIMILARITIES IN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

Both contain:
Nucleus, Nuclear Envelope, Chromosomes- which carry the genes or the DNA.
Cytoplasm
Mitochondria
Cell membranes
 Differences Between Animal and Plant Cells

Animal cells Plant cells

Relatively smaller in size Relatively larger in size

Irregular shape Regular shape

No cell wall Cell wall present

Vacuole small or absent Large central vacuole

Glycogen granules as Starch granules as food

food store store

Nucleus at the center Nucleus near cell wall

 Plant Cell

Cell wall
Made of cellulose which forms very thin fibers

Strong and rigid

In plant cells only

Protect and support the enclosed substances

(protoplasm)

Resist entry of excess water into the cell

Give shape to the cell

 Cell membrane

Lies immediately against the cell wall

Made of protein and lipid
Selectively permeable

A living layer
Can control the movement of materials
into and out of the cell
 Cytoplasm

Contains organelles and granules :

e.g. chloroplast
e.g. mitochondrion

Jelly-like substance enclosed by cell

membrane
Provide a medium for chemical
reactions to take place
 Organelles

very small size can only be

observed under electron
microscope
has specific functions
in cytoplasm
 Chloroplast

Contain the green pigment chlorophyll

To trap light energy, to make food by
photosynthesis
Contain starch grains (products of
photosynthesis)
 Mitochondrion
( mitochondria )
Rod shape
For respiration
Active cells ( eg. sperms, liver cells)
have more mitochondria.
 Vacuole

large central vacuole

Surrounded by tonoplast
Contains cell sap
a solution of chemicals (sugars, proteins,
mineral salts, wastes, pigments)
 Nucleus

Control the normal activities of the

cell
Bounded by a nuclear membrane
Contains thread-like chromosomes
Each cell has fixed number of chromosomes
Chromosomes carry genes
genes control cell characteristics
 Non-living
granules

Starch granules
Oil droplets
Crystals of insoluble wastes
Different kinds of plant cells

Onion Epidermal Cells Guard Cells

root hair

Root Hair Cell

 Plant Tissue
A tissue is a group of similar cells which work together to perform a specific function.

Figure:- Tissue
Three broad tissue types:
1) Dermal - outside layer(s)
2) Vascular - conduction
3) Ground - between dermal and vascular
Classification of plant tissues Plant tissues

Meristimatic Permanent
(Cells are capable of Cell division) (Mature Cells are incapable of Cell division)

Apical Intercalary Lateral

meristem meristem meristem

Simple Complex
(Tissue composed of single type cells) (Tissue composed of more than one
type of cells)

Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma

Xylem Phloem
Chlorenchyma Sclereids
Fibres - Xylem Vessels - Sieve tubes
- Tracheids - Companian cells
 Meristematic tissues

The main characteristic of this tissue is that it is responsible for the growths of plants.

The cells of this tissues continuously divide and converted into permanent tissue.

The cells are small,

The cells walls are thin and made up of cellulose,

Shape: Spherical, oval, polygonal or rectangular,

Cells have large nuclei,

There are no intercellular spaces,

It contain few vacuoles or no vacuoles at all.

Function- The main function of meristematic tissue is to continuously form a number of new cells
and help in the growth of the plants.
 Depending on the location, Meristematic tissue can be grouped into three types-

Apical meristems It is located at the growing tips or apices of the roots and stems.
- Responsible for growth of shoot and root tip.

- It is located at the base of the nodes and internodes.

Intercalary meristems
Responsible for the growth of the stem of plants (Barks
and woods).

Lateral meristems
It is found beneath the bark of trees as cork cambium.
- Responsible for the growth in length of the plant.
Figure:- Location of meristematic tissue in a plant body
 Permanent tissues

These tissues arise from the meristematic tissue.

These tissues may be living or dead.

There are two types of permanent tissue.

1. Simple permanent tissue 2. Complex permanent tissue

1. Simple permanent tissue

Same type+ same origin+ same function Simple permanent tissues.

1. Parenchyma 2. Collenchyma 3. Sclerechyma.

 1. Parenchyma
Characteristic:
The cells are living.
The cells wall are thin
There may or may not be intercellular spaces.
Generally oval or spherical
The cell wall made up of cellulose.
Location: Soft parts of plant such as stems, roots , leaves, flowers.
Three types of parenchyma tissues

Storage Aerenchyma Chlorenchyma

parernchyma
Air cavities are present and to Chlorophyll are
The cell enlarge to store & water provide buoyancy to the present help in
aquatic plants. photosynthesis

Function: Support to the stem of herbaceous plants water & food storage transport of water & gases.
2. Chollenchyma

Characteristic:
The cells are living.
The cells wall are thicker.
It shows the intercellular spaces.
Cells assume various shapes and sizes.
The cell wall are made of pectin.
It provide flexibility support.
Location: They are present below the epidermis in dicot stem
and leaves. They absent in dicot roots and all parts of monocot
plats.

Function: It help in photosynthesis due to presence of

chlorophyll.
 3. Sclerenchyma
Characteristic:
The cells Dead at maturity.
The cells wall are thick.
The intercellular spaces are absent.
Cells assume various shapes and sizes.
The cell wall made of lignin.
Function: Protection from stress and strain and provide mechanical strength.
Two types of sclerenchyma tissues

Sclerids or stone cells-Cells as long as they are wide. Fibers Cells longer than they are wide

Found flesh of fruit like pears. Make stems & roots tough & rigid.

Also in pips of fruit and shells of nuts.

 COMPLEX PERMANENT TISSUE

The complex tissue consists of more than one type of cells which work together as a unit.
Function: To transport water, mineral salts and food materials.
The two types of complex permanent tissue are:
1. Xylem
2. Phloem
Xylem and phloem together form vascular bundles.
1. Xylem

Xylem Vessels Tracheids

Location: Vascular bundles of roots, stems and leaves

Function
Transport water & minerals salts upward from the root to different parts of shoots.
They give mechanical strength to the plant body.
 Xylem

Tracheids Vessels
Have thick secondary cell walls Have thick secondary cell walls
dead at maturity dead at maturity
tapered at the end long tubular cells with grate-
like openings at the end
contain pits
contain pits

End wall with

perforations
Tracheids
Pits Vessels
Cell wall

Lumen
 Phloem Tissue
Composed of following:
1. Sieve tube members
2. companion cells
3. parenchyma
Phloem
4. fibers
5. Rays
All phloem cells are living cells.

Location: Vascular bundles of roots, stems and leaves.

Function:

Transport food materials from the leaves to the storage organs &
later from storage organs to the growing regions of the plant body.
 PROTECTIVE TISSUES

Protective tissues or dermal tissues cover the organs of a plant. They are analogous to skin.

Epidermis Cork

Forms one cell thick outermost layer of the organs of Made up of dead cells with thick walls,
plants, such as, leaves, flowers, stems and roots. with no intercellular spaces

This layer of cells is covered from the outside by the cuticle. Found in older stems and roots of dicot plants.

cork
Epidermis is made of many types of cells
1. Guard cells form stomata
2. Trichomes
Outgrowths hairs

Some leaf trichomes use to keep animals

away

Some used to eliminate salt

Some thought to increase reflection to

reduce stem/leaf temperature

Root hairs are a type of trichome, increase

surface area to increase uptake of nutrients
3. Glands
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
PLANTS
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANTS

What Is a Plant?

Multicellular eukaryotes that are photosynthetic autotrophs

Cell walls made of cellulose

Store surplus carbohydrates as starch

Mostly terrestrial
 Importance of plants

Without plants life on earth would not exist

Produce oxygen for the atmosphere

Provide homes and food for many organisms

Primary source of food for people and animals

Produce wood pulp for paper products

Source of many medicines

Ornamental and shade for yards

Fibers such as cotton for fabric

Dyes
 DIVISION OF PLANTS

Aquatic plants Terrestrial plants

Lives in land
Lives in water
e.g. Algae
Non Vascular plants Vascular plants (Called asTrachoephytes)
Called Charophytes.
Called as Bryophytes
Seedless plants Seed producing plants

Gymnosperm plants Angiosperm plants

(naked seeds,)

Monocot seed plants Dicot seed plants

Monocots have a single seed cotyledon Dicots have two seed cotyledons
 1. Aquatic plants

Plants surrounded by water so dont dry out.

Water supports plant

Plants stay in upper surface near light

Absorb nutrients from the H2O.

E.g. Green algae

 2. Terrestrial or land plants

Plants are divided into two groups

Based on the presence or absence of Vascular System.

Non Vascular plants Vascular plants

Terrestrial or land plant

Vascular
Bundles
 Nonvascular Plants

Do not have vascular tissue for support or conduction of materials

Called Bryophytes Mosses plants

Plants cant grow as tall

Require a constantly moist environment.

Cells must be in direct contact with moisture

Hornworts
Materials move by diffusion cell-to-cell.

Liverworts
 Vascular Plants

These type of plant contain vascular tissues xylem and phloem.

Xylem tissue carries water and minerals upward from the roots

Phloem tissue carries sugars made by photosynthesis from the leaves to

where they will be stored or used.

Also called Tracheophytes

Subdivided into two groups -

Seedless vascular plants Seed producing vascular plants

 Main Parts of Vascular Plants

Shoots

-Found above ground

-Have leaves attached

- Photosynthetic part of plant

Roots

-Found below ground

-Absorb water & minerals

-Anchor the plant

 Seedless Vascular Plants

Includes club moss (Lycophyta), horsetails (Sphenophyta), whisk ferns (Psilophyta), and
ferns (Pterophyta).

Whisk ferns Horsetails Fern

 Seed-Producing Vascular Plants
Includes two groups Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

Gymnosperms have naked seeds in cones

Angiosperms have flowers that produce seeds to attract pollinators and produce seeds.

Gymnosperms

Coniferophyta are known as conifers

Includes pine, cedar, spruce etc.,
Cycad

Ginkgo
 Angiosperms

Flowering plants

Seeds are formed when an egg or ovule is fertilized by pollen in the ovary

Ovary is within a flower

Flower contains the male (stamen) and/or female (ovaries) parts of the plant

Fruits are frequently produced from these ripened ovaries (help disperse
seeds)

The angiosperms is divided into two subgroups

Monocot seed plants Dicot seed plants

Monocots have a single seed cotyledon Dicots have two seed cotyledons
 Monocots Angiosperm plants

Parallel venation in leaves

Flower parts in multiples of 3

Vascular tissue scattered in cross section of stem

 Dicots Angiosperm plants

Net venation in leaves

Flower parts in multiples of 4 or 5

Vascular tissue in rings in cross section of stem

PARTS OF PLANTS
 Major Parts of a Plant
Leaves
Where photosynthesis occurs

Seeds
Method of sexual reproduction

Flower
Site where reproduction occurs

Stem
Transports nutrients and supports the plant

Root
Take in nutrients and anchor plant
 LEAF

Definition: Leaf is the flattened outgrowth of Stem or a branch that develops at node & has a bud in its
axil.

General characters of leaves

Flattened, thin texture.
Chlorophyll and presence of buds in its axil and conducting veins.
 Parts of Leaf

1.MIDRIB- serve as the backbone of the leaf.

2.LAMINA- (leaf blade) thin green portion of the leaf.

3.PETIOLE- the leaf stalk, it connect leaves to the stem.

4.STIPULES- leaf-like structure at the base of the leaf.

5.VEIN- composed of vascular bundle, the phloem and the xylem.

Functions of leafs

1.To increase the surface area of the plant to maximize the production of food.

2.To provide a large surface area for transpiration and gaseous exchange (through the Stoma)

4.The leaves provide shade and shelter to the stem and root system below.
 Types of leaves: On the basis of lamina

Simple leaf Compound leaf

Lamina of leaf blade is entire Lamina divided into a number of small portion called
as leaflets.

Pinnate Compound leaf Palmate Compound leaf

Leaflets are born laterally on a common Leaflets are arise from
axis called as Rachis and arranged in pairs. a common point.
 Phyllotaxy
Arrangement of leaves on a stem or (Mode of deposition of leaves on aerial stem).

1. Alternate : In such case only one leaf is attached at each node.

2. Opposite : Two leaves are present at each node, standing opposite to each other.

3. Whorled: More than two leaves are present at each node, forming a whorl.
4. Basal : All the leaves coming from the base.
5. Imbricate : Overlapping one another.
6. Rosulate: Arranged in a basal rosette, with little or no stem.
 Venation of leaf

Venation = arrangement of veins in a leaf

The veins supply the leaf with water and minerals from the roots and transport materials from the leaf
to the rest of the plant.

The vein pattern can be useful for plant identification.

Pinnate Palmate Parallel Dichotomous

 Margin of leaf

Margin of leaf = Structure of the leaf's edge

1. Entire: A leaf that is smooth all the way around has an Entire margin.

2. Crenate: The edge of the leaf has blunt, rounded teeth.

3. Dentate: A Dentate margin is when a leaf has triangular, "tooth-like" edges.

 4. Serrate: A Serrate margin is when a leaf has sharp, "saw-like" teeth.

5. Double serrate: When a leaf is Doubly-Serrated, the "saw-like" teeth have even
smaller teeth.

6. Incised: If a leaf has an Incised margin, it has deep, irregular teeth.

7. Sinuate: A Sinuate margin describes the sinuous, slightly wavy line along the edge
of a leaf.
 Apex of leaf

Apex of leaf = Tip point structure of the leaf's

Acuminate: A sharp apex with less than a 90 degree angle and concave sides.

Acute : Similar to acuminate but with straight to convex sides.

Apiculate: It ends in a sharp point but the point includes tissue from the midvein and the lamina.

Caudate : Very acuminate, with a long and thin tip.

Cuspidate: A form of acuminate in which the tip tapers gradually to a point.

Emarginate : Broadly notched at the apex.

 Leaf base
1- Symmetrical: Equal on both sides of midrib.
2- Asymmetrical : Unequal on both sides of midrib

The stalk or petiole

When the petiole is absent the leaf is described as sessile

When the petiole is present the leaf is described as petiolated.

Petiolated.
Sessile