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chapter 9
introduction
First impressions count. Carlin Flora
(2004), writing in Psychology Today, chapter objectives: chapter outline:
After reading this chapter, you should be able to: Introduction
recounts an experiment in which people Functions of Introductions
with no special training were shown o Gain Attention and Interest
1. List and describe the four
20-to 32- second video clips of job o Gain Goodwill
functions of an introduction
applicants in the initial stages of a job 2. List and describe the o Clearly State the Purpose
interview. After watching the short common types of attention o Preview and Structure the
clips, the viewers were asked to rate the getters Speech
applicants on characteristics including 3. Describe and implement Attention-Getting Strategies
self-assurance and likeability strategies for preparing o Tell a Story
important considerations in a job introductions o Refer to the Occasion
o Refer to Recent or Historical
interview. These ratings were then 4. List and describe the four
functions of a conclusion Events
compared with the findings from the
5. List and describe common o Refer to Previous Speeches
trained interviewers who spent 20 o Refer to Personal Interest
minutes or more with the job types of conclusions
6. Describe and implement o Use Startling Statistics
applicants. The result: The 20-to 32- o Use an Analogy
strategies for preparing
second ratings were basically the same conclusions o Use a Quotation
as the ratings from the trained 7. Apply chapter concepts in o Ask a Question
interviewers. review questions and o Use Humor
activities Preparing the Introduction
When we stand in front of an o Construct the Introduction Last
audience, we have very little time to set o Make it Relevant
the stage for a successful speech. As o Be Succinct
seen from the example above, audience purpose of the speech and they must o Write it Out Word for Word
members begin evaluating us preview the main points. Functions of Conclusions
immediately. What we sometimes These first two functions of the o Prepare the Audience for the
forget since we are so focused on the introduction, gaining the attention of end of the speech
words we have to say is that we are o Present Any Final Appeals
the audience and the good will of the
being evaluated even before we open o Summarize and Close
audience, have most to do with getting
o End with a Clincher
our mouths. the audience to want to listen to you. o Appeals and Challenges
The other two functions of the Composing the Conclusion
He has the deed half done introduction, stating the purpose of the o Prepare the Conclusion
who has made a beginning. speech and previewing the structure of o Do Not Include any New
the speech, have to do with helping the Information
~ Horace audience understand you. o Follow the Structure
Conclusion
Review Questions and Activities
functions of introductions gain attention and Interest Glossary
Speech introductions are an essential The first function of the introduction References
element of an effective public speech. is to the get the attention AND the
Introductions have four specific
functions that need to be met in a very The secret of successful speakers? Passion and compassion
short period of time. Introductions
must gain the audiences attention and with a purpose.
their goodwill, they must state the ~ Lily Walters
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Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org
their attention and interestyou still You can also demonstrate internal
need them to think favorably of you. credibility by demonstrating personal
The most effective way of doing this is experience with or knowledge of the
by establishing your credibility to topic of your speech. Audiences are
speak. Credibility is your believability. more positively disposed toward a
You are credible when the audience speaker who has had experience with
thinks you know what you are talking the topic of his or her speech. You can
about. There are a number of methods also demonstrate credibility and
for developing credibility, and you will goodwill by showing a connection to
use them throughout the speech. In the your audience, demonstrating shared
introduction, however, since you have experiences or shared values.
interest of the audience. The and here comparatively little time to develop this A student giving a speech to a class
is important. Anyone can walk into a credibility, your options are a bit more about a month before spring break,
room full of people sitting quietly, and limited. right in the middle of an extended cold
YELL AT THE TOP OF THEIR spell of a long Midwestern winter,
LUNGS. That will get attention. To be persuasive, we must be offered this introduction as a way to
However, it will probably not garner believable. To be believable, show shared values and experiences:
much interestat least not much
positive interest. we must be credible. To be I need everyone to close his or her
Gaining attention and interest is
credible, we must be truthful. eyes. All right, now I need
everyone to picture how he or she
essential if you want the audience to ~ Hellmut Walters got to school today. Did you
listen to what you have to say, and bundle up with a hat, some mittens,
audiences will decide fairly quickly if Essentially, credibility has two boots, and two jackets because its
they want to pay attention. Standing in elements: external credibility and so cold outside before you left for
front of an audience, slouched, hands in internal credibility. External class? While walking to class, was
pockets, cap pulled low over your head, credibility is the type of credibility you it cold? Did your ears burn from
and mumbling, my name is and I as a speaker gain by association: use of the icy wind blowing through the
am going to tell you about is an sources that the audience finds credible, air? Were your hands cold and
effective method of NOT getting for example. In an introduction, you chapped? Now I want you all to
attention and interest. Before you even may be able to develop external think about the sun beating down
open your mouth, your attire, stance credibility by this means, as we will see on your body. Picture yourself
and physical presence are all sending later in this section. lying on the beach with sand
out loud signals that you have no between your toes and the sound of
interest in the speech, so why should More importantly, given the
immediate nature of an introduction, is the ocean in the background. Or
the audience. picture yourself poolside, with a
internal credibility. You develop
internal credibility as the speaker Pina Coloda perhaps, with tropical
through specific actions. First, be music playing in the background.
gain the goodwill of the audience
Over 2000 years ago, probably the appropriately attired for a public Picture yourself in Mazatlan,
presentation. Second, make eye Mexico (Townsend, 2007).
pre-eminent speech teacher of all time,
Aristotle (1982), noted the importance contact with the audience before you
of gaining the goodwill of the audience: speak. Third, speak clearly, fluently
and confidently.
it is not only necessary to
consider how to make the speech
itself demonstrative and
convincing, but also that the
speaker should show himself to be
of a certain characterand that
When speakers can identify with the
his hearers should think that he is
audience and can show how the
disposed in a certain way toward
them; and further, that they audience and the speaker share
themselves should be disposed in a experiences, then the audience is more
certain way towards him (p. 169). receptive to what the speaker has to
say. The speaker is both more credible
When an audience has decided to and more attractive to the audience.
listen to youwhen you have gained
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Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org
start the story, get right to the climax, Well, thank you. Thank you Mr.
and then stop. You have the attention President, First Lady, King
of the audience; you have shared Abdullah of Jordan, Norm
experiences with them; and now you [Coleman], distinguished guests.
also have the conclusion of the speech Please join me in praying that I
all set to gothe end of the story. don't say something we'll all
regret.
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Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org
in a lively and clear manneragain, rest of the story. You need to place
enhancing your credibility. Referring this startling statistic in the context of
to your personal interest in this topic in your speech so that everything fits
the introduction also helps you set the together.
stage for additional anecdotes or One speaker used an effective
examples from your personal startling statistic to help introduce a
experience later in the speech. speech on the dangers of heart disease:
In speaking at the 1992 Democratic According to the Center for
National Convention, Elizabeth Glaser Disease Control, in the United
began her speech by acknowledging States 26.6 million adults have
her very personal interest in the topic: heart disease. This would be about
I'm Elizabeth Glaser. Eleven years 12% of adults, or three people in
ago, while giving birth to my first this room.
child, I hemorrhaged and was
transfused with seven pints of
blood. Four years later, I found out use an analogy
that I had been infected with the Analogies compare something that
AIDS virus and had unknowingly your audience knows and understands
on the same topic you are now planning passed it to my daughter, Ariel, with something new and different. For
to address. By referring to the previous through my breast milk, and my your speech, then, you can use an
speeches, you enhance your credibility son, Jake, in utero (Glaser, 1992). analogy to show a connection between
by showing your knowledge of the your speech topic (something new and
previous speech, and you have the different for the audience) and
opportunity to either compare or something that is known by your
contrast your speech to the previous audience.
speeches. Analogies can be effective because
Edward Kennedy, at the 1980 they use ideas, information and values
Democratic National Convention, of the audience to draw a connection to
began his speech with a short tribute your speech topicand to you as a
and acknowledgement to the previous speaker. Analogies create connections
speaker, member of Congress Barbara between you and the audience.
Mikulski: One very common (and often
Thanks very much, Barbara misquoted) analogy comes from the
Mikulski, for your very eloquent, 1919 Supreme Court case of Schenck v
your eloquent introduction. use startling statistics United States. Justice Oliver Wendell
Distinguished legislator, great Startling statistics startle an audience
spokeswoman for economic and catch its attention, and encourage
democracy and social justice in that audience to listen further as you
this country, I thank you for your present the context of the surprising
eloquent introduction. statistic. Long-time radio announcer
Paul Harvey is well known for the
catch phrase And now, the rest of the
refer to personal interest story. The same function should be at
One of the key considerations in work here. When you startle the
choosing an appropriate topic for your audience, you set them up to want to
speech is that you have a personal hear the rest of the story.
interest in that topic. An effective Be careful, though. Use of startling
attention getter then, can be your statistics requires that you do a number
description of that personal interest. of things. First, make sure the statistic
By noting your personal interest, you is accurate. Second, make sure the
will demonstrate your credibility by statistic is relevant to the topic of the
showing your knowledge and speech. Startling an audience with an
experience with this topic, and because irrelevant statistic diminishes the
you have a personal interest, you are speech and decreases your credibility.
more likely to present this information Third, make sure you then present the
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Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org
Holmes used this analogy to support his benefits, if a speaker feels comfortable
reasoning that some forms of with his or her audience, and is able to
expression can be suppressed because handle some impromptu situations.
they present a clear and present Getting the audience to physically and
danger. Holmes noted that [t]he verbally involve themselves in your
most stringent protection of free speech topic guarantees that theyre paying
would not protect a man falsely attention. Using questions that lead to
shouting fire in a theater and causing a positive answers can also enhance your
panic (Schenck vs. United States). connection to and credibility with the
audience.
Starting a speech with a question
One good analogy is worth utilized a very short quotation to whether rhetorical or actual does
emphasize his feelings upon leaving
three hours discussion. office.
require thought and practice on your
part. You need to carefully consider
~ Dudley Field Malone People ask how I feel about the question and possible answers.
leaving. And the fact is, "parting is Remembereven if you think the
use a quotation such sweet sorrow." The sweet part question is rhetorical, your audience
Using a quotation from a well- is California and the ranch and may not know this and may answer the
known figure, or using a quotation freedom. The sorrow -- the question. You also need to carefully
from a lesser-known figure if the goodbyes, of course, and leaving deliver the question. Too often,
quotation is particularly suitable for this beautiful place. speakers will use a question as an
your speech topic, is a common introductionbut then give the
attention-getting technique. When you audience no time to either think about
quote that well-known figure, you are Using rhetorical questions in the answer or answer the question. You
in a sense, borrowing some of that need to use timing and pause when
persons credibility for your speech, speeches is a great way to starting with a question. You also need
enhancing your credibility with the keep the audience involved. to be careful to use eye contact in
audience. Even when you use a less Don't you think those kinds of asking questions, since you are above
than well-known figure, the quotation all asking for audience involvement,
can be effective if it nicely sets up your questions would keep your and your eye contact requests that
speech topic and is something to which attention? involvement.
your audience can relate. ~ Bo Bennett
Be careful with quotations, however.
First, just using the quotation is not ask a question
It is not enough for me to ask
sufficient. You need to place the The use of questions can be a very questions; I want to know
quotation in the context of your speech
(as well as meet the other required
effective way to get attention, whether how to answer the one
those questions are rhetorical in nature,
functions of an introduction, of course). and are only meant to be considered
question that seems to
Second, it is easy to fall into a bad (and and pondered by the audience, or are encompass everything I face:
somewhat lazy) habit of simply finding
a quotation and using it to start every
meant to be answered by the audience What am I here for?
(generally a good technique to get
speech. Third, simply using a quotation audience involvement and interest).
~ Abraham Joshua Heschel
is no guarantee that your audience will
find that quotation interesting or apt for Rhetorical questions are designed
In 1992, Ross Perot selected a little-
the speech, and may also find the to allow you as speaker to get the
known retired military figure, Admiral
author of the quotation to be lacking in audience to think about your topic
James Stockdale, as his Vice
credibilityor your audience may without actually speaking the answer to
Presidential running mate. In the fall
simply not like the author of the the question. Rhetorical questions
debates, Stockdale began his opening
quotation. Finally, beware of overly- allow you as speaker to maintain the
statement with two questions: Who
long quotations (three or more most control over a speech situation,
am I? Why am I here? (Stockdale,
sentences): Remember, this is just part and allow you to guard against an
1992). The questions received
of the introduction, not a main point of inappropriate or even offensive
applause and also laughter, though the
the speech. response.
later reaction to these questions was
In his farewell address, former Using questions that ask for real mixed at best. Some saw this as
President Ronald Reagan (1989) responses, however, has additional confusion on the part of Stockdale
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Since you are on a time limit, and Introductions are succinct (as we
since, as noted above, the body of the learned above), and introductions have
speech is the heart of your speech, the to do a lot of work in a short period of
introduction of your speech needs to be time. Because of this, you as a speaker
concise and succinct. There is no magic need to carefully consider every word
formula for the length of an of your introduction. The best method
introduction, and you do need to meet for doing so is to write your
all four functions in your introduction. introduction out word for word. Then
Many authors suggest that the you can more easily see if you have
introduction be no more than 10-15% met all four functions, and can also
of the total speaking time. have a very good idea just how long the
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audience is aware you have completed ability to integrate this information question (and allow the audience to
your speech. Keep in mind as well that with the rest of the speech. Remember consider the answer), the answer will
conclusions should comprise no more that all elements of the speech need to be different because of your speech.
than 10% of the total speaking time. flow together. New ideas at the very The audience will be able to see what
Just as with the introduction, write end of the speech will not enhance the you have accomplished in the speech.
out the conclusion word for word. This flow of the speech. Additionally, You can also pose a new question, one
is your last chance to impress your because you are just now bringing in that again points out what the audience
audience and to make sure that they this information at the end of the has learned from your speech.
understand what you have said. Do not speech, you will have no or very little Startling statistics, as quotations and
leave the conclusion to chance: write it time to develop these ideas, or to questions, now take on new meaning
out. provide supporting information and because of all that you have told the
documentation for these ideas. audience in your speech. Reminding
Success depends upon the audience of startling statistics
previous preparation, and follow the structure
should provide them with a key
reminder of the main point of your
without such preparation The approach of using the built-in
speech.
structure of the specific
there is sure to be failure. introduction/conclusion technique is as
~ Confucius equally effective with quotations,
questions and startling statistics as it is summary
do not Include any new with stories. This chapter first shows how to
information
structure and develop introductions and
You can use the same quotation at conclusions. Second, it argues that
While it is important to present your the end as at the beginning, but because
appeal and any call to action in the introductions function to gain audience
of what we have learned in the speech, attention and goodwill, and that
conclusion, it is also important to NOT the quotation has a new and more
present new information in your introductions help structure the speech
developed meaning. You can also use a with a thesis statement and preview.
conclusion. Remember: one of the new quotation that draws a comparison
functions of the conclusion is to Third, the chapter explains that
and contrast to the beginning quotation, conclusions help audiences remember
prepare the audience for the end of the and also highlights what we have
speech. If all of the sudden you present the key ideas of a speech. Finally, the
learned in the speech. chapter reveals that there are a variety
a new argument, new information, or a
new point, you will confuse your You can use the same question at the of different techniques for introductions
audience. conclusion as you did at the beginning, and conclusions, and that many of the
and regardless of whether you ask for a techniques for introductions apply to
If you present new information in the response or pose it as a rhetorical conclusions as well.
conclusion, you will also lose the
Introductions set the stage for the
speech that is to come; conclusions
make sure that the audience goes away
changed in a positive manner. Short in
time, they require careful thought and
precise language to be effective. Done
well, introductions prepare an audience
to learn, and conclusions help to insure
that an audience has understood the
purpose of the speech.
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Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org
review questions
1. What are the four basic functions of introductions, and why are these functions important?
2. List and give one original example of each of the ten attention-getting devices.
3. What are three reasons why stories are effective as introductions?
4. Why is humor both useful and dangerous at the same time?
5. What is a preview statement, and why is it important as part of an introduction?
6. What are the four basic functions of conclusions, and why are these functions important?
7. Compare and contrast an appeal and a challenge. When would you use each technique?
8. What does it mean to follow the structure in a conclusion?
9. Why are introductions and conclusions prepared last?
activities
1. Review the following speech and then write a brief (150-200 words) analysis on how the speaker used (or did not
use) effective introduction and conclusion techniques.
http://msustr0.campus.mnsu.edu:8080/cah/gorgias/333/CollieSampPersSpeech.wmv
3. Working with a partner, create at least five analogies that could be used as part of an effective introduction for any
of the topics listed below
Commonalities of the worlds major religions Making the perfect lasagna
Dealing with gaming addiction The three most important factors in choosing an
Selecting a college automobile
Why the penny should be eliminated The dangers of radon
My worst first date Traveling through Europe on a budget
Protecting your identity online and offline
4. Locate an informative or a persuasive speech on Youtube. Watch the speech once in its entirety, and then
watching it a second time, answer these questions.
a. What attention-getting technique was used? Was it effective?
b. Did the speaker establish his / her credibility effectively?
c. Was the thesis or purpose of the speech clear?
d. Did the speaker preview the main points of the speech.
e. Did the main points of the speech correspond with the preview?
f. Did the speaker prepare the audience for the end of the speech?
g. Did the speaker present any final appeals? Was this effective?
h. What type of clincher (closing technique) was used? Was it effective?
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Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org
glossary
Analogy
A figure of speech that essentially compares something that your audience knows and understands with
something new and different.
Preview
Sometimes called a road map, a preview is a brief oral outline in which the speaker clearly and concisely
states the main points of the speech.
Internal Credibility
This is a form of credibility based on attributes that are largely controlled by a speaker, such as appearance,
confidence, charisma, trustworthiness, and speaking ability.
Expectancy Violation
Expectancy violations occur when people engage in behavior that is unexpected or inappropriate for the
situation.
External Credibility
This is a form of credibility based on attributes that a speaker can borrow, such as using credible sources
and referring to credible and popular people and events.
Primacy Effect
According to this principle, audiences are likely to remember what they hear or read first.
Recency Effect
According to this principle, audiences are likely to remember what they hear or read last.
Rhetorical Question
When a speaker asks a question that is not meant to be answered outloud, or a question for which the
audience already knows the answer. This is often used as a way to get an audience to think about the topic.
Thesis
One sentence or statement that succinctly and accurately lets the audience know what the speech will be
about and what the speaker plans to accomplish in the speech.
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Chapter 9 Introductions & Conclusions www.publicspeakingproject.org
references
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Freese, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: Quarterly, 41, 394-404. Gettysburg address. Speech posted at
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Bitzer, L. (1968). The rhetorical Democratic national convention eeches/gettysburgaddress.htm
situation. Philosophy and Rhetoric, address. Speech posted at Reagan, R. (1989, January 11). Farewell
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Bono. (2006, February 2). Keynote eeches/elizabethglaser1992dnc.htm at
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eeches/bononationalprayerbreakfast. eeches/lbjthegreatsociety.htm Richards, A. (1998, July 19). Democratic
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Kennedy, T. (1980, August 12). 1980
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Communication Monographs, 55, (1919).
King, Jr., M. L. (1963, August 28). I have
(1), 58-79.
a dream. Speech posted at Stockdale, J. (1992, October 19). The
Flora, C. (May-June 2004). The once- http://www.americanrhetoric.com/sp 1992 vice presidential debate.
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Psychology Today, 37 (3), 60-64. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/debati
Lehrer, J. (Interviewer) & Stockdale, J.
ngourdestiny/92debates/vp1.html
Fisher, W. (1987). Human (Interviewee). (1999). Debating our
communication as narration: Destiny: Admiral James Stockdale. Townsend, C. (2007, February 5). Spring
Toward a philosophy of reason, Retrieved from break in Mexico. Speech posted at
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photo credits
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