Advanced Transport PhenomenaByJ. C. Slattery Table of Contents PDF

April 1, 1999 9:15 CB150/Slattery FM
Advanced Transport
Phenomena
John C. Slattery
v
PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

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CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

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c Cambridge University Press 1999
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no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 1999
Printed in the United States of America
Typeset in Gill Sans and Times Roman LATEX 2 [TB]
A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Slattery, John Charles, 1932

Advanced transport phenomena / John C. Slattery.
p. cm. (Cambridge series in chemical engineering)
ISBN 0-521-63203-X (hb). ISBN 0-521-63565-9 (pb)
1. Transport theory. 2. Chemical engineering. I. Title.
II. Series.
TP156.T7S57 1999
6600 .2842 dc21 98-44872
CIP
ISBN 0 521 63203X hardback
ISBN 0 521 635659 paperback
vi
April 1, 1999 9:15 CB150/Slattery
FM
Contents
Preface page xv
List of Notation xix
1 Kinematics 1
1.1 Motion 1
1.2 Frame 9
1.2.1 Changes of Frame 9
1.2.2 Equivalent Motions 15
1.3 Mass 18
1.3.1 Conservation of Mass 18
1.3.2 Transport Theorem 18
1.3.3 Differential Mass Balance 21
1.3.4 Phase Interface 23
1.3.5 Transport Theorem for a Region Containing a Dividing Surface 23
1.3.6 Jump Mass Balance for Phase Interface 25
1.3.7 Stream Functions 26
2 Foundations for Momentum Transfer 28
2.1 Force 28
2.2 Additional Postulates 30
2.2.1 Momentum and Moment of Momentum Balances 30
2.2.2 Stress Tensor 32
2.2.3 Differential and Jump Momentum Balances 33
2.2.4 Symmetry of Stress Tensor 35
2.3 Behavior of Materials 37
2.3.1 Some General Principles 37
2.3.2 Simple Constitutive Equation for Stress 39
2.3.3 Generalized Newtonian Fluid 43
2.3.4 Noll Simple Fluid 48
2.4 Summary 50
2.4.1 Differential Mass and Momentum Balances 50
2.4.2 Stream Function and the NavierStokes Equation 55
2.4.3 Interfacial Tension and the Jump Mass and Momentum Balances 58
FM
viii Contents
3 Differential Balances in Momentum Transfer 65

3.1 Philosophy 66
3.2 Complete Solutions 67
3.2.1 Flow in a Tube 67
3.2.2 Flow of a Generalized Newtonian Fluid in a Tube 73
3.2.3 Tangential Annular Flow 78
3.2.4 Wall That Is Suddenly Set in Motion 84
3.2.5 Rotating Meniscus 90
3.3 Creeping Flows 99
3.3.1 Flow in a ConePlate Viscometer 101
3.3.2 Flow Past a Sphere 111
3.3.3 Thin Draining Films 116
3.3.4 Melt Spinning 121
3.4 Nonviscous Flows 131
3.4.1 Bernoulli Equation 133
3.4.2 Potential Flow Past a Sphere 136
3.4.3 Plane Potential Flow in a Corner 140
3.5 Boundary-Layer Theory 143
3.5.1 Plane Flow Past a Flat Plate 143
3.5.2 More on Plane Flow Past a Flat Plate 148
3.5.3 Plane Flow Past a Curved Wall 153
3.5.4 Solutions Found by Combination of Variables 158
3.5.5 Flow in a Convergent Channel 162
3.5.6 Flow Past a Body of Revolution 165
3.6 Stability 172
3.6.1 Stability of a Liquid Thread 174
4 Integral Averaging in Momentum Transfer 182
4.1 Time Averaging 182
4.1.1 Time Averages 183
4.1.2 The Time Average of a Time-Averaged Variable 185
4.1.3 Empirical Correlations for T(t) 186
4.1.4 Wall Turbulence in Flow Through a Tube 190
4.2 Area Averaging 194
4.2.1 Flow from Rest in a Circular Tube 195
4.3 Local Volume Averaging 197
4.3.1 The Concept 198
4.3.2 Theorem for the Local Volume Average of a Gradient 200
4.3.3 The Local Volume Average of the Differential Mass Balance 203
4.3.4 The Local Volume Average of the Differential
Momentum Balance 203
4.3.5 Empirical Correlations for g 205
4.3.6 Summary of Results for an Incompressible Newtonian Fluid 209
4.3.7 Averages of Volume-Averaged Variables 210
4.3.8 Flow through a Packed Tube 211
4.3.9 Neglecting the Divergence of the Local Volume-Averaged
Extra Stress 215
FM
Contents ix
4.4 Integral Balances 217

4.4.1 The Integral Mass Balance 218
4.4.2 The Integral Mass Balance for Turbulent Flows 220
4.4.3 The Integral Momentum Balance 222
4.4.4 Empirical Correlations for F and G 225
4.4.5 The Mechanical Energy Balance 229
4.4.6 Empirical Correlations for E 234
4.4.7 Integral Moment-of-Momentum Balance 236
4.4.8 Examples 239
5 Foundations for Energy Transfer 250
5.1 Energy 250
5.1.1 Energy Balance 250
5.1.2 Radiant and Contact Energy Transmission 251
5.1.3 Differential and Jump Energy Balances 253
5.2 Entropy 256
5.2.1 Entropy Inequality 256
5.2.2 Radiant and Contact Entropy Transmission 257
5.2.3 The Differential and Jump Entropy Inequalities 259
5.3 Behavior of Materials 261
5.3.1 Implications of the Differential Entropy Inequality 261
5.3.2 Restrictions on Caloric Equation of State 270
5.3.3 Energy and Thermal Energy Flux Vectors 273
5.3.4 Stress Tensor 275
5.4 Summary of Useful Equations 277
6 Differential Balances in Energy Transfer 283
6.1 Philosophy 283
6.2 Conduction 284
6.2.1 Cooling of a Semi-Infinite Slab: Constant Surface Temperature 285
6.2.2 Cooling a Semi-Infinite Slab: Newtons Law of Cooling 287
6.2.3 Cooling a Flat Sheet: Constant Surface Temperature 290
6.3 More Complete Solutions 294
6.3.1 Couette Flow of a Compressible Newtonian Fluid 294
6.3.2 Couette Flow of a Compressible Newtonian Fluid with Variable
Viscosity and Thermal Conductivity 302
6.3.3 Rate at Which a Fluid Freezes (or a Solid Melts) 309
6.4 When Viscous Dissipation Is Neglected 314
6.4.1 Natural Convection 316
6.5 No Convection 324
6.6 No Conduction 326
6.6.1 Speed of Propagation of Sound Waves 327
6.7.2 More on Plane Flow Past a Flat Plate 335
6.7.3 Plane Flow Past a Curved Wall 342
6.7.4 Flow Past a Wedge 345
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x Contents
6.7.5 Flow Past a Body of Revolution 349

6.7.6 Energy Transfer in the Entrance of a Heated Section of a Tube 351
6.7.7 More on Melt Spinning 359
6.8 More About Energy Transfer in a Heated Section of a Tube 361
6.8.1 Constant Temperature at Wall 362
6.8.2 Constant Energy Flux at Wall 366
7 Integral Averaging in Energy Transfer 374
7.1.1 The Time-Averaged Differential Energy Balance 374
7.1.2 Empirical Correlation for the Turbulent Energy Flux 375
7.1.3 Turbulent Energy Transfer in a Heated Section of a Tube 378
7.2.1 A Straight Cooling Fin of Rectangular Profile 383
7.3.1 The Local Volume Average of the Differential Energy Balance 387
7.3.2 Empirical Correlations for h 389
7.3.3 Summary of Results for a Nonoriented,
Uniform-Porosity Structure 392
7.3.4 Transpiration Cooling 394
7.4 More on Integral Balances 399
7.4.1 The Integral Energy Balance 399
7.4.2 Empirical Correlations for Q 407
7.4.3 More About the Mechanical Energy Balance 410
7.4.4 The Integral Entropy Inequality 417
7.4.5 Integral Entropy Inequality for Turbulent Flows 418
7.4.6 Example 418
8 Foundations for Mass Transfer 423
8.1 Viewpoint 423
8.1.1 Body, Motion, and Material Coordinates 424
8.2 Species Mass Balance 426
8.2.1 Differential and Jump Balances 426
8.2.2 Concentration, Velocities, and Mass Fluxes 428
8.3 Revised Postulates 430
8.3.1 Conservation of Mass 432
8.3.2 Momentum Balance 433
8.3.3 Moment of Momentum Balance 434
8.3.4 Energy Balance 435
8.3.5 Entropy Inequality 435
8.4 Behavior 436
8.4.1 Implications of the Differential Entropy Inequality 437
8.4.2 Restrictions on Caloric Equation of State 442
8.4.3 Energy Flux Vectors 449
8.4.4 Mass Flux Vector 451
8.4.5 Mass Flux Vector in Binary Solutions 459
8.4.6 Mass Flux Vector: Limiting Cases in Ideal Solutions 462
FM
Contents xi
8.4.7 Constitutive Equations for the Stress Tensor 464

8.4.8 Rates of Reactions 464
8.5 Summary 472
8.5.1 Summary of Useful Equations for Mass Transfer 472
8.5.2 Summary of Useful Equations for Energy Transfer 477
9 Differential Balances in Mass Transfer 482
9.1 Philosophy of Solving Mass-Transfer Problems 482
9.2 Energy and Mass Transfer Analogy 483
9.2.1 Film Theory 485
9.3 Complete Solutions for Binary Systems 488
9.3.1 Unsteady-State Evaporation 489
9.3.2 Rate of Isothermal Crystallization 501
9.3.3 Rate of Nonisothermal Crystallization 507
9.3.4 Silicon Oxidation 513
9.3.5 Pressure Diffusion in a Natural Gas Well 515
9.3.6 Forced Diffusion in Electrochemical Systems 520
9.3.7 Film Theory: Condensation of Mixed Vapors 525
9.3.8 Two- and Three-Dimensional Problems 532
9.4 Complete Solutions for Multicomponent Systems 533
9.4.1 Film Theory: Steady-State Evaporation 533
9.4.2 More on Unsteady-State Evaporation 537
9.4.3 Oxidation of Iron 545
9.5.2 Flow Past Curved Walls and Bodies of Revolution 561
9.6 Forced Convection in Dilute Solutions 561
9.6.1 Unsteady-State Diffusion with a First-Order
Homogeneous Reaction 562
9.6.2 Gas Absorption in a Falling Film with Chemical Reaction 566
10 Integral Averaging in Mass Transfer 573
10.1.1 The Time-Averaged Differential Mass Balance for Species A 573
10.1.2 Empirical Correlations for the Turbulent Mass Flux 575
10.1.3 Turbulent Diffusion from a Point Source in a Moving Stream 576
10.2.1 Longitudinal Dispersion 580
10.3.1 Local Volume Average of the Differential Mass Balance
for Species A 585
10.3.2 When Ficks First Law Applies 586
10.3.3 Empirical Correlations for Tortuosity Vectors 588
10.3.4 Summary of Results for a Liquid or Dense Gas in a
Nonoriented, Uniform-Porosity Structure 592
10.3.5 When Ficks First Law Does Not Apply 593
10.3.6 Knudsen Diffusion 595
FM
xii Contents
10.3.7 The Local Volume Average of the Overall Differential

Mass Balance 597
10.3.8 The Effectiveness Factor for Spherical Catalyst Particles 597
10.4 Still More on Integral Balances 603
10.4.1 The Integral Mass Balance for Species A 604
10.4.2 Empirical Correlations for J(A) 606
10.4.3 The Integral Overall Balances 609
10.4.4 Example 614
A Tensor Analysis 619
A.1 Spatial Vectors 619
A.1.1 Definition** 619
A.1.2 Position Vectors 621
A.1.3 Spatial Vector Fields 621
A.1.4 Basis 622
A.1.5 Basis for the Spatial Vector Fields 624
A.1.6 Basis for the Spatial Vectors 625
A.1.7 Summation Convention 626
A.2 Determinant 627
A.2.1 Definitions 627
A.3 Gradient of Scalar Field 630
A.4 Curvilinear Coordinates 632
A.4.1 Natural Basis** 632
A.4.2 Dual Basis* 638
A.4.3 Covariant and Contravariant Components* 641
A.5 Second-Order Tensors 644
A.5.1 Components of Second-Order Tensor Fields 645
A.5.2 Transpose of a Second-Order Tensor Field** 650
A.5.3 Inverse of a Second-Order Tensor Field 654
A.5.4 Trace of a Second-Order Tensor Field** 655
A.6 Gradient of Vector Field 657
A.6.2 Covariant Differentiation* 658
A.7 Third-Order Tensors 664
A.7.1 Definition 664
A.7.2 Components of Third-Order Tensor Fields 665
A.7.3 Another View of Third-Order Tensor Fields 668
A.8 Gradient of Second-Order Tensor Field 669
A.8.2 More on Covariant Differentiation* 670
A.9 Vector Product and Curl 673
A.9.1 Definitions** 673
A.9.2 More on the Vector Product and Curl 674
A.10 Determinant of Second-Order Tensor 677
Contents xiii
A.11 Integration 679

A.11.1 Spatial Vector Fields** 679
A.11.2 Greens Transformation 680
A.11.3 Change of Variable in Volume Integrations** 683
B More on the Transport Theorem 685
References 687
Author/Editor Index 699
Index 703
December 18, 1998 17:7 CB150/Slattery CB150-DRV
1
Kinematics
HIS ENTIRE CHAPTER IS INTRODUCTORY in much the same way as Ap-

T pendix A is. In Appendix A, I introduce the mathematical language that I shall be using
in describing physical problems. In this chapter, I indicate some of the details involved in rep-
resenting from the continuum point of view the motions and deformations of real materials.
This chapter is important not only for the definitions introduced, but also for the viewpoint
taken in some of the developments. For example, the various forms of the transport theorem
will be used repeatedly throughout the text in developing differential equations and integral
balances from our basic postulates.
Perhaps the most difficult point for a beginner is to properly distinguish between the
continuum model for real materials and the particulate or molecular model. We can all agree
that the most factually detailed picture of real materials requires that they be represented in
terms of atoms and molecules. In this picture, mass is distributed discontinuously throughout
space; mass is associated with the protons, neutrons, electrons, . . . , which are separated by
relatively large voids. In the continuum model for materials, mass is distributed continu-
ously through space, with the exception of surfaces of discontinuity, which represent phase
interfaces or shock waves.
The continuum model is less realistic than the particulate model but far simpler. For many
purposes, the detailed accuracy of the particulate model is unnecessary. To our sight and
touch, mass appears to be continuously distributed throughout the water that we drink and the
air that we breathe. The problem is analogous to a study of traffic patterns on an expressway.
The speed and spacings of the automobiles are important, but we probably should not worry
about whether the automobiles have four, six, or eight cylinders.
This is not to say that the particulate theories are of no importance. Information is lost
in a continuum picture. It is only through the use of statistical mechanics that a complete a
priori prediction about the behavior of the material can be made. I will say more about this
in the next chapter.
1.1 Motion
My goal in this book is to lay the foundation for understanding a wide variety of operations
employed in the chemical and petroleum industries. To be specific, consider the extrusion of
2 1. Kinematics
Figure 1.1.0-1. A rubber ball in three

configurations as it strikes a wall and re-
bounds. The particle that was in the po-
sition z in the reference configuration
is in the position z at time t.
a molten polymer to produce a fiber, catalytic cracking in a fluidized reaction, the production
of oil and gas from a sandstone reservoir, or the flow of a coal slurry through a pipeline. One
important feature that these operations have in common is that at least some of the materials
concerned are undergoing deformation and flow.
How might we describe a body of material as it deforms? Figure 1.1.0-1 shows a rubber
ball in three configurations as it strikes a wall and rebounds. How should we describe the
deformation of this rubber body from its original configuration as a sphere? How should
velocity be defined in order to take into account that it must surely vary as a function of
position within the ball as well as time as the ball reaches the wall and begins to deform?
We need a mathematical description for a body that allows us to describe where its various
components go as functions of time.
Lets begin by rather formally defining a body to be set, any element of which is called
a particle or a material particle. A material particle is a primitive, in the sense that it is not
defined but its properties are described. I will give an experimentally oriented description
of a material particle a little later in this section. Meanwhile, be careful not to confuse a
material particle with a molecule. Molecules play no role in continuum mechanics; they are
introduced in the context of the other model for real materials statistical mechanics.
A one-to-one continuous mapping of this set of material particles onto a region of the
space E studied in elementary geometry exists and is called a configuration of the body:
z = X ( ) (1.1.0-1)
= X 1 (z) (1.1.0-2)
The point z = X ( ) of E is called the place occupied by the particle , and = X 1 (z), the
particle whose place in E is z.
It is completely equivalent to describe the configuration of a body in terms of the position
vector z of the point z with respect to the origin O (Section A.1.2):
z = ( ) (1.1.0-3)
= 1 (z) (1.1.0-4)
1.1. Motion 3
Here 1 indicates the inverse mapping of . With an origin O having been defined, it is
unambiguous to refer to z = ( ) as the place occupied by the particle and = 1 (z)
as the particle whose place is z.
In what follows, I choose to refer to points in E by their position vectors relative to a
previously defined origin O.
A motion of a body is a one-parameter family of configurations; the real parameter t is
time. We write
z = (, t) (1.1.0-5)
and
= 1 (z, t) (1.1.0-6)
I have introduced the material particle as a primitive concept, without definition but with
a description of its attributes. A set of material particles is defined to be a body; there is a
one-to-one continuous mapping of these particles onto a region of the space E in which we
visualize the world about us. But clearly we need a link with what we can directly observe.
Whereas the body B should not be confused with any of its spatial configurations, it is
available to us for observation and study only in these configurations. We will describe a
material particle by its position in a reference configuration of the body. This reference
configuration may be, but need not be, one actually occupied by the body in the course of
its motion. The place of a particle in will be denoted by
z = ( ) (1.1.0-7)
The particle at the place z in the configuration may be expressed as
= 1 (z ) (1.1.0-8)
The motion of a body is described by
z = (, t)
= (z , t)
( 1 (z ), t) (1.1.0-9)
Referring to Figure 1.1.0-1, we find that the particle that was in the position z in the reference
configuration is at time t in the position z. This expression defines a family of deformations
from the reference configuration. The subscript . . . is to remind you that the form of
depends upon the choice of reference configuration .
The position vector z with respect to the origin O may be written in terms of its rectan-
gular Cartesian coordinates:
z = z i ei (1.1.0-10)
The z i (i = 1, 2, 3) are referred to as the material coordinates of the material particle .
They locate the position of relative to the origin O, when the body is in the reference
configuration . In terms of these material coordinates, we may express (1.1.0-9) as
z = (z , t)
= (z 1 , z 2 , z 3 , t) (1.1.0-11)
4 1. Kinematics
Let A be any quantity: scalar, vector, or tensor. We shall have occasion to talk about the
time derivative of A following the motion of a particle. We define

d(m) A A

dt t

A

t z

A
(1.1.0-12)
t z 1 ,z 2 ,z 3
We refer to the operation d(m) /dt as the material derivative [or substantial derivative (Bird
et al. 1960, p. 73)]. For example, the velocity vector v represents the time rate of change of
position of a material particle:
d(m) z
v
dt

(, t)

t

(z , t)

t z

(z 1 , z 2 , z 3 , t)
(1.1.0-13)
t z 1 ,z 2 ,z 3
We are involved with several derivative operations in the chapters that follow. Bird et al.
(1960, p. 73) have suggested some examples that serve to illustrate the differences.
The partial time derivative c/t Suppose we are in a boat that is anchored securely in a river,
some distance from the shore. If we look over the side of our boat and note the concentration
of fish as a function of time, we observe how the fish concentration changes with time at a
fixed position in space:

c c

t t z

c

t z1 ,z2 ,z3
The material derivative d (m) c/d t Suppose we pull up our anchor and let our boat drift along with
the river current. As we look over the side of our boat, we report how the concentration of
fish changes as a function of time while following the water (the material):
d(m) c c
= + c v (1.1.0-14)
dt t
The total derivative d c/d t We now switch on our outboard motor and race about the river,
sometimes upstream, sometimes downstream, or across the current. As we peer over the
1.1. Motion 5
side of our boat, we measure fish concentration as a function of time while following an
arbitrary path across the water:
dc c
= + c v(b) (1.1.0-15)
dt t
Here v(b) denotes the velocity of the boat.
Exercise 1.1.0-1 Let A be any real scalar field, spatial vector field, or second-order tensor field.
Show that1
d(m) A A
= + A v
dt t
Exercise 1.1.0-2 Let a = a(z, t) be some vector field that is a function of position and time.
i) Show that

d(m) a a n
= + a n ,i v i gn
dt t
ii) Show that

d(m) a an
= + an ,i v i gn
dt t
Exercise 1.1.0-3 Consider the second-order tensor field T = T(z, t).

i) Show that

d(m) T T ij
= + T i j ,k v k gi g j
dt t
ii) Show that

d(m) T T i j
= + T j ,k v gi g j
i k
dt t
Exercise 1.1.0-4 Show that
d(m) (a b) d(m) i
= (a bi )
dt dt
d(m) a i d(m) bi
= bi + a i
dt dt
1
Where I write ( A) v, some authors say instead v ( A). When A is a scalar, there is no difference.
When A is either a vector or second-order tensor, the change in notation is the result of a different
definition for the gradient operation. See Sections A.6.1 and A.8.1.
6 1. Kinematics
Exercise 1.1.0-5
i) Starting with the definition for the velocity vector, prove that
d(m) x i
v= gi
dt
ii) Determine that, with respect to the cylindrical coordinate system defined in Exercise
A.4.1-4,
d(m)r d(m) d(m) z

v= gr + r g + gz
dt dt dt
iii) Determine that, with respect to the spherical coordinate system defined in Exercise
A.4.1-5,
d(m)r d(m) d(m)

v= gr + r g + r sin g
dt dt dt
Exercise 1.1.0-6 Path lines The curve in space along which the material particle travels is referred
to as the path line for the material particle . The path line may be determined from the
motion of the material as described in Section 1.1:
z = (z , t)
Here z represents the position of the material particle in the reference configuration ;
time t is a parameter along the path line that corresponds to any given position z .
The path lines may be determined conveniently from the velocity distribution, since
velocity is the derivative of position with respect to time following a material particle. The
parametric equations of a particle path are the solutions of the differential system
dz
=v
dt
or
dz i
= vi for i = 1, 2, 3
dt
The required boundary conditions may be obtained by choosing the reference configuration
to be a configuration that the material assumed at some time t0 .
As an example, let the rectangular Cartesian components of v be
z1 z2
v1 = , v2 = , v3 = 0
1+t 1 + 2t
and let the reference configuration be that which the material assumed at time t = 0. Prove
that, in the plane z 3 = z 3 , the particle paths or the path lines have the form
1/2
z2 z1
= 2 1
z 2 z 1
1.1. Motion 7
Exercise 1.1.0-7 Streamlines The streamlines for time t form that family of curves to which the
velocity field is everywhere tangent at a fixed time t. The parametric equations for the
streamlines are solutions of the differential equations
dz i
= vi for i = 1, 2, 3
d
Here is a parameter with the units of time, and dz/d is tangent to the streamline [see
(A.4.1-1)]. Alternatively, we may think of the streamlines as solutions of the differential
system
dz
v=0
d
or
dz j
ei jk vk = 0 for i = 1, 2, 3
d
As an example, show that, for the velocity distribution introduced in Exercise 1.1.0-6, the
streamlines take the form

z 1 (1+t)/(1+2t)
z 2 = z 2(0)
z 1(0)
for different reference points (z 1(0) , z 2(0) ).
Experimentalists sometimes sprinkle particles over a gasliquid phase interface and take
a photograph in which the motion of the particles is not quite stopped (see Figures 3.5.1-1
and 3.5.1-3). The traces left by the particles are proportional to the velocity of the fluid
at the surface (so long as we assume that very small particles move with the fluid). For a
steady-state flow, such a photograph may be used to construct the particle paths. For an
unsteady-state flow, it depicts the streamlines, the family of curves to which the velocity
vector field is everywhere tangent.
In two-dimensional flows, the streamlines have a special significance. They are curves
along which the stream function (Sections 1.3.7) is a constant. See Exercise 1.3.7-2.
Exercise 1.1.0-8 For the limiting case of steady-state, plane potential flow past a stationary cylinder
of radius a with no circulation, the physical components of velocity in cylindrical coordinates
are (see Exercise 3.4.2-2)

a2
vr = V 1 2 cos
r

a2
v = V 1 + 2 sin
r
and
vz = 0
Show that the family of streamlines is described by

a2
1 2 r sin = C
r
Plot representative members of this family as in Figure 1.1.0-2.
8 1. Kinematics
z2
1.5
1
0.5
z1
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
-0.5
-1
-1.5
Figure 1.1.0-2. Streamlines for the limiting case of steady-

state, plane potential flow past a stationary cylinder with no
circulation corresponding to C = 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.
Exercise 1.1.0-9 Streak lines The streak line through the point z(0) at time t represents the positions
at time t of the material particles that at any time t have occupied the place z(0) .
Experimentally we might visualize that smoke, dust, or dye are continuously injected into
a fluid at a position z(0) and that the resulting trails are photographed as functions of time.
Each photograph shows a streak line corresponding to the position z(0) and the time at which
the photograph was taken.
We saw in Section 1.1 that the motion describes the position z at time t of the material
particle that occupied the position z in the reference configuration:
z = (z , t)
In constructing a streak line, we focus our attention on those material particles that were in
the place z(0) at any time t:

z = 1 z(0) ,
The parametric equations of the streak line through the point z (0) at time t are obtained by
eliminating z between these equations:

z = 1 z(0) , , t
Time t is the parameter along the streak line.
As an example, show that, for the velocity distribution of Exercise 1.1.0-6, the streak line
through z(0) at time t is specified by

1+t
z 1 = z 1(0)
1+

1 + 2t 1/2
z 2 = z 2(0)
1 + 2
z 3 = z 3(0)
A streak line corresponding to t = 4 is shown in Figure 1.1.0-3. This figure also presents
two of the path lines from Exercise 1.1.0-6 corresponding to = 0 and 0.5 that contribute
1.2. Frame 9
2.5 =0
0.25
z2 2
t=4
1.5
2 3 4 5
z1
Figure 1.1.0-3. Starting from the top, we see two path lines
from Exercise 1.1.0-6) corresponding to = 0 and 0.25. The
bottom curve is the streak line corresponding to t = 4.
to this streak line. The path line corresponding to = 0 extends to the right tip of the streak
line. It represents the first particle contributing to the streak line. A path line corresponding
to = 4 would merely be a point at the left tip of the streak line, the origin of the streak
line (0, 0). It would represent the particle currently leaving the origin.
Exercise 1.1.0-10 Show that, for a velocity distribution that is independent of time, the path lines,
streamlines, and streak lines coincide.
Hint: In considering the path line, take as the boundary condition
at t = : z = z(0)
This suggests the introduction of a new variable t , which denotes time measured
since the particle passed through the position z(0) .
1.2 Frame
1.2.1 Changes of Frame

The Chief of the United States Weather Bureau in Milwaukee announces that a tornado was
sighted in Chicago at 3 P.M. (Central Standard Time). In Chicago, Harry reports that he saw
a black funnel cloud about two hours ago at approximately 800 North and 2400 West. Both
men described the same event with respect to their own particular frame of reference.
The time of some occurrence may be specified only with respect to the time of some
other event, the frame of reference for time. This might be the time at which a stopwatch was
started or an electric circuit was closed. The Chief reported the time at which the tornado
was sighted relative to the mean time at which the sun appeared overhead on the Greenwich
meridian. Harry gave the time relative to his conversation.
10 1. Kinematics
b(2)
b(1)
Figure 1.2.1-1. Pencil points away from the di-

rection of b(1) and toward the direction of b(2) .
A frame of reference for position might be the walls of a laboratory, the fixed stars, or the
shell of a space capsule that is following an arbitrary trajectory. When the Chief specified
Chicago, he meant the city at 41 north and 87 west measured relative to the equator and
the Greenwich meridian. Harry thought in terms of eight blocks north of Madison Avenue
and 24 blocks west of State Street. More generally, a frame of reference for position is a set
of objects whose mutual distances remain unchanged during the period of observation and
which do not all lie in the same plane.
To help you get a better physical feel for these ideas, let us consider two more examples.
Extend your right arm and take as your frame of reference for position the direction of
your right arm, the direction of your eyes, and the direction of your spine. Stand out at the
street with your eyes fixed straight ahead. A car passes in the direction of your right arm.
If you were standing facing the street on the opposite side, the automobile would appear to
pass in the opposite direction from your right arm.
Lay a pencil on your desk as shown in Figure 1.2.1-1 and take the edges of the desk that
meet in the left-hand front corner as your frame of reference for position. The pencil points
away from b(1) and toward b(2) . Without moving the pencil, walk around to the left-hand
side and take as your new frame of reference for position the edges of the desk that meet at
the left-hand rear corner. The pencil now appears to point toward the intersection of b(1) and
b(2) in Figure 1.2.1-2.
Since all of the objects defining a frame of reference do not lie in the same plane, we may
visualize replacing them by three mutually orthogonal unit vectors. Let us view a typical
point z in this space with respect to two such frames of reference: the b(i) (i = 1, 2, 3) in
Figure 1.2.1-3 and the b( j) ( j = 1, 2, 3) in Figure 1.2.1-4.
An orthogonal transformation preserves both lengths and angles (Section A.5.2). Let Q
be the orthogonal transformation that describes the rotation and (possibly) reflection that
takes the b(i) in Figure 1.2.1-3 into the vectors Q b(i) , which are seen in Figure 1.2.1-4 with
respect to the starred frame of reference for position. A reflection allows for the possibility
that an observer in the new frame looks at the old frame through a mirror. Alternatively,
a reflection allows for the possibility that two observers orient themselves oppositely, one
choosing to work in terms of a right-handed frame of reference for position and the other in
terms of a left-handed one. [For more on this point, I suggest that you read Truesdell (1966a,
p. 22) as well as Truesdell
and Noll (1965, pp. 24 and 47).]
The vector z z(0) in Figure 1.2.1-3 becomes Q z z(0) when viewed in the starred
frame shown in Figure 1.2.1-4. From Figure 1.2.1-4, it follows as well that

z z(0) = Q z z(0) (1.2.1-1)
1.2. Frame 11
b*(2)
b*(1)
Figure 1.2.1-2. Pencil points

toward the direction of b(1)
and b(2) .
z-z(0)
z(0)
z
b(3)
z(0)
b(2)
b(1)
Figure 1.2.1-3. The points z and z (0) are located
by the position vectors z and z(0) with respect tothe
frame of reference for position b(1) , b(2) , b(3) .

Similarly, z z(0) in Figure 1.2.1-4 is seen as QT z z(0) when observed with
respect to the unstarred frame in Figure 1.2.1-5. Figure 1.2.1-5 also makes it clear that

z z(0) = QT z z(0) (1.2.1-2)
Let z and t denote a position and time in the old frame; z and t are the corresponding
position and time in the new frame. We can extend the discussion above to conclude that the
12 1. Kinematics
z
Q . b(2)
Q.z
Q . b(3)
z*
Q . (z-z(0)) Q . b(1)
Q . z(0)
z(0)
b(3)
*
*
z(0)
* *
b(2)
b(1)
Figure 1.2.1-4. The points z and z (0) are located by the

position vectors z and z(0) with respect to the starred frame

of reference for position b(1) , b(2) , b(3) . With respect to
the
starred frame of reference, the unstarred frame is seen as
Q b(1) , Q b(2) , Q b(3) .
QT . b(1)
*
QT . b(3)
*
QT . z *
QT . b(2)
*
QT . z(0)
*
. (z*-z(0) z
QT *
)
z(0) b(3)
z
z(0)
b(2)
b(1)
Figure 1.2.1-5. With respect to the unstarred frame

of
reference, the starred frame is seen as
QT b(1) , QT b(2) , QT b(3) .
1.2. Frame 13
most general change of frame is of the form

z = z(0) (t) + Q(t) z z(0) (1.2.1-3)
t = t a (1.2.1-4)
where we allow the two frames discussed in Figures 1.2.1-3 and 1.2.1-4 to rotate and translate
with respect to one another as functions of time. The quantity a is a real number. Equivalently,
we could also write

z = z(0) (t) + QT z z(0) (1.2.1-5)
t = t + a (1.2.1-6)
It is important to carefully distinguish between a frame of reference for position and a

coordinate system. Any coordinate system whatsoever can be used to locate points in space
with respect to three vectors defining a frame of reference for position and their intersection,
although I recommend that admissible coordinate systems be restricted to those whose axes
have a time-invariant orientation with respect to the frame. Let (z 1 , z2 , z 3 ) be a rectangular

Cartesian coordinate system associated with the frame of reference b(1) , b(2) , b(3) ; simi-
larly, let z 1 , z 2 , z 3 be a rectangular
Cartesian coordinate system associated with another
frame of reference b(1) , b(2) , b(3) . We will say that these two coordinate systems are the
same if the orientation of the basis fields ei with respect to the vectors b( j) is identical to the
orientation of the basis fields ei with respect to the vectors b( j) :
ei b( j) = ei b( j) for all i, j = 1, 2, 3 (1.2.1-7)
We will generally find it convenient to use the same coordinate system in discussing two
different frames of reference.
Let us use the same rectangular Cartesian coordinate system to discuss the change of
frame illustrated in Figures 1.2.1-4 and 1.2.1-5. The orthogonal tensor
Q = Q i j ei e j (1.2.1-8)
describes the rotation (and possibly reflection) that transforms the basis vectors e j ( j =
1, 2, 3) into the vectors
Q e j = Q i j ei (1.2.1-9)
which are vectors expressed in terms of the starred frame of reference for position. The
rectangular Cartesian components of Q are defined by the angles between the ei and the
Q ej:

Q i j = ei Q e j (1.2.1-10)

The vector z z(0) in Figure 1.2.1-3 becomes

Q z z(0) = Q i j z j z (0) j ei (1.2.1-11)
when viewed in the starred frame shown in Figure 1.2.1-4. From Figure 1.2.1-4, it follows
as well that

z i ei = z (0)i

ei + Q i j z j z (0) j ei (1.2.1-12)
14 1. Kinematics
We speak of a quantity as being frame indifferent if it remains unchanged or invariant

under all changes of frame. A frame-indifferent scalar b does not change its value:
b = b (1.2.1-13)
A frame-indifferent spatial vector remains the same directed line element under a change of
frame in the sense that if
u = z1 z2
then
u = z1 z2
From (1.2.1-3),
u = Q (z1 z2 )
=Qu (1.2.1-14)
A frame-indifferent second-order tensor is one that transforms frame-indifferent spatial

vectors into frame-indifferent spatial vectors. If
u=Tw (1.2.1-15)
the requirement that T be a frame-indifferent second-order tensor is
u = T w (1.2.1-16)
where
u = Q u
(1.2.1-17)
w = Q w
This means that
Q u = T Q w
=QTw (1.2.1-18)
which implies
T = Q T T Q (1.2.1-19)
or
T = Q T Q T (1.2.1-20)
The importance of changes of frame will become apparent in Section 2.3.1, where the
principle of frame indifference is introduced. This principle will be used repeatedly in
discussing representations for material behavior and in preparing empirical data correlations.
The material in this section is drawn from Truesdell and Toupin (1960, p. 437), Truesdell
and Noll (1965, p. 41), and Truesdell (1966a, p. 22).
1.2. Frame 15
Exercise 1.2.1-1 Let T be a frame-indifferent scalar field. Starting with the definition of the
gradient of a scalar field in Section A.3.1, show that the gradient of T is frame indifferent:
T (T ) = Q T
Exercise 1.2.1-2 In order that (defined in Exercise A.7.2-11) be a frame-indifferent third-order

tensor field, prove that
= (det Q)ei jk ei e j ek
1.2.2 Equivalent Motions

In Section 1.1, I described the motion of a material with respect to some frame of reference
by
z = (z , t) (1.2.2-1)
where we understand that the form of this relation depends upon the choice of reference
configuration . According to our discussion in Section 1.2.1, the same motion with respect
to some new frame of reference is represented by
z = (z , t )
= z0 (t) + Q(t) [(z , t) z0 ] (1.2.2-2)
We will say that any two motions and related by an equation of the form of (1.2.2-2)
are equivalent motions.
Let us write (1.2.2-2) in an abbreviated form:
z = z0 + Q (z z0 ) (1.2.2-3)
The material derivative of this equation gives

dz0 dQ
v = + (z z0 ) + Q v (1.2.2-4)
dt dt
or
dz0 dQ
v Q v = + (z z0 ) (1.2.2-5)
dt dt
In view of (1.2.2-3), we may write
z z0 = QT Q (z z0 )

= QT z z0 (1.2.2-6)
This allows us to express (1.2.2-5) as

dz dQ
v Q v = 0 + QT z z0
dt dt
dz
= 0 + A z z0 (1.2.2-7)
dt
16 1. Kinematics
where
dQ
A QT (1.2.2-8)
dt
We refer to the second-order tensor A as the angular velocity tensor of the starred frame
with respect to the unstarred frame (Truesdell 1966a, p. 24).
Since Q is an orthogonal tensor,
Q QT = I (1.2.2-9)
Taking the material derivative of this equation, we have
dQ dQT
A= QT = Q
dt dt

dQ T
= Q
dt
= AT (1.2.2-10)
In this way we see that the angular velocity tensor is skew symmetric.
The angular velocity vector of the unstarred frame with respect to the starred frame is
defined as
1
tr( A) (1.2.2-11)
2
The third-order tensor is introduced in Exercises A.7.2-11 and A.7.2-12 (see also Exercise
1.2.1-2), where tr denotes the trace operation defined in Section A.7.3. Let us consider the
following spatial vector in rectangular Cartesian coordinates:

z z0 = tr z z0

1
= tr z z0 tr( A)
2

1
= ei jk z k z 0 k e jmn Anm ei
2
1
= z k z 0 k (Ai j Aki )ei
2

= z k z 0 k Aik ei

= A z z0 (1.2.2-12)
We may consequently write (1.2.2-7) in terms of the angular velocity of the unstarred frame
with respect to the starred frame (Truesdell and Toupin 1960, p. 437):
dz0
v = + [Q (z z0 )] + Q v (1.2.2-13)
dt
1.2. Frame 17
The material in this section is drawn from Truesdell and Noll (1965, p. 42) and Truesdell
(1966a, p. 22).
Exercise 1.2.2-1
i) Show that velocity is not frame indifferent.

ii) Show that at any position in euclidean point space a difference in velocities with respect
to the same frame is frame indifferent.
Exercise 1.2.2-2 Acceleration
i) Determine that (Truesdell 1966a, p. 24)

d(m) v d 2 z0 dz0
= + 2A v
dt dt 2 dt

dA d(m) v
+ A A z z0 + Q
dt dt
ii) Prove that (Truesdell and Toupin 1960, p. 440)

d(m) v d 2 z0 d(m) A
= + + A A Q (z z0 )
dt dt 2 dt
d(m) v
+ 2A Q v + Q
dt
iii) Prove that

z z0 = A A z z0
d dA
z z0 = z z0
dt dt
and
(Q v) = A Q v
iv) Conclude that (Truesdell and Toupin 1960, p. 438)
d(m) v d 2 z0 d
= 2
+ [Q (z z0 )]
dt dt dt
+ { [Q (z z0 )]}
d(m) v
+ 2 (Q v) + Q
dt
Exercise 1.2.2-3 Give an example of a scalar that is not frame indifferent.
Hint: What vector is not frame indifferent?

18 1. Kinematics
Exercise 1.2.2-4 Motion of a rigid body Determine that the velocity distribution in a rigid body may
be expressed as
dz0
v = + z z0
dt
What is the relation of the unstarred frame to the body in this case?
1.3 Mass
1.3.1 Conservation of Mass

This discussion of mechanics is based upon several postulates. The first is
Conservation of mass The mass of a body is independent of time.
Physically, this means that, if we follow a portion of a material body through any number
of translations, rotations, and deformations, the mass associated with it will not vary as a
function of time. If is the mass density of the body, the mass may be represented as
Z
dV
R(m)
Here d V denotes that a volume integration is to be performed over the region R(m) of space
occupied by the body in its current configuration; in general R(m) , or the limits on this
integration, is a function of time. The postulate of conservation of mass says that
Z
d
dV = 0 (1.3.1-1)
dt R(m)
Notice that, like the material particle introduced in Section 1.1, mass is a primitive concept.
Rather than defining mass, we describe its properties. We have just examined its most
important property: It is conserved. In addition, I will require that
>0 (1.3.1-2)
and that the mass density be a frame-indifferent scalar,
= (1.3.1-3)
Our next objective will be to determine a relationship that expresses the idea of conserva-
tion of mass at each point in a material. To do this, we will find it necessary to interchange
the operations of differentiation and integration in (1.3.1-1). Yet the limits on this integral
describe the boundaries of the body in its current configuration and generally are functions
of time. The next section explores this problem in more detail.
1.3.2 Transport Theorem

Let us consider the operation
Z
d
9 dV
dt R(m)

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April 1, 1999 9:15 CB150/Slattery FM

PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

First published 1999

Printed in the United States of America

Typeset in Gill Sans and Times Roman LATEX 2 [TB]

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Slattery, John Charles, 1932

3 Differential Balances in Momentum Transfer 65

4.4 Integral Balances 217

6.7.5 Flow Past a Body of Revolution 349

8.4.7 Constitutive Equations for the Stress Tensor 464

10.3.7 The Local Volume Average of the Overall Differential

A.11 Integration 679

HIS ENTIRE CHAPTER IS INTRODUCTORY in much the same way as Ap-

Figure 1.1.0-1. A rubber ball in three

Exercise 1.1.0-3 Consider the second-order tensor field T = T(z, t).

Exercise 1.1.0-4 Show that

d(m)r d(m) d(m) z

d(m)r d(m) d(m)

Figure 1.1.0-2. Streamlines for the limiting case of steady-

1.2.1 Changes of Frame

Figure 1.2.1-1. Pencil points away from the di-

Figure 1.2.1-2. Pencil points

Figure 1.2.1-4. The points z and z (0) are located by the

Figure 1.2.1-5. With respect to the unstarred frame

most general change of frame is of the form

It is important to carefully distinguish between a frame of reference for position and a

ei b( j) = ei b( j) for all i, j = 1, 2, 3 (1.2.1-7)

We speak of a quantity as being frame indifferent if it remains unchanged or invariant

A frame-indifferent second-order tensor is one that transforms frame-indifferent spatial

the requirement that T be a frame-indifferent second-order tensor is

This means that

Exercise 1.2.1-2 In order that (defined in Exercise A.7.2-11) be a frame-indifferent third-order

1.2.2 Equivalent Motions

The material derivative of this equation gives

This allows us to express (1.2.2-5) as

i) Show that velocity is not frame indifferent.

Exercise 1.2.2-2 Acceleration

i) Determine that (Truesdell 1966a, p. 24)

ii) Prove that (Truesdell and Toupin 1960, p. 440)

iv) Conclude that (Truesdell and Toupin 1960, p. 438)

Exercise 1.2.2-3 Give an example of a scalar that is not frame indifferent.

Hint: What vector is not frame indifferent?

1.3.1 Conservation of Mass

Conservation of mass The mass of a body is independent of time.

1.3.2 Transport Theorem

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