TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance measured

on a definite scale. Temperature is measured when a measuring instrument, such
as a thermometer, is brought into contact with the medium being measured. All
temperature-measuring instruments use some change in a material to indicate
temperature. Some of the effects that are used to indicate temperature are
changes in physical properties and altered physical dimensions. One of the more
important physical properties used in temperature-measuring instruments is the
change in the length of a material in the form of expansion and contraction.

Consider the uniform homogeneous bar illustrated in figure 1-1. If the bar
has a given length (LO) at some temperature and is heated, it will expand (Lf). The
amount of expansion is a function of the original length and the temperature
increase. The amount a material changes in length with temperature is called the
linear coefficient of expansion.

Figure 1-1. Expansion of a bar.

The linear coefficient of expansion for a material is a physical property of that

material and describes its behavior with respect to temperature.

A thermometer is the most common instrument used to measure

temperature. When the bulb is heated, the mercury expands and rises in the tube.
When the bulb is cooled, the mercury contracts and the height of the mercury
column decreases.

The height of the mercury column can thus be used to measure temperature.
The temperature can be read directly from the scale on the tube. The unit of
temperature is the kelvin (K).

The kelvin has a direct connection with a more familiar unit, the Celsius
degree (Co). The Celsius temperature scale is based on the fact that the freezing

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and boiling temperatures of pure water under normal atmospheric pressure are
constant. The difference between the boiling and freezing points is divided into 100
equal intervals.

Each interval is called a Celsius degree. The point at which water freezes is
labeled zero degrees Celsius (OoC). The point at which water boils is labeled 100oC.
The Celsius degree is exactly equal to the kelvin.

Figure 2-1 Familiar Reference Points for Estimating Celsius Temperatures

BIMETALLIC EXPANSION THERMOMETER

If two materials with different linear coefficients are bonded together, as the
temperature changes their rate of expansion will be different. This will cause the
entire assembly to bend in an arc as shown in figure 2-2.

When the temperature is raised, an arc is formed around the material with
the smaller expansion coefficient. Since this assembly is formed by joining two
dissimilar materials, it is known as a bimetallic element.

A modification of this bimetallic strip serves as the basis for one of the
simplest and most commonly encountered temperature-measuring instruments, the

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bimetallic thermometer. Figure 2-3 shows a bimetallic thermometer. In it, a
bimetallic strip is wound in the form of a long helix. One end of the helix is held
rigid. As the temperature varies, the helix tries to wind or unwind. This causes the
free end to rotate. The free end is connected to a pointer. The pointer actually
indicates angular rotation of the helix; however, since the rotation is linear and a
function of temperature, the scale is marked in units of temperature.

Figure 2-2. Effect of unequal expansion of a bimetallic strip.

Figure 2-3. Bimetallic thermometer.

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DISTANT-READING THERMOMETERS

Figure 2-4.Distant-reading, Bourdon-tube thermometers.

Distant-reading dial thermometers are used when the indicating portion of

the instrument must be placed at a distance from where the temperature is being
measured. The distant-reading thermometer has a long capillary, some as long as
125 feet, which separates the sensing bulb from the Bourdon tube and dial (fig.2-
4). There are three basic types of distant-reading thermometers: the liquid filled,
the gas filled, and the combination liquid-vapor filled. The thermometers are filled
with fluid (liquid or gas) at some temperature and sealed. Almost the entire volume
of the fluid is in the sensing bulb. As the temperature of the bulb changes, the
volume of the fluid tries to change. Since the volume of the thermometer (sensing
bulb, capillary, and Bourdon tube) is constant, a pressure change occurs within the
thermometer. This pressure change causes the Bourdon tube to straighten out
(with an increase in pressure), working a system of levers and gears, which causes
the thermometer pointer to move over the dial and register temperature.

TEMPERATURE SWITCHES

Temperature switches operate from temperature changes occurring in an

enclosure, or in the air surrounding the temperature-sensing element. The
operation of the temperature switch is similar to the operation of the pressure
switch; both switches are operated by changes in pressure. The temperature
element is arranged so a change in temperature causes a change in the internal
pressure of a sealed-gas or air-filled bulb or helix, which is connected to the
actuating device by a small tube or pipe. Figure 2-5 shows a temperature switch
and two types of sensing elements.

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 Figure 2-5. Temperature Switch with two types of sensing elements. A. Bulb unit.
B. Helix unit.

A temperature change causes a change in the volume of the sealed-in gas,

which causes movement of a bellows. The movement is transmitted by a plunger to
the switch arm. The moving contact is on the arm. A fixed contact may be arranged
so the switch will open or close on a temperature rise. This allows the switch
contacts to be arranged to close when the temperature drops to a predetermined
value and to open when the temperature rises to the desired value. The reverse
action can be obtained by a change in the contact positions.

GAUGE SNUBBERS

The irregularity of impulses applied to the fluid power system by some

pumps or air compressors causes the gauge pointer to oscillate violently. This
makes reading of the gauge not only difficult but often impossible. Pressure
oscillations and other sudden pressure changes existing in fluid power systems will
also affect the delicate internal mechanism of gauges and cause either damage to
or complete destruction of the gauge. A pressure gauge snubber is therefore
installed in the line that leads to the pressure gauge.

The purpose of the snubber is to dampen the oscillations and thus provide a
steady reading and protection for the gauge. The basic components of a snubber
are the housing, fitting assembly with a fixed orifice diameter, and a pin and
plunger assembly (fig. 2-6). The snubbing action is obtained by metering fluid
through the snubber. The fitting assembly orifice restricts the amount of fluid that
flows to the gauge, thereby snubbing the force of a pressure surge. The pin is
pushed and pulled through the orifice of the fitting assembly by the plunger,
keeping it clean and at a uniform size.

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 Figure 8-16. Pressure gauge snubber.

Temperature control is important for separation and reaction processes, and

temperature must be maintained within limits to ensure safe and reliable operation
of process equipment.

In nearly all cases, the temperature sensor is protected from the process
materials to prevent interference with proper sensing and to eliminate damage to
the sensor. Thus, some physically strong, chemically resistant barrier exists
between the process and sensor; often, this barrier is termed a sheath or
thermowell, especially for thermocouple sensors. An additional advantage of such
a barrier is the ability to remove, replace, and calibrate the sensor without
disrupting the process operation.

Thermocouples: When the junctions of two dissimilar metals are at different

temperatures, an electromotive force (emf) is developed. The cold junction,
referred to as the reference, is maintained at a known temperature, and the
measuring junction is located where the temperature is to be determined. The
temperature difference can be determined from the measured emf. The
relationship between temperature difference and emf has been determined for
several commonly used combinations of metals; the mildly nonlinear relationships
are available in tabular form along with polynomial equations relating emf to
temperature.

Different Thermocouple Types

Thermocouples are available in different combinations of metals or

calibrations. The four most common calibrations are J, K, T and E. Each calibration
has a different temperature range and environment, although the maximum
temperature varies with the diameter of the wire used in the thermocouple.

Because thermocouples measure in wide temperature ranges and can be

relatively rugged, they are very often used in industry. The following criteria are
used in selecting a thermocouple:

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 Temperature range
Chemical resistance of the thermocouple or sheath material
Abrasion and vibration resistance
Installation requirements (may need to be compatible with existing equipment;
existing holes may determine probe diameter).

Grounded Ungrounded Exposed

Sheathed thermocouple probes are available with one of three junction

types: grounded, ungrounded or exposed. At the tip of a grounded junction probe,
the thermocouple wires are physically attached to the inside of the probe wall. This
results in good heat transfer from the outside, through the probe wall to the
thermocouple junction. In an ungrounded probe, the thermocouple junction is
detached from the probe wall. Response time is slowed down from the grounded
style, but the ungrounded offers electrical isolation of 1.5 M1/2 at 500 Vdc in all
diameters. The thermocouple in the exposed junction style protrudes out of the tip
of the sheath and is exposed to the surrounding environment. This type offers the
best response time, but is limited in use to noncorrosive and nonpressurized
applications. See the illustrations at the right for a full discussion of junction types.

A time constant has been defined as the time required by a sensor to reach
63.2% of a step change in temperature under a specified set of conditions. Five
time constants are required for the sensor to stabilize at 600 of the step change
value. Exposed junction thermocouples are the fastest responding. Also, the smaller
the probe sheath diameter, the faster the response, but the maximum temperature
may be lower. Be aware, however, that sometimes the probe sheath cannot
withstand the full temperature range of the thermocouple type.

Maximum Application Atmosphere

Material
Temperature Oxidizing Hydrogen Vacuum Inert
900C Very Very Very
304 SS Good
(1650 F) Good Good Good
Inconel 1148C Very Very Very
Good
600 (2100F) Good Good Good

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 Thermocouple Junction

The grounded junction is recommended for the measurement of static or

flowing corrosive gas and liquid temperatures and for high pressure applications.
The junction of a grounded thermocouple is welded to the protective sheath giving
faster response than the ungrounded junction type.

An ungrounded junction is recommended for measurements in corrosive

environments where it is desirable to have the thermocouple electronically isolated
from and shielded by the sheath. The welded wire thermocouple is physically
insulated from the thermocouple sheath by MgO powder (soft).

An exposed junction is recommended for the measurement of static or

flowing non-corrosive gas temperatures where fast response time is required. The
junction extends beyond the protective metallic sheath to give accurate fast
response. The sheath insulation is sealed where the junction extends to prevent
penetration of moisture or gas which could cause errors.

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD): The electrical resistance of many

metals changes with temperature; metals for which resistance increases with
temperature are used in RTDs. Temperature can therefore be determined from the
change in the electrical resistance of the metal wire according to with RT the
resistance, RT0 the resistance at base temperature of 0 C, T the temperature of
the sensor (to be determined from RT) and a the temperature coefficient of the
metal. This linear relationship sometimes provides sufficient accuracy, but
nonlinear correlations are available for higher accuracy. RTDs are commonly used
for applications in which higher accuracy than provided by thermocouples is
required.

Resistance Temperature Detectors

The resistance of commercially available RTDs ranges from 10 to 25,000 W.

More common ones are 100, 200, and 1000 W strain-free platinum (>99.999%)

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probes and 10 W copper probes. Generally, the higher the resistance, the less
affected the RTD will be due to small resistance/voltage fluctuations in the lead
wires and circuit.

Common metals used in RTDs include platinum, copper, nickel, BalcoTM

(70% Ni-30% Fe), and tungsten. Their temperature ranges are listed in the
following table.

Temperature
Material Note
Range
-260~1000 C < 550 C (1022 F) in most
Platinum (Pt)
(-440~1800 F) applications
-200~260 C
Copper (Cu)
(-330~500 F)
-200~430 C
Nickel (Ni) Linearity is not good
(-330~800 F)
Balco -100~230 C Linearity is not good; cheap to
(70% Ni-30% Fe) (-150~450 F) fabricate; high resistance
-100~1200 C
Tungsten (W)
(-150~2200 F)

In general, RTD has a response time of 0.5 to 5 seconds or more. The

slowness of response is due principally to the slowness of thermal conductivity in
bringing the device into thermal equilibrium with its environment. Generally, time
constants are specified either for a free air condition (or its equivalent) or an oil
bath condition (or its equivalent). In the former case, there is poor thermal contact
and hence slow response, and in the latter, good thermal contact and fast
response. These numbers yield a range of response times depending on the
application.

Thermistor: This sensor is similar to an RTD, but applies metals for which the
resistance decreases with increasing temperature. The relationship is often very
nonlinear, but thermistors can provide very accurate temperature measurements
for small spans and low temperatures.

Effect of temperature on resistance:

Thermistors can be classified into two types depending on the sign of k. If k

is positive, the resistance increases with increasing temperature, and the device is
called a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor, or posistor. If k is

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negative, the resistance decreases with increasing temperature, and the device is
called a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor. Resistors that are not
thermistors are designed to have the smallest possible k, so that their resistance
remains almost constant over a wide temperature range.

Applications of Thermistor

Thermistors are used in smart camera flash guns which adjust for proper film
exposure according to the light reflected.
PTC thermistors can be used as current-limiting devices for circuit protection,
as replacements for fuses. Current through the device causes a small amount
of resistive heating. If the current is large enough to generate more heat
than the device can lose to its surroundings, the device heats up, causing its
resistance to increase, and therefore causing even more heating. This creates
a self-reinforcing effect that drives the resistance upwards, reducing the
current and voltage available to the device.
NTC thermistors can be used as inrush-current limiting devices in power
supply circuits. They present a higher resistance initially which prevents large
currents from flowing at turn-on, and then heat up and become much lower
resistance to allow higher current flow during normal operation. These
thermistors are usually much larger than measuring type thermistors, and
are purpose designed for this application.

Bimetallic: Metals expand with increasing temperature, and the rate of expansion
differs among metals. A spiral constructed of two bonded metal strips will coil
(uncoil) as the temperature changes. The changing position of the coil can be
detected and used to determine the temperature. This provides a rugged, low cost
sensor that is often used for local displays and for on-off temperature control, i.e.,
a thermostat.

Two dissimilar metals, bonded together securely, are heated in the flame of a
burner. Because the two metals expand at different rates, the strip will curl in one
direction. Upon cooling, it will return to its initial state. The principle is then applied

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to a thermostat made of bimetal. Upon heating by a light bulb, the thermostat
causes a bell to ring.

Filled systems: A fluid expands with increasing temperature and exerts a varying
pressure on the containing vessel. When the vessel is similar to a bourbon tube,
the varying pressure causes a deformation that changes the position detected to
determine the temperature.

In liquid-filled systems, the bulb, the capillary, and the Bourdon are
completely full of liquid. A Class I system contains liquids other than mercury, and
a Class V system contains mercury. Organic liquids in filled systems have
volumetric coefficients of expansion about eight times that of mercury. Mercury-
filled systems operate at much higher temperatures.

Vapor-filled systems, Class II, contain a volatile liquid. Temperature change

at the bulb changes the vapor pressure in the system, translating to motion by the
Bourdon tube.

Gas-filled systems operate on the principle of Charles Law:

(Pressure) x (volume) = (temperature) x (the systems constant)

whereby the temperature and temperature change cause a mechanical

movement that translates to an indicator, recorder, or controller.

Table 1. Summary of temperature sensors

Sensor Type Limits of Accuracy1 Dynamic Advantage Disadvantag

,2
Applicatio s: s es
n (C)
Thermocouple
type E: 1.5 or -good -minimum
-100 to
chromel- 0.5% for 0 reproducibili span of 40 C
1000
constantan to 900 C ty
see note 3 -temperature
type J: 2.2 or
0 to 750 -wide range vs. emf not
iron-constantan 0.75%
exactly linear
type K: 2.2 or
0 to 1250 -drift over
chromel-nickel 0.75%
time
1.0 or
type T:
-160 to 1.5% for - -low emf
copper-
400 160 to 0 corrupted by
constantan
C noise

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 -self-heating
-good
accuracy
-less
-200 to 0.15 + physically
RTD see note 3 -small span
650 0.2|T| rugged
possible
-self-heating
-linearity
error
-highly
nonlinear

-only small
-good
span
accuracy
Thermister -40 to 150 0.10 C see note 3
-less
-little drift
physically
rugged

-drift
-low cost
Bimetallic - 2% - -local display
-physically
rugged
-not high
-simple and temperatures
-200 to low cost
Filled system 1% 1 to 10
800 -sensitive to
-no hazards external
pressure

Notes:

1. Accuracy is measured in C or % of span, whichever is larger.

2. With RTDs, the inaccuracy increases approximately linearly with temperature
deviation from 0 C.
3. The dynamics depend strongly on the sheath or thermowell (material,
diameter, and wall thickness), the location of the element in the sheath (i.e.
bonded or air space, the fluid type, and the fluid velocity. Typical values are
2 to 5 seconds for high fluid velocities.

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