Engineering aspects of the St.

Peter sandstone in the

Minneapolis-St. Paul area of Minnesota

Item type text; Thesis-Reproduction (electronic)

Authors Payne, Charles Marshall, 1937-

Publisher The University of Arizona.

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ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF THE ST. PETER SANDSTONE
IN THE MINNEAPOLIS - ST. PAUL AREA OF MINNESOTA

by
C h a r l e s M a r s h a l l Payne

A T h e s i s . S u b m i t t e d t o t h e F a c u l t y of. t h e

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY

I n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f th e Requirements.
F o r t h e D e g r e e o f -
j '
MASTER OF SCIENCE

In th e Graduate C ollege
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

196?
The St. Peter sandstone at the
Minnesota Silica Company quarry,
Minneapolis.
 STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

T his t h e s i s
ment o f r e q u i r e m e n t s
s i t y o f A r i z o n a and
t o be made a v a i l a b l e
Li b r a r y .
has b e e n s u b m i t t e d i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l
f o r an a d v a n c e d d e g r e e a t The U n i v e r
i s d e p o site d in the U n iv e rs ity L ib ra ry
to borrow ers under r u le s o f the

B r i e f q u o t a t i o n s fro m t h i s t h e s i s a r e a l l o w a b l e
w ith o u t s p e c i a l p e r m i s s io n , p ro v id e d t h a t a c c u r a t e acknow
l e d g m e n t o f s o u r c e i s made. R equests f o r p e rm is s io n f o r
e x t e n d e d q u o t a t i o n fro m o r r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h i s m a n u s c r i p t
i n whole o r i n p a r t may be g r a n t e d by t h e h e a d o f t h e m a j o r
d e p a r t m e n t o f t h e Dean o f t h e G r a d u a t e C o l l e g e when i n h i s
ju d g m e n t t h e p r o p o s e d u s e o f t h e m a t e r i a l i s i n t h e i n t e r
e st of scholarship. I n a l l o t h e r i n s t a n c e s , however, p e r
m i s s i o n must be o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e a u t h o r .

SIGNED:

APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR

T h i s t h e s i s has b een a p p r o v e d on t h e d a t e shown below

Date
P r o f e s s o r o f M in in g & G eological E ngineering
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The w r i t e r w i s h e s t o a c k n o w l e d g e w i t h g r a t i t u d e t h e

a b l e a s s i s t a n c e g i v e n by D r . G eorge M0 S c h w a r t z i n t h e c o l
l e c t i o n o f s t u d i e s and l i t e r a t u r e n e e d e d t o c o m p i l e t h i s p&-
per. The w r i t e r w i s h e s a l s o t o e x p r e s s h i s i n d e b t e d n e s s t o

D r . P a u l K. S i m s , d i r e c t o r o f t h e M i n n e s o t a G e o l o g i c a l S u r

v e y , f o r a l l o w i n g t h e t i m e and f a c i l i t i e s to conduct t h is

s t u d y and f o r t h e p r e p a r a t i o n and u s e o f t h e B e d r o c k G e o l o g i c

Map o f M i n n e a p o l i s , S t . P a u l and V i c i n i t y . D r . J o h n E.
S t o n e , of- t h e M i n n e s o t a G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y , was' v e r y h e l p f u l

in supplying g e n eral in fo rm a tio n reg ard in g th e en g in e erin g

p r o p e r tie s of the S t. P e te r sandstone. R ecognition i s given

t o ' D r. W i l l a r d C. L a c y , p r o f e s s o r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A r i

z o n a , f o r h i s p a t i e n c e and a s s i s t a n c e i n o r g a n i z a t i o n and
preparation of th is th e s is .

ill
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vl

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v iii

J_L 1^ . . . . . . . . . ^ . . . e o o . ". o o o o . . 2-5C

INTRODUCTION 1.
D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e T h e s i s Area . . . . . . . . . . 2
G e n e r a l G e o lo g y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ST. PETER SANDSTONE . . 9

General D e s c r ip tio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
F r i a b i l i t y and C e m e n t a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
M i n e r a l o g y and L i t h o l o g y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
T e x t u r a l and G r a i n S i z e A n a l y s e s . . . . . . . . . 19
R o u n d n e s s 5 F r o s t i n g , and P i t t i n g . . . . . . . . . 25
S i l t Horizon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
G r e e n Sand H o r i z o n . ^ . 27
Shakopee D olom ite - S t . P e t e r S andstone C o n ta c t . . 28
Glenwood S h a l e - S t . P e t e r S a n d s t o n e C o n t a c t . . . 29
J o i n t i n g and. F r a c t u r i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
S a n d s t o n e Caves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
O rigin of the S t . P e te r Sandstone 37
HYDROLOGIC ASPECTS OF THE ST. PETER. SANDSTONE . . . . . 4l

GENERAL GROUNDWATER CONDITIONS IN THE ST. PETER

SANDSTONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF THE ST. PETER SANDSTONE . . . . 53

Previous E ngineering S tu d ie s . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Sam pling T echniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-
U n i t W e ig h t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
U nconfined Com pression T e s ts . . . . . . . . . . . 56
T r i a x i a l Com pression T e s ts . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
P la te Bearing T ests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
C o n s o l i d a t i o n and S e t t l e m e n t . . . . . . . . . . . 73
P e n e tr a tio n R e sista n c e T ests . . . . . . . . . . . 75
B earing C a p a c itie s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
FOUNDATION USE OF THE ST. PETER SANDSTONE . . . . . . . 80

iv
 V

TABLE OF CONTENTS- - C o n t i n u e d
Page

P o t e n t i a l Problems 80
B ridges 83
Locks and Dams 85
B uildings , 87
E O a d S o o o o e o o o\ 91
TUNNELING IN THE ST. PETER SANDSTONE 92
Problems i n T u n n e lin g . . . . . . . . . . . < 92
Tunnel D e s c r i p t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
A r c h i n g and S t r e s s D i s t r i b u t i o n . . . . . . . . 96
Tunnel S u p p o rts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
M in in g Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Case H i s t o r i e s o f T u n n e l i n g i n t h e S t . P e t e r
1C^3S o 1C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
E a s tm a n T u n n e l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Wabasha S t r e e t I n t e r c e p t o r Sewer . . . . , 109
R o b ly n Avenue I n t e r c e p t o r S e w e r , S t . P a u l , 110
D a y to n 's B l u f f I n t e r c e p t o r Sewer, S t . Pau l 111
Rondo S t r e e t T u n n e l C a v e - i n . . . . . . . . ill
S t e v e n s Avenue S e w e r T u n n e l C a v e - i n ,
M inneapolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

LIST OF REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

F ig u r e Page

1. I n d e x map o f M i n n e s o t a sh o w in g l o c a t i o n o f
t h e s i s a r e a < , < , . < , . < > 6 = <,>.<, 3

2 Rock f o r m a t i o n s o f t h e M i n n e a p o l i s - S t . P a u l

3. P h o t o g r a p h o f a f r e s h e x p o s u r e o f t h e St-.
' P e te r sandstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4. Photograph o f a f r e s h exposure o f th e S t .
P e te r sandstone 10

5. Photograph o f th e r i v e r b l u f f a t H oliday
Harbor i n S t , Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6. P h o t o g r a p h o f a mine d r i f t a t H o l i d a y H a r b o r
in S t. Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

7. P h o t o m i c r o g r a p h sh o w in g g r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n
th e S t. P e t e r Sandstone . . . . . . . . . . . 15

8. G rain s i z e a n a l y s i s , v e r t i c a l s e c t i o n . . . . . . 21

9. G rain s i z e a n a l y s i s , h o r i z o n t a l s e c t i o n . . . . . 23
10. H i s t o g r a m s h o w in g t h e b i m o d a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
grain sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

11. Rose d i a g r a m sh o w in g j o i n t d i r e c t i o n s i n t h e S t .
P e te r sandstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
12. P h o t o g r a p h o f t h e r i v e r b l u f f b e lo w t h e S o l d i e r s
Home i n M i n n e a p o l i s (1 9 3 2 ) . . ... . . . 7 . 34

13. P h o t o g r a p h o f t h e r i v e r b l u f f belo w t h e S o l d i e r ' s

Home i n M i n n e a p o l i s ( 1 9 6 4 ) . . . . . . . . . 35
14. Sketch of th e n a t u r a l sa n d sto n e cave,
M inneapolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
15. M oisture - d en sity re la tio n sh ip s . . . . . . . . 57

16. S t r e s s - s t r a i n curves f o r unconfined com pression

tests . 0 . a . . . e .0 o o o o 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 59
vi
 v ii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS--C o n t i n u e d

F igure P ag e

17. U n disturbed t r i a x i a l com pressions t e s t s 64

18. T r i a x i a l com pression t e s t s - - d i s t u r b e d O O O O O O 69

1 9 o . T r i a x i a l com pression t e s t s 5 d i s t u r b e d sand -
St one O O O 0 9 0 0 0 0 OO O O C OO o' o 71
20. F ie ld bearing t e s t s 72

21 o C onsolidation t e s ts 0 . = . , , , o . 76
22. Photograph o f an e x c a v a tio n i n th e S t . P e t e r
s a n d s to n e a t th e D a y to n s D epartm ent S t o r e
in S t. Paul o , . ..L 90
Photograph of p la c in g la g g in g i n a san d sto n e
t unne1 . . . . . . . . . . . a . . . . 101
24. .P h o t o g r a p h o f a n u n s u p p o r t e d t u n n e l d r i v e n i n
com petent s a n d s to n e . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

25. P h o t o g r a p h o f f u l l r i n g beam s u p p o r t s i n a
sandstone tu n n el . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

26. P h o to g rap h o f h y d r a u l i c l y m ining th e S t .

P e te r sandstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

27. S k e t c h and p h o t o g r a p h o f t h e Rondo S t r e e t

Tunnel C a v e-in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

28. G e o l o g i c s e c t i o n , S t e v e n s Avenue Sew er T u n n e l ,

M inneapolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
1 .
29. P h o t o g r a p h o f t h e S t e v e n s Avenue c a v e - i n . . . . 118
30. B e d r o c k g e o l o g i c map o f M i n n e a p o l i s -
S t . P a u l and v i c i n i t y . . . . . . . . Map P o c k e t

31. N orth-South c ro ss s e c tio n of the

M in n eap o lis-S t. Paul area . . . . . . Map P o c k e t

32. East-W est c ro s s s e c t i o n of th e

M in n eap o lis-S t. Paul area . . . . . . Map P o c k e t
 LIST OF TABLES

T a b le Page

1. T e x tu ra l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the S t. P e te r
sandstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2. C o e ffic ie n t of T ra n s m is s ib ility . . . . . . . . . 4-2

3. Test r e s u lts - unconfined com pression t e s t s . . . 60

4. T r i a x i a l com pression t e s t s c o n d itio n s ,

u n d istu rb ed S t. P e te r sandstone . . . . . . . . 66

v iii
 ABSTRACT

I n t h e Twin C i t y a r e a a v a r i e t y o f h e a v y s t r u c t u r e s
and t u n n e l s h a v e b e e n b u i l t on o r i n t h e S t P e t e r s a n d

stone. The r o c k i n s i t u , though f r i a b l e , i s c o m p e t e n t and

capable of w ith sta n d in g high b e a rin g lo a d s . Because th e

s o f t s a n d s t o n e i s e a s i l y e x c a v a t e d and s u p p o r t e d , . t u n n e l s
c a n be c o n s t r u c t e d - a t b elo w n o r m a l t u n n e l i n g c o s t s .

B u r i e d r i v e r c h a n n e l s , g r o u n d w a t e r p r o b l e m s , and

th e u n iq u e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s a n d s t o n e have c au se d

numerou s e n g i n e e r i n g p e r p l e x i t i e s . The s a n d s t o n e n o r m a l l y

l a c k s c o h e s i o n , h a s a low s h e a r s t r e n g t h , b u t h a s a h i g h

angle of i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n . I f the rock i s d istu rb e d o r

exposed t o ru n n in g w a t e r , th e m a t e r i a l l o s e s i t s stren g th ,
and s t r u c t u r a l f a i l u r e r e s u l t s .

The e n g i n e e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s a n d s t o n e h a v e

n o t been th o r o u g h ly d e f i n e d . The f o r m a t i o n i s u n u s u a l b e

cause i t i s n e i t h e r a s o i l nor rock. The e l a s t i c properties

of the sandstone c a te g o r iz e i t as a rock; c o h e s io n le s s

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e more t y p i c a l o f s o i l s .

The o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s p a p e r h a v e b e e n t o c o m p i l e
a l l a v a i l a b l e e n g i n e e r i n g d a t a i n an a t t e m p t t o b e t t e r u n

d erstan d the en g in eerin g p r o p e r tie s of the S t. P eter sand

stone.
ix
 X

S e v e ra l c a se h i s t o r i e s a r e reviewed to d e m o n stra te

t h e n e c e s s i t y o f a d e q u a t e e x p l o r a t i o n and t e s t i n g o f t h e
sandstone. I n a d d i t i o n 5 a s u b s u r f a c e g e o l o g i c map o f t h e

Twin C i t y a r e a was made t o show t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e

v a rio u s rock types p r e s e n t.
 INTRODUCTION

F o r o v e r one h u n d r e d y e a r s t h e S t . P e t e r s a n d s t o n e 5

I n t h e Twin C i t y a r e a , has been u t i l i z e d f o r f o u n d a t i o n

p u r p o s e s and f o r t h e e x c a v a t i o n o f u t i l i t y and s e w e r t u n

nels . As t h e c i t i e s e x p an d and grow s k y w a r d , a n e v e r i n

c r e a s i n g u s e o f t h e s a n d s t o n e w i l l become e v i d e n t . As

s u c c e e d i n g p r o j e c t s become l a r g e r and more e x t e n s i v e , the

number and c o m p l e x i t y o f e n g i n e e r i n g p r o b l e m s w i l l i n c r e a s e .

C i t y g o v e r n m e n t s , among o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a r e

c o n c e r n e d w i t h c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t s , and f o r p r a c t i c a l p u r
p o s e s t h e y m u s t u n d e r s t a n d t h e e n g i n e e r i n g and g e o l o g i c

param eters of th e se p r o j e c t s .

A c o n s i d e r a b l e amoun t o f r e s e a r c h has* b e e n c o n d u c t

ed on t h e e n g i n e e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e S t . P e t e r s a n d s t o n e

by f o u n d a t i o n e n g i n e e r s , u s u a l l y w i t h t h e a i d o f a c o n s u l t

ing g e o lo g is t. To d a t e , t e s t i n g t e c h n i q u e s and e x p e r i e n c e

h a v e n o t t h o r o u g h l y d e f i n e d t h e g e o l o g i c and e n g i n e e r i n g
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the san d sto n e, but i t i s v i t a l t h a t r e

s e a r c h be c o n t i n u e d .

T h is d i s c u s s i o n i s p r e s e n t e d w ith t h e hope o f c l a r

i f y i n g e n g in e e rin g a s p e c ts of th e S t. P e t e r sa n d sto n e as

r e l a t e d t o t u n n e l c o n s t r u c t i o n and f o u n d a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s .

I t i s a l s o hoped t h i s s t u d y w i l l d e m o n s t r a t e how modern e n

g i n e e r i n g g e o l o g y and r o c k o r s o i l m e c h a n i c s t e c h n i q u e s may
1
$

be u s e d t o o b t a i n more p r e c i s e d e s i g n d a t a and t o c o n t r o l
c o n stru ctio n c o sts.
The a r e a s t u d i e d and mapped c o v e r s a p p r o x i m a t e l y
265 s q u a r e m i l e s , w h i c h i n c l u d e s t h e c i t i e s o f M i n n e a p o l i s

and S t . P a u l w i t h a d d i t i o n a l p o r t i o n s o f Ramsey, D a k o t a ,
H e n n e p i n , and Anoka C o u n t i e s . The b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e mapped

a r e a a r e t h o s e o f t h e U. S . G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y Map, Minneapo
lis - S t . P a u l and V i c i n i t y , 19 5 2 .
The s u b s u r f a c e g e o l o g y o f t h e s t u d y a r e a was r e

mapped and b r o u g h t up t o d a t e . Data p e r t a i n i n g to th e e n

g i n e e r i n g a s p e c t s o f t h e s a n d s t o n e were c o l l e c t e d o n l y
w i t h i n t h e mapped b o u n d a r i e s . However, due t o t h e c o n s i s

te n t physical d is tr ib u tio n , s im ila r engineering p ro p e rtie s

o f t h e f o r m a t i o n c a n be e x p e c t e d i n o t h e r l o c a l i t i e s .

D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e T h e s i s Area

G l a c i a l f e a t u r e s f o r m much o f t h e Twin C i t y l a n d
scape. E x c e p t f o r t h e v a l l e y s o f t h e M i s s i s s i p p i and M in

n e s o t a R i v e r s , g r o u n d m o r a i n e s mask t h e b e d r o c k . The l a n d

s u r f a c e i s g e n t l y u n d u l a t i n g w i t h many a l i g n e d e l o n g a t e d e

p re s s io n s in the d r i f t . L a k e s , swamps, and s t r e a m c o u r s e s

now o c c u p y t h e s e d r i f t f i l l e d d e p r e s s i o n s which s u g g e s t t h e

l o c a t i o n o f p r e g l a c i a l and i n t e r g l a c i a l r i v e r c h a n n e l s .

The M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r s e p a r a t e s t h e C i t i e s o f M i n

n e a p o l i s and S t . P a u l . As t h e R i v e r f l o w s s o u t h f r o m S t .
 3

ST. PAUL

MINNEAPOLIS

INDEX MAP OF MINNESOTA

SHOWING LOCATION OF THESIS AREA

FIGURE I
A n th o n y F a l l s a a y o u t h f u l and n a r r o w g o r g e h a s b e e n f o r m e d ,
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h i g h v e r t i c a l b l u f f s o f e x p o s e d b e d r o c k .

At F o r t S n e l l i n g , w h e r e t h e M i n n e s o t a R i v e r c o n v e r g e s w i t h

t h e M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r , t h e r i v e r v a l l e y b ro ad e n s as does i t s

flood p la in s . The r i v e r b l u f f s s t i l l p e r s i s t i n t e r m i t t e n t l y
on e a c h s i d e o f t h e v a l l e y f o r many m i l e s s o u t h o f t h e c o n
fluence.

E x c e p t f o r t h e M i n n e s o t a and M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r s ,

stream d e g ra d a tio n , sin c e the l a s t g l a c i a l r e t r e a t , has n o t

been r a p i d . R e a s o n a b l y good p e r c o l a t i o n , h e a v y v e g e t a t i o n ,
and numerou s l o c a l p o n d a g e s h a v e m i n i m i z e d f l u v i a l e r o s i o n .
C lim atic c o n d itio n s in th e M etro p o litan a re a are
t y p i c a l o f t h e N o r th e r n Middle W estern S t a t e s . Long w i n

ters, s h o r t summers, and e x t r e m e s i n t e m p e r a t u r e a r e common.

Normal a v e r a g e t e m p e r a t u r e s r a n g e f r o m 1 5 F i n J a n u a r y t o

7^F i n J u l y . The n o r m a l a n n u a l r a i n f a l l i s 25 i n c h e s and

r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y 68 p e r c e n t .

G e n e r a l G e o lo g y

M inneapolis - S t . P a u l and t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a a r e
s i t u a t e d in the c e n te r o f a f l a t s t r u c t u r a l b a sin e n c irc le d

by g e n t l y d i p p i n g s e d i m e n t s . The b a s i n i s e l o n g a t e s o u t h

w e st-n o rth e a st. w ith th e c e n te r lo c a te d south of th e U n iv er

s i t y o f M innesota i n M in n e a p o lis . Dips o f th e se d im e n ts

v a r y b u t a v e r a g e l e s s t h a n one d e g r e e o r t w e n t y f e e t p e r
m ile.
 5

M inor s t r u c t u r e s i n t h e Twin C i t y a r e a h a v e b e e n
observed a t s e v e r a l l o c a t i o n s . The Glenwood s h a l e - S t.

P e t e r s a n d s t o n e c o n t a c t m a y . v a r y a s much a s t h r e e f e e t w i t h
in th e a re a of a block. T h i s phenomenon i s p r o b a b l y due t o
d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l e m e n t o r m inor f a u l t i n g . A more p r o
n o u n c ed s t r u c t u r e was n o t e d i n t h e R o s e v i l l e a r e a . The c o n

t a c t of the P l a t t e v i l l e lim estone - S t. P e ter sandstone,

p a r a l l e l i n g New B r i g h t o n B o u l e v a r d , v a r i e d o v e r 100 f e e t i n
e l e v a t i o n w i t h i n a few h u n d r e d y a r d s on e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e

boulevard. More w e l l d a t a a r e n e e d e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r
t h i s s t r u c t u r e i s a f a u l t o r a m onoclinal f le x u r e .
Recent aero m ag n etic su rv ey s o f th e b a s i n , conducted

by t h e U S . G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y , s u g g e s t t h e t h i c k n e s s o f

s e d i m e n t s t o be i n e x c e s s o f 4 , 0 0 0 f e e t . . The a e r o m a g n e t i c

d a ta a l s o i n d i c a t e a p o s s ib l e f i v e m ile t h i c k s e c t i o n of

Keweenawan b a s a l t f l o w s b e n e a t h t h e s e d i m e n t s (Sim s, 19 6 2 ).

The s t r a t i g r a p h y i n t h e Twin C i t y a r e a h a s b e en
re a so n a b ly w ell determ ined as a r e s u l t of r e c e n t s tu d ie s o f

w e l l c u t t i n g s and o v e r 5 , 0 0 0 d r i l l e r s ' logs. The B e d r o c k

G e o l o g i c Map o f M i n n e a p o l i s , S t . P a u l and V i c i n i t y , F i g u r e

3 0 , was c o m p i l e d f r o m a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e s e s u b s u r f a c e d a t a .

The map shows t h e t o p o g r a p h y o f t h e b e d r o c k s u r f a c e a n d ' t h e

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the m ajor bedrock u n i t s . N o r t h and e a s t

t r e n d i n g s t r u c t u r a l s e c t i o n s a r e shown on F i g u r e s 31 and 32
resp ectiv ely .
 6

The a g e s o f s e d i m e n t s r a n g e from P r e c a m b r i a n t o m i d

d le O rdovician. The f o r m a t i o n s a r e e a s i l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e
and r e a d i l y c o r r e l a t a b l e b e tw e e n w e l l s . A lso, th ic k n e s s o f

th e e s s e n t i a l l y c o n tin u o u s fo rm a tio n s b en eath M inneapolis

and S t . Paul changes l i t t l e . A com plete d e s c r i p t i o n of th e

l i t h o l o g y of each s t r a t i g r a p h i c u n i t i s u n n e ce ssa ry f o r t h i s

in v estig atio n . How ever, a r e v i s e d s t r a t i g r a p h i c column h a s

b e en made b a s e d on r e c e n t w e l l c u t t i n g s t u d i e s , and a b r i e f

d e s c r ip tio n o f the fo rm atio n s a re ta b u la te d (Figure 2 ).

F o u r f o r m a t i o n s a r e r e c o g n i z e d on t h e s u r f a c e i n t h e

Twin C i t y a r e a . A ll ro c k o u tc ro p s a r e i n th e form o f R iv e r

b l u f f s a l o n g t h e M i s s i s s i p p i and M i n n e s o t a R i v e r s . The

Decorah s h a l e , P l a t t e v i l l e l i m e s t o n e , Glenwood s h a l e , and

S t, P e te r sandstone crop out to g e t h e r d is c o n tin u o u s ly along

the r i v e r b lu f f s throughout the m e tro p o lita n a r e a .

The b e d r o c k s u r f a c e i s m a n t l e d by 10 t o 350 f e e t o f

u n co n solidated g l a c i a l m a t e r i a l s . G l a c i a l and i n t e r g l a c i a l

r i v e r s s h a p e d t h i s s u r f a c e t o r e s e m b l e a. c a n y o n and p l a t e a u

type o f environm ent. A c o m p lex s y s t e m o f d e e p , n a r r o w c a n

y o n s , r e s e m b l i n g t h e p r e s e n t day n a r r o w g o r g e o f t h e M i s s i s

s i p p i R i v e r below S t . Anthony F a i l s , was c u t i n t o t h e u n d e r

ly in g sedim ents. F i g u r e 3 0 shows w i t h r e a s o n a b l e a c c u r a c y

the c o n fig u r a tio n , s i z e , and e x t e n t o f t h e s e c h a n n e l s .

D u r i n g t h e summer o f 1964 a Warden G e o d e t i c G r a v i t y

M e t e r was u s e d t t o h e l p l o c a t e b u r i e d c h a n n e l s i n t h e n o r t h
e r n h a l f o f t h e New B r i g h t o n Q u a d r a n g l e . The low d e n s i t y .
 PERIOD FORMATION
P leistocene
O rdovician G a l e n a l i m e s t o n e an d
Decorah
P l a t t e v i l l e lim esto n e
Caramona member
Ojuimby * s Mi l l me mb e r
McGregor member
Glenwood s h a l e
S t. P e te r sandstone
P r a i r i e du O h ie n
S hakopee d o l o m i t e
New Richmond s s
Oneota d o lo m ite
Cambrian Jordan sandstone
Van O s e r member
N o r w a lk member
S t . Lawrence f o r m a t io n
L o d i member
- B l a c k E a r t h member
Franconia form ation
Mazomanie member
Reno member
Tomah member
B i r k m o s e member
W o o d h i l l member
Dresbach fo rm atio n
G a l e s v i l l e member
Eau C l a i r member
Mt. Simon member
P recam brian H inckley sandstone
(Keweenawan)
Fond du Lac ( r e d b e d s )
B asalt
j ROCK FORMATIONS OF THE MINNEAPOLIS-ST. PAUL AREA
LITHOLOGY THICKNESS
U n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d d r i f t and g l a c i a l 50-350
o u t w a s h . More r e c e n t d e p o s i t s : (feet)
l o e s s , t a l u s , r i v e r sands and g r a
v e l s , an d l a k e d e p o s i t s .
A rg illaceo u s green shale w ith in - 0-60
terbedded f o s s i l i f e r o u s lim esto n e.
50
Medium b e d d e d , f i n e g r a i n e d l i m e
stone w ith in terb ed d ed sh a le .
Fine g ra in e d , conch o id al f r a c t u r e d
lim estone.
Very f i n e g r a i n e d l i m e s t o n e w i t h
a m inor c la y f r a c t i o n .
S h ale g r a d i n g i n t o sandy s h a l e 6
downward.
Medium t o f i n e g r a i n e d c l e a n 150
q u artzo se sandstone.
Fine to medium g r a i n e d d o l o m i t e . 45
Fine to medium g r a i n e d s a n d s t o n e . 11
Fine to medium g r a i n e d d o l o m i t e , 80
compact and v u g g y .
90
Coarse g r a in e d q u a rtz o s e sand
stone.
Fine g ra in e d q u a rtz o se sand
stone.
50
Fine g r a in e d d o lo m itic sandstone
and s i l t s t o n e .
Sandy a n d g l a u c o n i t i c d o l o m i t e
w ith in terb ed d ed dolo m itic s i l t -
stone bed s.
200
F a c ie s - e a s tw a r d o n ly . F in e to
medium g r a i n e d , t h i n b e d d e d s a n d
s t o n e . Some c r o s s b e d d i n g .
G la u c o n itic f in e sandstone.
V ery f i n e s a n d s t o n e and i n t e r
bedded s h a l e .
G la u c o n itic fin e sandstone.
C r o s s b e d d e d medium t o c o a r s e
g ra in e d snadstone.
400
M a s s i v e t o c r o s s b e d d e d f i n e to
medium g r a i n e d s a n d s t o n e .
T hin b e d d ed , v e ry f i n e s a n d s to n e ,
s i l t s t o n e , and s h a l e .
Medium t o c o a r s e w h i t e q u a r t z o s e
sandstone.
Medium g r a i n e d , sa lm o n c o l o r e d 40
q u artzo se sandstone.
A rk o s ic and l i t h i c s i l t y sa n d s to n e 3000 /
B asalt flo w s. 5
FIGURE 2 -4
 8

u n c o n s o l i d a t e d g l a c i a l m a t e r i a l s r e s t i n g on t h e h i g h e r d e n
s i t y s e d im e n ts gave a d e n s i t y c o n t r a s t g r e a t enough t o p r o

v i d e t h e g r a v i t y metho d w i t h a f a i r l y h i g h d e g r e e o f
reso lu tio n . Two s i x m i l e t r a v e r s e s w e re made n o r m a l t o t h e
assumed c h a n n e l s and w i t h s t a t i o n s 100 y a r d s a p a r t R esults

were r e c o r d e d on two p r o f i l e s w h i c h c o r r e l a t e d r e m a r k a b l y

w e l l w i t h t h e mapped s u b s u r f a c e t o p o g r a p h y o f t h e s o u t h e r n
h a l f o f t h e New B r i g h t o n Q u a d r a n g l e .
 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ST. PETER SAMDSTONE

General D e s c r ip tio n
The S t . P e te r sandstone (O rdovician) i s one o f t h e
m ost c o n s p i c u o u s r o o k f o r m a t i o n s i n t h e M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r

V alley. The f o r m a t i o n i s v e r y w i d e s p r e a d and d i s p l a y s r e a

s o n a b l y c o n s i s t e n t p h y s i c a l and m i n e r a l o g i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

P e r h a p s t h e m o st u n u s u a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e f o r m a t i o n i s t h a t

i t i s composed o f 99 p e r c e n t p u r e q u a r t z s a n d g r a i n s and
lac k s cem entation.
In the M etropolitan a re a th e S t. P e t e r everywhere
l i e s u n c o n f o r m a b l y o v e r t h e S h a k o p e e d o l o m i t e member o f t h e

P r a i r i e du C h i e n f o r m a t i o n . The s a n d s t o n e f o r m a t i o n a v e r

a g e s 150 f e e t i n t h i c k n e s s and i s u n i f o r m e x c e p t f o r a d i s

c o n t i n u o u s s h a l e l a y e r l o c a t e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50 f e e t ab o v e

t h e Shakopee c o n t a c t . The t o p o f t h e s a n d s t o n e i s c h a r a c

t e r i z e d by a t r a n s i t i o n zone t h a t g r a d e s upward i n t o t h e

Glenwood s h a l e . The s h a l e v a r i e s f r o m t h r e e t o f i v e f e e t i n

t h i c k n e s s i n t h e Twin C i t y a r e a . Conformably o v e r l y i n g th e

Glenwood i s t e n t o t h i r t y f e e t o f P l a t t e v i l l e l i m e s t o n e .

The b e s t e x p o s e d and m o s t c o m p l e t e s e c t i o n o f t h e
S t. P e te r sandstone i s lo c a te d a t Holiday H arbor. The h a r

b o r i s s i t u a t e d a c r o s s th e M i s s i s s i p p i R iv e r from t h e ty p e

s e c tio n of the S t. P e te r sandstone a t F o rt S n e llin g . The

s e c t i o n i s a s e v e n t y - f i v e f o o t h i g h r i v e r b l u f f and i s

9
 10

Figures 3 and 4. Fresh exposures of the St. Peter sandstone

at the Minnesota Silica Company quarry,
Minneapolis. Platteville limestone, Glenwood
shale, green sand horizon also are shown.
 11

FIGURE 5. River bluff at Holiday Harbor, St. Paul exposing

the St. Peter sandstone. Opening at right was
caused by the caving of an unsupported mine
drift.
FIGURE 6 . Mine drift in the St. Peter sand
stone. Opening was purposely
arched. (Holiday Harbor, St. Paul)
 13

e a sily accessib le. S e v e ra l l a r g e h o r i z o n t a l d r i f t s have

been d r i v e n a s much a s f i f t y y a r d s i n t o t h e b l u f f , perm it

t i n g o b s e r v a t i o n o f f r e s h l y exposed ro ck .

F r i a b i l i t y and C e m e n t a t i o n

The S t . P e t e r s a n d s t o n e c a n n o r m a l l y be d e s c r i b e d a s

a f r i a b l e w h i t e s a n d s t o n e w h ic h l a c k s c e m e n t a t i o n . However,

l o c a l l y w i t h i n t h e f o r m a t io n i r r e g u l a r shaped masses of

s a n d s to n e a r e cemented w ith i r o n o x id e , form ing a v e ry h a rd

and d e n s e s a n d s t o n e . O ccasionally, the iro n oxide appears

t o h a v e fo rm ed c o n c r e t i o n a r y m a s s e s w h ic h a r e s p h e r o i d a l i n

shape.
I n e x a m i n a t i o n o f p o l i s h e d s e c t i o n s made o f t h e

s a n d s t o n e , u n d e r a p e t r o g r a p h i c m i c r o s c o p e , no o b v i o u s c e

m e n t i n g a g e n t s w e re o b s e r v e d e x c e p t i n t h o s e c a s e s where
i r o n o x i d e had i n d u r a t e d t h e s p e c i m e n s . S econdary growth of

s i l i c a , w h i c h was i n o p t i c a l c o n t i n u i t y w i t h t h e g r a i n s , was

o b s e r v e d on l e s s t h a n 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e g r a i n s . The g r o w t h s

w e re c h a r a c t e r i z e d by d i s c o n t i n u o u s b a n d s a r o u n d t h e c o a r s e r

g r a i n s and w e re u s u a l l y t e r m i n a t e d by one o r more o f t h e

faces of the in d iv id u a l g r a i n s . T h i s s e c o n d a r y g r o w t h may

h a v e b e e n f o rm ed by a p r e v i o u s r o c k c y c l e , p r i o r to the s e d
im e n ta tio n of the S t. P e te r san d sto n e . In a d d itio n , t h e low

p e rc e n ta g e of g r a i n s d i s p l a y i n g overgrow ths i s un u su al f o r a

ro ck m a t e r i a l t h a t has undergone th e i n t r o d u c t i o n of s i l i c a

in so lu tio n .
 The b o n d i n g f o r c e t h a t k e e p s t h e s a n d s t o n e t o g e t h e r

a s a u n i t c a n b e s t be e x p l a i n e d m e c h a n i c a l l y by a n i n t e r
locking g rain e f f e c t The f i n e r g r a i n s t h a t make up t h e

s a n d s t o n e a r e a n g u l a r i n s h a p e and h a v e become i n t e r l o c k e d
w i t h e a c h o t h e r t o f o rm an a g g r e g a t e . The s h a p e o f t h e s e
a g g r e g a t e s conform t o t h e shape o f t h e i n t e r s t i t i a l o p en in g s

b e t w e e n t h e l a r g e r , more r o u n d e d g r a i n s . In a d d itio n , the

coarser grains, b e i n g f r o s t e d and p i t t e d , a l l o w t h e f i n e r

a n g u la r g r a i n s t o use th e s e i n d e n t a t i o n s as f o o t h o le s i n

which t o h e lp keep th e g r a i n s i n t e r l o c k e d . T herefore, i t

c a n be assum ed t h a t t h e s e e f f e c t s s u b s t a n t i a l l y k e e p t h e m a

t e r i a l to g eth er. The p h o t o m i c r o g r a p h ( F i g u r e 7 ) w i l l h e l p

emphasize t h i s t h e o r y . Perhaps th e h ig h e r p e rc e n t of the

r o u n d e d g r a i n s i n t h e s a n d s t o n e would c a u s e t h e m a t e r i a l t o

be more f r i a b l e and c o n v e r s e l y , t h e h i g h e r p e r c e n t o f s m a l l e r
a n g u l a r g r a i n s would c a u s e t h e s a n d s t o n e t o be l e s s f r i a b l e .

The f o r c e t h a t c a u s e d t h e i n t e r l o c k i n g o f g r a i n s was p r o b a b l y
due t o t h e c o m p a ctio n o f th e f o r m a t io n a f t e r s e d i m e n t a t i o n .

The s a n d s t o n e g e n e r a l l y becomes h a r d e r arid more

dense w ith depth in th e fo rm a tio n . However, e x p o s e d s a n d

s t o n e , e v e n t h o u g h more f r i a b l e i n t h e u p p e r p a r t o f t h e
fo rm atio n , w ith stan d s the e f f e c t of w eathering w e ll. Where
the m a t e r i a l sta n d s unsupported in high r i v e r b l u f f s o r e x

cavations, th e s t r e n g t h needed to s u p p o rt th e s a n d s to n e i s

m o s t l y t h e r e s u l t o f c o m p a c t i o n and t h e p r e s e n c e o f a p r o

t e c t i v e lim esto n e cap. W ith t h e c a p r o c k rem o v ed , the

y *

FIGURE 7. Photomicrograph showing grain relationships in the St.

Peter sandstone. The indistinguishable fine matrix is
composed of interlocking fine sand grains. Only the
coarser grains show any degree of rounding.

3 5 0 microns

SCALE
 16

s a n d s t o n e i s v e r y s o f t and f r i a b l e O ccasio n ally , the sa n d

s t o n e may be f o u n d t o be q u i t e f r i a b l e i n a n e x p o s u r e e v en
w ith th e cap rock i n p la c e . T h i s phenomenon i s p o s s i b l y due

t o an e x c e s s i v e amount o f w a t e r w h i c h o n c e f l o w e d t h r o u g h

the m a te ria l causing i t to lo se i t s s t r e n g t h by g r a i n r e a r

rangement (S chw artz, 1965), Ca se h a r d e n i n g on some s a n d

s t o n e o u t c r o p s has g iv e n added p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t w e a t h e r

ing.

M i n e r a l o g y and L i t h o l o g y

The m o st o u t s t a n d i n g l i t h o l o g i c f e a t u r e o f t h e S t .

P e te r sandstone is i t s p u r i t y and w h i t e c o l o r on f r e s h l y e x

posed s u r f a c e s . For a l l p r a c tic a l purposes, th e form ation

c a n be c o n s i d e r e d m o n o m i n e r a l i c . A chem ical a n a l y s i s of th e

sandstone a t th e type l o c a l i t y . F o r t S m e l l i n g , showed t h e

fo llo w in g r e s u l t s : SiOg - 9 7 . 6^ , Al^Og - 1 . 3 $ , Fe^Og -

0 .-55 $ , CaO - 0 . 4 1 $ , Wa2 0 - 0 , 1 5 $ , and Kg - 0 . 0 2 $ ( W i n c h e l l ,

1884). I n t h e Twin C i t y a r e a t h e s e f i g u r e s c a n be c o n s i d e r

ed a v e r a g e . P e r c e n t a g e s w i l l n o t v a r y o v e r a few t e n t h s o f

a p e r c e n t from l o c a t i o n t o l o c a t i o n .

Numerous h e a v y m i n e r a l a n a l y s e s h a v e b e e n made on

the S t. P e te r sandstone. These, show an a v e r a g e c o m p o s i t i o n

of th e heavy m in e ra l f r a c t i o n o f th e sa n d sto n e a s : zirco n -

48$, to u r m a li n e - 35$ j r u t i l e - 8$ , l e u c o x e n e - 6$ , and a

tr a c e of g a rn e t ( S t a u f f e r and T h i e l , 1 9 4 1 ) , and c o n s t i t u t e

approxim ately 1 p e rc e n t of the t o t a l m in e ral com position.

 17

T h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e i n c o n t e n t jan d a n o b v i o u s t e x
t u r a l change i n th e heavy m in e r a ls n e a r th e to p o f th e f o r
m ation. N o r m a l l y , t h e g a r n e t c o n t e n t i n c r e a s e s , and t h e

g r a i n s become l a r g e r and more a n g u l a r a s t h e t r a n s i t i o n zo n e

i s a p p r o a c h e d and c r o s s e d i n t o t h e Glenwood s h a l e . This i s

due t o an e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a n g e i n t h e s e d i m e n t a t i o n h i s t o r y

of the a r e a .

The h e a v y m i n e r a l c o n t e n t o f t h e S t . P e t e r s a n d s t o n e

i s one o f t h e m a i n c r i t e r i a u s e d t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e tw e e n
t h e S t . P e t e r and J o r d a n s a n d s t o n e s . Thd J o r d a n s a n d s t o n e ,

w h ic h u n d e r l i e s t h e P r a i r i e du O h ie n f o r m a t i o n , i s v e r y s i m

i l a r to the S t. P e t e r , and o f t e n t h e two a r e c o n f u s e d w i t h

each o t h e r in the stu d y of w e ll c u tt i n g s i n i n t e r p r e t i n g

sand i n t r u s i o n problems o f w a te r w e l l s . The h e a v y m i n e r a l s

a r e e a s i l y s e p a r a t e d from t h e s a n d s to n e s w ith h ig h d e n s i t y
liq u id s. S i n c e t h e r e i s u s u a l l y an o b v i o u s d i f f e r e n c e i n

h e a v y m i n e r a l c o m p o s i t i o n b e tw e e n t h e two f o r m a t i o n s , th is

c o m p a r i s o n i s u s e d t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e two s a n d s t o n e s

in q uestion. Heavy m i n e r a l c o n t e n t i n t h e , J o r d a n s a n d s t o n e
i s as follow s 5 g a r n e t - 6l $ , tourm aline - 16$ , zircon -

180, r u t i l e - 20, and l e u c o x e n e - 10 ( S t a u f f e r and T h i e l ,

1941).

Iro n in the S t. P e t e r san d sto n e u s u a lly occurs as a

c o a t i n g on t h e i n d i v i d u a l g r a i n s and r e s u l t s i n a y e l l o w o r

r e d d i s h brown s t a i n on t h e g r a i n s . Occurrence o f i r o n in

t h e f o r m a t i o n i s v e r y e r r a t i c and h a s l o c a l l y fo r m e d s t a i n e d
 18

b a n d s w h ic h t e n d t o f o l l o w b e d d i n g p l a n e s i n t h e f o r m a t i o n .
The b a n d s may be an i n c h t o a few f e e t i n t h i c k n e s s and may

r e p r e s e n t old, s t a t i c w a te r t a b l e s , o r p r e f e r r e d bedding

p l a n e s f o r t h e l a t e r a l movement o f w a t e r .

I r r e g u l a r shaped i r o n s t a i n e d b o d ies o f a l l s i z e s
and s h a p e s a r e a l s o common. The i r o n i s p r o b a b l y o f s e c o n d

a r y o r i g i n d e p o s i t e d by downward p e r c o l a t i n g i r o n c h a r g e d

w a t e r s 5 w h ic h f o l l o w e d i r r e g u l a r c o u r s e s t h r o u g h t h e s a n d
stone. The i r r e g u l a r c o u r s e s may h a v e b e e n c a u s e d by d i f

fe re n c e s in p e rm e a b ility in th e form ation.

P y r i t e and m a r c a s i t e g r a i n s h a v e a l s o b e e n r e c o g

nized n e a r th e top o f the f o r m a tio n . C r y s t a l f a c e s on t h e s e

p a r t i c l e s a r e w e l l d e v e l o p e d and show no s i g n s o f b e i n g
t r a n s p o r t e d , which i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e m i n e r a l s a r e o f s e c
ondary o r i g i n . Nodules o f p y r i t e w ith d i s s e m in a t e d q u a r t z

g r a i n s a r e n o t uncommon, and a r e f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e f o r m a

tio n . The n o d u l e s a l s o a r e o b v i o u s l y o f s e c o n d a r y o r i g i n

b e c a u s e o f w e l l f o rm ed c r y s t a l f a c e s on t h e p y r i t e g r a i n s .

A u t h i g e n i c and d e t r i t a l g r a i n s o f f e l d s p a r were r e c

o g n i z e d i n t h e l o w e r p a r t o f t h e f o r m a t i o n n e a r N e w p o rt,

M i n n e s o t a ( T h i e l , 1935* p. 5 9 0 ) - The a n g u l a r f e l d s p a r
g r a i n s a r e l a r g e l y due t o a u t h i g e n i c g r o w t h o r s e c o n d a r y e n

largem ent of d e t r i t a l g ra in s . T h ie l recorded 3 to 5 p e rc e n t

f e l d s p a r c o n t e n t i n s a m p l e s f r o m t h e Newport a r e a j h o w e v e r ,

no f e l d s p a r g r a i n s c o u l d be i s o l a t e d i n t h e t h e s i s s t u d y
 19

area. T herefore, t h e e x i s t e n c e o f f e l d s p a r g r a i n s may o n l y

be a l o c a l phenomenon.
Due t o t h e homogeneous c h a r a c t e r o f t h e S t . P eter

s a n d s to n e , bedding i s n o t c o n s p ic u o u s . Upon c l o s e e x a m i n a
tio n , t h e b e d d i n g p l a n e s c a n be d i s t i n g u i s h e d and r a n g e fro m
a few i n c h e s t o a few f e e t a p a r t . Iro n s ta in e d exposures of
t h e r o c k seem t o b e t h e b e s t l o c a t i o n . t o s t u d y t h e b e d d i n g

planes. T e x t u r a l s t u d i e s among b e d s show no o b v i o u s d i f f e r -

\
ences.

Some c r o s s b e d d i n g has b e e n r e p o r t e d i n t h e S t .

P eter. I t i s t h o u g h t t o be m o s t l y o f f l u v i a l o r i g i n w i t h
o n ly m inor e v id e n ce o f e o l i a n d e p o s i t i o n .

T e x t u r a l and G r a i n S i z e A n a l y s e s
G rain s i z e a n a ly s e s of th e S t . P e t e r sa n d sto n e i n d i

c a t e t h e m a t e r i a l t o be e x t r e m e l y w e l l s o r t e d and r e s t r i c t e d

to a lim ite d s iz e range. N inety p e r c e n t o f th e sand g r a in s

f a l l b e t w e e n t h e r a n g e o f 125 a n d 250 m i c r o n s o r t h e 140 and

60 mesh s i e v e s i z e s r e s p e c t i v e l y . The s a n d s t o n e s h o u l d f a l l
i n t o m o st s o i l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s a s a f i n e s a n d .

Numerous s e d i m e n t a t i o n a n a l y s e s w e re made o f t h e

sandstone w ith a v i s u a l accum ulation tube. The v i s u a l t u b e

m eth o d i s u s e d f o r s i z e a n a l y s i s o f s u s p e n d e d s e d i m e n t sa m
p l e s o f s a n d f r a c t i o n s l e s s t h a n one m i l l i m e t e r i n d i a m e t e r .

The t h e o r y o f t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n t u b e i s b a s e d on S t o k e s Law

and was d e v e l o p e d f o r s e d i m e n t s s i m i l a r t o t h e S t . P eter

 2

sand. P e rc e n ta g e s of each g r a i n s i z e r e t a i n e d a r e g r a p h i

c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d on a c h a r t . T h i s method o f g r a i n s i z e a n -,
a l y s i s was c h o s e n b e c a u s e o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s a n d s t o n e ,

and t h e t e s t i s s i m p l e , r a p i d , and a c c u r a t e .
F i g u r e 8 shows t e n h i s t o g r a m s (frequency d i s t r i b u

t i o n c u r v e s ) made w i t h t h e v i s u a l a c c u m u l a t i o n t u b e . The

specim ens t e s t e d r e p r e s e n t a v e r t i c a l s e c t i o n o f an o u tc ro p
o f S t . P e t e r s a n d s t o n e t a k e n on t h e e a s t - a b u t m e n t o f t h e new

F o r t S n e l l i n g B r i d g e on t h e M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r . C h a n n e l sa m

p l e s were ta k e n a t f i v e f o o t i n t e r v a l s f o r th e t o p f i f t y

f e e t of the fo rm atio n . The s i t e was c h o s e n t o t a k e s a m p l e s

b e c a u s e t h e r o c k was f r e s h l y e x p o s e d , and t h e l o c a t i o n was

n e a r th e type s e c t i o n of th e sa n d sto n e .
I n exam ining t h e h i s t o g r a m s , t h e r e a r e no g r e a t v a r

i a t i o n s i n g ra in s iz e s v e r t i c a l l y in the s e c tio n except i n

the upper ten f e e t ( t r a n s i t i o n z o n e ) w here t h e m a t e r i a l b e

comes s l i g h t l y c o a r s e r . E x c e lle n t s o r t i n g , i s a ls o very con

spicuous in the s e c tio n .

Sa m p le s f r o m s e v e r a l h o r i z o n t a l s e c t i o n s a l s o w ere

taken to determ ine t h e i r c o n s is te n c y i n g r a d a tio n of g ra in

size. A s e r i e s o f e i g h t c h a n n e l s a m p l e s , one h u n d r e d f e e t

a p a r t and a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w e n t y f e e t belo w t h e t r a n s i t i o n
zone i n t h e S t . P e t e r , were c o l l e c t e d i n t h e M in n e a p o lis

S t o r m Sew er T u n n e l b e t w e e n W a s h i n g t o n Avenue. N o r t h and F i r s t

S t r e e t North. S a m p le s w e re c o l l e c t e d d u r i n g t h e c o n s t r u c

tio n of the tu n n e l.
F e e t "below G r a i n s i z e P e r c e n t H istogram
G-lenwood i n m icrons R e ta in e d
contact
500
350
m
83
2.5
4
62.5 3.5
500 3
350

125
s
5
TPHTT^TT liimmiirnTTiiiiiiimimiiiirtiu
88
62.5
4
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500
350
250 it I i liill III|1010
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.ILLL.. 1 1 i I_ _ _
.1111.. i.lm Illl M l nimmimm
125 E IT

GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS VERTICAL SECTION

FIGURE 8
 22
The v i s u a l a c c u m u l a t i o n t u b e was u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e
\

t h e s i z e g r a d a t i o n , and t h e d a t a a r e t a b u l a t e d i n F i g u r e 9

An e v e n more r e m a r k a b l e c o n s i s t e n c y c a n be o b s e r v e d i n s i z e
g r a d a t i o n a s co m p ared t o t h e v e r t i c a l s e c t i o n .

S i m i l a r s e r i e s o f g r a i n s i z e a n a l y s e s w e r e made a t
the fo llo w in g l o c a t i o n s : M i n n e s o t a S i l i c a Company i n N o r t h
M i n n e a p o l i s , S t e v e n s Avenue S t o r m S e w e r i n M i n n e a p o l i s , F o r t

S n e l l i n g , and H o l i d a y H a r b o r i n S t . Paul. G radation r e s u l ts

f r o m v e r t i c a l o r h o r i z o n t a l s e c t i o n s w e re v e r y s i m i l a r t o

those afo rem en tio n ed . T herefore, th e S t. P e te r sandstone

c a n be c o n s i d e r e d n e a r l y hom ogeneous w i t h r e g a r d t o i t s .

grain siz e d is trib u tio n .

L a c a b a n n e (1 9 6 4 ) n o t i c e d a d e f i n i t e b i m o d a l and p o s

s i b l e t r i m o d a l e f f e c t i n t h e s a n d s t o n e a s shown i n F i g u r e

10 . H i s s p e c i m e n s w e re c o l l e c t e d f r o m a r i v e r b l u f f below
th e U n i v e r s i ty of M innesota i n M in n eap o lis. They w e r e o b

t a i n e d f i f t e e n f e e t b elo w t h e Glenwood - S t . P e ter co n tact.

H o l d e r ( 1 9 6 3 , p. 5) a l s o r e c o g n i z e d a s i m i l a r b i m o d a l d i s

t r i b u t i o n o f s a n d g r a i n s a f o o t b e lo w t h e Glenwood c o n t a c t

at several lo catio n s. The s t u d y w i t h t h e v i s u a l a c c u m u l a

t i o n t u b e showed o n l y one i n s t a n c e o f t h i s b i m o d a l e f f e c t .

E v i d e n t l y , t h e e n t i r e f o r m a t i o n d o e s n o t show t h i s b i m o d a l
d istrib u tio n .

A summary o f t e x t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of th e S t.

P e t e r s a n d s t o n e a r e g i v e n i n t h e t a b l e b e lo w f o r s e v e r a l
 23

S t a ti o n G rain s iz e P ercent His t o g r a m

l o c a t i o n i n m icrons r e t a i n e d

9+00 350 3 m
250 35 11 In
175 31 ' 11 n illh I nn
125 20 HIL in
10+00 350 6 niln
jj_
250 36 i m
175 35 n i l ilk ! ittrr
125 31 j! Ilk n"
88 4 rij
11+00 350 6 r ]______________
250 37 11 n n hi III! nn ii i i n i
34 il mi IN nn i n n
11 Ji ill nil
175
125 17
88 6 !lll
12+00 350 8 III I L _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
m
125
39
31
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!
!
i
i nn imiiiii
j
nn
r _ L _ .

88 6 til I
13+00 350 7 nn H _________
250 37 i n i n n 1 1 l l | w n llli111
175 34 !li || | I till
125 19 ill llli ml
88 5
14+00 5
118 33 nn n in i ni
175 30 i in
125 25 i l
88 7 II
15+00 350 4 etl

m
125
28
31
27
llli
j Mill
in i 11TT
Ml

88 10
16+00 350 5
250 27 iiil m l ill ! III i il
175 i l k k k Ill n Im i n
125 11 kii n nil In ill 1 n r
88 7 mi il

GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS HORIZONTAL SECTION

FIGURE 9
 PERCENT RETAINED

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
28
32
35
42
48
lu 60
% 65
uj 80
y io o
cn
115
150
170
200
PAN

HISTOGRAM SHOWING THE BIMODAL DISTRIBUTION OF GRAIN SIZES

IN THE ST PETER SANDSTONE

rv
FIGURE 10 -t=r
 25

l o c a t i o n s i n th e g r e a t e r m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a ( T h e i l a 1935* P
584).
Table 1. T extural C h a ra c te ris tic s
Medium C oeff. C oeff. E f f e c t i v e Uniformity
L ocation D iam eter o f of Size C oeff.
(mm) S orting Skewne ss (mm)
Mendota 0.235 " 1.41 1.09 0 . 1 4 2 .. 1.99
North M pls. 0.235 1.48 0.96 0.107 2.65
St.- P a u l P a r k 0.178 1.32 1.20 0.119 2.28
Zumbrota 0.201 1.32 1.06 0.114 2.00
S o u t h M pls. 0.219 1.55 0.94 0.086 3.02
Mounds P a r k 1.970 1.37 1.07 0.121 1 . 9 2
W a s h i n g t o n Co. 0.281 1.27 1.11 0.175 . 3 .66

R oundness , F r o s t i n g , and P i t t i n g

G r a i n s h a p e s i n t h e S t . P e t e r s a n d s t o n e v a r y fr o m

a n g u l a r t o s u b r o u n d w i t h v e r y few g r a i n s d i s p l a y i n g a s p h e r i

c a l form. G e n era lly 5 th e c o a rs e r f r a c t i o n d is p la y s the

h ig h e r degree o f rounding. T h e i l (1935* p . 586) f o u n d t h a t

t h e g r a i n s r e t a i n e d on a y m i l l i m e t e r s c r e e n show a n a v e r a g e

c i r c u l a r i t y in d ex of 0.956, l / 8 m i l l i m e t e r s c r e e n had a
0 . 9 2 5 i n d e x , and t h e l / l 6 m i l l i m e t e r s c r e e n f r a c t i o n was

0.917. The i n d e x i s b a s e d on a c i r c l e w h i c h h a s a v a l u e o f

1 . 0 0 and a s q u a r e w i t h a n i n d e x o f 0 . 7 8 4 .

A c t u a l g r a i n s h a p e s may be e l o n g a t e , equidim ension-

a l, o r even c o n i c a l . V a r i a t i o n i n s h a p e i s m a i n l y due t o

the d iffe re n c e in o r ig in of the o r i g in a l g ra in s (T hiel,

1935* p . 587 )* o r t h e s h a p e s may be due t o c o r r a s i o n d u r i n g

tran sp o rtatio n .

The c o a r s e r g r a i n s show a h i g h e r d e g r e e o f f r o s t i n g ,
which i s i n ag re em e n t w i t h th e ro u n d in g o f t h e c o a r s e r
 26

grain s The w h i t e c o l o r d i s p l a y e d by t h e s a n d s t o n e i n f r e s h
e x p o s u r e s i s c a u s e d by t h e f r o s t i n g o f t h e g r a i n s .

In c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e f r o s t i n g , p i tt i n g is also

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y d i s p l a y e d on t h e g r a i n s . The p i t s a r e
g e n e r a l l y s h a l l o w and b r o a d and may r e a c h d e p t h s o f 0 . 1 m i l

l i m e t e r on t h e l a r g e r g r a i n s . O c c a sio n a lly , th e p i t s a c t as

" f o o t h o l e s " , f o r g r a i n s t o i n t e r l o c k w i t h one a n o t h e r . The

O r i g i n o f t h e f r o s t i n g and p i t t i n g i s p r o b a b l y due t o g r a i n

i m p a c t by wind a c t i o n . -

S i l t H orizon

A s ilts to n e layer, l o c a t e d b elo w t h e m i d d l e o f t h e

S t. P e te r form ation, occurs alm ost c o n tin u o u s ly th ro u g h o u t

th e M etro p o litan a re a . The l a y e r v a r i e s i n t h i c k n e s s f r o m a

few i n c h e s t o a s much a s s i x f e e t . T extural p ro p e rtie s of

t h e s i l t s t o n e a r e n o t c o n s i s t e n t l a t e r a l l y ; h o w e v e r , t h e ma

t e r i a l i s f i n e e n ough t o be s i g n i f i c a n t a s a n a q u i c l u d e .

The l a y e r r e p r e s e n t s a p e r i o d o f q u i e t s e d i m e n t a t i o n d u r i n g

the d e p o s itio n a l h i s t o r y of the form ation.

The Army C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r s s e c u r e d a c o r e d s a m p le of

t h e l a y e r d u r i n g t h e s i t e e x a m i n a t i o n o f Lock a n d Dam Number

1 on t h e M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r , ; i n M i n n e a p o l i s . The h o r i z o n was

r e p o r t e d a s t h r e e f e e t o f s o f t l a m i n a t e d s h a l e and s i l t s t o n e ,

d ark gray i n c o lo r . An X - r a y d e f r a c t o m e t e r a n a l y s i s was

made o f t h e m a t e r i a l t o d e t e r m i n e t h e m i n e r a l o g y o f t h e c l a y

f r a c t i o n i n th e sam ple. A high c o n te n t o f i l l i t e was f o u n d

 27

w i t h m i n o r a m o u n ts o f k a o l i n ! t e and o n l y a t r a c e o f q u a r t z .
A p e t r o g r a p h i c e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e c o a r s e r f r a c t i o n showed
t h e m a t e r i a l t o be composed o f q u a r t z , o r t h o c l a s e , m i c r o -
c l i n e , and s e r i c i t e g r a i n s .
i
G re en Sand H o r i z o n

F i v e t o f i f t e e n f e e t b elo w t h e Glenwood - S t . ' P e t e r

c o n t a c t , a c o n sp icu o u s e ig h t' in c h t h i c k l a y e r o f g re e n sand

c a n n o r m a l l y be o b s e r v e d i n f r e s h e x p o s u r e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e
Twin C i t y a r e a . Close ex am in atio n o f th e m a t e r i a l r e v e a ls a

m ottled t e x t u r e , c o n s i s t in g of sm a ll, i r r e g u l a r patches of

c l e a n q u a r t z o s e s a n d and q u a r t z o s e s a n d w i t h i t s in te rstice s

f i l l e d w ith a pale green c la y . The m a t e r i a l i s v e r y h a r d

when d r y and h a s t o be b r o k e n w i t h a hammer, when w e t t h e

m a t e r i a l s o f t e n s and shows p l a s t i c tendencies. An X - r a y

a n a l y s i s o f th e g re e n c l a y gave w e l l d e fin e d peaks f o r th e

m ineral i l l i t e .

The o r i g i n o f t h e m a t e r i a l - m a y be f r o m t h e o v e r l y i n g
Glenwood s h a l e . The c l a y p a r t i c l e s may h a v e b e e n t r a n s p o r t

ed down and a c c u m u l a t e d a t a p r e f e r r e d l e v e l b e c a u s e o f a
t e x t u r a l change i n th e s a n d s to n e . S in c e.stra tifica tio n

w i t h i n t h e l a y e r c a n n o t be d i s t i n g u i s h e d , t h i s a l s o m i g h t

i n d i c a t e t h a t th e c l a y i s a w e ath e re d p ro d u c t from d e t r i t a l

f e l d s p a r g r a i n s d e p o s i t e d n e a r t h e end o f t h e d e p o s i t i o n o f

the sandstone.
 28

For e n g in e e rin g p u rp o se s5 t h i s m a t e r i a l should a t

l e a s t be c o n s i d e r e d , a v o i d e d , o r removed f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n o r
t u n n e l i n g p r o j e c t s when e n c o u n t e r e d n e a r a s i t e . Even

though th e l a y e r i s th in , i t s hig h c la y c o n te n t can cause

s e ttle m e n t or sh e ar f a i l u r e problem s.

Shakonee D olom ite - S t . P e t e r S an d sto n e C o n ta c t

Only one l o c a l i t y i n t h e S t a t e o f M i n n e s o t a i s known

w h e re t h e S h a k o p e e - S t . P e t e r c o n t a c t i s e x p o s e d ( A u s t i n ,

1964). The o u t c r o p i s l o c a t e d o n e - t e n t h o f a m i l e n o r t h o f

t h e s o u t h b o r d e r o f S e c t i o n 25 i n S t a n t o n T ownship (112

N orth, 18 W est) and 200 f e e t n o r t h w e s t - o f t h e t o w n s h i p r o a d

i n Goodhue C o u n t y . The c o n t a c t i s e x p o s e d i n a r i v e r b l u f f ,

t h r e e f e e t a b o v e t h e p r e s e n t Cannon R i v e r .

The c o n t a c t i s s h a r p and c o n s p i c u o u s a n d c a n be c o n

sidered a disconform ity. The b r e a k i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a

generally h o riz o n ta l, but u n d u la tin g s u r f a c e , presum ably .

r i p p l e marked. The r i p p l e marks a r e composed o f a w e a t h e r

e d , s o f t s i l t y d o l o m i t e , and a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y two i n c h e s .
h i g h and o n e - h a l f t o two f e e t b e t w e e n c r e s t s . Im m ediately

above th e c o n t a c t a r e l e n s e s o f c o a r s e a n g u l a r q u a r t z sands

i n t e r b e d d e d w i t h b l a c k and r e d c l a y l e n s e s . P yrite c ry stals

are f i n e l y d issem inated throughout these le n s e s . Twelve

i n c h e s a b o v e t h e c o n t a c t a -t w e n t y ?-four i n c h h o r i z o n o f g r a y

s i l t y sand p r e d o m in a te s . Above t h i s z o n e , a n d e x p o s e d f o r
 29

f o r t y f e e t upward i n t h e o u t c r o p , i s ty p ic a l clean S t. P eter

sandstone.

Glenwood S h a l e - S t . P e t e r S a n d s t o n e C o n t a c t

The Glenwood - S t . P e t e r c o n t a c t i s t r a n s i t i o n a l and

conform able. .The t r a n s i t i o n zone i s u s u a l l y t h r e e t o f o u r
f e e t t h i c k and g r a d e s upward f r o m a p u r e q u a r t 2rose s a n d s t o n e

t o a sandy s h a l e .
The Glenwood s h a l e , w h i c h i s n o r m a l l y c o n s i d e r e d a s

b e i n g c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e P l a t t e v i l l e l i m e s t o n e , do es

c o n t a i n a low p e r c e n t o f o a l c i t e . An X - r a y a n a l y s i s showed

t h e s h a l e t o c o n t a i n m o s t l y q u a r t z w i t h m i n o r a m o u n ts o f i l -
\

lite , f e l d s p a r , and c a l c i t e

The s h a l e h a s b e e n r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s e v e r a l s e t t l e

ment p r o b l e m s i n t h e C i t y o f S t . P aul, su g g e stin g t h a t the

s h a l e i s c o m p r e s s i b l e upon l o a d i n g . E x p erien ce has a ls o

shown t h e s h a l e i s s u s c e p t i b l e t o c a v i n g when e n c o u n t e r e d i n
tu n n els. T herefore, t h i s m a t e r i a l s h o u l d be a v o i d e d f o r

fo u n d a tio n use or tu n n e lin g u n le s s adequate su p p o rt i s

planned.

J o i n t i n g and F r a c t u r i n g

J o i n t i n g o f r o c k i n t h e Twin C i t y area, i s c o n s p i c u

o u sly displayed in th e P l a t t e v i l l e lim estone. The e x p o s e d

j o i n t s a r e p r o n o u n c e d , s y s t e m a t i c , and a r e t r a c e a b l e o v e r

ten s of y a r d s . They a r e n o r m a l l y v e r t i c a l , open f r a c t u r e s

which p e n e t r a t e t h e e n t i r e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e f o r m a t i o n b u t
 30

a re term in ated a t the u n d erly in g s h a le . J o i n t w idths v a ry

f r o m l / l 6 o f a n i n c h t o t h r e e i n c h e s and a r e u s u a l l y f i l l e d

w ith g l a c i a l d e b r i s
J o in tin g in the S t. P e te r , though u n r e l a t e d t o

jo in t i n g in the P l a t t e v i l l e , is severe. In c o n tra s t, the

f r a c t u r e s i n t h e s a n d s t o n e show no p r e f e r r e d o r i e n t a t i o n o r

spacing. The o n l y c o n s i s t e n t p r o p e r t y o f t h e j o i n t s i s t h a t

t h e i r p lan es dip v e r t i c a l l y o r n e ar v e r t i c a l ( 7 0 t o 90 d e

grees). When o b s e r v e d on t h e s u r f a c e , the j o i n t p lanes a re

t i g h t and f o l l o w i r r e g u l a r p a t h s . F i g u r e 11 r e p r e s e n t s

t h r e e l o c a t i o n s w h e r e j o i n t d i r e c t i o n s w ere m e a s u r e d . The
r o s e d i a g r a m s g r a p h i c a l l y show t h e number o f j o i n t s s t r i k i n g

in a p a rtic u la r d ire c tio n a t a s i t e . Ho c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n

s t r i k e d i r e c t i o n s c a n be made a t a n y o f t h e l o c a t i o n s .
The f i r s t two d i a g r a m s show j o i n t d i r e c t i o n s mea

s u r e d a t t h e M i n n e s o t a S i l i c a Company Q u a r r y . D i a g r a m one
rep re se n ts the P l a t t e v i l l e l i m e s t o n e , and t h e s e c o n d i s o f

the S t. P eter. V e ry l i t t l e s im ila r ity of jo in t d ire c tio n s

c a n be o b s e r v e d . T h e r e f o r e , i t c a n be c o n c l u d e d t h a t j o i n t

ing in the S t. P e te r i s u n re la te d to j o in tin g in the P l a t t e

v i l l e except f o r the p o s s ib le causes f o r j o i n t i n g . I t can

f u r t h e r be s a i d t h a t e x i s t i n g o r b u r i e d d r a i n a g e s i n t h e r e

g i o n a r e n o t c o n t r o l l e d by j o i n t i n g i n t h e r o c k s .

The m a j o r i t y o f j o i n t s observed i n tu n n e ls u n d e r

ground a r e t i g h t , have r e g u l a r p l a n e s , dip a t high a n g le s,

and a r e r a n d o m l y o r i e n t a t e d . S p a c i n g o f t h e l a r g e r and more

 N

20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20
Number of Joints Number of Joints
MINNESOTA SILICA CO. QUARRY MINNESOTA SILICA CO. QUARRY
(Plotteville limestone)

Number of Joints
RONDO ST. STORM SEWER, ST PAUL LEXINGTON AVE., NO. RIVER BLUFF, ST. PAUL
u>
ROSE DIAGRAMS SHOWING JOINT DIRECTIONS H
IN THE ST. PETER SANDSTONE
FIGURE II
 32

p r o m i n e n t j o i n t s v a r i e s f r o m a few f e e t t o s e v e r a l h u n d r e d
feet. O ccasionally, two o r more h a v e b e e n known t o i n t e r
s e c t each o t h e r a t h ig h a n g le s c a u sin g a k e y sto n e e f f e c t i n

th e rook.
J o i n t s e n c o u n te re d underground a r e n o t alw ays r e c o g

n i z a b l e a f t e r th e y have been exposed u n le s s s lo u g h in g alo n g

th e planes a p p ears. The o b v i o u s j o i n t s a r e t h o s e w h ic h a r e

open and y i e l d w a t e r o r t i g h t j o i n t s whose p l a n e s h a v e b e e n

iro n s ta in e d or f i l l e d w ith a c la y m a te r ia l.
Gore d r i l l i n g t h e s a n d s t o n e t o l o c a t e j o i n t s i s u n

s a t i s f a c t o r y u n l e s s th e m a t e r i a l i s cemented enough t o a llo w

,i - ""
f o r good c o r e r e c o v e r y . G e o p h y s i c a l m eth o d s o f f i n d i n g

p la n e s o f weakness i s e q u a l l y u n s a t i s f a c t o r y b ecau se th e
j o i n t s a re norm ally t i g h t . U n d o u b t e d l y , t h e m o st e f f e c t i v e

way t o p r e v e n t s t r u c t u r a l f a i l u r e , due t o j o i n t i n g , i s t o

ta k e p r e c a u tio n a r y measures d u rin g e x c a v a tio n . -

O c c a s i o n a l l y , some j o i n t s n e a r t h e t o p o f t h e f o r m a
t i o n a r e f o u n d t o be f i l l e d w i t h a brown c l a y m a t e r i a l An

X - r a y a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e d t h e c l a y s t o be i l l i t e and m o n t -

m o rillo n ite. I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e c l a y was d e r i v e d fr o m

t h e o v e r l y i n g Glenwood s h a l e , f o r t h e main c l a y m i n e r a l i n

the sh ale is i l l i t e . I f clay f i l l e d j o i n t s a re encountered

during e x c a v a tio n o f the sa n d sto n e , f a i l u r e o f te n occurs

a l o n g t h e s e p l a n e s o f w e a k n e s s due t o t h e low i n t e r n a l f r i c
tio n .
 33

J o i n t s i n t h e s a n d s to n e were c r e a t e d as a r e s u l t o f
p r o b a b l y b o t h t e n s i l and s h e a r i n g s t r e s s e s . The t y p e o f

j o i n t i n g s u g g e s t s many s m a l l s c a l e r e p e a t e d s t r e s s e s , s u c h
a s e a r t h t i d e s ' , e a r t h q u a k e s h o c k s , a t m o s p h e r i c m ovem ents,

i s o s t a t i c a d j u s t m e n t i n t h e b a s i n , and l o a d i n g and u n l o a d i n g

of g lacial ice.
V e ry few o f t h e j o i n t s h a v e b e e n bonded by a c e m e n t

ing a g e n t. T h e r e f o r e , t h e f r i c t i o n betw een g r a i n s a lo n g th e

p l a n e s and t h e l a t e r a l c o n f i n e m e n t o f t h e j o i n t s a r e t h e

f o r c e s t h a t r e s t r i c t any s h e a r i n g a c t i o n a lo n g t h e p l a n e s .

Once a j o i n t i s e x p o s e d , i t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t i t may

have l o s t i t s c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e and i s t h e r e f o r e s u s c e p t i
b le to f a i l u r e .

Lamar (19 2 8 ) d e s c r i b e s s h e e t i n g i n t h e S t . P e t e r

s a n d s t o n e a s b e i n g d e v e l o p e d on b o t h w e a t h e r e d and f r e s h l y

exposed s u r f a c e s . The s h e e t i n g p l a n e s a r e i n c l i n e d a t s t e e p

a n g l e s and s t r i k e p a r a l l e l t o t h e f a c e o f a n e x p o s u r e .

Lamar s t a t e d t h a t t h e phenomenon i s p r o b a b l y due t o i r r e g u

la ritie s i n t h e b e d d i n g o r j u s t t y p i c a l w e a t h e r i n g e f f e c t s of
a homogeneous r o c k . However, p e r h a p s a n e v en more i m p o r t a n t

cause of s h e e tin g i n th e sand sto n e i s p re s s u re r e le a s e in

t h e r o c k a d j a c e n t t o an e x p o s u r e . Assuming t h e r o c k a t a n

o u tcro p has l o s t i t s t r i a x i a l confinem ent, then e l a s t i c r e

l e a s e t o a r e a s o f l o w e r p r e s s u r e , w h ic h would be t h e e x p o s e d

f a c e , may c a u s e t e n s i o n a l f o r c e s b a c k o f t h e f a c e . T h ese

s t r e s s e s would r e s u l t i n d e v e l o p m e n t o f f r a c t u r e s , strik in g
 34

FIGURE 12. Unprotected river bluff below Soldier's Home, Minnea

polis (1932). Exposure of Platteville limestone, Glen -
wood shale, and St. Peter sandstone.
 35

FIGURE 13. Concrete crib retaining wall built a g a i n s t river bluff

below Soldier's Home to prevent s p a l li n g of the
sandstone.
 36

p a r a l l e l t o t h e omtorop* F r o s t wedging* g r a v i t y * and f l o w -

a g e o f w a t e r would c a u s e e n l a r g m e n t o f t h e f r a c t u r e s * and
e v e n t u a l l y l a r g e b l o c k s o f s a n d s t o n e would be f r e e d f ro m t h e

outcrop.

S a n d s t o n e Caves .

D uring c o n s t r u c t i o n of u t i l i t y tu n n els i n the S t.

P e t e r san dstone* s e v e r a l n a t u r a l caves have been e n c o u n t e r

ed. The c a v e s a r e i r r e g u l a r i n s h a p e and v a r y i n s i z e . In

e v ery i n s t a n c e th e y have been found n e a r th e to p of t h e f o r

m atio n * and t h e P l a t t e v i l l e l i m e s t o n e was a c t i n g a s a r o o f

rock f o r th e openings. The c a v e w a l l s a r e n o r m a l l y v e r t i

c a l * and t h e f l o o r s a r e l a d e n w i t h r u b b l e . No n a t u r a l e n

t r a n c e s have been found t o th e caves w ith th e e x c e p t i o n o f

one i n S t . . P a u l ; however* a l l t h e c a v e s l o c a t e d t h u s ' f a r a r e

l o c a t e d n e a r one o f t h e p r e s e n t r i v e r c h a n n e l s .

Poor c e m e n ta tio n o r m ec h an ica l bonding o f th e s a n d

s to n e i n th e u p p er p o r t i o n of th e fo rm a tio n has been th e

cause f o r th e o ccurrence of the cav es. W a t e r e v i d e n t l y had

th e o p p o r tu n ity t o flow alo n g j o i n t s w ith s u f f i c i e n t h y

d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t t o remove l a r g e vo lu m es o f s a n d . O utlets

t o a r i v e r m ust h a v e e x i s t e d and l a t e r b a c k f i l l e d (S c h w a r tz *
1936* p . 4 6 ) .

The l a r g e cave* l o c a t e d i n downtown M i n n e a p o l i s * r e

q u i r e d r e i n f o r c i n g due t o h e a v y s t r u c t u r e s b u i l d d i r e c t l y

over the cave. C o n c r e t e and b r i c k p i e r s and b e a r i n g w a l l

 37

were s y s t e m a t i c a l l y p l a c e d i n t h e o p e n in g to h e l p d i s t r i b u t e

th e o v e rly in g w eight ev en ly . F i g u r e 1% shows t h e c o n f i g u r a

t i o n and l o c a t i o n o f t h e c a v e . The c a v e h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r e d

f o r u s e a s a p a r k i n g , ramp o r f a l l - o u t s h e l t e r .

O rig in of th e S t, P e t e r Sandstone

P r o b a b l y t h e most d i s p u t e d p r o b l e m o f t h e S t . P e t e r

is i ts o rig in . The p r e s e n t , accepted th eo ry i s t h a t the

s a n d s t o n e was d e p o s i t e d i n a m a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t . Mew e v i
d e n c e o f t h e b i m o d a l g r a i n d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e S t . P e t e r may

g iv e a b e t t e r u n d e r s ta n d in g to t h e f o r m a t i o n s d e p o s i t i o n a l

h isto ry .
H older (1963, p. 3) s t a t e d t h a t th e sand g r a in s e x

h i b i t f a r too high a degree of rounding, s o r t i n g , and p i t

t i n g t o be c r e a t e d by n o r m a l a c t i o n o f w a t e r . T herefore,

one m i g h t c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e s a n d was w in d b l o w n , a t l e a s t i n

its i n i t i a l phase o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . I f a l a n d mass o f c o n

s i d e r a b l e s i z e w e re t o u n d e r g o wind e r o s i o n , t h e g r a i n s f r o m

which, a f t e r bein g s h i f t e d a bout f o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e tim e,

would h a v e become w e l l r o u n d e d o r would h a v e d i s i n t e g r a t e d

to a very f i n e m a t e r i a l. Assuming a g r a d u a l l y t r a n s g r e s s i n g

s e a , t h e g r a i n s would h a v e b e e n d e p o s i t e d i n t h e w a t e r a d j a

cen t to the c o a s t. T h u s , t h e m a r i n e d e p o s i t i o n a l t h e o r y and

th e e o lia n g r a in rounding th e o ry a re both s a t i s f i e d . Today

a s i m i l a r type o f d e p o s i t i o n a l environm ent e x i s t s a lo n g th e

n o r t h e r n c o a s t o f th e Libyan D e s e r t .
 NATURAL SANDSTONE CAVE, MINNEAPOLIS

/--> x

CAVE LOCATION

Brick or Concrete
Piers
Broken off old
r artesianwell

Bearing
8 vi
Retaining Si
Walls

'Entrance

Scale l"=80'

CAVE CONFIGURATION
FIGURE 14
 39

A f t e r d e p o s i t i o n o f t h e Sh a k o p e e d o l o m i t e i n O r d o

v i c i a n t i m e , t h e r e was a p e r i o d o f u p l i f t f o l l o w e d by e x t e n
s i v e e r o s i o n on t h e d o l o m i t e s u r f a c e . A tra n s g re ss in g sea

a d v a n c e d o v e r t h e l a n d mass and d e p o s i t e d t h e S t . P e t e r .
T h i s s e a must h a v e drowned t h e s o u r c e a r e a o f t h e s a n d s t o n e
before re g re ss in g . E r o s i o n , o f p r e s u m a b l y t h e same l a n d

mass t h a t s u p p l i e d t h e s a n d , now b e g a n s u p p l y i n g t h e m a t e r i
a l f o r t h e Glenwood s h a l e , P l a t t e v i l l e l i m e s t o n e , and

D e c o r a h s h a l e b e f o r e the. s e a c o m p l e t e l y r e g r e s s e d .
The s o u r c e m a t e r i a l f o r t h e S t . P e t e r h a s n o t b e e n

d e f i n i t e l y recognized. Many f e e l t h a t t h e s a n d g r a i n s , due

t o t h e i r c h a r a c t e r , w e r e d e r i v e d t h r o u g h a. m u l t i c y c l e p r o

cess. T h i s would mean t h a t t h e g r a i n s o r i g i n a t e d f r o m a

q u a rtz r ic h rook. The g r a i n s w e re e r o d e d , t r a n s p o r t e d , and

d e p o s i t e d a s a s e d i m e n t , t h e n e r o d e d . a g a i n and r e d e p o s i t e d ,
perhaps s e v e r a l t im e s . I t i s v e r y l i k e l y t h a t t h e sa n d
c o u l d ha v e b e e n d e r i v e d f r o m o l d e r f o r m a t i o n s i n t h e s e c -

tio n , s u c h a s t h e J o r d a n , Mt. Sim on, o r H i n c k l e y s a n d s t o n e s ,

a l l o f w h ic h a r e somewhat s i m i l a r t o t h e S t . P e t e r s a n d -

stone.

L o c a t i o n o f t h e s o u r c e a r e a f o r t h e s a n d was p r o b

a b ly to th e n o r t h , i n th e Canadian S h ie ld a r e a . T h i s was
o b v i o u s l y a l a n d mass o f e x t e n s i v e s i z e i n p a s t g e o l o g i c
i
tim e. E n v i r o n m e n t a l and c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g d e p o s i

tio n of th e S t. P e te r a re a ls o not thoroughly understood b e

cause of th e n e a r absence o f f o s s i l s in the fo rm atio n . Only

 #0

a few f o s s i l fo r m s o f p e l e c y p o d s , g a s t r o p o d s , and c e p h a l o

poda h a v e b e e n f o u n d n e a r D a y t o n ' s B l u f f i n S t P a u l The

S t P e t e r was n o t a s a t i s f a c t o r y m edia f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n

of fo ssilsc
 HYDROLOGIC ASPECTS OF THE S T , PETER SANDSTONE

The S t . P e t e r s a n d s t o n e h a s a h i g h p o r o s i t y a s a r e
s u l t o f i t s . h i g h d e g r e e o f s o r t i n g and t h e a b s e n c e o f a c e

m e n t i n g a g e n t t o f i l l t h e i n t e r s t i t i a l s p a c e s b e tw e e n

g rain s. Kamb (1 9 3 2 ) r a n t e n p o r o s i t y t e s t s from specim ens

c o l l e c t e d f ro m s e v e r a l l o c a t i o n s i n t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a .

P o r o s i t i e s r a n g e d f r o m 27 t o 3 1 ; p e r c e n t w i t h a n a v e r a g e p o r

o s i t y o f 28.3 p e r c e n t . The t e s t s w e re made by t h e i m m e r s i o n

method u s i n g a c e t y l e n e t e t r a c h l o r i d e . The c o n s i s t e n c y o f
t e s t r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e s t h e p o r o s i t y o f t h e s a n d s t o n e t o be

f a i r l y , uniform .

The s a n d s t o n e h a s low p e r m e a b i l i t y , w h i c h i s e x p e c t

ed f o r a f i n e s a n d s t o n e h a v i n g a n a v e r a g e e f f e c t i v e s i z e o f

0.122 m i l l i m e t e r s . A c c o r d i n g t o B u c h an a n ( l 9 3 7 ) a v e r y
f i n e sand t o a s i l t s i z e m a t e r i a l sh ould have a p e r m e a b i l i t y
^r7
r a n g i n g f r o m 10 t o 10 ' c e n t i m e t e r s p e r s e c o n d . Perm eabil

i t y t e s t r e s u l t s r u n on t h e S t , " P e t e r , by v a r i o u s o r g a n i z a
t i o n s , have n o t been c o n s i s t e n t L aboratory t e s t s i n d ic a te
-3
a n a v e r a g e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f 3 . 5 x 10 c e n t i m e t e r s p e r second.

F o r t h e d i s t u r b e d s a n d a v a l u e o f 1 . 0 x 10 c a n be c o n s i d e r
ed a v e r a g e (C o rp s o f E n g i n e e r s , 1938).

Much d i s c r e t i o n s h o u l d be u s e d when a p p l y i n g t h e c o

e f f i c i e n t o f p e r m e a b i l i t y , d e te rm in e d from l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s ,

to a c tu a l f i e l d problem s. Many v a r i a b l e s e x i s t i n t h e f i e l d
4l
 %2

t h a t c a n n o t be d u p l i c a t e d i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y . F o r example.
J o i n t i n g i n th e sa n d sto n e w i l l g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e th e flow o f
su b su rfac e w ater; t h i s f a c t o r i s d i f f i c u l t to reproduce in

lab o rato ry t e s ts .
L e i s c h ( 1 9 6 4 ) s t a t e d t h a t t h e most e f f e c t i v e method

f o r d e te rm in in g th e r a t e o f flow of w a te r th ro u g h an a q u i f e r
i s c o n t r o l l e d pumping t e s t s i n t h e f i e l d . In t e s ts p e r
f o rm ed by L e i s c h ( 1 9 6 2 , p p . 9 - 1 0 ) , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f t r a n s -
1
m issib ility f o r t h e s a n d s t o n e was d e t e r m i n e d by means o f

pumping t e s t s . I n c a l c u l a t i n g the c o e f f i c i e n t o f p e rm e a b il

ity , L eisc h found t h a t th e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f th e S t . P e t e r

s a n d s t o n e i s h i g h e r t h a n p r e v i o u s l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s have

shown. R e s u l t s o f t h r e e t e s t l o c a t i o n s a r e g i v e n b e lo w .

Table 2. C o efficien t of T ran sm issib ility

C o e ffic ie n t of C o efficien t of
Test L ocation T ran sm issib ility P erm eab ility
5 t h Ave. b e t w e e n 1 8 t h 20.800 g p d / f t 9 . gxlO"^ c m / s e c .
& 1 9 t h A v e s . , M pls.
9 th S t . betw een 13th 20.800 g p d / f t . 5 .5x10 ^ o m /sec.
& l 4 t h A v e s . , M pls.
L o rin g Park betw een 22,400 g p d / f t . 6 . 6 x 1 0 cm /sec.
1 4 t h & 1 5 t h S t s . . M-ols.

The r e s u l t s o f t h e pumping t e s t s g i v e n a b o v e . a r e

^The c o e f f i c i e n t o f t r a n s m i s s i b i l i t y i s d e f i n e d a s :
The q u a n t i t y o f w a t e r , i n g a l l o n s p e r d a y , t h a t i s t r a n s m i t
te d under a u n i t h y d ra u lic g r a d i e n t , through a v e r t i c a l
s t r i p o f a q u i f e r t h a t i s one f o o t w id e and e x t e n d s t h e f u l l '
th ic k n e s s of the a q u i f e r . The u n i t s o f t h e c o e f f i c i e n t a r e
g iv e n i n g a l l o n s p e r day p e r f o o t .

The c o e f f i c i e n t o f p e r m e a b i l i t y i s e a s i l y d e t e r m i n e d
by d i v i d i n g t h e t r a n s m i s s i b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t by t h e s a t u r a t
ed t h i c k n e s s o f t h e a q u i f e r .
 43

very c o n s i s t e n t , L eisch concludes t h a t the o v e r a l l t r a n s -

m i s s i b i l i t y of the S t. P e te r sandstone is rem arkably u n i

form .
 GENERAL GROUNDWATER CONDITIONS IN THE.
ST, PETER SANDSTONE.

The n o r m a l l y s a t u r a t e d S t P e t e r s a n d s t o n e i n c l u d e s

b o t h c o n f i n e d and u n c o n f i n e d w a t e r . As p r e v i o u s l y men
t i o n e d , t h e Twin C i t y a r e a i slo cated in a s t r u c t u r a l basin
1
which has c r e a t e d a n a t u r a l g r a d i e n t i n th e f o r m a t i o n . Ar

t e s ia n w ater i s l o c a l l y f o u n d w h e re t h e S t . P e t e r i s c a p p e d
w i t h t h e i m p e r v i o u s Glenwood s h a l e . However, u n c o n f i n e d

w a t e r n o r m a l l y e x i s t s due t o t h e l a c k o f a n a d e q u a t e h e ad i n

the form ation. T h i s l a c k i s due t o h e a v y pumpage f ro m w e l l s

i n t h e s a n d s t o n e , d i s c h a r g e i n t o u n l i n e d s e w e r t u n n e l s , and

d i s c h a r g e from s p r i n g s a lo n g th e r i v e r s A l t h o u g h most o f

t h e drawdown i n t h e f o r m a t i o n h a s b e e n c a u s e d a s a r e s u l t o f

l e a k a g e i n t o the. b u r i e d c h a n n e l s t h a t h a v e c u t t h e s a n d s t o n e
and t o e x c e s s i v e pumping o f t h e P r a i r i e du C h i e n and J o r d a n

Form ations, b o t h o f w h ic h r e c e i v e t h e i r w a t e r f r o m t h e S t .

P eter.
Over t h e p a s t few y e a r s d i s c h a r g e f r o m t h e s a n d

s t o n e has exceeded i t s recharge r a t e . T his has r e s u l t e d i n

a s l o w l y d e c l i n i n g w a t e r t a b l e and a d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f c o n

fin ed w ater a t the top of th e form ation.

S l i g h t v a r i a t i o n i n l i t h o l o g y o f th e sa n d sto n e such

as g r a i n s i z e , bedding, c em en tatio n , or grain o rie n ta tio n

has c r e a t e d l o c a l a r t e s i a n c o n d it i o n s a t v a rio u s l e v e l s
44
 45

w ith in the fo rm atio n . The a f o r e m e n t i o n e d s i l t s t o n e h o r i z o n ,

f o r e x a m p l e , c a n be c o n s i d e r e d an a q u i c l u d e and h a s c r e a t e d

lo c a liz e d a r t e s i a n w ater.

In the m e tro p o lita n a re a w ater i s fed to a l l the

a q u i f e r s above th e S t . L aw rence F o r m a t i o n d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e
g lacial d rift. The d r i f t i s c h a r g e d f r o m p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n

th e l o c a l upland a r e a s . W a t e r n o t o n l y moves l a t e r a l l y i n t o
the S t. P e t e r F o rm a tio n from t h e d r i f t , b u t a l s o downward

through j o i n t s in th e P l a t t e v i l l e lim e s to n e . M in o r am ounts

of w ater i n f i l t r a t e th e s a n d s to n e d i r e c t l y from o u t c r o p s .

Movement o f w a t e r t h r o u g h t h e s a n d s t o n e i s lam inar

and m o s t l y downward. S m a l l e r q u a n t i t i e s o f w a t e r move

l a t e r a l l y toward t h e m ajor d r a i n a g e s . The d r a i n a g e s , i n

some a r e a s , w h i c h c u t t h e s a n d s t o n e a r e low e n ough t o c a u s e

a h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t toward th e r i v e r s . Where t h e S t .

P e t e r s a n d s to n e i s exposed a lo n g th e r i v e r b l u f f s , the s a n d
sto n e i s u s u a lly dew atered. This c o n d i t i o n n o rm a lly e x i s t s

f o r s e v e r a l hundred y a rd s back i n t o th e b l u f f s .

Abundant w a t e r i s a v a i l a b l e from t h e s a n d s t o n e p r o

vid in g w ells a re p ro p e rly developed. F or high y ie ld w ells

a s much h o l e i s l e f t open i n t h e s a n d s t o n e a s p o s s i b l e . If

th e sa n d sto n e i s found to d i s i n t e g r a t e e a s i l y u n d e r normal

pum ping , w e l l s c r e e n s and g r a v e l p a c k i n g a r e e m p l o y e d . Sand

i n t r u s i o n i n t o w e l l s i n t h e S t . P e t e r i s a common o c c u r

rence . N o r m a l l y , w e l l s t h a t c a n n o t be c l e a n e d o u t and t h e
sandstone s t a b i l i z e d , h a v e t o be d r i v e n i n t o t h e P r a i r i e dm

C h i e n o r J o r d a n F o r m a t i o n and t h e S t . P e t e r c a s e d o f f .

The M i n n e s o t a S t a t e B o a r d o f H e a l t h r e s t r i c t s the

u se o f w a te r e x t r a c t e d from th e S t . P e te r to i n d u s t r i a l use,
due t o c o n t a m i n a t i o n . The c o n t a m i n a t i o n i s c a u s e d by l e a k
a g e f r o m s a n i t a r y s e w e r t u n n e l s i n t h e f o r m a t i o n and i n f i l

t r a t i o n o f sewa ge f r o m o u t d o o r s a n i t a r y f a c i l i t i e s in areas

o u tsid e the m etro p o litan a re a . W ater from th e S t . P eter is

used m ostly f o r a i r c o n d i t i o n i n g pu rp o ses f o r l a r g e b u i l d

i n g s b e c a u s e o f t h e w a t e r ' s low t e m p e r a t u r e . ' D u r i n g t h e h o t

summer mon ths h e a v y pumpage f r o m t h e a q u i f e r h a s c a u s e d a s

much a s t h i r t e e n f e e t o f f l u c t u a t i o n i n t h e w a t e r t a b l e .

U n fo rtu n a te ly , the w ater used f o r a i r c o n d itio n i s not r e

c l a i m e d and i s t h e r e f o r e w asted. Summer drawdown o f t h e

w a t e r t a b l e h a s c a u s e d w e l l s t o go d r y t o p r i v a t e owners i n

t h e o u t l y i n g a r e a s o f t h e Twin C i t y . However, t h e drawdown

has been b e n e f i c i a l i n a l l e v i a t i n g d e w a te r in g o p e r a t i o n s f o r

c o n s t r u c t i o n o f u t i l i t y and s e w e r t u n n e l s i n t h e s a n d s t o n e .

L e is c h (1962, p. 1 7 ) has s t a t e d t h a t s i n c e th e S t .

P e t e r i s a homogeneous a q u i f e r , w e l l s u s e d f o r d e w a t e r i n g

a r e a s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n c a n be p r o p e r l y a r r a n g e d t o o b t a i n d e

s i r e d drawdown w i t h maximum e f f i c i e n c y . T h e o r e t i c a l draw

down c u r v e s f o r a n y number o f w e l l s pumping a t a g i v e n r a t e

c a n be e s t i m a t e d by means o f pumping t e s t s . C a lc u la tio n of

t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f t r a n s m i s s i b i l i t y and s t o r a g e , at a
 H-7

p articu lar s ite , c a n i n d i c a t e optimum s p a c i n g and y i e l d o f

dew atering w e l l s
O t h e r m eth o d s o f d e t e r m i n i n g b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s i n
the S t. P e t e r s a n d s t o n e c a n be e m p l o y e d . M athem atical a n a l

yses a re f e a s i b l e but a re only b e n e f i c i a l f o r sim ple boun

dary c a s e s . G r a p h ic a l m ethods, such as e l e c t r i c a n a l o g ie s

and image w e l l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , ha v e g i v e n r e a s o n a b l e two

dim ensional r e s u l t s . However, t o a c c u r a t e l y l o c a t e d e w a t e r

ing w e lls , w ell p o in ts , drainage g a l l e r i e s , and u n d e r d r a i n s

w i t h two d i m e n s i o n a l s o l u t i o n s , i s d i f f i c u l t . L e isc h 's

method o f u s i n g pumping t e s t s i n t h e f i e l d i s a t r u e t h r e e

d i m e n s i o n a l p r o c e d u r e and w i l l g i v e t h e most r e l i a b l e r e

s u l t s f o r h y d r a u lic flow c o n d itio n s i n th e S t . P eter sand

stone.

I f t u r b u l e n t w a t e r i s a l l o w e d t o come i n c o n t a c t
w ith a f r e s h s u rfa c e of the sa n d sto n e , d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of th e

sandstone i s u s u a lly ra p id . T h e r e f o r e , w a t e r s h o u l d be c u t

o ff before i t re a c h e s th e boundary w ith th e use of w e ll -

p o i n t s , deep w e l l s , u n d e r d r a i n s , o r by g r o u t i n g i f p o s s i b l e .

E x p erien ce has i n d i c a t e d t h a t i f w a ter i n th e s a n d

s t o n e c a n be removed w i t h o u t d i s t u r b i n g t h e g r a n u l a r s t r u c

t u r e o f t h e s a n d , a h i g h e r s t a b i l i t y o f the. m a t e r i a l w i l l be

obtained than i f i t i s l e f t s a tu ra te d . I f w a t e r i s removed

t o o r a p i d l y f r o m t h e zone o f d e w a t e r i n g , s l i g h t a g i t a t i o n

and r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e s a n d g r a i n s may r e s u l t . This

 48'

c o n d i t i o n may c a u s e a l o s s i n p h y s i c a l s t r e n g t h t o t h e s u r
rounding sandstone ( S c h w a r t z , 196 4 )
The g r e a t e s t d i f f i c u l t y e n c o u n t e r e d d u r i n g c o n s t r u c
tio n a c tiv itie s below t h e w a t e r t a b l e i s h e a v y d i s c h a r g e o f

w a t e r f ro m f i s s u r e s The f i s s u r e s c a n be v i s u a l i z e d a s an

i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g s y s t e m , w h i c h d raw s w a t e r f r o m a l a r g e a r e a

i n . t h e s a n d s t o n e and t u r b u l e n t l y d i s c h a r g e s t h e w a t e r i n t o a

tu n n el o r excavation. I f w a te r c o n tin u e s to flow t u r b u l e n t -

l y f o r any l e n g t h o f tim e , e n la rg e m e n t o f th e f i s s u r e s w i l l
resu lt, f o l l o w e d by t h e d a n g e r o f c a v e - i n s . N orm ally, the
d i s c h a r g e from f i s s u r e s i s heavy a t f i r s t as a cone o f d e

pression is c reated . I n tim e t h e flow d e c r e a s e s c o n s i d e r

a b l y and may e v e n s t o p . The f i s s u r e s t h a t show no d e c r e a s e

i n flow w ith tim e p resu m ab ly a r e o b t a i n i n g t h e i r w a t e r from

a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t a n c e f ro m t h e e x p o s u r e . I t is p o ssible

t h a t t h e f i s s u r e s may i n t e r s e c t a s u r f a c e s o u r c e o f w a t e r o r

a perched w a ter t a b l e . I f d isch arg in g f is s u r e s a re encount

e r e d d u r i n g e x c a v a t i o n and e r o s i o n c a n be k e p t t o a minimum

a t th e opening, t h i s may p r o v e t o b e an e x c e l l e n t means t o

r a p i d l y lower th e w a te r t a b l e i n th e v i c i n i t y . A close ob

s e r v a t i o n o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g w a t e r t a b l e s h o u l d be made d u r

ing t h i s o p e r a t i o n t o make s u r e t h e a r e a i s a c t u a l l y being .

dew atered.

D ew atering o p e ra tio n s f o r tu n n e l c o n s t r u c t i o n vary

f r o m l o c a t i o n t o l o c a t i o n and d epend on t h e w a t e r t a b l e l e v

e l , p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e s a n d s t o n e , and t h e number o f j o i n t s
 49

bearing w ater. S a tu r a te d sandstone u s u a lly w a rran ts the use

o f h i g h y i e l d w e l l s d r i l l e d from t h e s u r f a c e p r i o r t o t u n n e l
co n stru ctio n . When a t u n n e l i s d r i v e n n e a r t h e w a t e r t a b l e

surface, p e rf o r a te d pipe d ra in s b u ried beneath th e in v e r t

a r e employ ed t o remove u n w a n te d w a t e r .

L e i s c h ( 1 9 6 2 , p . 12) made s e v e r a l pumping t e s t s t o

d e t e r m i n e t h e p r o p e r s p a c i n g and y i e l d o f d e w a t e r i n g w e l l s .

An i n v e r t o f a p r o p o s e d t u n n e l i n t h e S t . P e t e r was t o be
l o c a t e d t w e n t y t o t h i r t y - f i v e f e e t b elo w t h e p i e z o m e t r i c o r
w ater p ressu re s u rfa c e . The t e s t s i n v o l v e d a g r o u p o f f o u r

pumping w e l l s , d i s c h a r g i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , a minimum o f 600

g a llo n s p e r m inute. The w e l l s w e re s p a c e d a l o n g t h e t u n n e l

a l i g n m e n t a t 1 , 0 0 0 and 1 , 2 0 0 f o o t i n t e r v a l s and a p p r o x i m a t e

l y 75 f e e t b elo w t h e t u n n e l i n v e r t . A t r o u g h was c r e a t e d on

t h e p i e z o m e t r i c s u r f a c e t h a t p r o d u c e d t h e r e q u i r e d drawdown.

When f e w e r t h a n f o u r w e l l s w e r e o p e r a t i n g , th e d e s ir e d draw

down was n o t o b t a i n e d . More t h a n f o u r w e l l s o p e r a t i n g c r e

a t e d a l o n g e r t r o u g h b u t d i d n o t i n c r e a s e t h e drawdown

w ith in the sp read . The drawdown e s t i m a t e s w e r e b a s e d on t h e

a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e s a n d s t o n e i s homogeneous and r e c e i v e s no

recharge. To c o m p e n s a t e f o r r e c h a r g e , e a c h w e l l was d e

s i g n e d t o y i e l d 900 g a l l o n s p e r m i n u t e f o r t h a t p a r t i c u l a r
spread.

D u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e Twin C i t y L ock and Dam,

c e m e n t g r o u t was u s e d t o s e a l d i s c h a r g i n g f i s s u r e s

( S c h w a r t z , 1938 , p . 58). The g r o u t i n g was done i n s t a g e s .

 50

a l l o w i n g t h e g r o u t t o s e t b e f o r e more was f o r c e d i n t o t h e
o p e n i n g s 5 o t h e r w i s e t o o l a r g e a q u a n t i t y o f s l u r r y would be

req u ired The method p r o v e d e f f e c t i v e , b u t a c o m p l e t e s e a l

was n o t o b t a i n e d
The C i t y o f M i n n e a p o l i s was a l s o s u c c e s s f u l i n s e a l

in g f i s s u r e s behind sewer tu n n e l l i n i n g s w ith th e use o f c e

ment and b e n t o n i t e g r o u t s
The J o o s t e n p r o c e s s o f c h e m i c a l g r o u t i n g was u s e d t o

c o n s t r u c t a g r o u t c u r t a i n f o r t h e l o w e r S t . An th o n y F a l l s

Lock and Dam. Pip es, were j e t t e d down t o a d e s i r e d d e p t h ,

and t h e c h e m i c a l s w e r e i n j e c t e d t h r o u g h t h e p i p e s a s t h e y

w e re j a c k e d up o u t o f t h e h o l e s . The p u r p o s e o f s o l i d i f y i n g

t h e s a n d s t o n e was t o p r e v e n t s e e p a g e o f w a t e r u n d e r t h e c o f

f e r d a m and t o s e a l j o i n t s and b e d d i n g p l a n e s .
P r e s s u r e g r o u t i n g t e s t s i n t h e S t . P e t e r s a n d s to n e
and u s in g AM-955 ( n i t r i l o t r i s p i o n a m i d ) chem ical g r o u t , have
been conducted. The t e s t s were made to d eterm in e t h e p o t e n - .
t i a l o f che m ic al g r o u t t o be used i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e
Upper Locks a t S t . Anthony F a l l s (Corps of E n g i n e e r s , 1957)
A one s h o t p r o c e s s was used w ith i n j e c t i o n p r e s s u r e s r a n g in g
from t h i r t y - f i v e t o f o r t y - f i v e pounds p e r s q u a r e i n c h . Pres
s u r e s above f o r t y - f i v e pounds caused a te m p e r a tu r e r i s e and
a q u ic k p o l y m e r i z a t i o n of t h e c h e m ic a ls .
D e n s i t y d e t e r m i n a t i o n s , b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e i n j e c

t i o n o f AM-955^ i n d i c a t e d v e r y l i t t l e change. Only a s m a l l

q u a n tity o f g ro u t p e n e tra te d th e pore spaces of the
 51

sandstone. I t was o r i g i n a l l y t h o u g h t t h a t t h e c h e m i c a l

g r o u t would p e n e t r a t e t h e s a n d s t o n e i n a u n i f o r m , s p h e r i c a l

p a t t e r n away f r o m t h e i n j e c t i o n p o i n t . In stead , the grout

f l o w e d l a t e r a l l y a l o n g u n c e m e n t e d f i s s u r e s and s o f t l a y e r s

of sandstone. The s e a l i n g o f t h e b e d d i n g p l a n e s and j o i n t s

was t h e main o b j e c t i v e o f t h e g r o u t i n g work n e e d e d f o r t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t , and t h e r e s u l t s w e re c o n s i d e r e d f a v o r

ab le. However, t h e g r o u t was n o t u s e d b e c a u s e i t was b e

l i e v e d t h a t i t would become i n e f f e c t i v e i f i t w e r e t o d r y

out under a f lu c t u a t i n g w ater s u rfa c e . On a c o s t e s t i m a t e

t h e g r o u t i n g metho d would h a v e s a v e d $ 1 1 0 , 0 0 0 o v e r t h e u s e

of sheet p ilin g fo r th is p ro je c t i f th e g r o u t had been e f

fectiv e. The c o s t o f c h e m i c a l s o l i d i f i c a t i o n i s a b o u t 0 . 6
a s much a s t h e c o s t o f a s h e e t p i l i n g c u t o f f .

F o r deep v e r t i c a l s h a f t s where a h ig h i n f lo w of

w ater is a n tic ip a te d , f r e e z i n g m eth o d s may p r o v e s a t i s f a c

to ry to tem p o rarily se a l o ff the w ater. The method i n v o l v e s

c i r c u l a t i n g a cold b rin e s o l u t i o n through c l o s e l y spaced

p i p e s a r o u n d t h e p e r i m e t e r o f t h e p r o p o s e d e x c a v a t i o n and t o

a depth of th e proposed s h a f t d e p th . D u r i n g e x c a v a t i o n and

c o n s t r u c t i o n th e w a te r i n . t h e s a n d sto n e w i l l rem ain f r o z e n .

A f t e r t h e s h a f t h a s b e e n c o m p l e t e d and l i n e d , the process

c a n be d i s c o n t i n u e d and t h e i c e a l l o w e d t o thaw ( L e g g e t ,

1962). Due t o t h e e x p a n s i v e p r o p e r t i e s o f w a t e r upo n f r e e z

i n g , s t r u c t u r a l r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e s a n d g r a i n s may r e s u l t

and c a u s e l o s s o f s t r e n g t h t o t h e s a n d s t o n e i n t h e i m m e d i a t e
 . . 52
v i c i n i t y of the ex ca v atio n . In a d d itio n , as soon as th e i c e
t h a w s , a h e ad o f w a t e r w i l l e x i s t on t h e l i n i n g and must be

c o n sid ered i n the desig n of th e l i n i n g . T h e r e a r e no r e

p o r t s o f t h i s method h a v i n g b e e n u s e d t-o c o n t r o l w a t e r i n
the fo rm ation. This i s p r o b a b ly b e ca u se t h e p r o c e s s i s
c o s t l y and c a n n o t be u s e d w h e re s u b s u r f a c e w a t e r i s c o n t i n u

a l l y flow ing.
W a t e r i n t h e S t . P e t e r s a n d s t o n e i s one o f t h e main

f a c t o r s t h a t h a s and w i l l c a u s e many e n g i n e e r i n g p r o b l e m s .

A thorough stu d y o f th e e x i s t i n g h y d ro lo g ic c o n d itio n s a t a

s i t e m u s t be c o n d u c t e d i n a d v a n c e o f a n y e x c a v a t i o n o r c o n

s t r u c ti o n p r o je c t in t h is form ation.
 ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF THE ST..PETER SANDSTONE

P re v io u s Engineering; S t u d i e s

Numerous p r i v a t e and c i v i l o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a v e c o n

t r i b u t e d g r e a t l y t o n a r r o w i n g down t h e e n g i n e e r i n g p r o p e r

tie s of the sandstone. Perhaps th e o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t should

r e c e i v e t h e m o st r e c o g n i t i o n i s t h e U. 3., C orps o f E n g i

neers. P r e v i o u s t o c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e Upper Locks a t S t .

An th o n y F a l l s 5 an e x t e n s i v e e x p l o r a t i o n and t e s t i n g p r o g r a m
was c o n d u c t e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f u s i n g t h e S t .

P e t e r as a s u i t a b l e fo u n d a tio n m a te r ia l f o r th e lo c k s . Many

o f t h e t e s t r e s u l t s f r o m t h e r e p o r t a r e i n c l u d e d on t h e f o l

lowing p a g e s.

R e c e n t e x p l o r a t i o n and t e s t i n g h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d ,

and c o n c l u s i o n s f r o m t h e s e l a t e r w o rk s a r e r e m a r k a b l y s i m i

lar. In p a r t , t h i s may be due t o s i m i l a r t e s t i n g t e c h n i q u e s

or s i m i l a r stu d y approaches.

A ctual e x p erien c e d u rin g c o n s t r u c t io n p r o j e c t s prove

r e s u l t s f r o m t e s t s and s t u d i e s c a n be u s e d w i t h c o n f i d e n c e

and s a f e t y . In the p a s t, e x p e r i e n c e h a s b e e n t h e main c r i

t e r i a f o r sa fe c o n s tr u c tio n techniques in the S t. Peter

sandstone. I t is d i f f i c u l t t o c o r r e l a t e betw een e x p e r ie n c e

and t h e number o f f a i l u r e s t h a t h a v e o c c u r r e d b e c a u s e o f

poor judgm ent. The c a u s e o f a f a i l u r e i s n o t e a s i l y i s o l a t

ed o r a s s i g n a b l e t o a s i n g l e g e o l o g i c phenomenon . C o n c l u s i o n s

53
 5%
draw n f r o m e x p e r i e n c e a r e m o s t l y a m a t t e r o f j u d g m e n t and
t h e r e f o r e d e b a ta b le as to th e degree o f a p p l i c a b i l i t y
Previous e n g in e e rin g s tu d ie s of th e S t. P e t e r have
been conducted u s in g t e c h n iq u e s o f s o i l m e c h a n ic s . Due t o

p o ssib le e la s tic b e h a v i o r i n t h e s a n d s t o n e , m e t h o d s u s e d in.

t h e f i e l d o f r o o k m e c h a n i c s s h o u l d d e f i n i t e l y be c o n s i d e r e d

fo r future s tu d ie s .
To t h e g e o l o g i s t t h e S t . P e t e r s a n d s t o n e i s c l a s s i

f i e d as a m assiv e s a n d s t o n e , which i s homogeneous, i s o t r o p

ic, and c o m p e t e n t . The e n g i n e e r would c o n s i d e r t h e S t .

P e t e r as an u ncem ented, f r i a b l e , fin e q u a rtz sand. To p r o

p e rly study the S t. P e te r sandstone, b o t h t h e e n g i n e e r and

g e o l o g i s t have to r e a l i z e t h a t th e m a t e r i a l l i e s i n a t r a n s

i t i o n zone b e t w e e n a s o i l and r o c k m a t e r i a l .

Sam pling T echniques

S u i t a b l e u n d i s t u r b e d sam ples of t h e s a n d s to n e f o r

la b o r a to r y t e s t i n g a re extrem ely d i f f i c u l t to o b ta in . S p lit

t u b e and S h e l b y t u b e s a m p l i n g d e v i c e s h a v e n o t b e e n s u c c e s s

f u l l y u s e d b e c a u s e t h e t u b e s h a v e t o be h y d r a u l i c a l l y p u s h e d

or driv en in to the sandstone. P e n e tra tio n r e s i s t a n c e values

a re too high to allow f o r t h i s type of sam pling. The D e n n i

son c o r e b a r r e l s a m p le r , which i s a r o t a r y s a m p le r , has a l s o

p r o v e n u n s a t i s f a c t o r y due t o d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f .t h e s a m p l e by
the co rin g f l u i d , w ater.
 55

The o n l y u n d i s t u r b e d s a n d s t o n e s a m p l e s t h a t h a v e
b e e n o b t a i n e d I n t a c t f r o m c o r i n g methods were f r o m t h e s i t e

e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e new D a y t o n ' s D e p a r t m e n t S t o r e I n S t .
Paul. A M diamon d c o r e b a r r e l was u s e d w i t h a m o d e r a t e l y

d e n s e d r i l l i n g mud. S p e c im e n s w e re o b t a i n e d a t d e p t h s up t o

f o r ty f e e t in the san d stone.

Sh aved t e s t s p e c i m e n s f r o m c h u n k s o f s a n d s t o n e , o b

t a i n e d from t e s t p i t s , have been a tt e m p t e d . The M i n n e s o t a

S t a t e Highway D e p a r t m e n t h a s e n d e a v o r e d t o c a r e f u l l y s h a p e
b lo ck s o f u n d i s t u r b e d s a n d s to n e 1 from s e v e r a l l o c a t i o n s , by

s h a v i n g t h e b l o c k s down t o t e s t s p e c i m e n s i z e . They h a v e

also trie d t o p u s h , by h a n d , c y l i n d e r s i n t o a n u n d i s t u r b e d

chunk o f s a n d s t o n e . B o t h means f a i l e d t o p r o d u c e u s a b l e

t e s t specim ens. The Corps o f E n g i n e e r s (1958, p. 6) was

s u c c e s s f u l i n hand t r i m m i n g t r l a x i a l t e s t s p e c i m e n s f ro m
chunk sam ples o b t a i n e d from t e s t p i t s i n th e m id d le o f th e

f o r m a t i o n b e lo w t h e F o r d M o to r Company i n S t . Paul. Because

t h e s a n d s t o n e becomes h a r d e r w i t h d e p t h i n t h e f o r m a t i o n ,

hand trim m ed o r c o r e d s p e c i m e n s s h o u l d be e a s i e r t o o b t a i n

i n t h e , m i d d l e o r b e lo w t h e m i d d l e o f t h e f o r m a t i o n . Most
s t r u c t u r e s and t u n n e l s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d n e a r th e t o p of t h e

f o r m a t i o n , which does o f f e r problem s i n o b t a i n i n g s u i t a b l e

t e s t specim ens. I f u s a b l e s p e c i m e n s c a n n o t be o b t a i n e d f o r

lab o ra to ry use, th e n i t i s q u i t e obvious t h a t f i e l d testin g

m ethods a r e i n e v i t a b l e .
 56

U n i t W eig h t

To s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e S t P e t e r h a s b e e n
highly d e n s ifie d , s e v e r a l i n p l a c e d e n s i t y t e s t s and l a b o r a

t o r y c o m p a c t i o n t e s t s ' w e r e made o f t h e s a n d s t o n e f r o m t h e
M i n n e s o t a S i l i c a Company 's q u a r r y i n n o r t h M i n n e a p o l i s The
f i e l d d e n s i t y t e s t s w e r e made w i t h a s a n d f u n n e l a p p a r a t u s

The M o d i f i e d P r o c t e r t e s t , w i t h a c o m p a c t i v e f o r c e o f

5 1 5 j>625 f o o t p o u n d s , was u s e d f o r t h e c o m p a c t i o n t e s t s The

field dry d e n s i ty , f r o m a n a v e r a g e o f f o u r t e s t s , was 126.4-
po unds p e r c u b i c f o o t . The r e c o m p a c t e d d r y d e n s i t y was

1 1 . 3 7 p o unds p e r c u b i c f o o t w i t h a n optimum m o s i t u r e c o n t e n t
o f 4-. 6 p e r c e n t . F i g u r e 15 shows t h e t y p i c a l m o i s t u r e - d e n s i

t y r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r th e recom pacted d i s t u r b e d s a n d s to n e .

The a b o v e r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t e v e n w i t h a g r e a t

d e a l of com pactive f o r c e , t h e d i s t u r b e d s a n d s t o n e c a n n o t be

ra is e d to i t s o rig in a l fie ld d en sity . The d e n s i t y o f t h e

S t. P e t e r , h o w e v e r , i s low when compared t o many s a n d s t o n e s .

T h i s c a n be e x p l a i n e d when one c o n s i d e r s t h e h i g h p o r o s i t y

of the m a te ria l (2 5 p e r c e n t ) . The a p p a r e n t s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y

o f t h e s a n d s t o n e , when u s i n g a b u l k d e n s i t y o f 126.4- pounds

p e r Cub ic f o o t , i s 2.02. The t r u e s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f t h e

sandstone i t s e l f i s th a t of quartz, 2.66.

U nconfined Com pression T e s ts

The f i r s t s t r e n g t h d e t e r m i n a t i o n t e s t s of the S t.

P e t e r s a n d s t o n e w e r e made by S c h w a r t z (1939* p . 4-0). Three

 57
122
"1?
121
i
120

119

X
118 _

>
O f/
/
&
117 oy <6>-
- -

116

115
1u

114 4
V 2a,
113
rV
s
V 1t\
yv
1 12 *
:=Mr
V-iL
I 11
4
I 10
j
109
V r
4
t:
108
6>
107
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
PERCENT MOISTURE

M O IS T U R E -D E N S IT Y RELATIONSHIP
FIGURE 15
 58

two i n c h c u b e s w e r e s h a v e d f r o m a n o u t c r o p o f s a n d s t o n e and
t e s t e d , u n c o n f i n e d , by l o a d i n g t h e b l o c k s u n t i l f a i l u r e o c
curred The f i r s t two c u b e s w e re t e s t e d w e t and f a i l e d a t

0 . 5 4 7 and 1 . 0 6 p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e i n c h . The t h i r d c u b e was

t e s t e d d r y and f a i l e d a t 144 p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e i n c h , w h ic h

was c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r t h a n t h e w e t s p e c i m e n s b u t low a s

f a r a s a c r u s h i n g s t r e n g t h o f any r o c k m a t e r i a l . T h ese com

p r e s s i o n t e s t s i n d i c a t e th e p o t e n t i a l weakness o f th e s a n d

s t o n e and n o t i t s bearing s tre n g th . When t h e s a n d s t o n e i s

i n p l a c e and c o n f i n e d , i t i s not f r e e to y i e l d i n any d i r e c

tio n j therefore, unconfined com pression t e s t s on t h e S t .

P e t e r s a n d s t o n e mean v e r y l i t t l e .

The Twin C i t y S a n i t a r y D i s t r i c t made one c o m p r e s s i o n

t e s t on t h e s a n d s t o n e d u r i n g t h e s i t e e x a m i n a t i o n o f a g r i t

c h am b er on P i g s Eye Lake s i t e . The s p e c i m e n was o b t a i n e d

f r o m a l o w e r p o r t i o n o f t h e f o r m a t i o n and w i t h s t o o d s i x t e e n

tons p e r square fo o t c ru sh in g s t r e n g th . E v i d e n t l y , t h e ma

t e r i a l was f a i r l y w e l l c e m e n t e d a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e h i g h
com pressive s t r e n g t h .

E le v en u n c o n fin e d c o m p re ssio n t e s t s were conducted

by t h e Corps o f E n g i n e e r s f o r t h e s i t e e x a m i n a t i o n a t S t .

Anthony F a l l s Lower Lock and Dam (C o rp s o f E n g i n e e r s , 1 9 5 8 ) .

The s t r e s s s t r a i n c u r v e s f o r t h e t e s t s a r e shown i n F i g u r e

1 6 , and t h e t e s t d a t a i s t a b u l a t e d i n T a b l e 3 . The t e s t s

w e re made i n a n u n i v e r s a l h y d r a u l i c t e s t i n g m a c h in e and

l o a d e d a t a r a t e o f 200 p ounds p e r s q u a r e i n c h p e r m i n u t e .
 1000 L!-L 1400 41 1000
itS # /i -
# Ui: iJxr: /
' Xft
1200 , /
M
800
| z 1
1 1 #

600
S; A-1 / s
zprq:
1000
1
i ': ! W:
600
s/
/
/ # |
.i;u
/ #

t 400
o/ s Iy :cp:i:
rd+tf
# ! /
tn
/ f ^ 800
'
r

200 t
/ /
1.b
2
600 T01 : /
m ;eee: xirx ;d: cn :b:q:
/
:Ltr :cctc f/
0 r __ -hZ /1
0.0 01 02 03 04 05
400 \ i
j 0.2 03
Percent Strain y Percent Strain

(I) 200 1 / (3)

1 f

0t .
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Percent Strain

(2 )
2500
1000
| , /

2000 800
11

1!
// C:1

600
:ru"r
xGi /
/
il

400
3
i r xZ
/
/
-Hdi-
200
i ,z
g y
Q
0 l/ B B Z:',- F!
0.2 0 .3 0.2 0.4 0 o.l 02 03 0.4
Percent Strain Percent Strain Percent Strain
(4) (5) ( 6)

3000

2500
p i f p
2500 fix .ml:;
#
J+ht
s b; #
2500

2000
/ 2000
# :

fz | tfH
/y
y
y
>/

:s
2000

3 15 0 0
i_
1
SR / # ^ 1500
:x d 4XX
#

y
4g vf
i
-fen
* Z
c-
z
1
V) 1000 p A V
55 1000
fc > V
/ # z i S '
:q Z
4
/
j-U-'-E
*oy

: x .:.x .
1000

500
T# -f /
r
s 500
d
.--if

1
i / f
| jg
i #
:adt
Bti
xZ
if :
o fe . 0
D 0.2 04 0.6 0.8 0 o.l 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Percent Strain 0 2 0 .4
P ercent Strain
18) Percent Strain
(7)
19)
2500
#
-fH-r 1000
Ex # xffi rxxi -UJJ-
dti:
IW Z4 m yr
m \/
m
xg -.
: :J $ # E - s # 1:
2000
J
I
:ibj:
::;z
difb
/
/ gi XL
A~rr~ S
800

i1
}
:-pFf
uJ E
1500 600 1

i
l
1
buE ; i
P
'Zjx

xdf it
k
If
Ett b e .xix
:cE:
.%
//
( .te: E
E
S TR E SS -S TR A IN CURVES
FOR
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TESTS
to *000

" X:
> / tttj:
400
tr 'XX -dx | |
ii: # i S FIGURE 16
500 i f 7
E

E
ZE
r 200
jI >
y
4
Ittf xpx
eGx E
EEi:
x:pb. A ,
0 w m E 'r - . # 0
D 02 04 0 6 0.8 10 D 02 04 06 08 10
Percent Strain Percent Strain
d o ) (II)
 TABLE 3

TEST RESULTS - UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TESTS

L ateral (psi)*
S tren g th (p si)
Sample Number

D eform ation

D eform ation
Com pressive
Dry D e n s i t y

A xial ( p s i)
Modulus o f

Modulus o f

P o i s so n * s
M oisture

(psf)

Remarks
Percent

R atio
1 14.6 115.2 850 3 3 6 , 0 0 0 7 1 4 , 0 0 0 0 . 4 6 Medium t o low d r y s t r e n g t h , f a i r l y
w e l l cemented.
2 1 0 . 4 1 2 5 . 1 1370 1 5 1 , 0 0 0 2 ,8 0 0 ,0 0 0 0 .05 High d ry s t r e n g t h , h a r d a t f i e l d
m oisture.
3 1 3 .2 114.6 990 2 4 7 , 0 0 0 1 , 2 8 0 , 0 0 0 0 . 1 9 Medium t o low d r y s t r e n g t h , f a i r l y
w e l l cemented.
4 9 . 4 1 2 2 . 9 2100 5 1 8 , 0 0 0 1 ,3 7 0 ,0 0 0 0 .3 8 High d ry s t r e n g t h , h a rd a t f i e l d
m oisture.
5 3 .8 113.4 677 1 7 3 , 0 0 0 2 , 2 2 0 , 0 0 0 0 . 0 8 Medium t o low d r y s t r e n g t h , h a r d
a t f i e l d m oisture.
6 5 .0 135.0 990 4 2 4 , 0 0 0 4 , 5 5 0 , 0 0 0 0 . 0 9 Medium t o h i g h d r y s t r e n g t h , h a r d
a t f i e l d m oisture.
7 5 . 3 1 3 4 . 0 2370 5 4 2 , 0 0 0 4 ,5 5 0 ,0 0 0 0 .1 2 High dry s t r e n g t h , h a r d a t f i e l d
m oisture.
8 1 0 . 1 1 2 3 . 1 2010 6 9 5 , 0 0 0 2 ,4 8 0 ,0 0 0 0 .2 8 High dry s t r e n g t h , h a r d a t f i e l d
m o isture.
9 1 0 . 1 1 1 8 . 7 2820 7 4 1 , 0 0 0 2 , 4 8 0 , 0 0 0 0 . 3 0 H ig h d r y s t r e n g t h , h a r d a t f i e l d
m oisture.
10 6 . 4 1 2 7 . 3 2070 4 2 6 , 0 0 0 5 , 4 4 0 , 0 0 0 0 . 0 8 H ig h d r y s t r e n g t h , h a r d a t f i e l d
m oisture.
11 3 .5 141.1 940 1 8 5 , 0 0 0 9 , 1 9 0 , 0 0 0 0 . 0 2 H ig h d r y s t r e n g t h , h a r d a t f i e l d
m oisture
-x-The l a t e r a l modu lus o f d e f o r m a t i o m i s t h e a x i a l s t r e s s d i v i d e d b y o\
o
the l a t e r a l s t r a i n .
 61

The s p e c i m e n s w e r e c y l i n d r i c a l i n s h a p e , a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w i c e

as long as t h e i r d i a m e t e r s The a x i a l s t r a i n was m e a s u r e d

b e tw e e n t h e ends o f t h e s p e c i m e n w h i l e t h e l a t e r a l s t r a i n

was m e a s u r e d w i t h f o u r d i a l g a g e s , g r a d u a t e d t o 0 , 0 0 0 1

i n c h e s , and p l a c e d 90 d e g r e e s a p a r t a t t h e mid p o i n t o f t h e

specim ens

The m od ulus o f d e f o r m a t i o n (m odulu s o f c o m p r e s s i o n )

was c a l c u l a t e d by d i v i d i n g t h e a x i a l s t r e s s by t h e l a t e r a l

strain . The s p e c i m e n s w e re o n l y l o a d e d on c e and t a k e n t o

failu re. T h i s l o a d i n g makes i t o n l y p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n t h e

m odulus o f d e f o r m a t i o n and i n c l u d e s b o t h e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c

deform ation.
I n p r a c t i c e , where a heavy s t r u c t u r e i s t o have a

h i g h d e a d l o a d and a s m a l l l i v e l o a d , s u c h a s a p o w e r h o u s e ,

t h e modu lus o f d e f o r m a t i o n i s u s e d i n d e s i g n i n g a p r o p e r

foundation. When h i g h l i v e l o a d s a r e a n t i c i p a t e d , f o r exam

p l e a b r i d g e , t h e m od ulus o f e l a s t i c i t y s h o u l d be u s e d i n
d e s i g n work.

As i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 3 , t h e r e was a c o n s i d e r a b l e
v a r i a t i o n i n t h e c o m p re s s iv e s t r e n g t h s , m oduli o f d e fo rm a

t i o n , m o i s t u r e s , and d r y d e n s i t i e s i n t h e t e s t s . Only one

c o n c l u s i o n c a n be made when a n a l y z i n g t h e r e s u l t s - there

was a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e a x i a l modulus o f d e f o r m a t i o n w i t h a n
>

in c r e a s e i n com pressive s t r e n g t h ,

P o i s s o n s r a t i o s , a l s o t a b u l a t e d i n T a b l e 3 s w e re

com puted by d i v i d i n g t h e a x i a l m o d u lu s o f d e f o r m a t i o n by t h e
 62

l a t e r a l m odulus This r e l a t i o n s h i p i s th e r a t i o o f l a t e r a l

s t r a i n t o the., l o n g i t u d i n a l s t r a i n o f t h e s p e c i m e n . Normal
l y , m o st r o c k m a t e r i a l s h a v e a P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o t h a t f a l l i n

a ran g e betw een 0 . 1 1 , f o r a t u f f , and 0 . 3 8 f o r a d e n s e m a r

ble. A r a t i o o f 0 . 5 i s a l i m i t i n g v a l u e and i n d i c a t e s h y
d ro s ta tic co n d itio n s. A t y p i c a l s a n d s to n e sh o u ld have a

v a l u e n e a r 0 . 1 7 ; h o w e v e r , a s i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 3 , a w id e

range of r a t i o s f r o m 0 . 0 2 t o 0.4-6 w e re c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e

St., P e te r san d sto n e. T h i s v a r i a t i o n i s due t o t h e amount o f

b o n d i n g b e t w e e n g r a i n s and t h e w a t e r c o n t e n t o f t h e t e s t

specim ens. The P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o s g i v e n , i f c o n s i d e r e d v a l i d ,

in d ic a te a n -a n iso tro p ic co n d itio n in the sandstone.

C o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h s -of t h e s a n d s t o n e a r e e x t r e m e l y

low f o r a c o m p e t e n t r o c k m a t e r i a l . The s t r e n g t h s o b t a i n e d

from th e t e s t s r a n g e d f r o m 677 t o 2 , 8 2 0 p o unds p e r s q u a r e

inch. An a v e r a g e s a n d s t o n e h a s a r a n g e b e t w e e n 6 , 1 0 0 t o

1 2 , 0 0 0 p o unds p e r s q u a r e i n c h ( K r y n i n e , 1957) The

s t r e n g t h s o b t a i n e d a r e n o t u n u s u a l when one c o n s i d e r s t h e

la c k of cohesion in the rock.

T r i a x i a l Com pression T e s ts

T r i a x i a l c o m p r e s s i o n t e s t s h a v e b e e n a im ed a t d e t e r
m ining th e b e a r in g c a p a c i t y o f th e s a n d s t o n e . The r e s u l t s

o f t h e t r i a x i a l t e s t s a r e t a b u l a t e d on Mohr e n v e l o p e s i n P i-'

g u r e s 17, 18, and 19. In g e n e r a l , th e s t r e n g t h envelopes

r e v e a l e d v e r y h i g h a n g l e s o f i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n and a l a c k o f
 63

cohesion. T h e r e f o r e 5 t h e s h e a r s t r e n g t h s d i s p l a y e d by t h e
t e s t s a r e m o s t l y due t o ' f r i c t i o n , and o n l y m i n o r a m o u n t s , i f

a n y , due t o c o h e s i o n .
The s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e i s the p ro p e rty of a m a te r i

a l to w ith stan d loading w ithout o b je c tio n a b le l a t e r a l d e

fo rm atio n , In th e case of the S t. P eter sandstone, a force

a p p l i e d t o t h e g r a n u l a r mass i s t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e
mass' by c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e b e t w e e n . i n d i v i d u a l g r a i n s . The

loading w i l l cause th e p a r t i c l e s t o r e a r r a n g e and t e n d t o

s l i d e w ith re s p e c t to each o th e r. The s l i d i n g i s o p p o se d by
f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e p a r t i c l e s u r f a c e s and t h e

p r e s s u r e b e tw e e n t h e s u r f a c e s . In a d d itio n , the s lid in g is

a l s o r e s t r i c t e d by m e c h a n i c a l i n t e r l o c k i n g o f t h e p a r t i c l e s

and by a s m a l l , c o h e s i v e f a c t o r w h ic h t h e s a n d s t o n e l o c a l l y
possesses.

F i g u r e 17 shows e i g h t t r i a x i a l c o m p r e s s i o n . t e s t s run

on ha nd t r i m m e d , u n d i s t u r b e d s a n d s t o n e s p e c i m e n s (C or ps o f

E ngineers, 1958). The s p e c i m e n s w e re trim m ed t o 2 3/4- i n c h e s

i n d i a m e t e r and inches long, encased i n t o a t h in rubber

membrane, and s e a l e d i n t o t h e t r i a x i a l m a c h i n e , A vacuum

was a p p l i e d t o t h e s p e c i m e n s f o r f i v e m i n u t e s j t h e n w i t h o u t
r e l e a s i n g t h e vacuum, w a t e r . w a s a l l o w e d t o f l o w i n t o t h e

s p e c i m e n f ro m t h e b o t t o m o f t h e s a m p le u n d e r a t h r e e f o o t

h e a d u n t i l t h e s p e c i m e n was s a t u r a t e d . A p r e s s u r e ch am b er

was p u t a r o u n d t h e s a m p l e s , f i l l e d w i t h g l y c e r i n and p r e s
su re a p p lied to the f l u i d to a d e sire d l e v e l. A fte r the
 36 48
NORMAL STRESS K G /c m 2

, UNDISTURBED TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TESTS

 65

c h am b er p r e s s u r e was a p p l i e d , t h e vacuum was r e l e a s e d , and

t h e v e r t i c a l l o a d was i n c r e a s e d p r o g r e s s i v e l y . The l o a d ,

d e f o r m a t i o n , and volume c h a n g e f o r e a c h i n c r e m e n t was r e

corded u n t i l th e specim en f a i l e d .
A t e s t i n g m a c h in e w i t h a 3 , 0 0 0 pound c a p a c i t y was

u s e d on t h e f i r s t two s p e c i m e n s ( F ig u re 17) The. m ac h in e

was u n a b l e t o c a u s e f a i l u r e u n t i l t h e l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e was

re d u c e d t o tw e n ty pounds p e r s q u a r e i n c h . T e s t s number 3

t h r o u g h 8 w e r e t e s t e d on a 2 0 , 0 0 0 pound c a p a c i t y m ac h in e i n

o r d e r t h a t h i g h e r l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e s c o u l d be o b t a i n e d .

The s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s o b t a i n e d f o r a l l t e s t s had

a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h a p e w h i c h i s shown i n T a b l e 4. In a l l

i n s t a n c e s t h e s p e c i m e n s were a l l o w e d t o r e b o u n d one o r more

tim es b e f o r e r u p t u r e . To o b t a i n t h e modulus o f d e f o r m a t i o n ,

t h e c u r v e s w e re m e a s u r e d a t t h r e e d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s : 0A,
AB, and CD ( T a b l e 4 ) , and w e re d e s i g n a t e d : F i r s t , Second,

and T h i r d S t a g e s r e s p e c t i v e l y . T a b l e 4 g i v e s t h e m odulus o f

deform ation f o r th e th r e e s ta g e s , a s w e l l a s t h e maximum

p r in c ip a l s t r e s s , angle of i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n , m inor p r i n c i

pal stre ss, maximum p e r c e n t s t r a i n , and t h e i n i t i a l v o i d r a

t i o s f o r each t e s t . As would be e x p e c t e d , t h e modulus o f

d e fo r m a tio n i n c r e a s e s as th e chamber p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s . A
s h e a r f a i l u r e was c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r a l l t h e s p e c i m e n s t e s t

ed.

The a n g l e o f s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e (in tern al fric tio n )

is r e p r e s e n t e d on t h e M o h r 's d i a g r a m s . I f a s tr a ig h t lin e
 66

TABLE 4

-TTIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST CONDITIONS-

UNDISTURBED ST. PETER SANDSTONE

S t r e s s ( K g . cmr2 )
M a jo r P r i n c i p a l

Minor P r i n c i p a l
Modulus o f

Maximum P e r c e n t
D eform ation

I n i t i a l Void
T e s t Number

(K g.cm .- 2 ) i n Kg.cm.- 2
Angle o f
Internal
F rictio n

S tress

Second

S train

R atio
Stage
F irst

Stage

T hird
Stage
1 690251 43.29 1.40 6600 15,000 24,000 0.46 0.445
2 67o5 0 l 35.07 1.27 5000 8000 13,000 0.40 0.414
3 6 0 o4 0 1 40.90 2.81 2000 5000 12,000 1.24 0.461
4 60551 98.35 6.67 4700 9000 13,000 0.85 0.408
5 6325' 12.50 0.70 2500 5000 8000 0.35 0.447
6 6445' 14.06 0.70 3000 6000 10,000 0.29 0.453
7 60151 29.96 2.11 4000 7500 12,000 0.36 0.431
8 58050* 134.10 10.50 5500 11,000 22,500 i.ii 0.445

CHARACTERISTIC SHAPE OF
TRIAXIAL STRESS-STRAIN CURVES

M AJOR P R IN C IP A L STRESS

First S t a g e

Second S tage

Third S t a g e
 67
I s drawn t a n g e n t t o 'the c i r c l e s a t t h e p o i n t w h e r e s t r e s s

c o n d itio n s caused f a i l u r e , t h e a n g l e t h i s l i n e makes w i t h

the a b s c is s a i s th e angle of i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n . In p ra c tic e

when s e v e r a l t e s t s a r e c o n d u c t e d , a c u r v e d e n v e l o p e r e s u l t s ,

w h ic h i s an a v e r a g e o f a l l t h e s t r a i g h t e n v e l o p e s , The
s t r a i g h t l i n e e n v e l o p e does n o t r e p r e s e n t t h e t r u e a n g l e o f

i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n e x c e p t i n t h e c a s e o f an i n d i v i d u a l t e s t .

The c u r v e d l i n e i s t h o u g h t t o be t h e r e s u l t o f d u c t i l e and

b r i t t l e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e m a t e r i a l , w h ic h i s t y p i c a l f o r a

rock su b stan ce. T h i s may be a d d i t i o n a l e v i d e n c e t o c o n c l u d e

t h a t the S t. P e te r sandstone p o ssesses e l a s t i c p r o p e r tie s .

The u n d i s t u r b e d s a n d s t o n e s p e c i m e n s , when t e s t e d ,

rev e ale d a high angle of i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n . An a v e r a g e v a l

ue f o r t h e c u r v e d e n v e l o p e and r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e e i g h t
t e s t s , was s i x t y d e g r e e s . Individual te s ts r a n g e d f ro m f i f

ty -n in e to s ix ty -n in e degrees. Mo c o h e s i o n was r e c o r d e d f o r

t h i s s e t of specim ens. The h i g h a n g l e o f s h e a r i n g r e s i s

t a n c e a n s w e r s t h e q u e s t i o n o f why t h e S t . P e t e r c a n f o r m

h ig h v e r t i c a l fa c e s such as i s e x h ib ite d i n th e r i v e r
b lu ffs.

V i c t o r Gruen A s s o c i a t e s ( 1 961) a l s o ran. s e v e r a l t r i -

ax ial te s ts on u n d i s t u r b e d s a n d s t o n e ^ h o w e v e r , no i n f o r m a

t i o n w a s . a v a i l a b l e on t h e t e s t methods u s e d . Presum ably,

t h e i r methods were s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f t h e C o r p s o f E n g i

n e e rs, sin c e they obtain ed s i m il a r t e s t r e s u l t s .

 68

T h r e e s e t s o f t e s t s p e c i m e n s w e r e o b t a i n e d by c o r i n g
m eth o d s f o r t h e s i t e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e new D a y t o n ' s D e p a r t
ment S t o r e i n S t . Paul. I n a l l i n s t a n c e s t h e t e s t s were r u n
on u n d i s t u r b e d and u n d r a i n e d s p e c i m e n s . P o r e p r e s s u r e s w e re

m e a s u r e d on o n l y one s p e c i m e n ; h o w e v e r , t h e s e t e s t d a t a w ere

not a v a ila b le .
The s t r e n g t h e n v e l o p e s f o r t h e t h r e e s e t s o f t e s t s

a ls o rev ealed high angles of i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n , r a n g in g from

f o r ty -e ig h t to s ix ty degrees. T h es e v a l u e s w e r e l o w e r t h a n

t h o s e o b t a i n e d by t h e C orps o f E n g i n e e r s , b u t t h e y a r e s t i l l
h i g h e r t h a n f o r an a v e r a g e s a n d s t o n e . A sm all cohesion f a c

t o r was r e c o r d e d f o r one s p e c i m e n (800 p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e

inch). R esu lts of th e se t r i a x i a l t e s t s are given i n F ig u re

18,

T r i a x i a l com pression t e s t s r u n on d i s t u r b e d S t .

P e t e r s a n d w e r e p r e p a r e d by d i s a g g r e g a t i n g c h u n k s o f s a n d

s t o n e by w a s h i n g t h e m a t e r i a l t h r o u g h a 35 mesh s i e v e . The
s a n d was t h e n d r i e d and p a c k e d i n t o r u b b e r - c y l i n d e r s . . A f t e r

packing th e sand as d e n s e ly as p o s s i b l e , t h e c y l i n d e r s w ere

s e a l e d and e x p o s e d t o a vacuum o f one a t m o s p h e r e . A void

r a t i o o f 0.4% was o b t a i n e d , and t h e f i r s t s e t o f t e s t s was

conducted a t t h i s v a lu e . A s e c o n d s e t o f t e s t s was r u n a t a

l o o s e r s t a t e , w ith a void r a t i o o f O .69, T hiel (1 9 3 5 , P,

589) r e p o r t e d a n a v e r a g e v o i d r a t i o o f 0 . 3 9 4 f o r t e n s a m p l e s

o f u n d i s t u r b e d S t . P e t e r s a n d s to n e from M in n e so ta .
KG/cm2 Strength -[Strength
Envelope [[Envelope
SHEAR STRESS

0 8 16 . . . . 24 8 16 24
NORMAL STRESS KG/cm2 NORMAL STRESS KG/cmZ

DEPTH 65ft. DEPTH 70 ft.

Strength
Envelope

0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56
NORMAL STRESS KG/cm2 ;

DEPTH 75 ft.

C ircle N atural N atural Chamber Maximum Maximum Degree Remarks

Mo* W ater Dry Pressure D eviator % S train of
C ontent D ensity KG/cm2 S tress S atu ratio n
% PCF KG/cm2 %

1 16.0 115 0 3.07 1.0 100 U nconfined

Com pression

2 17.9 117 2.11 12.75 2.6 100 S am p le s f a i l e d

by V e r t , s p l i t
it
3 17.9 117 3.51 19.60 1.2 100

4 12.6 114 1.41 16.60 2.1 79 Brown s a n d s t o n e '

it
5 12.6 114 2.82 28.00 2.3 79

6 17.0 113 0 14.80 0.9 94 Gray S a n d s t o n e

,
7 17.0 113 2.81 57.30 2.3 94

N o t e : Sp eed o f S t r a i n - 0 . 5 / o / m i n u t e . . 1

TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TESTS - DISTURBED

FIGURE 18
 70

T h e re fo re s a tte m p ts t o recom pact th e sand to th e v o id r a t i o

o f u n d i s t u r b e d s a n d s t o n e w e re n o t a t t a i n e d .

The modulus o f d e f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e d e n s e l y c o m p a c t e d

s a n d was a s h i g h a s t h e modulus f o r t h e u n d i s t u r b e d s a n d

stone. T h i s was f o u n d t o be t r u e when t h e m a j o r p r i n c i p a l

s t r e s s did n o t exceed tw ice th e l a t e r a l s t r e s s f o r th e re -
compacted s a n d s t o n e . A r a p i d i n c r e a s e i n s t r a i n made i t i m
p o s s i b l e t o m e a s u r e t h e modulus o f d e f o r m a t i o n e x c e p t i n t h e

i n i t i a l sta g e o f the t e s t . The a c t u a l f a i l u r e o f t h e s p e c i

mens was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by b u l g i n g a r o u n d t h e p e r i p h e r y i n

stead of a tru e shear f a ilu r e .

The a n g l e o f i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n f o r t h e d i s t u r b e d
s a n d was t h i r t y - t w o d e g r e e s i n t h e l o o s e s t a t e a n d f o r t y - o n e
degrees f o r th e dense s t a t e . R esults of these t e s t s are

shown on M o h r 's d i a g r a m s i n F i g u r e 1 9 , a l o n g w i t h t h e c o n d i

t i o n s u n d e r w hich th e specim ens were r u n .

P la te B earing T ests

F i e l d p l a t e b e a r i n g t e s t s ha v e been, c o n d u c t e d on t h e
s a n d s to n e i n an a t t e m p t t o d e te r m in e th e u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g

s tr e n g th o f the m a te r ia l. Nine t e s t s were c o n d u c t e d by t h e

Cor ps o f E n g i n e e r s (19583 p . 6 ) 5 b u t none w e re c a r r i e d t o

f a i l u r e b e ca u se o f th e e x c e s s i v e l e a d s needed t o in d u ce

failu re. The maximum l o a d o b t a i n e d d u r i n g t e s t i n g was 200

pounds p e r s q u a r e i n c h ( l 4 . 4 to n s p e r s q u a r e f o o t ) . As i n

d i c a t e d from t h e lo a d d e f l e c t i o n c u rv e s i n F i g u r e 20s th e

Z
Shearing Stress

12 16 20
Normal Stress KG/cm2
RECOMPACTED DENSE SAND (Void R atio-0.47)
Shearing Stress KG/cm2

TRI AXIAL COMPRESSION TESTS

(DISTURBED SANDSTONE)'

FIGURE 19

8 12 16
Normal Stress KG/cm2 H
RECOMPACTED LOOSE SAND (Void R atio-0.69)
 PRESSURE IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH
000
010

SECON D 6 TH IRD RUNS

REBO
030
00'

FIRST RUN
OfrO'

T e st Elev, L a b o ra to ry M echanical A n a ly sis S p e c if ic

G la ss F in e s G ra v ity D e n sity

(SP) L ig h t
Y ellow f in e
san d .
090"

(SP) W hite
f in e san d .

30 in c h d ia m e te r b e a rin g p l a t e was used w ith a maximum lo ad o f lU.U

090'

to n s p e r sq u a re f o o t.
=r o
0 /0

mo

lu ;
080'

SECON
060

FIELD PLATE BEARING TESTS

 73

d e f l e c t i o n a t t h e maximum l o a d v a r i e d b e t w e e n .0 2 and . 1 0

i n c h e s 5 and w i t h a l m o s t c o m p l e t e r e b o u n d a f t e r r e m o v a l o f
the lo a d . The t e s t s w e r e c o n d u c t e d i n p l a c e on u n d i s t u r b e d

s a n d s t o n e a t t h e S t . Anthon y F a l l s Lower Lock.

T h e r e was n o . i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e r e g a r d i n g t h e

loading r a te s of the p l a t e b earin g t e s t s . The d e f l e c t i o n

was i n s t a n t a n e o u s a s t h e s a n d s t o n e was b e i n g l o a d e d . Bend

i n g o f t h e p l a t e s was n o t i c e d d u r i n g t e s t i n g , a n d r e s u l t s

may c o n t a i n e r r o r s .
R esu lts of th ese t e s t s i n d ic a te e l a s t i c settlem ent

w i l l r e s u l t upon l o a d i n g t h e s a n d s t o n e . The s e t t l e m e n t
s h o u l d t a k e p l a c e e n t i r e l y d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n and i n i t i a l

lo a d in g of a s t r u c t u r e u n le s s a high l i v e load i s a n t i c i p a t

ed. S a f e a l l o w a b l e b e a r i n g v a l u e s s h o u l d be c a l c u l a t e d f o r

any s t r u c t u r e t o e l i m i n a t e e x c e s s i v e d is p la c e m e n t o r d e t r i

m ental s e t tl e m e n t.

C o n s o l i d a t i o n and S e t t l e m e n t
Approximate s e t t l e m e n t e s t i m a t e s , f o r any s t r u c t u r e ,
a r e n o r m a l l y b a s e d on c o n s o l i d a t i o n t e s t s . S ettlem ent is

c a u s e d by t h e a d d i t i o n o f l o a d s t o a f o u n d a t i o n m a t e r i a l ,

removal of l a t e r a l s u p p o r t , f lu c t u a t i o n of the w ater ta b le ,

c ru sh in g of g r a i n s , or shear fa ilu re . As suming t h e S t .

P e t e r s a n d s to n e has been exposed t o extrem e c o m p a ctiv e

forces, t h e m a t e r i a l s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d i n c o m p r e s s i b l e f o r

a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes except f o r i t s e la stic p ro p erties.

 74

U n l e s s r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e s a n d g r a i n s was t o o c c u r , f o r

exam ple by v i b r a t o r y a c t i o n , - d e n s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e m a t e r i a l
would n o t r e s u l t . T his i s because w eight added to th e s a n d
stone is t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m g r a i n t o g r a i n , and t h e g r a i n s a r e

i n t e r l o c k e d t o s u c h a d e g r e e t h a t t h e y w i l l n o t become d i s

a g g re g a te d u nder normal lo a d in g .

Un d er u n c o n f i n e d w a t e r t a b l e c o n d i t i o n s , s e t t l e m e n t

o f a s t r u c t u r e l o c a t e d on t h e s a n d s t o n e and c a u s e d by a
f l u c t u a t i o n i n t h e w a t e r t a b l e s h o u l d be n e g l i g i b l e . T his

i s p r o v i d i n g t h e s a n d g r a i n s r e m a i n u n d i s t u r b e d , and t h e a p
p l i e d s t r e s s e s a r e t r a n s m i t t e d from g r a i n t o g r a i n . If

w a t e r comes i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f a s t r u c t u r e ,

h y d r o s ta tic p re s s u re beneath th e s t r u c t u r e w i l l cause a

buoyant e f f e c t . T h i s e f f e c t e x i s t s when .the p o r e w a t e r

pressure ( n e u t r a l p r e s s u r e ) i s h i g h enough t o p a r t i a l l y c a r

ry th e a p p lie d lo a d . I f t h e h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e w e re t o
drop, e i t h e r n a t u r a l l y o r by a r t i f i c i a l m ean s, t h e b u o y a n cy

i n t h e d e w a t e r e d a r e a would d i s a p p e a r . The l o a d , a f t e r d e

w a t e r i n g , w i l l be s u p p o r t e d by t h e s k e l e t a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e

s a n d s to n e . ' In such c a se s a fo u n d a tio n in c o n ta c t w ith a

f l u c t u a t i n g w a t e r t a b l e may e x p e r i e n c e d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l e

ment .

Only two known c o n s o l i d a t i o n t e s t s h a v e b e e n c o n

d u c t e d on t h e S t . P e t e r s a n d s t o n e (Gruen, I 96I , p . 9) The

tests p e r f o r m e d w e re made on u n d i s t u r b e d s a m p l e s and were

t r u e one d i m e n s i o n a l c o n s o l i d a t i o n t e s t s , in t h a t the
 75

s a m p l e s w e re a d e q u a t e l y c o n f i n e d l a t e r a l l y . One o f t h e two

t e s t s was p a r t i a l l y c o n f i n e d a t t h e s u r f a c e and t h e r e f o r e
r e p r e s e n t s a c o m b i n a t i o n c o n s o l i d a t i o n and p l a t e b e a r i n g

test (Figure 21).

The p r e s s u r e - v o i d r a t i o c u r v e s a r e f a i r l y l i n e a r ,

w h i c h s u g g e s t s a v e r y s m a l l b u t u n i f o r m d e n s i f i c a t i o n o f thee

sandstone during lo ad in g . A p p a ren tly , changes i n th e void

ratio s o f t h e s p e c i m e n s were i n s t a n t a n e o u s upon l o a d i n g .

I n computing th e s e t t l e m e n t from th e t e s t s , loads

v a ry in g from f i f t e e n t o t w e n t y - f i v e to n s p e r s q u a r e f o o t

p r o d u c e d t h e same t o t a l d i s p l a c e m e n t . The s e t t l e m e n t a n a l y

s i s o f t h e two t e s t s r e v e a l e d a t o t a l computed s e t t l e m e n t o f

l / l O of a f o o t w ith a lo ad of tw e n ty - f iv e tons p e r square

foot. The r e b o u n d p o r t i o n o f t h e c u r v e s i n d i c a t e s t h a t most

o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t i s p e r m a n e n t , and o n l y m in o r a m o u n ts a r e

e lastic. The c o n s o l i d a t i o n t e s t s a r e n o t i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h
th e f i e l d p l a t e b e a r in g t e s t s i n r e g a r d to perm anent s e t t l e

ment o r t h e amount o f s e t t l e m e n t . T h i s may be c a u s e d by t h e

c o n s o l i d a t i o n t e s t specim ens n o t b e in g a d e q u a te ly c o n fin e d

and t h e r e b y c a u s i n g some g r a i n r e a r r a n g e m e n t upon l o a d i n g .

T h i s would e f f e c t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n v o i d r a t i o s and i n c r e a s e

th e t o t a l s e ttle m e n t o f the c o n s o lid a tio n t e s t specim ens.

P e n e tr a tio n R e sista n c e T ests

The s t a n d a r d p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t i s b a s i c a l l y a s h e a r

t e s t and c a n g i v e a q u i c k , i n e x p e n s i v e e s t i m a t e o f t h e
Legend N atural N atural In itial , Remarks ,
Water Dry Void
C o n t e n t fo D ensity R atio CONSOLIDATION TESTS
16 114 p c f .4 2 0 T o ta ll y C onfined.
O- FIGURE 21
5 124 p c f .3 7 7 C o n f i n e d a t s i d e s and Oi
-A- b o t t o m , 80/o C o n f i n e d
a t top.
 77

sta b ility of a foundation m a te ria l. Blow c o u n t s 5 m e a su r e d

from p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t s 5 a c c o r d i n g t o T e rz a g h i ( 1 9 4 8 ) , c a n be
used t o d e te rm in e th e p e r m i s s i b l e s o i l p r e s s u r e s f o r f o o t

i n g s on s a n d . A h i g h blow c o u n t w i l l g e n e r a l l y i n d i c a t e

good f o u n d a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s .
The M i n n e s o t a Highway D e p a r t m e n t h a s c o n d u c t e d num

erous p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t s on t h e S t . P e t e r ( F o r d , 1964). The

t e s t s w e re made by d r i v i n g a s p l i t t u b e s a m p l e r i n t o t h e

s a n d s t o n e w i t h a 140 poun d w e i g h t , d r o p p e d 30 i n c h e s . W it h

100 blows p e n e t r a t i o n was n o w h e r e g r e a t e r t h a n 0 . 2 f e e t ,

w h i c h was f o u n d t o be t y p i c a l f o r t h e s a n d s t o n e t h r o u g h o u t

th e M etro p o litan a re a . R a t e o f p e n e t r a t i o n was a l s o f o u n d

t o be t h e same f o r a l l h a r d n e s s e s o f s a n d s t o n e . For th is

r e a s o n t h e t e s t c a n n o t be u s e d a s a m e a s u r e f o r h a r d n e s s o r
degree of f r i a b i l i t y of th e sa n d sto n e .

The v a l u e s o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t s a r e

r e l a t i v e , and, norm ally, r e s i s t a n c e s in c re a s e w ith d epth.

As suming p e n e t r a t i o n r a t e s f o r t h e s a n d s t o n e t o be 0 . 2 w i t h
1 00 b l o w s , t h i s would i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s a n d s t o n e i s a n e x

c e l l e n t fo u n d atio n m a te r ia l w ith a high b e a rin g c a p a c ity .

F o r d (1 9 6 4 ) h a s d e v i s e d a m o d i f i e d p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t

f o r w h ic h he f e e l s w i l l be u s e f u l i n m e a s u r i n g t h e h a r d n e s s

of the sandstone. F r i a b i l i t y d e te rm in a tio n s a re very im por

t a n t when e s t i m a t i n g c o s t s o f e x c a v a t i o n s . In stead of a

s p l i t , t u b e s a m p l e r , w h ic h i s n o r m a l l y u s e d f o r t h e t e s t .

F o r d h a s u s e d a t o o l s t e e l p r o b e a t t a c h e d t o t h e end o f t h e
 78

d rillin g to o ls The p r o b e i s one f o o t l o n g , o n e - h a l f i n c h

i n d i a m e t e r , and h a s a b l u n t w o r k i n g e n d . The s t a n d a r d 100
blow s a r e made w i t h a 1%0 pound w e i g h t and d r o p p e d 30 i n c h e s .
The t e s t h a s o n l y b e e n u s e d on h a r d s a n d s t o n e , and t h e r e

s u l t s a re s i m i l a r to th e s ta n d a rd p e n e tr a tio n t e s t s .

Bearing C a p a c itie s

In review ing th e e n g in e e rin g p r o p e r tie s of the S t.

P e te r sa n d sto n e, a high b earin g c a p a c ity of th e m a te r ia l i s

obvious. S i n c e s o few s h e a r s t r e n g t h t e s t s h a v e b e e n c o n

d u c t e d on t h e s a n d s t o n e , no c o n c l u s i o n s c a n be made a s t o

the co n sisten c y of th e rock in i t s l o a d c a r r y i n g p o w e r.

A d e q u a t e s u p p o r t c a n be s a f e l y e s t i m a t e d f o r a n y p r o p o s e d
s t r u c t u r e b y a s i t e e x a m i n a t i o n , a c c o m p a n ie d by a n a c c e p t a
b le t e s t i n g program. B e a r i n g c a p a c i t y e s t i m a t e s a r e only-

v a l i d i f th e m a t e r i a l rem ains u n d i s t u r b e d , c o n fin e d l a t e r

a lly , and t h e g r o u n d w a t e r c o n d i t i o n s c a n be c o n t r o l l e d a t

the s i t e .

The C i t y o f S t . P a u l ' s B u i l d i n g Code recommends a

sa fe b e a rin g v alu e of f i f t e e n tons p e r square fo o t f o r

s t r u c t u r e s b e i n g b u i l t on t h e S t . P e te r sandstone. The M in

n e a p o l i s Code h a s no s p e c i f i c a t i o n s ; h o w e v e r , t h e same v a l u e

o f f i f t e e n t o n s i s u s e d when a p r o b l e m a r i s e s i n t h e C i t y .

The v a l u e o f f i f t e e n t o n s p e r s q u a r e f o o t was e s t a b l i s h e d b e

c a u s e a t t h e t i m e no methods had b e e n d e v e l o p e d t o m e a s u r e

t h e u l t i m a t e o r s a f e b e a r i n g power o f t h e s a n d s t o n e . The
 79
e x i s t i n g f i g u r e i n t h e c o d e i s a n t i q u a t e d and s h o u l d be c o n
s i d e r e d a c o n s e r v a t i v e v a l u e f o r m ost c o n d i t i o n s
- P l a t e b e a r i n g t e s t s u s e d by t h e C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r s

(1958S p. 6 )5 revealed b e arin g c a p a c itie s f o r the sandstone

t o be l 4 4 t o n s p e r s q u a r e f o o t , w i t h no s i g n s o f f a i l u r e

I n d e s i g n o f t h e i r l o c k s an a l l o w a b l e s a f e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e

o f t e n t o n s p e r s q u a r e f o o t was u s e d This v e ry c o n s e r v a

t i v e e s t i m a t e was b a s e d on t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a a t t h e t i m e .

V i c t o r Gru en A s s o c i a t e s (1 9 6 2 , p . 11.) computed a l

low able b e a r in g p r e s s u r e s o f t w e n t y - f i v e to n s p e r sq u a re

foot, d e te rm in e d from t r i a x i a l c o m p re ssio n t e s t r e s u l t s .

T his f i g u r e i s a l s o c o n s e r v a t i v e b u t i s p r o b a b ly th e h i g h e s t

v a l u e t h a t c a n be o b t a i n e d w i t h o u t t h e u s e o f a n u l t r a - h i g h

l o a d t e s t i n g m a c h in e and s p e c i a l made t r i a x i a l l o a d i n g

cells. W it h t h e p r o p e r t e s t i n g e q u i p m e n t 5 u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g

c a p a c i t i e s i n e x c e s s o f 100 t o n s p e r s q u a r e f o o t c a n be e x

pected. The s a f e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y o f a m a t e r i a l i s t h e u l

t i m a t e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y d i v i d e d by a s a f e t y f a c t o r o f two o r

th ree. In the f i e l d the b e arin g c a p a c i ti e s w i l l in c re a s e

w i t h d e p t h below t h e u n d i s t u r b e d s u r f a c e , w h i c h i s due t o

in creasin g confining p re s s u re s . In p la c in g extrem ely high

static l o a d s on t h e s a n d s t o n e , i t may be a d v a n t a g e o u s t o u s e

deep f o o t i n g s to i n s u r e f o r a sound f o u n d a t i o n .
 FOUNDATION USE OF THE ST. PETER SANDSTONE

P o t e n t i a l Problems

The S t . P e t e r s a n d s t o n e h a s b e e n u s e d a s a f o u n d a
t i o n m a t e r i a l f o r b r i d g e s 5 dams, l o c k s , and b u i l d i n g s . The

h ig h b e a r in g c a p a c i t y o f th e ro c k has a llow ed f o r e x c e l l e n t
foundation c o n d itio n s. D e p e n d i n g on t h e n a t u r e o f t h e ma

t e r i a l a t a b u ilding s i t e , lo c a l v a r ia tio n s in the b earing

po wer c a n be e x p e c t e d . T h e r e f o r e , a s much g e o l o g i c i n f o r m a

t i o n a s p o s s i b l e s h o u l d be c o l l e c t e d f r o m l o c a l s o u r c e s

p r io r to c o n stru ctio n . The M i n n e s o t a G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y h a s

c o m p i l e d b o r i n g s and w e l l l o g s f o r t h e e n t i r e Twin C i t y

a r e a , and t h e r e c o r d s a r e a v a i l a b l e t o t h e p u b l i c . T h ese
r e c o r d s w i l l h e lp an i n v e s t i g a t o r i n t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s of

e x p lo ra tio n but w i l l not provide s u f f i c i e n t d e t a i l to e lim

i n a t e the n e c e s s i t y of a s i t e exam ination.

P r e l i m i n a r y s e l e c t i o n o f a f o u n d a t i o n t y p e t o be

u s e d on t h e S t . P e t e r c a n be i n t e l l i g e n t l y d e t e r m i n e d when

t h e p r o p e r t i e s , o f t h e s a n d s t o n e a r e known a t a p a r t i c u l a r

site. The h i g h a n g l e o f i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n and t h e l i m i t e d

se ttle m e n t of the sandstone su g g est spread fo o tin g s f o r the

foundation. From e x p e r i e n c e , a d v e r s e and v a r i a b l e c o n d i

t i o n s i n t h e s a n d s t o n e may w a r r a n t t h e u s e c f o t h e r t y p e s .

The a d v e r s e c o n d i t i o n s most commonly f o u n d a r e s u m m arize d

below :
80
 81

1) The s a n d s t o n e c a n be e x p e c t e d t o be s o f t a n d u n c o n s o l i
d a t e d w here t h e P l a t t e v i l l e lim e s to n e cap has been n a t

u r a l l y removed

2) Freeze-thaw c o n d itio n s in s a tu r a te d sandstone n ear the

s u r f a c e may c a u s e d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s t o a f o u n d a t i o n .

3) When e n c o u n t e r e d , open f i s s u r e s i n t h e r o c k may a l l o w

l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f g ro u n d w a te r t o flow t h r o u g h th e

openings, thus weakening a f o u n d a t i o n .

4) V ibratory a c tio n , such as d r i v i n g p i l e s , may c a u s e r e a r

r a n g e m e n t o f t h e s a n d g r a i n s and r e s u l t i n a l o s s o f

. s tr e n g th to the m a te ria l.

5) Submerged and i r r e g u l a r s u r f a c e s o f t h e s a n d s t o n e i n t h e

r i v e r c h a n n e l s a r e common. T h i s i s due t o t h e numerous

p lu n g e p o o ls and p o t h o l e s . D i f f i c u l t i e s may a r i s e i n

l o c a t i n g b r i d g e . p i e r s on so u n d r o c k .

6) B uried r i v e r ch an n els i n th e san d sto n e b e n e a th a p r o

posed b u i l d i n g s i t e w i l l c au se d i f f i c u l t i e s in lo catin g

so u n d r o c k f o r a f o u n d a t i o n . W a t e r p r o b l e m s c a n a l s o be

expected i n th e c h a n n e ls .

7) The s a n d s t o n e may be f o u n d t o be s a t u r a t e d d u r i n g e x c a

v a tio n a t a b u ild in g s i t e . Thus, a d e q u a te d e w a te rin g

p r o c e s s e s h a v e t o be made t o p r e v e n t damage by e r o s i o n
when f l o w i n g w a t e r i s e n c o u n t e r e d .

8) N e a r r i v e r c h a n n e l s t h e s a n d s t o n e may h a v e l o s t i t s con

fin in g pressure. Thus, heavy a p p lie d lo ad s i n such

a r e a s may r e s u l t i n s h e a r f a i l u r e t o t h e s a n d s t o n e .
 82

9) N a t u r a l c a v e s I n t h e s a n d s t o n e a r e uncommonj h o w e v e r ,
s i t e s w h e r e h e a v y s t r u c t u r e s a r e t o be b u i l t s h o u l d be

th o ro u g h ly exp lo red a t dep th t o a s s u re t h a t such hazards

do n o t e x i s t .
10) J o i n t s a r e p o t e n t i a l p l a n e s o f w e a k n e s s , e s p e c i a l l y

th o se t h a t a re f i l l e d w ith c la y m a t e r i a l s Su ch s t r u c

t u r e s s h o u l d be a v o i d e d o r p r o p e r l y s e c u r e d i n a d v a n c e

of. c o n s t r u c t i o n .
11) Once t h e s a n d s t o n e h a s b e e n d i s t u r b e d , t h e s a n d w i l l n o t

. r e b i n d by n o r m a l c o m p a c t i o n m eth o d s t o f o r m a h a r d w o r k

ing s u rfa c e f o r th e placem ent of a fo u n d a tio n . T here

fore, i t i s n e c e s s a r y to p r o t e c t a f r e s h l y exposed

ex ca v atio n u n t i l th e fo u n d atio n i s poured.

12) G r o u t i n g t h e s a n d s t o n e t o g i v e a d d e d s t r e n g t h h a s n o t

b e e n s u c c e s s f u l b e c a u s e o f t h e low p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t h e

rock.
13) Hig h p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e r e s t r i c t s th e use of f r i c

t i o n p i l e s t h a t would h a v e t o be d r i v e n i n t o t h e s a n d

stone.

V a r i o u s t y p e s o f f o u n d a t i o n s ha v e b e e n u s e d on t h e

S t. P e te r sandstone in the m e tro p o lita n a r e a . The t y p e o f

f o u n d a t i o n t o be u s e d v a r i e s w i t h t h e t y p e o f s t r u c t u r e , the
s t r u c t u r e s u s e , and t h e p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e s a n d

sto n e a t the s i t e . The t y p e s o f s t r u c t u r e s and t h e i r f o u n

d a t i o n s a r e c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y b e lo w .
 83

Bridges

The m a j o r i t y o f b r i d g e s c r o s s i n g t h e M i s s i s s i p p i

R i v e r i n t h e s t u d y a r e a a r e i n p a r t s u p p o r t e d by t h e S t .
P e ter sandstone. N orm ally , where p o s s i b l e , a c o n c r e t e p i e r
i s p o u r e d d i r e c t l y on a h a r d , f r e s h su rfa c e o f the sa n d
stone. The p i e r s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d by f i r s t p l a c i n g c a i s s o n s .

T h i s i s a c c o m p l i s h e d by f i r s t d r i v i n g s h e e t p i l i n g i n t o t h e

r i v e r g r a v e l s and s a n d s b e n e a t h t h e r i v e r and a r o u n d t h e

p ier a re a . The e n c l o s e d a r e a i s d e w a t e r e d , and t h e n t h e .

r i v e r a l l u v i u m i s e x c a v a t e d t o a d e p t h w h e re u n d i s t u r b e d

sandstone i s encountered. A rein fo rced concrete p ie r is

th e n p o u re d , a f t e r which th e base o f t h e p i e r i s p ro tected

f ro m s c o u r w i t h r i p r a p .
A second type o f f o u n d a tio n used f o r b r id g e s i s a

spread fo o t foundation. The s p r e a d f o o t f o u n d a t i o n i s

p l a c e d on t h e u n c o n s o l i d a t e d f l u v i a l m a t e r i a l s and i s u s u a l

l y s u p p o r t e d by p i l i n g s d r i v e n t o t h e s o l i d r o c k b e lo w .
The m ain p r o b l e m e n c o u n t e r e d i n t h e p l a c e m e n t o f

bridge p ie rs i s the la c k of a s u i t a b l e sandstone o r th e a b

sence o f san d sto n e a t a re a so n a b le depth. The r i v e r c h a n

n el, e s p e c i a l l y b e t w e e n S t . A n th o n y F a l l s and F o r t S m e l l i n g ,

i s known f o r i t s many p l u n g e p o o l s and p o t h o l e s , c r e a t e d by

th e r e t r e a t of S t."A nthony F a l l s . F o r exam ple, d u r in g th e

s i t e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e new T e n t h Avenue B r i d g e , the S ta te

Highway D e p a r t m e n t ( F o r d , 1964) f o u n d a f o r t y f o o t d i f f e r

ence i n e l e v a t i o n o f th e s a n d s to n e s u r f a c e a c r o s s t h e
 84

M iss issip p i R iver. B o r i n g s p r o v e d t h a t two l a r g e p l u n g e

p o p l s e x i s t e d on t h e c e n t e r l i n e o f t h e b r i d g e , a n d , t h e r e

fore, t h e p i e r s had t o be l o c a t e d a c c o r d i n g l y . In an o th er

i n s t a n c e d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e C e d a r Avenue B r i d g e ,

t h e n o r t h e a s t p i e r had t o be p l a c e d f o r t y - f i v e f e e t below

th e r i v e r bed, because s o f t ( u n c o n s o l i d a t e d ) s a n d s t o n e was

encountered. The s o u t h e a s t p i e r o f t h e same b r i d g e . w a s

p l a c e d on wooden p i l e s d r i v e n t w e n t y f e e t b elo w t h e w a t e r
lev el, b e c a u s e no u n d i s t u r b e d s a n d s t o n e was e n c o u n t e r e d

w h i l e d r i v i n g s h e e t p i l i n g t o a d e p t h o f 105 f e e t . A sim i

l a r s i t u a t i o n occurred during c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e Great

N o r t h e r n S t o n e Arch B r i d g e . The p i e r s f o r t h e b r i d g e have

had t o be r e i n f o r c e d s e v e r a l t i m e s due t o s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e
stru ctu re. The s i t u a t i o n was n o t r e a l i z e d when t h e b r i d g e '

was b u i l t , and s u i t a b l e p i l i n g s w e r e n o t p r o v i d e d f o r t h e
u n c o n s o l i d a t e d m a t e r i a l s on w h i c h t h e p i e r s w e r e b u i l t

(S c h w a rtz , 1939, pp. 2 3 - 2 4 ) .

The t o t a l v e r t i c a l l o a d on t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f a

bridge i s t h e sum o f t h e v e r t i c a l l i v e l o a d p l u s t h e d ead

load. Live lo a d s su c h a s f lo w in g w a t e r , d r i f t i n g i c e , wind,

and t r a f f i c on t h e b r i d g e w i l l n o t c a u s e s e t t l e m e n t . This- -

i s p r o v i d i n g t h e b r i d g e p i e r s a r e s e a t e d on s o u n d s a n d s t o n e
o r a r e w e l l s e a t e d on t h e r i v e r a l l u v i u m . M oderate e l a s t i c

and p l a s t i c s e t t l e m e n t c a n be e x p e c t e d d u r i n g t h e c o n s t r u c

tio n of the b rid g e. . :

 85

Locks and Dams

Mat o r r a f t t y p e f o u n d a t i o n s w ere u s e d i n t h e c o n

s t r u c t i o n o f t h e t h r e e l o c k s and two dams i n t h e Twin C i t y

area. F o r a l l t h e s t r u c t u r e s a r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e mono

lith ic s l a b was p o u r e d on a f r e s h , e x c a v a t e d s u r f a c e o f u n

d istu rb e d sandstone.
D u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e l o w e r l o c k and dam a t S t ,

Anthony F a l l s , t h e p l a c i n g o f fo r m s and s t e e l d i s t u r b e d s e v
e r a l i n c h e s o f m a t e r i a l on t h e e x c a v a t e d s u r f a c e . C onsider

a b l e d i f f i c u l t y was e n c o u n t e r e d i n re m o v i n g t h e l o o s e s a n d
b en eath th e heavy s t e e l m a ts Because o f t h i s , recom menda

t i o n s were made by t h e C orps o f E n g i n e e r s ( 1 9 5 8 , p , 8) f o r

t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e u p p e r l o c k a t S t , An th o n y F a l l s , It

was s u g g e s t e d t h a t e x c a v a t i o n be c a r r i e d t o g r a d e d u r i n g t h e

in itia l o p e r a t i o n , and a s i x i n c h t h i c k c o n s t r u c t i o n s l a b be

placed over the e n t i r e a re a im m ediately. T h i s would p r o v i d e

a f i r m w o r k i n g s u r f a c e , w h i c h would n o t be s u b j e c t t o e r o
s i o n by t r a f f i c during c o n s tru c tio n o p e ra tio n s ,

D ew atering th e sa n d sto n e I n th e v i c i n i t y o f t h e
locks o ffe re d a d d i t i o n a l problem s. I t was f e l t th a t because

o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f uncemented b ed d in g p la n e s i n th e s a n d

s t o n e , t h e y wou ld blow and become open f i s s u r e s i f d e w a t e r

i n g were a t t e m p t e d by open sump m e t h o d s . Therefore, fo r

c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e u p p e r l o c k s i t was recommended t h a t w e l l

p o i n t s be u s e d and s p a c e d a t t h r e e f o o t c e n t e r s . Deep w e l l s
 86

wou ld n o t be s a t i s f a c t o r y b e c a u s e most o f t h e w a t e r i n t h e

s a n d s t o n e was d e r i v e d f r o m t h e r i v e r .
F o u n d a t i o n d i f f i c u l t i e s w e re e n c o u n t e r e d d u r i n g t h e

c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e S econd Twin C i t y Lock ( S c h w a r t z , 1 9 3 9 a

p. 2 9 ) o D uring e x c a v a tio n , a l e a k developed i n th e s a n d

s t o n e n e a r t h e l o w e r end o f t h e m i d d l e w a l l and a s h o r t d i s

ta n c e above th e low er g a te . P ro v isio n s to p rev e n t e ro sio n ,

u n d e r t h e m i d d l e w a l l , w e re made by s e a l i n g b o t h s i d e s o f

th e w a ll w ith a s t e e l diaphram . A fte r com pletion of the

lo c k , , two months l a t e r , w a t e r a g a i n was n o t i c e d l e a k i n g u n

d e r t h e same w a l l . The l e a k was f i n a l l y s e c u r e d a f t e r r e i n

fo rcem en t o f th e s t e e l diaphram .

C o f f e r dams had t o be c o n s t r u c t e d t o p e r m i t e x c a v a - .

tio n f o r the lo ck s. Because- a l l u v i a l f i l l mixed w i t h l i m e

s t o n e s l a b s and g l a c i a l b o u l d e r s u n d e r l i e t h e l o c a t i o n o f

t h e dams, s h e e t p i l i n g c o u l d n o t be d r i v e n t o a s u f f i c i e n t

depth to se c u re c u t o f f o f s u b s u rfa c e flow . At t h e Twin

C i t y Locks no d i f f i c u l t y was e n c o u n t e r e d w i t h l e a k a g e b e

cause of a ten to f i f t e e n fo o t t h ic k b lan k e t of r i v e r s i l t

w h ic h a c c u m u l a t e d on t h e u p s t r e a m s i d e o f t h e c o f f e r dam.

The s i l t e f f e c t i v e l y s e a l e d t h e a r e a . For c o n stru ctio n of

t h e S t . Anthony L o c k s , w e l l p o i n t s a l o n g t h e c e n t e r l i n e o f
t h e dam w e r e recommended t o e l i m i n a t e s e e p a g e i n t o t h e c o n

s tru c tio n area.

B e a r i n g v a l u e s o f t e n t o n s p e r s q u a r e f o o t w e re u s e d

i n design of the lo ck s, e n ough t o i n s u r e s a f e t y o f l o a d i n g

 87

failu re. A stress zone ( p r e s s u r e b u l b ) o f up t o 300 f e e t

below t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e l o c k s was c a l c u l a t e d . T h is zone

would p r o j e c t t h r o u g h t h e S t . P eter, P r a i r i e du C h i e n f o r m a

t i o n s , and w e l l i n t o t h e J o r d a n s a n d s t o n e .

C o n s o l i d a t i o n and p l a t e b e a r i n g t e s t s may g i v e an

e s t i m a t e o f t h e amount o f s e t t l e m e n t t o a n t i c i p a t e t o t h e

stru ctu res. Heavy s t r u c t u r e s , s u c h a s l o c k s and dams, w i l l

n o t n o r m a l l y e x p e r i e n c e h i g h l i v e l o a d s , and most o f t h e

s e t t l e m e n t w i l l be e x p e r i e n c e d d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n .

B uildings

Whenever p o s s i b l e , the S t. P e t e r s a n d s t o n e i s u se d
as a fo u n d a tio n b a se, because o f i t s high b e arin g s t r e n g t h

and s m a l l s e t t l e m e n t . R einforced c o n c re te spread founda

t i o n s a r e n o r m a l l y u s e d wh e re t h e s a n d s t o n e i s u n d i s t u r b e d

a nd i s f r e e f r o m r u n n i n g w a t e r . Where t h e s a n d s t o n e i s n o t

s a t u r a t e d , t h e r o c k a c t s a s an e x c e l l e n t u n d e r d r a i n a g e f o r a
foundation. In a d d itio n , t h e s a n d s t o n e c a n be c h e a p l y e x c a

v a t e d a t c o s t s no h i g h e r t h a n t o remove u n c o n s o l i d a t e d s o i l
m aterials.

C o ncrete p i e r o r c a i s s o n f o u n d a t i o n s a l s o have been

used to g iv e adequate su p p o rt to m u l t i l e v e l b u i l d i n g s . Oc

c a s i o n a l l y , wh e re s t r u c t u r e s a r e t o be b u i l t on t h e s a n d

s t o n e , c o n s i d e r a b l e a m ounts o f d i s t u r b e d s a n d o r a l l u v i u m

o v e r l i e the u n d istu rb e d m a t e r i a l. Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s i t

h a s b e e n n e c e s s a r y t o d r i l l and p l a c e c a i s s o n s a t a
 O

88
s u f f i c i e n t depth i n th e sandstone to in s u r e ad eq u ate c o n

finem ent f o r th e fo u n d atio n .

S e v e r a l f o u n d a t i o n s h a v e b e e n b u i l t on s t e e p l y d i p
ping s u r f a c e s of th e fo rm a tio n . Uneven s u r f a c e s o f t h e

s a n d s t o n e c a n u s u a l l y be a t t r i b u t e d t o a s s i d e s o f b u r i e d

chan n els. This o f f e r s a d d i t i o n a l problems of n o t o n ly r e

moving s o f t s a n d and a l l u v i u m , b u t w a t e r i n t r u s i o n may be

considerable. The b u r i e d c h a n n e l s a r e w e l l known w a t e r

courses. Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , c a i s s o n c a s i n g h a s t o be

e x t e n d e d t h r o u g h t h e s a t u r a t e d z o n e s and i n t o h a r d s a n d

stone. The c a s i n g w i l l r e l i e v e t h e i n f l o w o f w a t e r f ro m t h e

u n c o n s o l id a te d m a t e r i a l s j however, i f th e s a n d s to n e i s a l s o

s a t u r a t e d , d e w a t e r i n g o p e r a t i o n s w i l l p r o b a b l y be n e e d e d b e

f o r e c o n c r e t e c a n be p l a c e d .

P i l e fo u n d a tio n s i n th e san d sto n e have been c o n s i d

e re d b u t have n e v e r been u s e d . The s a n d s t o n e h a s t o o h i g h a

p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e f o r p i l e s t o be d r i v e n . If stru c

t u r e s a r e n o t t o be b u i l t d i r e c t l y on t h e s a n d s t o n e , p i l e s

c a n s o m e ti m e s be d r i v e n t h r o u g h u n c o n s o l i d a t e d m a t e r i a l s t o
re fu s a l in the S t. P eter. T h i s may o f f e r a d d i t i o n a l p r o b

l e m s , b e c a u s e t h e u n c o n s o l i d a t e d m a t e r i a l s - i n . t h e Twin C i t y

a r e a a r e w e l l known f o r t h e l a r g e b l o c k o f l i m e s t o n e and

g la c ia l boulders. Many h e a v y s t r u c t u r e s , e s p e c ia lly in the

downtown p o r t i o n o f S t . P a u l , a r e s u p p o r t e d on f o o t i n g s o v e r

com pressible s o i l s . V i b r a t i o n from t r y i n g to d r i v e p i l e s t o

 89

t h e s a n d s t o n e and o v e r a n e x t e n d e d l e n g t h o f t i m e may c a u s e

d i f f e r e n t i a l s e ttle m e n t to nearby s t r u c t u r e s

J e t t i n g p i l e s i n t o p l a c e has n o t been a t t e m p t e d , b e

c a u s e t h e j e t t i n g a c t i o n may c a u s e e x c e s s i v e e r o s i o n by o v e r
enlargem ent o r lo s s of th e h o le . The s u c c e s s o f j e t t i n g
p i l e s i n t o t h e s a n d s t o n e d e p e n d s on t h e h a r d n e s s and f r i a

b i l i t y of the rock a t the s i t e .

I n th e C ity o f S t.' P a u l, where b u ild i n g s a r e to be

c o n s tr u c te d on a t h i n l a y e r of P l a t t e v i l l e lim e s to n e o r
Glenw.ood s h a l e , a d d i t i o n a l s u p p o r t to th e f o u n d a tio n i s r e
q u ir e d by the- C ity B u ild in g D epartm ent. ' This i s b ecause th e
Glenwood s h a le i s n o t c a p a b le of s u p p o r tin g heavy a p p l ie d
lo a d s w ith o u t e x c e s s iv e s e t t l e m e n t . Ford (1964) s t a t e d t h a t
a d d i t i o n a l s u p p o r t to such s t r u c t u r e s i s o b ta in e d by d r iv in g
p i l e s th ro u g h th e s h a le to r e f u s a l i n th e s a n d s to n e below.
The a r e a o f s h e a r i n f l u e n c e b elo w a s t r u c t u r e , b u ilt

on t h e s a n d s t o n e , c a n be s a f e l y e s t i m a t e d a t one and o n e -

h a l f tim es th e w id th of th e s t r u c t u r e . T h i s r u l e o f thumb

c a n be u s e d i f t h e m a t e r i a l i s c o n s i d e r e d h o m o g en e o u s, c o n

f i n e d , and t h e a p p l i e d l o a d i s a d e a d l o a d . H ig h l i v e l o a d s

w i l l vary th e depth of sh e a r i n f lu e n c e . I f the depth i s

c a l c u l a t e d t o be d e e p e r t h a n t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e S t . P e t e r ,

t h e n t h e P r a i r i e du C h i e n and J o r d a n f o r m a t i o n s w i l l a b s o r b

a p a r t of the s h e a rin g fo rc e o f th e o v e rly in g s t r u c t u r e .

S h e a r s t r e n g t h s - o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g f o r m a t i o n s s h o u l d be a s

g reat, i f not g re a te r, than the S t. P e te r .

 90

FIGURE 22 Excavation in the St. Peter sand

stone for the Dayton's Deport
ment Store in St. Paul. Numer
ous tunnels are exposed
near the Glenwood- St. Paul
contact.
 91

The F i r s t N a t i o n a l Bank B u i l d i n g i n S t . Paul is a

t y p i c a l e x am p le o f a b u i l d i n g b u i l t u s i n g t h e S t . P e t e r as a

fo u n d a tio n (Schw artz, 193 6 , p. 9 7 ) The d e p t h t o s a n d s t o n e

was n o t o v e r t h i r t y f e e t , and t h e d e s i g n e r s p l a n n e d t o p l a c e

t h e s t r u c t u r e on e i g h t y - f o u r p i e r s p l a c e d on t h e s a n d s t o n e .

To l o c a t e a s u i t a b l e l o c a t i o n t o p l a c e t h e p i e r s , some o f

them had t o be s u n k t h r o u g h f i f t y f e e t o f s o f t s a n d s t o n e t o
a depth o f e ig h ty f e e t , w h e re h a r d s a n d s t o n e , was f o u n d and

was s u i t a b l e t o p l a c e t h e p i e r s . This p a r t i c u l a r b u i l d i n g

s i t e was l o c a t e d on a b u r i e d r i v e r c h a n n e l , w h i c h i s t h e

reason fo r the s o f t sandstone.

Roads

The S t . P e t e r s a n d s t o n e , when p r o p e r l y d r a i n e d , i s ,

a n e x c e l l e n t s u b - b a s e f o r r o a d s and h i g h w a y s . According to

F o r d ( 1 9 6 4 ) , a f t e r t h e s a n d s t o n e h a s b e e n removed t o r o a d
g r a d e , an a d d i t i o n a l f o o t i s removed and r e p l a c e d w i t h a

p r o p e r ly graded subgrade m a t e r i a l . No r o a d f a i l u r e s i n t h e

p a s t h a v e b e e n r e c o r d e d 'due t o s e t t l e m e n t , shear fa ilu re s,

or f r e e z e - th a w c o n d itio n s i n th e 'san d sto n e .

The s a n d s t o n e i t s e l f i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d a good c o n

s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l due t o i t s w e l l s o r t e d c h a r a c t e r and l a c k

of fin e s. W ithout a f i n e f r a c t i o n I n th e sa n d , the m a te ria l

w i l l n o t b i n d o r c o m p a ct t o g i v e a s u i t a b l e b u i l d i n g

m aterial.
 TUNNELING IN THE S T PETER SANDSTONE

P r o b l e m s i n Tunn eling;

T h e ' r e a d e r , a t t h i s , p o i n t , s h o u l d be w e l l a w a r e o f
t h e g e o l o g i c and e n g i n e e r i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e S t .

P eter sandstone O bviously, because of th e s e c h a r a c t e r i s

t i c s and t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e f o r m a t i o n , th e sandstone i s

a n e x c e l l e n t medium i n w h ic h t o c o n s t r u c t s e w e r and u t i l i t y

tu n n els.
C o s t o f t u n n e l e x c a v a t i o n i s t h e m ain r e a s o n f o r

p lac in g tu n n els in the S t. P e te r sandstone r a t h e r than th e

overlying g la c ia l d r i f t . D riving tu n n els in the d r i f t c o sts

o ver $600.00 p e r f o o t j tu n n e lin g i n the S t. P e t e r F orm ation

a v e r a g e s a r o u n d $2 5 0 . 0 0 p e r f o o t .

The S t . P e t e r s a n d s to n e i s f a r from b e in g t r o u b l e
f r e e in regard to tu n n el c o n s tru c tio n . However, t h e o n l y

e x p l o r a t i o n o r t e s t i n g perform ed p r i o r to c o n s t r u c t i o n i s
th e d r i l l i n g of alignm ent h o les along the proposed ro u te s of

the t u n n e l s .

The b e s t t u n n e l i n g , c o n d i t i o n s a r e f o u n d w h e re t h e

f o r m a t i o n i s f r e e f r o m w a t e r and w h e r e t h e s a n d s t o n e i s com

p e t e n t and c a p p e d w i t h t h e P l a t t e v i l l e l i m e s t o n e . To some
degree, t h i s i s n o r m a l l y t h e c a s e ; h o w e v e r , p r o b l e m s do e x

i s t and a r e su m m arize d b e l o w :

1) High j o i n t e d , f r i a b l e , o r s a t u r a t e d s a n d s t o n e may c r e a t e

92
 93

heavy ground c o n d i t i o n s . The t y p e o f t u n n e l l i n i n g i s

d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e competency of th e ro o k . S teel
arch s u p p o rts 5 l i n e r p la te s , o r s k i n t i g h t l i n i n g may be

req u ire d in caving ground. Where t h e s a n d s t o n e i s com

p eten t, no l i n i n g i s n e c e s s a r y .

2) J o i n t i n g p r o b l e m s c a n be p l a c e d i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s :

w a t e r b e a r i n g j o i n t s w h ic h may be e n l a r g e d when e n c o u n t

e r e d u n l e s s w a t e r f l o w i s i m m e d i a t e l y a r r e s t e d , and

j o i n t s t h a t d i p a t h i g h a n g l e s and a r e o b s c u r e d f ro m

sig h t. Clay f i l l e d j o i n t s can a l s o o f f e r h a za rd s b e

c au se of a l a c k o f f r i c t i o n betw een s u r f a c e s .

3) A h i g h w a t e r t a b l e may n e c e s s i t a t e t h e u s e o f d e w a t e r i n g
w e lls , underdrains or w ell p o in ts . Heavy pumping may

c a u s e g r a i n r e a r r a n g e m e n t i n t h e r o c k s t r u c t u r e and r e

duce th e competency of t h e s a n d s t o n e .

4) S o f t , and c a v i n g g r o u n d i s u s u a l l y e n c o u n t e r e d n e a r b u r

ied c h a n n e ls. The s a n d s t o n e c a n a l s o be e x p e c t e d t o be

s a t u r a t e d i n t h e s e l o c a t i o n s , w h ic h w i l l r e q u i r e d e w a t e r
ing. When t h e s e - c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t , c o s t l y m i n i n g m ethods

a r e r e q u i r e d and w i l l d e p e n d on t h e t y p e o f c h a n n e l

f i l l i n g and t h e y i e l d o f w a t e r .

5) The e a s e o f e x c a v a t i o n i n t h e s a n d s t o n e i s a d a y t o d a y

p r o b l e m , and r a t e o f t u n n e l a d v a n c e m e n t d e p e n d s on t h e

f r i a b i l i t y and d e g r e e o f c e m e n t i n g o f t h e s a n d s t o n e .

U nder i d e a l c o n d i t i o n s a t u n n e l f a c e c a n be a d v a n c e d

f r o m f o u r t o s i x f e e t i n a n h o u r by h y d r a u l i c m in i n g
 94

m e t h o d s j h o w e v e r , when c e m e n t e d o r h a r d s a n d s t o n e i s e n
countered, j a c k hammers and b l a s t i n g a r e e m p l o y e d , w h i c h

i s t i m e c o n su m in g and c o s t l y .

6) E x c e s s i v e a r c h i n g o r o v e r b r e a k , c a u s e d by t h e n a t u r a l

b a l a n c i n g o f s h e a r s t r e s s e s a r o u n d a t u n n e l o p e n i n g , may
r e q u i r e c o s t l y and e l a b o r a t e t u n n e l s u p p o r t s .

7) Near t h e banks o f b u r ie d o r exposed r i v e r c h a n n e l s , n a t

u r a l s a n d s t o n e c a v e s may e x i s t . T h es e may be a h i n

drance, o r t h e y may be b e n e f i c i a l i n w h ic h t o d i s p o s e o f
t u n n e l muck.

8) A sudden r i s e of th e w a te r t a b l e over th e i n v e r t l e v e l

w i l l cause f lo o d in g o f th e pore spaces i n th e sa n d sto n e .

The a d d e d w e i g h t o f t h e w a t e r may overcom e t h e s h e a r

s t r e n g t h o f t h e r o c k and r e s u l t i n f a i l u r e . This s i t u

a t i o n i s most common when t h e s a n d s t o n e i s b e i n g a r t i

f i c i a l l y d e w a t e r e d and t h e n f o r n a t u r a l o r u n n a t u r a l

reasons the area i s rew atered.

9) B u r i e d c h a n n e l s t h a t h a v e c u t and removed l a r g e p o r t i o n s
o f s a n d s t o n e a r e f o u n d i n many l o c a l i t i e s . U nless th e

c h a n n e l s a r e l o c a t e d p r i o r t o t h e i r e n c o u n t e r by a t u n

n e l , a d d i t i o n a l c o s t s w i l l be r e q u i r e d f o r t h e s p e c i a l
m i n i n g m ethods n e e d e d .

10) Due t o t h e d e p t h o f t h e S t . P e t e r F o r m a t i o n b elo w gro u n d ,

it i s m o st d e s i r a b l e t o l o c a t e t h e i n v e r t a s c l o s e t o

the G lenw ood-St.' P e te r c o n ta c t as p o s s ib l e . The

 95
s a n d s t o n e i s known t o be s o f t n e a r t h e t o p o f t h e f o r m a -
tion* and t h e r e f o r e , c a v i n g p r o b l e m s a r e n o t uncommon.

Tunnel D e s c r ip t i o n

Tunnels d r i v e n i n th e S t . P e te r sandstone a re u s u a l

l y l o c a t e d w i t h i n a few f e e t b elo w t h e Glenwood s h a l e j how

e v e r , i n v e r t s h a v e v a r i e d f r o m 20 t o 200 f e e t b e lo w t h e

ground s u r f a c e , d e p e n d i n g on t h e s u r f a c e t o p o g r a p h y . Most
of the o ld e r tu n n els a re r e c ta n g u la r in shape, w ith t h e i r

backs being o n e - t h i r d to o n e - h a l f h ig h e r th a n t h e i r w id th s .

The more r e c e n t s t o r m s e w e r s h a v e a c i r c u l a r c r o s s s e c t i o n

w i t h d i a m e t e r s up t o f o u r t e e n f e e t . The s e w e r t u n n e l s a r e

u s u a l l y lined" w ith r e i n f o r c e d c a s t - i n - p l a c e c o n c r e te f o r

m a i n t a i n i n g p r o p e r t u n n e l g r a d e (one f o o t p e r 1 , 0 0 0 f e e t ) ,

and t o i n s u r e t u n n e l s t a b i l i t y . I n c o n t r a s t , many o f t h e

o ld e r tu n n e ls b e n eath S t. Paul have stood f o r over f i f t y

y e a r s u n l i n e d and w i t h no s u p p o r t .

I n t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a o v e r 145 m i l e s o f s e w e r

tu n n e ls a lo n e have been e x c a v a te d . The C i t y o f M i n n e a p o l i s

h a s 65 m i l e s o f t u n n e l s , o f w h ic h 33 m i l e s a r e s a n i t a r y s e w

e r s , a v e r a g i n g f o u r by s i x f e e t j 1 7 .6 m iles o f i n t e r c e p t o r

s e w e r s up t o t h i r t e e n f e e t i n d i a m e t e r ; and 1 5 - 4 m i l e s o f

s t o r m s e w e r s , a v e r a g i n g f o u r by e i g h t f e e t . The U n i v e r s i t y

o f M innesota i n M in n e ap o lis has f i v e m ile s o f t u n n e l s u n d e r

t h e c a m p u s , w h ic h a r e u se d f o r h e a t i n g and sew age d i s p o s a l .

v
The t u n n e l s u n d e r t h e campus a v e r a g e f o u r by s i x f e e t and
 96

100 f e e t below t h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e . The C i t y o f S t , Paul has

a t o t a l of s e v e n t y - f i v e m iles of t u n n e l s , f i v e m iles of

w h i c h b e l o n g e d t o t h e s t r e e t c a r company b u t h a v e b e e n a b a n

doned.
The d e e p e s t t u n n e l i n t h e Twin C i t y a r e a , located a t

G r i g g s and Rondo S t r e e t s i n S t . P a u l , i s 12 f e e t i n d i a m e t e r
and 205 f e e t b e lo w t h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e . B u i l t i n 1935-1936,

i t i s t h e main t r u n k s e w e r f o r t h e M i n n e a p o l i s - S t . P a u l S a n

ita ry D istrict.
Tunnels a r e e i t h e r d r i v e n i n from an e x i s t i n g r i v e r

b l u f f w h e re t h e s a n d s t o n e o u t c r o p s , or v e r t i c a l sh a fts are

d r i v e n down f r o m t h e s u r f a c e t o i n t e r s e c t t h e t u n n e l The

V e r t i c a l s h a f t s a r e u s e d t o remove t u n n e l muck, g i v e a c c e s s

and v e n t i l a t i o n t o t h e t u n n e l s , and b r i n g i n t h e - n e e d e d

u tilitie s. S m a l l d i a m e t e r a l i g n m e n t h o l e s a r e s p a c e d 500 t o
2 , 0 0 0 f e e t a p a r t a l o n g t h e c e n t e r l i n e o f t h e t u n n e l and a r e

s o m e ti m e s u s e d t o b r i n g i n u t i l i t i e s and., p i p e s t o pump i n

c o n c re te f o r the tu n n e l l i n i n g .

A r c h in g , and S t r e s s D i s t r i b u t i o n

Rib s u p p o r t s and l a g g i n g i n t h e t u n n e l s a r e m a i n l y

used t o l i m i t e x c e s s iv e o v e rb re a k i n th e tu n n e l back. When

a n o p e n i n g i s made i n t h e s a n d s t o n e , t h e r e i s a t e n d e n c y f o r

t h e a d j a c e n t r o c k t o move i n t o t h e t u n n e l . The d i s p l a c e m e n t

o f r o c k i s c a u s e d by t h e i n c o m p e t e n c y o f t h e s a n d s t o n e t o

w ith s ta n d th e o v e r ly in g w eight above th e o p e n in g . Shear

 97

s t r e s s e s a r e b u i l t up i n t h e r o c k i n a n a t t e m p t t o r e d i s t r i

b u te th e overburden w eight to th e s id e s o f th e tu n n e l. Re
s i s t a n c e t o t h i s a r c h i n g e f f e c t i s p r o v i d e d by t h e f r i c t i o n

and t h e s h e a r s t r e n g t h o f t h e s a n d s t o n e . The t u n n e l s u p
p o r t s n e e d o n l y be d e s i g n e d t o w i t h s t a n d t h e w e i g h t o f t h e

c a l c u l a t e d o v e r b r e a k and n o t t h e e n t i r e r o c k l o a d (thickness

of overburden).

The m a g n i t u d e o f a r c h i n g s t r e s s e s t h a t w i l l e x i s t

a r o u n d a n o p e n i n g i n t h e s a n d s t o n e i s one o f t h e main p r o b

lems i n d e s i g n i n g a t u n n e l . I t i s in a d v is a b le to determ ine

t h e a c t u a l s t r e s s e s by a s s u m i n g d a t a w i t h o u t t h e v e r i f i c a
tio n of f ie ld data. However, l a r g e sums o f money c a n be

s a v e d i n l i n i n g t h e t u n n e l i f t h e s t r e s s e s c a n be c a l c u l a t e d
q u an titativ ely . " R u l e s o f thumb" f o r l i n i n g t u n n e l s , for

e x a m p l e , one i n c h o f c o n c r e t e l i n i n g p e r f o o t o f t u n n e l d i

a m e t e r , c a n be a c o s t l y o v e r d e s i g n a s p e c t . To i l l u s t r a t e

how s t r e s s e s and r o c k l o a d s c a n be computed f o r a n u n d e r

ground o p en in g , the fo llo w in g d is c u s s io n is offered.

Using T e r z a g h i 's fo rm u las ( P r o c to r and W hite, 1958 ) 3

th e fo llo w in g e x e rte d p r e s s u r e s can be c a l c u l a t e d f o r a
dense san d :
Hp ( max) = K(B * Hfc)
TT

Where: p(max) ~ Load t h i c k n e s s c a r r i e d by r o o f

supports
K = C o n s t a n t , d e p e n d s on t h e d e g r e e o f
com pactness. The S t . P e t e r h a s a
v a lu e o f .60
 98

(B + Kj.) - W id th p l u s h e i g h t f t u n n e l r two
t i m e s t h e d i a m e t e r f o r a . c i r c u l a r
, cross s e c tio n . F o r t h i s e a s e a.
d i a m e t e r o f 13 f e e t i s u s e d .

T herefore: ^pfm ax) = 0 . 0 6 ( 2 x 13 ft,)

Hp(max) = 1 5 . 6 f e e t o f s a n d s t o n e l o a d

And t h e w e i g h t o f t h e o v e r b r e a k =
V e r t i c a l load = (san d sto n e d e n s ity ) x (load
th ick n ess)

V V e r t i c a l load = 1 5 0 p s f x 15.6 f t .

V e r t i c a l load & 2,340 p s f

And t h e s a n d p r e s s u r e on t h e s i d e s o f t h e t u n n e l
(h o rizontal t h r u s t ) =
p h = 0 . 3 0 w ( 0 . 5 H t + Hp )

W here: p^ = H o r i z o n t a l t h r u s t
0.30 = C onstant
w = p s f o f s a n d s t o n e (150 p s f )
= H eight o f tu n n e l (l2 f e e t )
Hp s Load T h i c k n e s s c a r r i e d , by s u p p o r t s

T herefore: '
Ph = 0 . 3 0 x (1 5 0 p s f ) X (12/2 + 15.6 f t . )

P'n = 1 , 0 8 0 p s f
F o r a d d e d p r o t e c t i o n a s a f e t y f a c t o r o f two s h o u l d
be c a l c u l a t e d :
Thus s V e r t i c a l Load = 4 , 6 0 0 p s f o r 32 p s i

H o rizo n ta l Thrust = " 2 , 1 0 0 p s f o r 15 p s i

For th is p a r tic u la r case, th e tu n n e l l i n i n g should

be d e s i g n e d t o w i t h s t a n d t h e a b o v e g i v e n v e r t i c a l l o a d and

h o r i z o n t a l t h r u s t u n le s s th e -tunnel i s to have i n t e r n a l

pressures. The s a f e t y f a c t o r w i l l a l l o w f o r a n y i n c r e a s e o f

^p (m ax ) ^ w a t e r l e v e l r i s e s and s a t u r a t e s t h e l o a d sup-*
p o r t e d by t h e t u n n e l l i n i n g . T h es e v a l u e s a r e r o u g h
 99
\

e s tim a te s and can n o t be c o n s id e re d v a l i d i f th e sa n d sto n e is.

n o t c o n s id e re d m a ssiv e , i s o t r o p i c , and homogeneous w ith r e s
p e c t to i t s e l a s t i c p r o p e r t i e s O ther c r i t e r i a t h a t have to
be assumed a r e : l ) s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i s u n ifo rm ; 2) th e r e
a r e no r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s i n th e s a n d s to n e ; 3) v e r t i c a l p r e s
s u r e on th e tu n n e l back i s in d e p e n d e n t o f th e tu n n e l depth
below ground; 4) th e tu n n e l l i n i n g has to only s u p p o r t th e
mass o f th e o v e rb re a k ; and 5) th e sa n d sto n e has n o t been
d is t u r b e d o r i s h ig h ly j o i n t e d .

Tunnel S u p p o rts

The f i n a l s u p p o r t s y s t e m s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d t o s u p

p o rt the t o t a l load of the c a lc u la te d o v erb reak . This i s

t h e m ost a d v e r s e l o a d t h e t u n n e l s u p p o r t s w i l l be s u b j e c t e d

to , unless la rg e , j o i n t derived blocks of sand sto n e a re e n

co u n tered . T h e r e f o r e , d i m e n s i o n s and s p a c i n g o f t h e s u p
p o r t s d e p e n d on t h e a n t i c i p a t e d r o c k l o a d s .

I f th e s a n d s t o n e i s v e r y co m p e te n t and w i l l s ta n d

w ithout sloughing, t h e t u n n e l s c a n be l e f t u n s u p p o r t e d .

Norm ally, s t e e l a rc h s u p p o r ts a r e used i f t h e r e i s any s i g n

of overbreak. The s u p p o r t s t h a t h a v e b e e n u s e d a r e f i v e

i n c h w id e s t e e l c h a n n e l s t h a t a r e f o rm ed i n t o a s e m i - c i r c l e

w ith a radium eq u al to t h a t o f th e t u n n e l . Foot p la te s ,

w e ld ed t o t h e end o f t h e c h a n n e l s , a r e p l a c e d i n n o t c h e s c u t

in the tu n n el w a l l s . W eig h t f r o m t h e b a c k s o l i d l y s e a t s t h e

f o o t i n g s o f t h e a r c h a g a i n s t t h e s a n d s t o n e w a l l s and
 100

d istrib u te s t h e w e i g h t i n t o and away from t h e t u n n e l o p e n

ing, As a g e n e r a l r u l e , t h e s u p p o r t s a r e s p a c e d on s i x f o o t
c e n t e r s , and l a g g i n g i s p l a c e d b e t w e e n t h e r i b s .
S t e e l l i n e r p l a t e s have been used i n t h e tu n n e l s

when e x c e s s i v e a r c h i n g i s a n t i c i p a t e d o r w h e re t h e s a n d s t o n e

is h ig h ly jo in te d . The p l a t e s u s e d ha v e b e e n made o f f o u r

t e e n gauge c o r r u g a t e d s t e e l . The p l a t e s a r e b o l t e d t o g e t h e r

t o f o rm a s o l i d s e m i - c i r c l e , th e s iz e of h a lf the diam eter

of the tu n n e l. A s i l l cut in the w a ll of the tu n n el su p

p o rts the p l a t e s

"Skin t i g h t " l i n i n g a l s o i s used u n d er heavy ground

co n d itio n s. T h i s t y p e o f l i n i n g i s w here t h e u p p e r h a l f o f

the tunnel i s lin e d w ith tim b er. The t i m b e r s a r e u s u a l l y

p l a n k s , t h r e e i n c h e s t h i c k and e i g h t i n c h e s w i d e . T heir
l e n g t h s d e p en d on t h e t u n n e l ' s d i m e n s i o n s . The p l a n k s a r e

j o i n e d t o g e t h e r t o f o r m a h a l f d e c a g o n , and t h e e n d s r e s t on
a s i l l cut in to the tunnel w all.

The m ost e x p e n s i v e t y p e o f l i n i n g , b u t t h e s t r o n g

est, t h a t has been used t o s u p p o rt th e s a n d s to n e i s s t e e l

r i n g b e am s. The r i n g beams a r e s i x i n c h w id e " l " beams t h a t

c o m p lete ly c ir c u m s c rib e th e tu n n e l opening. Spacing of the

beams h a s v a r i e d f r o m t h r e e t o t e n f e e t d e p e n d i n g on t h e

c o m p e te n c y o f t h e r o c k . Hard wood l a g g i n g o r s p i l i n g i s

p l a c e d b e t w e e n t h e . beam s. I f th e tu n n e l i s h o r s e shoe

s h a p e d , s t e e l r i b s and i n v e r t s t r u t s a r e n o r m a l l y employ ed
i n heavy ground.
 101

FIGURE 2 3. Placing lagging on the back of a sandstone tunnel be

tween steel arch supports. Nozzle in foreground is
used to cut the sandstone.
 102

FIGURE 2 4 . Unsupported tunnel driven in competent sand

stone. (Rondo St. storm sewer, St. Paul)

FIGURE 25. Full ring beam supports used to support heavy

ground. (Rondo St. storm sewer, St. Paul)
 103

When t h e e x c a v a t i o n o f a t u n n e l h a s b e e n c o m p l e t e d ,
a c o n c r e te l i n i n g i s poured i n p la c e over th e tem porary
s t e e l o r wood l i n i n g . I n t h e l a r g e r and more r e c e n t t u n
n els, 100 f o o t l e n g t h s a r e p o u r e d a t one t i m e w i t h t h e u s e
o f a t r a c k mounted f o r m . The c o n c r e t e i s mixed on t h e

g r o u n d s u r f a c e and pumped t h r o u g h p i p e s p l a c e d on a l i g n m e n t

h o le s o r v e r t i c a l s h a f t s t h a t i n t e r s e c t th e t u n n e l a t approx-
' ,

im ate 1,600 f o o t i n t e r v a l s . When a t u n n e l i s b e i n g d r i v e n

t h r o u g h h e a v y g r o u n d , c o n c r e t e i s u s u a l l y p o u r e d a s s o o n a s

p o s s i b l e a f t e r e x c a v a t i o n . - Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , o n ly t e n

t o t w e n t y f o o t s p a n s a r e p o u r e d a t one t i m e .

T u n n e l s u p p o r t r e q u i r e m e n t s c a n be d e t e r m i n e d b y . a

ro c k mechanics i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n program . The i n v e s t i g a t i o n

should in c lu d e th e t i m e - s t r a i n lo a d in g p r o p e r t i e s of th e

r o c k and a n e v a l u a t i o n -of t h e mode o f l o a d i n g . The mode i s

t h e p r o c e s s t h r o u g h w h ic h r o c k s t r a i n i s tra n s la te d in to
l o a d on t h e s u p p o r t s y s t e m .

D e fo rm a tio n m easurements a r e h e l p f u l i n d e t e c t i n g
c o n v e r g e n c e , c o m p r e s s i o n , f l o o r h e a v e , and o t h e r u nw anted

in d ic a tio n s of tunnel f a i l u r e . R ecording t h i s d a ta over a

p e r i o d o f t i m e would f o r e w a r n a g a i n s t f a i l u r e l o n g b e f o r e

v i s u a l evidence i s obvious. Advance w a r n i n g wo u ld p e r m i t

the p la c in g of adequate support in tim e. I n s t r u m e n t s , used

in the tu n n e ls, by no means s h o u l d r e p l a c e t h e m i n e r ' s i n

s i g h t and u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r o c k c o n d i t i o n s b u t s i i o u l d s u p
plem ent h is s k i l l s .
 io4
V arious ty p es of load c e l l s , e x t e n s i o n o m e t e r s , and
s t r a i n g a g e s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d t o g i v e v e r y good s t r a i n

i n f o r m a t i o n i n t u n n e l s and e l i m i n a t e t h e e d u c a t e d g u e s s e s ,
now u s e d i n m i n i n g . In s i t u te s tin g a lso elim in ates o b ta in

i n g u n d i s t u r b e d s a m p l e s and l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g w h i c h t a k e s
t i m e , and r e s u l t s f r o m t h e t e s t may be t o o l a t e t o be o f a n y

good i n t h e f i e l d . Such i n s i t u l o a d m e a s u r e m e n t s w i l l d e
term ines 1 ) how t h e l o a d v a r i e s w i t h t i m e and f a c e a d v a n c e

ments 2 ) q u a l i t y o f c o n s t r u c t i o n s 3 ) c h a n g e s i n l o a d on

i n s t a l l e d s u p p o r t s as t h e f a c e a p p ro a c h e s zones o f w eakness.

P e r h a p s t h e g r e a t e s t w a s t e o f t o d a y s c o n s t r u c t i o n

d o l l a r i s o v e r d e s i g n o f u n d e r g r o u n d s t r u c t u r e s and s u p
po rts. U n d e r d e s i g n c a n be e q u a l l y a s bad b e c a u s e o f p e r s o n

a l i n j u r y and c o s t l y d e l a y s .

M in in g Methods

U n t i l 1934, c o n v e n t i o n a l m i n i n g m eth o d s w e r e u s e d t o
excavate tu n n els in th e S t. P e ter sandstone. I n 1934, h y -

d r a u l i c m i n i n g was a d o p t e d i n o r d e r t o e x p e d i t e and c u t c o s t

of m ining. T h i s method a d v a n c e s t u n n e l s by u n d e r c u t t i n g t h e

S a n d s t o n e w i t h a s t r e a m o f w a t e r u n d e r a p r e s s u r e o f 300

p o unds p e r s q u a r e i n c h , f o r c e d t h r o u g h a 3/ l 6 i n c h n o z z e l .

The s a n d s t o n e i s b r o k e n i n t o s m a l l p a r t i c l e s , p a r t l y by d i

r e c t i m p a c t o f t h e j e t and p a r t l y by u n d e r c u t t i n g , w h i c h
fo rc e s the tu n n e l fac e to cave.
 105

FIGURE 26. Hydraulic mining the St. Peter sandstone. Operator

is undercutting the face which will cause it to cave
into the tunnel.
 106

When t h e j e t i s moved s l o w l y a c r o s s t h e f a c e o f t h e

t u n n e l , a two t o s i x i n c h w id e and t h r e e t o f o u r f o o t d e ep

c u t i s made i n t h e r o o k , u n l e s s t h e m a t e r i a l i s q u i t e h a r d

The f a c e o f t h e t u n n e l i s f i r s t c u t i n t o s e v e r a l r e c t a n g l e s

w ith the w ater j e t U n d e rc u ttin g th e low er s e c t i o n of th e

f a c e causes' th e hanging b lo c k t o c a v e . Once c a v e d , t h e
b l o c k s a r e b r o k e n up i n t o a f i n e u n i f o r m s a n d by t h e same

high p r e s s u r e j e t s . W a t e r s u p p l i e d t h r o u g h a two i n c h wash

hose f l u s h e s th e l o o s e sand from t h e f a c e to a s m a ll s l u r r y

pump, m a i n t a i n e d i n t h e t u n n e l f l o o r a few f e e t b a c k fr o m

the f a c e From t h e sump t h e s l u r r y i s pumped o u t o f t h e

tu n n el, ,
A c re w o f f o u r men i s c a p a b l e o f h a n d l i n g t h e m i n i n g

o peration. Two men d i r e c t h i g h p r e s s u r e j e t s , a. t h i r d man

d i r e c t s t h e two i n c h wash h o s e , and t h e f o u r t h man t e n d s t h e

p u m p s U n d e r good c o n d i t i o n s a. crew c a n a d v a n c e a f a c e f r o m

f o u r to s i x f e e t i n an hour.

An a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e h y d r a u l i c m i n i n g method i s t h e
h y d r a u l i c i n g m a c h in e c a l l e d t h e " j e t " or " j e t jum bo," The

m a c h in e i s t r a c k mounted and a d v a n c e s a t u n n e l by t h e r o t a

tio n of a c u ttin g bar, r o t a t in g p a r a l l e l to the fa c e . The

b a r i s a b o u t t h e same l e n g t h a s t h e t u n n e l d i a m e t e r and r o
t a t e s a t two r e v o l u t i o n s p e r m i n u t e by a two h o r s e power

compressed a i r m otor. W ater i s d is c h a r g e d a t p r e s s u r e s b e

tw e e n 3 00 and 350 p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e i n c h t h r o u g h h o l e s i n

the c u ttin g bar a t th re e inch i n t e r v a l s . The r o t a t i n g b a r

 107

c o n t i n u a l l y c u t s and d i s i n t e g r a t e s the sandstone as the fa c e

is advanced The m a c h in e c a n u s u a l l y a d v a n c e a f a c e f a s t e r
t h a n t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l h y d r a u l i c m eth o d .
T h e " m o l e o r t u n n e l b o r i n g m ac h in e a l s o h a s b e en

u s e d t o e x c a v a t e t u n n e l s i n t h e Twin C i t y a r e a . The b o r i n g

m a c h in e s t h a t ha v e b e e n u s e d w e re h y d r a u l i c a l l y o p e r a t e d f a n

type c u t t e r s w ith r o t a t i n g b l a d e s . The m a c h i n e s a r e u s u a l l y

mounted on f o u r j a c k s s e c u r e d t o t h e f l o o r and b a c k o f t h e

tu n n el. Four blades w ith f i f t y c u ttin g te e th , on e a c h

blade, r o t a t e a t a p p ro x im a te ly tw e n ty r e v o l u t i o n s p e r m inute

and ha v e c u t t u n n e l s up t o f o u r t e e n f e e t i n d i a m e t e r . The

c o s t o f o p e r a t i n g t h e " m o le i s c o m p a r a b l e t o t h a t o f t h e

h y d r a u l i c m ining m eth o d . The mole" i s n o t a d a p t a b l e t o a l l

m ining c o n d i t i o n s j s o f t s a n d s to n e caves e a s i l y , and i t i s
v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o p l a c e l a g g i n g a b o v e . t h e m a c h in e i n t h e

arching sandstone. N o r m a l l y , t h e "m ole " c a n a d v a n c e a f a c e

f a s t e r t h a n a n y o t h e r method i f t h e r o c k c o n d i t i o n s a r e f a

vorable. As much a s 40 f e e t p e r s h i f t h a s b e e n e x c a v a t e d

w i t h a t o t a l o f 120 f e e t p e r d a y . E xcavated m a t e r i a l from

t h e m a c h in e i s removed f r o m t h e t u n n e l by a n a r r o w gau g e

railro ad .

Com pressed a i r , u n d e r h i g h p r e s s u r e and r e l e a s e d

th ro u g h hose l i n e s , has been used t o c u t th e s a n d s t o n e .

T h i s method was employed t o mine g l a s s s a n d f o r t h e F o r d

M o to r company b e n e a t h t h e i r p l a n t i n S t . P a u l .
 108

When h e a v y g r o u n d o r b u r l e d r i v e r c h a n n e l s a r e e n
c o u n te r e d 5 h y d r a u l i c s h i e l d s have been used to t e m p o r a r i l y
su p p o rt the sandstone w hile m in in g . The s h i e l d s u s e d c o n

s i s t e d o f a c i r c u l a r b u l k h e a d w i t h t h e w o r k i n g end h a v i n g

sev eral large c u ttin g te e th . The b a c k o f t h e r i g i s s e c u r e d ,

to the tunnel lin in g w ith h ydraulic ja c k s . The j a c k s p u s h

th e s h i e l d i n t o th e tu n n e l fa c e s e v e r a l in c h e s o r f e e t so

t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l c a n be mined w i t h s a f e t y . A fte r the

s h i e l d h as been pushed f o rw a rd , th e j a c k s a r e r e t r a c t e d so

more s u p p o r t s c a n be i n s t a l l e d . T his p ro c e ss i s repeated

u n t i l th e tu n n e l h a s -b e e n d riv e n thro u g h th e problem a r e a .

A p r e s s u r e c a i s s o n has been used o n ly once f o r t u n

n e l c o n s tr u c tio n i n the S t. P e te r . The c a i s s o n was u s e d

w hile d riv in g a tu n n e l a c ro ss th e b u ried channel beneath

L e x i n g t o n Avenue i n S t . P a u l . A h i g h i n f l o w o f w a t e r fr o m
g la c ia l debris n e c e ssita te d th is op eratio n .

Case H i s t o r i e s o f T u n n e l i n g i n t h e S t . P e t e r S a n d s t o n e

C o n s i d e r a b l e e x p e r i e n c e i n t u n n e l i n g m eth o d s i n t h e

s a n d s t o n e h a s b e e n g a i n e d o v e r t h e l a s t 100 y e a r s . The c o l

le c tio n of case h i s t o r ie s t h a t f o l l o w b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e s some

o f t h e e n g i n e e r i n g and g e o l o g i c p r o b l e m s t h a t w e r e e n c o u n t

ered w hile d r iv in g tu n n e ls in th e M e tro p o litan a r e a .

E a s tm a n T u n n e l ( S c h w a r t z , 1933, p p . 2 5 - 2 6 )

The f i r s t a t t e m p t t o c o n s t r u c t a t u n n e l i n t h e S t .

P e t e r s a n d s t o n e was t o d r i v e a s h a f t f r o m t h e f o o t o f S t .
 lo g
Anthony F a l l s a t H e n n e p i n I s l a n d up t o and u n d e r N i c o l l e t

Islan d The t u n n e l was t o be u s e d t o I n c r e a s e t h e a v a i l a

b i l i t y o f w a te r power. When t h e t u n n e l was o n e - t h i r d com

p l e t e d <, w a t e r b r o k e i n t o t h e t u n n e l f r o m t h e r i v e r ab o v e and

e r o d e d away l a r g e a m ounts o f f r i a b l e s a n d s t o n e and u n d e r

mined t h e a b o v e l y i n g P l a t t e v i l l e l i m e s t o n e . This caused a
c a v e - i n and a b r e a k i n t h e c r e s t o f S t , Anthony F a l l s w h ic h
r e s u l t e d i n t h e r e t r e a t o f t h e f a l l s 300 f e e t up s t r e a m on

th e e a s t bank o f th e M i s s i s s i p p i l i v e r .

The c a v e - i n was a t t r i b u t e d t o a l a r g e q u a n t i t y o f

w a ter p e r c o l a t i n g through j o i n t s i n th e P l a t t e v i l l e lim e

s t o n e and i n t o t h e u n d e r l y i n g s a n d s t o n e . A d d i t i o n a l am ounts

o f w a t e r w e re e n c o u n t e r e d d i s c h a r g i n g i n t o t h e t u n n e l a l o n g
- ~ 7 -1
h o r i z o n t a l f i s s u r e s , presum ably bedding p l a n e s . The ad d ed
w e i g h t o f t h e w a t e r and t h e r a p i d e r o s i o n o f t h e s a n d s t o n e

c a u s e d a l o s s o f s t r e n g t h t o t h e m a t e r i a l .'""The c o l l a p s e o f

t h e t u n n e l c a u s e d t h e ab an d o n m en t o f t h e p r o j e c t on O c t o b e r

4, 1869.

Wabasha S t r e e t I n t e r c e p t o r S e w e r (Ackermann, 1938)

The Wabasha S t r e e t t u n n e l was d r i v e n u n d e r downtown

S t . P a u l a t a d e p t h below t h e w a t e r t a b l e . A w a te r inflow

o f 4,00 g a l l o n s p e r m i n u t e was e n c o u n t e r e d f r o m numerous

seams and f i s s u r e s , c a u s i n g e x t r e m e e r o s i o n p r o b l e m s . The

c o n c r e t e l i n i n g o f t h e t u n n e l was n o t p o u r e d u n t i l p r a c t i c -

a l l y t h e e n t i r e 3 , 0 0 0 f e e t o f t u n n e l was c o m p l e t e d . By t h e
 110

t i m e t h e l i n i n g was c o n s t r u c t e d , th e sid e w alls of the s h a f t

had become d r y . The e n t i r e i n f l o w by t h a t t i m e was b e i n g

i n t e r c e p t e d by a n a n d e r d r a i n .
The e a r l i e r i n f l o w i n t o t h e t u n n e l was w a t e r d r a i n
in g from th e s u r r o u n d i n g s a n d s t o n e a b o u t th e o p e n in g . As
t h e s a t u r a t e d zone a b o v e t h e i n v e r t was b e i n g d e w a t e r e d t o

t h e u n d e r d r a i n l e v e l , a co n e o f d e p r e s s i o n was b e i n g c r e

ated A f t e r t h e c o n e was e s t a b l i s h e d , the in flo w decreased

t o th e n a t u r a l flow v e l o c i t y of w a te r th ro u g h th e s a n d sto n e

in th at lo c a lity .

R o b ly n Avenue I n t e r c e p t o r S e w e r , S t . P a u l
S a n d s t o n e e n c o u n t e r e d w e s t o f t h e P a i r v i e w Avenue

s h a f t was f o u n d t o be h a r d and s e l f s u s t a i n i n g . The h y

d r a u l i c method o f m i n i n g was i n a d e q u a t e , and b l a s t i n g t e c h

n i q u e s had t o be u s e d t o l o o s e n t h e s a n d s t o n e .

An a v e r a g e o f 0 .6 9 p o unds o f 30 p e r c e n t g e l a t i n d y

n a m i t e was r e q u i r e d t o l o o s e n one y a r d o f s a n d s t o n e . The

d e p t h o f h e a d i n g p u l l e d by a s i n g l e ro u n d was 8 . 4 f e e t and
r e q u i r e d 33<.12 p o unds o f e x p l o s i v e s . A round c o n s i s t e d of

t h r e e c u t h o l e s , n i n e r e l i e v e r h o l e s , and s e v e n t r i m m i n g
h o les.

A f t e r t h e r o o k was l o o s e n e d f r o m t h e f a c e , i t was

wa shed down t o a d r e d g e pump w i t h a s i x i n c h h o s e . A second

b r e a k i n g o f t h e r o c k was r e q u i r e d b e f o r e t h e pumps c o u l d
 Ill

handle the m a t e r i a l The b l a s t i n g o p e r a t i o n c a u s e d a d e l a y

I n t i m e and a d d i t i o n a l c o s t t o t h e p r o j e c t

D a y t o n ' s B l u f f I n t e r c e p t o r Sewer,, S t P a u l
(Ackermannj, 1938)
W ater b e a r i n g f i s s u r e s were e n c o u n te re d d u r i n g c o n

s t r u c t i o n o f th e sew er u n d e r D a y to n s B l u f f i n S t . P a u l.

In itially , th e f i s s u r e s i n th e tu n n e l back y ie ld e d l a r g e
q u a n t i t i e s o f w a t e r , b u t t h e i n f l o w r a p i d l y d e c r e a s e d , and

th e w a ll of th e tu n n e l d rie d up. In t h i s case th e f i s s u r e s

w e re b e n e f i c i a l f o r d e w a t e r i n g t h e s a n d s t o n e . E r o s i o n was

n eg lig ib le, t h u s i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e s a n d s t o n e was compe

ten t.

Rondo S t r e e t T u n n e l G a v e - i n ( S c h w a r t z , 1962)

As t h e Rondo S t r e e t r e l i e f s e w e r t u n n e l was b e i n g

a d v a n c e d up f r o m t h e M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r i n S t . P a u l , a c a v e -

i n o c c u r r e d a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 * 0 6 5 f e e t f r o m t h e p o r t a l and
on a P I i n t h e t u n n e l . The c a u s e o f t h e r o c k f a l l was due

t o t h e c o n v e r g e n c e o f two h i g h a n g l e i n t e r s e c t i n g j o i n t s
a b o v e t h e crown o f t h e t u n n e l . Only one o f t h e j o i n t s was

v i s i b l e d u r in g th e m ining o p e r a t i o n . The s e c o n d j o i n t a p

p e a r e d a s a h o r i z o n t a l l i n e a l o n g t h e t u n n e l w a l l and was

m is ta k e n ly i n t e r p r e t e d as a bedding p la n e i n th e s a n d s to n e .
In a d d itio n , the sandstone in the c a v e -in a re a of th e tu n n e l

was r e p o r t e d t o be f r i a b l e , and w a t e r c o u r s e s w e r e n o t e d i n
the rock.
 112

S c h w a r t z ( 1 9 6 2 , pp 1 - 7 ) made t h e f o l l o w i n g o b s e r v a
tio n s a f t e r the cave-In o ccu rred ; f ro m t h e p o r t a l t o 1 , 7 2 5
f e e t t h e r o c k was c o m p e t e n t and s t o o d w i t h o u t s u p p o r t Be

yond t h i s p o i n t t h e s a n d s t o n e became s o f t , and a r c h i n g i n t h e

crown was e v i d e n t At 1 , 7 8 0 f e e t f r o m t h e p o r t a l , s ix inch

wide s t e e l r i n g beams w e re p l a c e d f r o m t h r e e t o t e n f e e t

ap art, d e p e n d i n g on t h e s o f t n e s s o f t h e s a n d s t o n e . Lagging

was p l a c e d b e t w e e n t h e beam s. At 1 , 8 8 5 f e e t , fla tte n in g of

t h e r i n g beams was n o t i c e d a t t h e t u n n e l c ro w n . T his l o c a
t i o n was t h e f i r s t e v i d e n c e o f v e r t i c a l p r e s s u r e on t h e beam

supports. An a r c h i n g e f f e c t a t t h e 2 , 1 0 0 f o o t mark r e l i e v e d

a mass o f s a n d s t o n e t o a h e i g h t o f f i v e f e e t a b o v e t h e b a c k ,

t w e n t y f e e t l o n g and s i x f e e t w i d e . T h i s c a u s e d two s e t s o f

r i n g beams t o c o l l a p s e . The h o l e a b o v e t h e crow n was

c r i b b e d o v e r , and f r o m 2 , 2 7 5 f e e t o n , s p i l i n g r e p l a c e d t h e

l a g g i n g method p r e v i o u s l y u s e d . As t h e t u n n e l a d v a n c e d and
t h e g r o u n d became h e a v i e r , d o u b l e s t e e l r i n g beams were em

p l o y e d , and t h e s p i l i n g was w id e n e d t o c a t c h t h e c a v i n g r o c k
on t h e s h o u l d e r s o f t h e t u n n e l .

Numerous j o i n t s a l o n g t h e f i r s t 3 , 0 0 0 f e e t o f t u n n e l

w ere n o t i c e d j h o w e v e r , n o n e c a u s e d a n y c a v e - i n p r o b l e m s o r

inflow of w ater. The j o i n t s t h a t c a u s e d t h e l a r g e c a v e - i n

were t i g h t and d i d n o t a r o u s e s u s p i c i o n a n y more t h a n t h o s e

i n from th e p o r t a l . No way t o p r e d i c t t h e t r o u b l e was

found.
 113

F i g u r e 27 shows t h e main c a v e - I n a r e a . The w a l l s on

t h e r i g h t and l e f t , A and B r e s p e c t i v e l y , a r e t h e p l a n e s u r

f a c e s o f t h e two m a j o r j o i n t s re s p o n sib le f o r the c a v e -in .

The a t t i t u d e s o f t h e p l a n e s a r e shown by t h e d i p and s t r i k e

sy m b o ls i n t h e p h o t o g r a p h . The b l a c k t r i a n g u l a r p a t c h a t
l o c a t i o n C i n t h e p h o t o g r a p h , and t h e l i n e e x t e n d i n g down
from th e p a t c h , show a j o i n t f i l l e d w i t h two i n c h e s o f c l a y .

T h i s s u r f a c e i n t e r s e c t s s u r f a c e s A and B r o u g h l y a t r i g h t
angles. The l e t t e r D marks t h e u p p e r s u r f a c e o f t h e c a v e - i n

and i s i n c l i n e d downward t o w a r d t h e t u n n e l f a c e .

S t e v e n s Avenue S e w e r T u n n e l C a v e - i n ,
M inneapolis

D u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e S t e v e n s Avenu e, f o u r t e e n
f o o t d i a m e t e r s e w e r t u n n e l b e t w e e n 3 9 t h and 3 5 t h S t r e e t s i n

M inneapolis, t h e s a n d s t o n e i n w h i c h t h e t u n n e l was b e i n g

d r i v e n u n e x p e c te d ly changed to g l a c i a l d r i f t . P rio r to con

s t r u c t i o n o f t h e t u n n e l , a l i g n m e n t h o l e s were p l a c e d 900

f e e t a p a r t and i n a d v e r t e n t l y on e i t h e r s i d e o f a b u r i e d

channel. A n o r m a l s e q u e n c e o f m a t e r i a l was l o g g e d i n b o t h

holes, t h u s i n f e r r i n g t h e r o c k s t r a t a was c o n t i n u o u s b e tw e e n

them. When t h e b u r i e d c h a n n e l was e n c o u n t e r e d u n d e r g r o u n d ,

a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 00 f e e t s o u t h o f 3 8 t h S t r e e t , m i n i n g o p e r a

t i o n s w e re s t o p p e d , f o r . i t was n e c e s s a r y t o r e d e s i g n t h e

tu n n el to c ro s s th e buried c h a n n e l.

Over f o r t y a u g e r and c o r e b o r i n g s w e re d r i l l e d f r o m

t h e s u r f a c e t o d e l i n e a t e t h e s i z e and s h a p e o f t h e c h a n n e l
 rH
iI

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 115

and t o l o g t h e t y p e s o f m a t e r i a l s p r e s e n t . F i g u r e 28 I s a

c ro ss s e c tio n o f the c hannel.

W h il e e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e b u r l e d c h a n n e l and r e d e s i g n

o f t h e t u n n e l was I n p r o g r e s s , a n o t h e r s e g m e n t o f t h e t u n n e l

was b e i n g a d v a n c e d s o u t h w a r d t o i n t e r s e c t t h e n o r t h b o u n d a r y

of the chan n el. The s a n d s t o n e i n t h i s p o r t i o n o f t h e t u n n e l

was s a t u r a t e d and was b e i n g d e w a t e r e d by h i g h y i e l d pum ps.

E ig h t hundred f e e t n o r th o f th e b u rie d channel e x

c e s s i v e a r c h i n g i n t h e crow n o f t h e t u n n e l o c c u r r e d . The

s a n d s t o n e was c a v i n g upward t o w i t h i n a few f e e t o f t h e b a s e

of the P l a t t e v i l l e lim e sto n e, l o c a t e d tw e n ty -tw o f e e t above

the i n v e r t . At t h e f i r s t s i g n o f c a v i n g , men. and e q u i p m e n t

w e r e removed f r o m t h e t u n n e l . At a b o u t t h e same t i m e a

s h i f t i n t h e c a s i n g o f one o f t h e d e w a t e r i n g w e l l s made i t

n e c e s s a r y t o s h u t t h e pump down. This c au sed th e w a te r t a b

l e t o r i s e and c a u s e u n s t a b l e c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e s a n d s t o n e .

The u n l o a d i n g e f f e c t , when t h e w a t e r t a b l e r o s e ,

e v id e n tly caused a lo s s of c o n fin in g p re s s u re to th e sa n d

stone, th e re b y cau sin g th e back to cave. In a d d itio n , rapid
i n f l o w o f w a t e r p r o b a b l y c a u s e d some d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e
s a n d s t o n e i n t h e o p e n i n g , d e s t r o y i n g some o f t h e n a t u r a l

support' f o r the t u n n e l . I t was l a t e r f o u n d t h a t s i x t y f e e t

o f t h e t u n n e l b a c k had c a v e d , b u r y i n g i n v e r t f o r m s t h a t w ere

being re a d ie d f o r pouring th e c o n c re te l i n i n g . Im m ediately

n o rth of the caved-In a re a , f o r a d ista n c e o f s i x t y f e e t .

 116

d i s p l a c e m e n t had bowed l a g g i n g and t w i s t e d some o f t h e s t e e l ,

su p p o rts.
Recom mendations w e re made t o p u t t h e d e w a t e r i n g w e l l

b a c k i n o p e r a t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y and d r a i n t h e t u n n e l w i t h

d itch es The a r e a o f t h e t u n n e l t h a t s t i l l th r e a te n e d to

c a v e was t o be r e i n f o r c e d and c o n c r e t e d b e f o r e t h e c a v e d - i n

a r e a was c l e a n e d o u t
To r e c o v e r t h e c a v e d a r e a o f t h e t u n n e l , the loose

s a n d s t o n e was f i r s t r em o v e d , fo rm s w e re p l a c e d , and t h e n a

c o n c r e t e l i n i n g was p o u r e d The e x c a v a t e d s a n d s t o n e was

t h e n pumped b a c k i n t o t h e c a v i t y a r o u n d t h e l i n i n g A fter

t h e d a n g e r a r e a had b e e n s e c u r e d , a h y d r a u l i c s h i e l d was

used t o c o n ti n u e th e t u n n e l southw ard to th e s o u th bank o f

the buried c h a n n e l C o n v e n t i o n a l m eth o d s w ere u s e d t o e x c a

v a t e t h e m a t e r i a l w h i l e t h e s h i e l d was i n s e r v i c e .
 r9 0 0
Access Shaft
Alignment Alignment
Hole 37th Street 36th Street
Hole 35th Street

ELEVATION ABOVE SEA LEVEL IN FEET

Ground Surface

Glacial Drift

Static Water Level

-Platteville limestone
-Glenwood shale
Sewer Tunnel x Cave-in

Buried Channel
Approximate Bedrock Surface

St. Peter sandstone

5 221 219 217 215

TUNNEL S T A T IO N S -S c a le lin.= 2 0 0 f t

GEOLOGIC SECTION - STEVENS AVE. SEWER TUNNEL,

MINNEAPOLIS
FIGURE 2 8
 118

FIGURE 29. Stevens Ave. tunnel cave-in. The sandstone caved up

to the base of the Platteville limestone. Iron stained
bedding planes in the sandstone are exposed.
 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

1) L i t h o l o g i c a l l y and h y d r o l o g i c a l l y t h e s a n d s t o n e i s homo

g e n e o u s and l o c a l l y i s o t r o p i c Iso tro p ic co nditions e x

i s t o n l y when t h e f r i a b i l i t y o f c e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e

sandstone i s c o n s is te n t w ith in a p re s c rib e d a r e a

2) The f o r m a t i o n i s w e a k l y c e m e n t e d o r more commonly, l a c k s

cem entation a lt o g e t h e r . The o n l y o b v i o u s c e m e n t i n g

a g e n t i s i r o n o x i d e , and t h i s o c c u r s l o c a l l y i n t h e

sandstone, I n t e r l o c k i n g g r a i n s a r e t h e m ain b o n d i n g

a g e n t k e ep in g th e sand g r a i n s t o g e t h e r as a u n i t

3) F r i a b i l i t y o r hardness of the sandstone v a rie s l a t e r a l l y

and v e r t i c a l l y w i t h i n t h e f o r m a t i o n . T h i s e f f e c t i s due
to th e d e g re e of i n t e r l o c k i n g o r com paction o f th e sand

grains.,

4) High n a t u r a l c o m p a c t i v e f o r c e s h a v e d e n s i f i e d t h e s a n d

s t o n e t o a d e g r e e t h a t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o r e p r o d u c e by

n o r m a l c o m p a c t i o n m eth o d s i n t h e .l a b o r a t o r y . An e x c e p

t i o n t o t h i s o c c u r s when a l o a d g r e a t enough t o c a u s e
c ru s h in g o f th e sand g r a i n s o c c u r s ,

5) The u p p e r p o r t i o n o f t h e s a n d s t o n e , i n t h e Twin C i t y
area, is discontinuously sa tu ra te d . L o cally , the s a t u r

a t e d s a n d s t o n e may p o s s e s s a r t e s i a n w a t e r .

6) The a v e r a g e p o r o s i t y o f t h e s a n d s t o n e h a s a h i g h a v e r a g e

v a lu e o f 28.3 p e r c e n t . In c o n t r a s t , the p e rm e a b ility i s

119
 120

low w i t h a v a l u e o f 1 x l O - ^ c e n t i m e t e r p e r s e c o n d
7) G rain s i z e a n a ly s e s i n d i c a t e a hig h degree o f s o r t i n g

and u n i f o r m i t y , w i t h g r a i n s i z e s f a l l i n g i n t h e f i n e

s a n d r a n g e ( 0 . 1 5 t o 0.4-0 m i l l i m e t e r s ) . E ffectiv e size

in m illim e te rs i s 0.122.
8) U ndisturbed S t. P e t e r s a n d s t o n e was f o u n d t o h a v e a h i g h
angle of i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n ( f i f t y - f i v e d e g r e e s ) b ut has

a low s h e a r i n g s t r e n g t h . T his hig h v a lu e i s a f u n c t i o n

o f t h e s i z e and s h a p e o f g r a i n s , a s w e l l a s t h e d e g r e e

o f com paction th e fo rm a tio n has u n d erg o n e.

9) The u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e s a n d s t o n e i s i n e x

cess of tw e n ty -fiv e tons p e r square f o o t . The maximum

l o a d c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y w i l l be f o u n d t o be much h i g h e r

when a d e q u a t e m eth o d s a r e d e v e l o p e d f o r t e s t i n g s h e a r i n g
s tre n g th s of g ra n u la r m a te ria ls w ith high angles of i n

ternal fric tio n . .B e a r i n g v a l u e s up t o 100 t o n s p e r

s q u a r e f o o t may n o t be uncommon.
10) F i e l d p l a t e b e a r i n g t e s t s i n d i c a t e s e t t l e m e n t t o h e a v y

s t r u c t u r e s t o be l e s s t h a n 0 . 1 o f a f o o t w i t h a p p l i e d

loads of tw e n ty -fiv e tons p e r square f o o t . The same

t e s t s h a v e shown a l m o s t c o m p l e t e r e b o u n d o f t h e c o n s o l i

d a te d m a t e r i a l a f t e r removal o f th e l o a d . T his i n d i

c a te s th e sandstone to possess e l a s t i c p r o p e r t i e s .

11) U n c o n f i n e d c o m p r e s s i o n t e s t s i n d i c a t e a w id e b u t low

v a r i a t i o n i n c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h s and m o d u l i o f d e f o r

m ation. A x ia l m oduli o f d e f o r m a tio n ranged from 151,000

 121

po unds p e r s q u a r e i n c h w i t h a c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h o f
1 , 3 7 0 p o u n d s , t o 7^1 j>000 p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e i n c h w i t h a

c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h o f 2 , 8 1 0 p o unds p e r s q u a r e i n c h

The m o d u l i f o r t h e t e s t s made t o d a t e i n d i c a t e b o t h

e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n , b e c a u s e t h e y w e re o n l y

l o a d e d once and t a k e n t o f a i l u r e . When f u t u r e c o m p r e s

s i o n t e s t s a r e made, t h e y s h o u l d be l o a d e d and u n l o a d e d

s e v e r a l tim es u n t i l a s t r a i g h t , l i n e i s o b t a i n e d on t h e
s t r e s s s t r a i n curve. A stra ig h t lin e, i f p o s s ib l e to

o b t a i n , i n d i c a t e s t h e modulus o f e l a s t i c i t y and i s a

v e r y i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c when d e s i g n i n g h e a v y l i v e

l o a d s on t h e s a n d s t o n e .
12) P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o s , c a l c u l a t e d from u n c o n fin e d c o m p re ssio n

tests, showed a w id e v a r i a t i o n f r o m .0 2 t o .46. This

i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n c o n s i s t e n t r a t i o s b e t w e e n l a t e r a l and

v e r t i c a l s t r e s s e s w i l l r e s u l t betw een l o c a t i o n s .

13) T e s t d a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m p l a t e b e a r i n g t e s t s show t h e

modu lous o f e l a s t i c i t y t o be v e r y l o w . A v a l u e o f 383

p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e i n c h was c o m p u t e d . A normal s a n d sto n e

w i l l average 1,000 kip s p e r sq u are in c h .

14 ) G e o p h y s i c a l m ethods may p r o v e b e n e f i c i a l t o l o c a t e b u r

ied channels o r i r r e g u l a r i t i e s in the sandstone s u r f a c e .

The g r a v i t y method w i l l p r o v e t h e most s a t i s f a c t o r y . It

i s a r e l a t i v e l y r a p i d and i n e x p e n s i v e s u r v e y t o o l .

E l e c t r i c a l and s e i s m i c m eth o d s w i l l o n l y be o f v a l u e i f
th ere is a th in cover.
 122

15) I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n o f t u n n e l s to o b t a i n s t r e s s - t i m e r e l a

t i o n s h i p s i s h i g h l y recommended. This i n f o r m a t i o n can

be u s e d t o d e s i g n f o r t h e p r o p e r s u p p o r t s n e e d e d i n a
t u n n e l . Down h o l e , i n s i t u t e s t i n g w i t h s e i s m i c , ele c

tric al, o r a u d i b l e d e v i c e s may r e v e a l t h e d e g r e e o f f r i

a b i l i t y o r jo in t i n g in the sand sto n e. Down h o l e

p r e s s u r e m eters w i l l give im p o rta n t d e sig n d a ta (modulus

of deform ation). Pump t e s t s w i l l d i s c l o s e t h e t y p e o f

g r o u n d w a t e r p r o b l e m s t h a t ' c a n be a n t i c i p a t e d a l o n g a

tu n n e l r o u te o r in an e x c a v a tio n .

16) Low p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e s a n d s t o n e h a s r e s t r i c t e d p r e s
sure g ro u tin g techniques f o r s o l i d if y i n g th e rock or

c re atin g grout c u r ta in s .

17) F r i c t i o n p i l e s c a n n o t be d r i v e n i n t o t h e s a n d s t o n e , b e
c a u s e o f t h e h i g h p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e rock..

P o in t bearing p i le s d riv en to r e f u s a l in th e sandstone

a r e commonly u s e d i n t h e Twin C i t y a r e a .

18) E x tr e m e c a u t i o n s h o u l d be e x e r c i s e d when c l a y f i l l e d
j o i n t s , c l o s e l y spaced t i g h t s y s te m a tic j_ o in ts, o r

j o in t s b e arin g w ater a re encountered du rin g e x ca v atio n .

T h e s e a r e z o n e s o f p o t e n t i a l w e a k n e s s due t o l a c k o f

f r i c t i o n betw een s u r f a c e s .

19) U n d i s t u r b e d t e s t s p e c i m e n s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n o f

the S t. P eter san dstone. In s i t u t e s t i n g techniques

s h o u l d be employed w h e re p o s s i b l e .
 123

In g en eral, the S t. P e t e r sandstone,, b e in g unique i n

its g e o l o g i c and e n g i n e e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s s i s a n e x c e l l e n t me
d i a i n which to c o n s t r u c t t u n n e l s o r f o r th e u se as a f o u n

d atio n b a se . Problems w i l l c o n ti n u e t o a r i s e , b u t w ith th e

p r o p e r u s e o f d a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m s i t e e x a m i n a t i o n s and t e s t

i n g p r o g r a m s , t h e s e p e r p l e x i t i e s w i l l be r e d u c e d .
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sandstone: R e p o r t t o t h e C i t y C o u n c i l o f M p l s . , Minn.
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i n g g e o l o g y and g e o t e c h n i q u e s : M c G r a w - H ill Book C o . ,
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S t . P e t e r s a n d s t o n e o f I l l i n o i s , 111. G e o l. S u r v . ,
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S t a u f f e r , C. R . , . and T h e i l , G . . A , , 1941, The P a l e o z o i c and

r e l a t e d rocks o f s o u t h e a s te r n M innesota: U n iv ersity
P r e s s , M p l s . , M i n n . , Minn. G e o l . S u r v . B u l l . No. 29,.
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York.

T h e i l , C. A . , 1 9 3 5 , S e d i m e n t a r y p e t r o g r a p h i c a n a l y s i s o f t h e
S t. P e te r sandstone: G e o l . S o c . o f Amer. B u l l . , V o l .
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 126

W l n c h e l l , N H, 1 8 8 4 , G e o lo g y o f M i n n e s o t a - f i n a l r e p o r t ,
g e o l o g y and n a t u r a l h i s t o r y s u r v e y o f M i n n e s o t a ; V o l ,
1 , p . 202=

)
 -4 3 5 0

-4 0 0 0

-3 6 5 0

-L -3 3 0 0
Datum sea level
RKReed A'

CROSS SECTION
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL S C A LE = 1:8,450

PLATE 17
f? /f/
10 00- Rice Creek

900-

300
NORTH SOUTH
I Mile
NORTH-SOUTH CROSS SECTION OF THE MINNEAPOLIS-ST PAUL AREA
VIEW LOOKING EAST
S CAL E
FIGURE 31
Z ff7 f/
By-C. M. PAYNE AUG. 1 96 4
r $: Xv "r-zm xwmzsmii

FIGURE 32
B y - C M. PAYNE AUG. 1964

ew eie
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY STATE OF MINNESOTA MISCELLANEOUS MAP
Paul K. Sims, Director UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA M-l
ANOKA 10 Ml . F O R E S T L A K E 2 0 Ml A N O K A 14 Ml . F O R E S T L A K E 14 Ml . EXPLANATION

55
DECORAH FORMATION
*21 Green, fissile to blocky argillaceous shale. Contains many ir
regularly distributed coquina lenses and thin limestone beds
that increase in abundance upwards. Thickness ranges from
0 to 90 feet.

Op

PLATTEVILLE FORMATION
Gray to brown dolomite and limestone; average thickness 25
feet. Consists of following members, from youngest to oldest
(not distinguished separately on map):
Carimona Member; brown, medium-bedded, fine-grained
limestone with some interbedded shale; average thick
ness 3.5 feet.
Magnolia Member; massive micragranular, dolomitic lime
stone. Weathers to yellowish-gray; average thickness 8
feet.
Hidden Falls Member ; greenish-gray, microgranular, argill
aceous dolomic limestone; average thickness 6 feet.
Mifflin Member; very thin, crinkly-bedded limestone and do
lomite-mottled limestone; weathers very light-gray w ith
grayish-orange dolomitic patches; average thickness 6
feet.
Pecatonica Member; buff-weathering dolomite or dolomitic
limestone; average thickness 1 foot.

Osp

ST. PETER SANDSTONE

(Includes Glen wood Formation a t top)
White, fine- to medium-grained, well-sorted, friable sand
stone; locally is iron-stained and well-cemented; rounding
and frosting of the grains are common. Except for a thin
gray argillaceous siltstone bed below the middle of the forma
tion, the sandstone is 99 percent quartz; average thickness 150
feet. The formation discomformably overlies the Shakopee
Dolomite.
Glen wood Formation; Greenish-gray, arenaceous to argill
aceous shale; average thickness 5 feet. Formation represents
a transition from sandy shale to overlying carbonate rocks.

S Opc

PRAIRIE DU CHIEN FORMATION

Dominantly dolomitic limestone and dolomite. Consists of
following members, from youngest to oldest (not distinguish
ed separately on map):
Shakopee Dolomite; buff, massive-to thin-bedded, dolomitic
limestone; commonly cherty, sandy, and oolitic. Thin
beds of fine- to medium-grained sandstone and greenish-
gray shale are irregularly distributed through the mem
ber; average thickness LOfeet.
New Richmond Sandstone; fine- to medium-grained quart-
zose sandstone, locally absent; thickness ranges from 0
to 10 feet.
Oneota Dolomite; brownish-gray or buff, fine- to medium
grained, locally vuggy, thin- to thick-bedded dolomite;
average thickness 80 feet.

JORDAN SANDSTONE
Generally white and friable but locally cemented and iron-
stained, massive- to well-bedded, fine- to coarse-grained sand
stone. Conformably overlies the St. Lawrence Formation. Gen
erally consists of very clean, well-rounded and frosted quartz
grains that grade upward from fine sand at the base to
coarse sand at the top; average thickness 90 feet.

Note: Formations below the Jordon Sandstone have been

penetrated by drilling, and are important sources of ground
water.

Geologic contact

--------------------- -------------------
45
------------------------------------------
Topographic contours
(Drawn on top of bedrock surface; contour interval 20 feet)

Water well or drill hole

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25

57'
30"

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52'
\ F A R M I N G T O N 2 3 Ml 5 ML TO M I N N 218
4.1 Ml . T O U . 9 . 6 5 R M I N G T O N 18 M l
Williams & Heintz Map Corporation, Washington 27, D.C. Geology compiled 1962-63
Base from U.S. Geological Survey
Topographic map, 1952
B E D R O C K G EO LO G IC M A P, M IN N E A P O L IS , ST. P A U L A N D V IC IN IT Y
by
C. Marshall Payne

SCALE 1 :2 4 0 0 0
o 1 MILE

1000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 FEET

APPROXIMATE MEAN MAP LOCATION
DECLINATION, 1952 CONTOUR INTERVAL 10 FEET FIGURE NO. 30
Ip 7 DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL

A 1 Qfig;