ANALYSIS OF PRECAST SEGMENTAL

CONCRETE BRIDGES

1. INTRODUCTION

Precast segmental construction can be defined as a method of construction in which

primary load carrying members are composed of individual segments post-tensioned
together as shown in Fig.1.1. The first segmental concrete bridge, built in 1950, was
cast-in-place across the Lahn River in Germany and the first precast segmental concrete
bridge, was built in 1962, across the Seine River in France (Walter Podolny 1979).
Advantages of this type of structures are fast and versatile construction, no disruption at
ground level, high controlled quality and savings in cost. Precast segments can be
incorporated to variety of bridge types such as cable stay, arches, rigid frames and girder
type bridges.

Fig.1.1 Precast Segmental Bridge Construction (Lucko G. 1999)

Precast segmental construction technology have extended the practical and competitive
economic span range of concrete bridges and are adaptable to almost any conceivable
site conditions as well. They are also chosen for their aesthetic appeal. Analysis of this
type of bridges is a complex phenomenon, particularly at the segment to segment joints.
Joints can be either dry or epoxy coated. Epoxy coated joints are preferable over dry
joints in segment construction (Xiangming Zhou et al.2005). Segment joints are the
locations of potential weakness for the entire bridge deck and thus requires special
attention. Although precast segmental bridge construction is common in many countries,
its application is very limited in India.

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 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature survey for the topic has been carried out. Technical papers, magazine
articles, previous year thesis and books related to topic were studied and their reviews
are presented below.

Miller and Juarez (1978) gives an insight into the preliminary design of segmental
precast box girder bridges using optimisation. Decisions about cross-sectional
dimensions made during preliminary design can have a substantial influence on the final
cost of the bridge. To help the designer obtain an economical starting point for a final
design, a program was written to determine section dimensions and mid span and pier
prestressing steel areas to give minimum cost. The optimization algorithm used was the
generalized reduced gradient technique. Since a preliminary design is obtained, the
analysis techniques and design criteria have been simplified to reduce computation.
Because of simplifications made in the analysis and design, the resulting design is
intended to be used as a starting point from which detailed design can be carried out.
The program produces designs that appear realistic compared to those used in practice,
although the results appear to indicate that somewhat shallower bridges than are
currently used would be optimum. For the only problem for which an actual design was
compared, the program produced a design about 5%, less costly than the design that was
built. The design produced by the program will satisfy American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) specification requirements and the
recommendations of the Precast Concrete Institute (PCI) Bridge Committee.

Walter Podolny (1979) discusses the evolution and advantages of precast segmental
bridge construction. It was observed that the first kind of precast segmental bridge was
built on 1948 by the French scientist Eugene Freyysinet in Paris. Later on by 1950s the
same appeared in other parts of Europe and United States. The advantages and
disadvantages of the precast segmental bridge construction is mentioned. Paper also
discuss how precast segments can be incorporated to variety of bridge types such as
cable stay, arches, rigid frames and girder type bridges. Examples of many of these
construction procedures and equipment and bridge types have been described.

Precast Segmental Box Girder Bridge Manual (1979) is a complete design handbook
on Precast Segmental Box Girder Bridges. It deals about development of precast

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segmental bridge construction including types of precast segmental construction,
advantages and its applications worldwide. It also gives an insight into various
considerations for segment design like principal dimensions of segments, pier and
abutment segments, post tensioning tendons, shear keys, epoxy joints etc. Analysis of
precast segmental bridge consist of longitudinal analysis, transverse analysis, and
correction to deformation. Longitudinal analysis include erection moments, creep
analysis, analysis for super imposed dead load and live load, analysis for effects of
temperature, shear lag effects and ultimate strength analysis. Transverse analysis include
evaluation of contributions of transverse bending, longitudinal bending and torsion to
resistance of anti-symmetrical loading. It also provide details of corrections for
deformation, rotation and super imposed curvature, guide lines for fabrication,
transportation and different methods of erection of segmental bridges.

Tadros M K et al. (1979) discusses about the long term deflections of segmental
bridges. A step by step computer method was proposed for determining the deflections
and stress distribution due to creep and shrinkage of concrete and relaxation of
prestressed steel. The computer program accounts for the presence of the non-
prestressed steel, difference in ages of the concrete segments, the multiple stages in
which the external loads and prestressing are applied, and the changes in geometry and
support condition as construction progresses. Deflection of a particular node with and
without considering creep, shrinkage and relaxation was evaluated. Graphs are plotted
for the vertical deflection of bridge at various construction stages considering the effects
of long term deflections.

Moreton A J (1981) gives an idea of use of epoxy glue joints in segmental construction.
Several tests were conducted on the same and the object was to investigate the structural
properties of glued joints and to examine the curing characteristics of the glue under
normal site conditions, particularly during cold weather. The structural properties were
examined using beams made up of five 150 mm concrete cubes glued together and tested
in bending for rupture, deflection and long term creep. Curing characteristics were
examined in conjunction with the field application of the glue by testing tell-tale metal
strips bonded with glue sampled from joints and cured alongside the bridge.
Thermocouples were placed in some joints of the bridge to check on the effectiveness of
space heating provided to assist curing in severe winter conditions. It was observed that

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the precast segments jointed with epoxy glue are structurally as effective as monolithic
concrete provided that the proper precautions are taken in preparing the mating surfaces
and that the glue achieves full cure. Curing at low temperatures may be prolonged
indefinitely and this should be considered in design, preferably in order to allow
construction to proceed as far as possible in cold conditions without the need for fully
cured glue. Space heating can be useful in assisting the curing. There are some evidence
that creep may be greater in glued members but its influence depends on scale. Within
structures the size of segmental bridges, this increased creep effect is considered to be
negligible in this paper.

Zdenek P B and Kim J K (1989) developed the probabilistic prediction of the

confidence limits on long-time deflections and internal forces of prestressed concrete
segmental box-girder bridges. The uncertainty of the predictions based on the existing
models for concrete creep is very large, but it can be greatly reduced by Bayesian
updating on the basis of short-time measurements of the deflections during construction
or of short-time creep and shrinkage strains of specimens made from the same concrete
as the bridge. The updated (posterior) probabilities can be obtained by Latin hypercube
sampling, which reduces the problem to a series of deterministic creep structural
analyses for randomly generated samples of random parameters of the creep and
shrinkage prediction model. The method does not require linearization of the problem
with regard to the random parameters, and a large number of the random parameters can
be taken into account. Application to a typical box girder bridge with age differences
between its segments and with a change of structural system from statically
indeterminate to determinate is illustrated numerically. The results prove that design for
extreme, rather than mean, long-time deflections and internal forces is feasible.
Adoption of such a design approach would improve long-term serviceability of box-
girder bridges.

Oral Buyukozturk et al. (1990) conducted a series of tests to study the shear behaviour
and strength of joints in precast concrete segmental bridges. Tests included models of
flat and keyed joints without epoxy (dry joints) and with epoxy. Experimental models
of keyed joints included a single key, representing one of a series of multiple keys used
in precast segmental bridges joints. These tests provide quantitative data and
fundamental behavioural understanding on deformation, cracking, and fracture of the

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precast concrete bridge joints. The results of the tests were analysed using a linear
regression method, and formulas were proposed for evaluating the ultimate shear
strength of the joints in terms of the normal (confining) stress, epoxy thickness, and
concrete strength. These formulas provide a rational estimate of the load level at which
shear-off of the shear keys, in either dry or epoxied joints, would occur.

Alfred and Nicholas (1990) developed a two-dimensional algorithm and a computer

program for the incremental analysis of cast-in-place segmental prestressed cantilever
bridges with variable depth. The model takes into consideration effects caused by
differences in age of bridge segments, shrinkage and creep of concrete, relaxation and
curvature of prestressing tendons, and vertical and horizontal movements of the supports
as well as their rotations. It also evaluates redistribution of internal forces with time after
continuity. A three-span highway bridge composed of two box girders with variable
depth, each carrying two lanes of traffic and a sidewalk, was analysed as the case study.
Long-time prestress losses should be evaluated at each construction stage, especially
before continuity is achieved, in order to compute exact camber values and reduce or
eliminate alignment operations and resulting induced forces. In cast-in-place concrete
segmental cantilever bridges, the effect of tendon curvature should not be neglected in
computing prestress losses and also, the weight of the form travellers should be
considered as a load producing time-dependent effect on the structure. Analysis of forces
induced by time-dependent foundation displacements should take into account the time
rate of displacements of different supports coupled with long-time effects in the
superstructure including segments different ages. Resulting internal forces can vary
considerably from those obtained considering only the final foundation-displacement
values and elastic analysis.

Hewson N (1992) gives an insight into the construction and design details of bridge
decks using dry joints. Erection procedure is simplified without the use of epoxy and is
made quicker. Paper also discusses about the advantages and disadvantages of using dry
joints in bridge decks. Regarding to the design of dry joints, ultimate moment design,
ultimate shear design and serviceability design was proposed. It was observed that with
dry-jointed beams under high deflection, rotations concentrate at individual joints in
contrast to the monolithic or epoxy-jointed beams where tensile cracks are spread out
more evenly. These higher concentrations of rotation tend to cause a dry-jointed beam
to fail before the equivalent monolithic or epoxied beam, and thus confirmed the use of

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lower flexural strength reduction factors in the 1989 AASHTO guide specification. It
was also observed that shear strength of dry joints is approximately 40% lesser than the
shear strength of epoxy joints.

Bruno Massicotte et al. (1994) discusses about strengthening of Grand Mere Bridge, a
long span prestressed segmental box girder bridge in the province of Quebec, Canada.
Authors observed that bridge experienced several problems which resulted in distress
characterized by an increasing deflection combined with localized cracking. These
defects were due mainly to insufficient prestressing causing high tensile stresses in the
deck and possible corrosion of the prestressing steel. Studies were conducted on the
bridge and authors found out that the span-to-depth ratio of box girder bridges at mid
span should not exceed 50. Thermal gradients should be considered in the design and
analysis of long span concrete bridges. Curved prestressing bars are not recommended.
Precast segmental construction, with epoxied joints, is preferable to cast-in-place
construction because of a better control on materials and workmanship, of reduced creep
effects, and of higher concrete strength. Cables more than 30 m (100 ft) long made of
individually lubricated sheathed strands inserted in ducts should be initially tensioned to
10 percent of their final tensioning force before grouting. Cast-in-place anchorage blocks
did not show any sign of distress. The anchorage block-and-diaphragm assembly and the
transverse prestressing bars appeared to work efficiently.

Dan Tassin et al. (1996) explains how to calculate the ultimate flexural capacity of a
Precast Segmental Box Girder Bridge. Author setup a test specimen designed in
accordance with the 1983 AASHTO Standard Specifications and the 1989 AASHTO
Guide Specifications for Segmental Bridges. The deck consists of 14 segments and
several instruments was used to monitor the behaviour of the specimen during loading.
The strain in the tendons, deflection at various levels, joint opening, and strain in
concrete were found out. Then ultimate capacity of precast segmental bridges with
external post-tensioning has been calculated using the AASHTO Standard
Specifications, assuming unbonded tendons. A computer analysis was also performed
which gives similar results as those of model test. The AASHTO unbonded formula
resulted in a capacity 10.3% lower than the actual capacity. The capacity of the unbonded
computer model was less than 1% higher than the actual test span capacity. Thus it was
found out that, for externally post-tensioned bridges, the behaviour of a post tensioning

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tendon is a function of the tendon's horizontal and vertical profile, the location of the
deviation points, and the bonding condition at the deviators.

Lounis Z et al. (1997) determined the span and/or girder spacing capabilities of the
standard I-sections of Nebraska University, Florida, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials - Precast Prestressed Concrete Institute
(AASHTO-PCI), and Canadian Prestressed Concrete Institute (CPC) for both spliced
posttensioned and conventional pretensioned girder systems. Investigation shows that
the Florida and Nebraska University I-sections are the most efficient girders for spliced
posttensioned and conventional pretensioned bridges, respectively. Using a nonlinear
optimization program, the optimum girder shape is found to be a bulb-tee for spliced
posttensioned girders and a quasi-symmetncal I-section for conventional pretensioned
girders. A new set of five I-sections that achieve a balanced efficiency for both spliced
posttensioned and conventional pretensioned bridge girder systems were proposed. For
the same girder spacing, spliced posttensioned girders achieve greater span lengths than
conventional continuous systems and become competitive in span ranges that are usually
reserved for steel plate girder and cast in-place posttensioned concrete box girder
systems. For spliced posttensioned bridge girders, the compressive stresses under full
working loads and the ductility criterion at interior supports are found to be the main
governing design criteria; for conventional bridge girders, the main governing design
criterion is the tensile stress under full working loads. The span and girder spacing
capabilities presented in this paper may be used as design aids for developing
preliminary bridge design alternatives with either spliced posttensioned or conventional
precast I-girders.

Kenneth W S (1998) gives an insight to the design of segmental bridges for thermal
gradient. The evolution of the design positive and negative thermal gradient in North
America over the past 2 decades is described. A comparison of the positive and negative
thermal gradient in various AASHTO documents has been made. A prestressed concrete
segmental bridge (North Halawa Valley Viaduct) has been instrumented and large
amounts of thermocouple data have been efficiently reduced graphically to determine
the critical positive and negative thermal gradient. Author observes that the results
validate the use of the positive and negative thermal gradient in the 1998 AASHTO
Segmental Guide Specifications as well as the 1994 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design

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Specifications. A numerical example for the analysis of a segmental bridge for thermal
gradient has been included in the paper by the author. A simple hand calculation is used
to determine axial force and eccentricity at one section. This allows the primary and
secondary effects to be determined at all sections. The numerical example includes a
comparison of forces and stresses due to thermal gradient and live load. This allows a
comparison of the prestressing requirements. It was observed that an additional
prestressing is required at the bottom near mid span for the case of live load plus 50
percent positive thermal gradient and same is also required at the top near mid span to
accommodate the negative thermal gradient.

Guide specifications for design and construction of segmental concrete bridges

(1999) published by American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) gives an insight into design specifications and construction specifications of
segmental concrete bridges. In the design specification it covers all aspects like general
requirements and materials, methods of analysis (strut tie model, transverse analysis and
longitudinal analysis), loads and load factors, seismic design, allowable stresses,
prestress loss, flexural, shear and torsional strength, stress limits, detailing of various
parts, specifications for joints, bearings, cover and spacing to reinforcement. Details of
cast in place segmental bridges, precast segmental bridges and incremental launching
technique is also covered in the design specification. In the construction specifications
it deals with various testing, quality control, placing of concrete and steel, installation
and stressing of tendons, epoxy and grouting operations.

Lucko G (1999) discusses about the construction process of segmental bridges. There
are mainly 4 methods of erection of segmental bridges namely, Balanced cantilever
construction, Span by span method, Progressive placing and Incremental launching.
Balanced Cantilever method is the most common method used world-wide. Detail
discussion of each of these erection methods, their construction sequence, applications,
advantages and disadvantages has been done. Author explains about the most important
issue of construction loads by distinguishing the various types of construction loads and
showing their relation to the erection method used for a specific project. Construction
loads are by nature of relatively short duration in comparison with the overall planned
service life of a structure. It was observed that the stresses induced by construction loads
may be higher than those from service loads as the incomplete structural system is

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mostly different and weaker than finished structures, concrete has not gained full
strength, and the boundary conditions may be different from the service state. In other
words, the great importance of construction stages lies in the criticality that results from
the still low structural and material resistance, while loads may be actually more adverse
and boundary conditions different. Author has also included case study of two bridges
in which construction loads have caused damaged to the bridge.

Wouters J P et al. (1999) focusses on tendon corrosion of segmental bridges with an

emphasis on the role of grouting in the corrosion protection of posttensioning. An
analysis of existing structures in United States and United Kingdom was done. It was
observed that the corrosion problems with precast segmental and post tensioned bridges
in the United Kingdom principally were due to poor design choices and poor quality
construction, not a significant intrinsic susceptibility to corrosion. Their study found no
evidence of corrosion or other durability problems with precast segmental bridges in the
United States. The few reported problems with grouted post tensioned structures in the
United States were due to poor quality construction. Additionally, by laboratory research
authors found that properly designed and constructed precast segmental and
posttensioned structures are corrosion resistant. To ensure good future performance of
precast segmental bridges, high-quality design details and proper construction practices
must be continued, especially when using internal tendons. Authors suggests to adopt
more stringent grouting requirements and inspection procedures in the United States, to
ensure that the tendons are completely encapsulated in a high-quality grout.

Ming L. Wang et al. (1999) discussed about the modal testing of a continuous
segmental prestressed concrete bridge. Two different test methods were used namely
forced vibration and ambient vibration excitation. The first three frequencies and mode
shapes were conclusively identified. The result shows that the frequencies that were
measured by two different test methods are in agreement and the mode shapes are
similar. The results also indicate that the temperature will influence the frequency
slightly (2% change for 30 F changing in temperature). The frequency will decrease
when temperature is higher. By comparing the frequency which were obtained by CTL
twelve years ago, it was found that the frequencies have reduced slightly. This may
indicate a slight softening of the structure. Comparing the mode shapes, which were
obtained by measured and computed result, it identified a consistent difference in the

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first span. Several factors can influence this change. The access door in the first span,
the boundary condition for FEM model and a large number of cracks on the structure
can contribute to this difference. However at this point from the set of tests which have
been conducted by the authors, no definite conclusions can be drawn on the influence of
the cracks in changing the global stiffness of the structure. Future plans focused toward
eliminating many of these questions include measuring the lateral motion to get lateral
and torsion mode shapes, updating the FEM model, using damage identification method
to detect the damage for bridge and initiating a continuous monitoring program to track
and evaluate the statistical behaviour of the modal frequency and mode shapes.

Sauvageot G (2000) explains every aspect of segmental concrete bridges. Detailed

discussion on types of segmental construction namely balanced cantilever method, span
by span method, progressive placing and incremental launching, their construction
sequence, method of erection, advantages and disadvantages has been done.
Explanations about types of segmental bridges like segmental cable stayed bridge,
segmental arch bridge, segmental rigid frame bridge, segmental truss bridges has also
been provided. Sauvageot (2000) also explains about the basic design and seismic
considerations of segmental bridges. In the basic design considerations, cross section
dimensions, span arrangement, temperature gradient, deflection and post tensioning
layout have been covered

IRC 18-2000 gives an insight into the design criteria of prestressed concrete road
bridges. It provides information about various stages of prestressing, loads and forces to
be considered in the design, details about different materials and section properties. It
gives details to take into account the loss of prestress during construction and in service,
to calculate ultimate strength, shear and torsion. IRC 18 also provide guide lines about
minimum reinforcement, cover and spacing of reinforcing steel, thickness of webs of
girders, end blocks, anchorages of cables and stressing, prestressing and grouting
operation and about storage and handling of prestressing material.

Specker et al. (2002) presents a new realistic model of design of joints of segmental
hollow box girder bridge. Author was on the opinion that there is a big discrepancies
between the various design models. The known models are either too conservative or
too uneconomic (German Specification) or not valid for high compressive stresses

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(AASHTO). Examinations of the behaviour of a segmental bridge and the forces in the
joints, finite element calculations had been conducted taking into account the non-linear
behaviour due to the opening of the dry joints under tension. Several load combinations
corresponding to bending, shear and torsion are examined to determine the stresses
response at a joint. According to the author, the shear capacity of a keyed joint is a
combination of the friction between the plain surfaces and the shear capacity of the keys.
The latter one is neglected in the German regulations. Therefore author developed a new
model for the design of segmental joints considering both friction and shear capacity.
To compare the results of both models, the shear stress is calculated for a standard
segment of the segmental bridge in Bangkok and results are plotted on a graph between
load bearing capacity of a keyed joint verses shear stress.

Rombach G (2002) presents design and construction of a precast segmental box girder
bridges with external prestressing. Author gives an insight into the various structural
elements of the segmental bridges which are pier segment, deviator segment, standard
segment and shear keys. Author then explains about making of this segments and how
this segments are assembled together in an actual segmental bridge. Longitudinal design
and design of joints were also discussed. Design of joints is as per A. Specker et al.
(2002). In the longitudinal design of segmental bridge, general requirements for the
design, critical sections and finite element modelling of a box girder bridge segment
considering dry joint has been dealt. Stresses and strains obtained from finite element
modelling is verified with actual experimental results.

Carin L R et al. (2002) presents measurements of temperatures through the depth of a

segmental concrete box girder bridge that were recorded over a 2 1/2 year time period.
From these readings, the maximum positive (deck warmer than webs) and negative (deck
cooler than webs) temperature differentials for each day were determined. Also, ambient
weather condition data were obtained from the National Weather Service station located
10 km from the bridge site, and relationships between weather conditions and bridge
temperatures were studied. Bridge considered in the case study was San Antonio Bridge.
Authors found out that the typical positive gradient curve can be approximated with a
fifth-order parabola, with the point of zero temperature difference at 1,220 mm below
the deck and similarly the typical negative gradient can also be approximated with a
fifth-order parabola, with the point of zero temperature difference 610 mm below the

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top of the deck. For the San Antonio area, the current positive thermal gradients
recommended in the AASHTO (1994a) are conservative for an untopped structure and
appropriate for the 50 mm asphalt topping condition. The AASHTO (1989a) segmental
positive gradient is 8C conservative for both conditions. Also, for the San Antonio area,
the current negative thermal gradients in the AASHTO are 12C conservative. The
AASHTO segmental negative gradients are conservative for 94% of the recorded days
with no topping and 96% of the days with a 50 mm asphalt topping.

Sami Megally et al. (2002) investigated the seismic performance of segment to segment
joints of prestressed, precast segmental bridge superstructures. The experimental
program and the analytical model calibrations of two test units with internally bonded
tendons are presented. The joints of the first test unit were epoxy bonded with no mild
steel reinforcement crossing the joints, whereas the second test unit had reinforced cast-
in-place deck closure joints with the remaining portions of the joints connected by
epoxy. Opening of an epoxy-bonded joint occurs due to cracking of the concrete cover
adjacent to the joint rather than opening of the epoxy joint. The concrete cover adjacent
to the joint has relatively low cracking strength compared to the concrete of the precast
segments. The dominant flexural vertical crack adjacent to the joint occurs through the
alignment and shear keys. It was also observed that crack patterns for both units were
similar under downward loading. Because of the mild steel reinforcement crossing the
joints, the deck of the second test unit experienced several closely spaced and relatively
narrow cracks under upward loading in lieu of one single wide crack at the mid span
joint of the first test unit with no mild steel reinforcement crossing the joints. The
segment-to-segment joints can experience significant repeated openings and closures
under reversed cyclic loading without failure even if there is no mild steel reinforcement
crossing the joints. However, permanent deformations and joint openings are reduced if
there are mild steel reinforcing bars crossing the segment to segment joints. The seismic
response of precast segmental bridge superstructures with cast-in-place closure joints
will not differ if headed or bent hairpin bars are used as longitudinal reinforcement in
the closure joints. However, headed bars are recommended over bent hair pin bars for
construction reasons.

Bridge Design Manual (2003) The Connecticut Department of Transportation Bridge

Design Manual gives an insight into the standard design practices and procedures of

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bridges. It includes general design requirements, design submissions, contract
documents and loads to be considered in the design. Manual also gives details about
concrete structures, steel structures, abutments, piers, walls, deck systems, bearings,
deck joints, drainage, supports, bridge repair & rehabilitation and post design
responsibilities.

Stefano Berton et al. (2004) studies the effect of nonlinear Fluid Viscous Dampers
(FVD) on the size of expansion joints of multi span prestressed concrete segmental box
girder bridges. The results of a numerical study to investigate the possibility of reducing,
through the use of non-linear FVDs, the size of the modular expansion joints of a multi-
span segmental prestressed concrete bridge is being presented. For the case studied, the
results shows that by using non-linear FVDs, the expansion joints can be reduced up to
50% with respect to the original design size. This study also shows that by using FVDs
the overall dynamic behaviour of the model is improved reducing the risk of damage of
the expansion joints due to possible pounding between bridge frames. Additional
benefits include a significant reduction in the longitudinal pier moments. However, local
effects of the concentrated forces developed by the dampers, damper force effects on the
foundations, non-uniform excitation of the model supports have not been considered in
this work.

IRC SP 65-2005 provides guidelines for design and construction of segmental bridges
in India. It deals with dry jointed and epoxy bonded precast segmental construction. It
gives an insight into the various construction requirements, precasting, shear keys,
details and specifications of epoxies, bearings, and prestressing. Various design aspects
like allowable stresses in concrete, design for ultimate flexure and shear, corrections for
centre of gravity of tendons, effects of axial tension and local effects of blisters have
also been provided.

Turmo J et al. (2005) inspected the joints between segments in many precast concrete
bridges constructed by balanced cantilever method during construction and in service.
The spans are all precast box girders of constant or varying cross-section. Site
investigations of 5 major bridges during construction and in service over the past 15
years showed that the joints between segments perform adequately if proper construction
procedures are followed. Unfortunately, the joints often represent the weakness zones of

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the structure. It was observed that the common sources of trouble are excessive width or
inequality of joint thickness, not adequate strength and deformability of joint filling
material, not completely filled joints leading to local creep and concentration of stresses.
According to the authors, the main parameters of joints affecting performance of
segmental structures would be joint material properties (strength, deformability, density,
and adhesion), joint width, and probably the number of joints in the structure.
Traditionally the segment joints are designed only to shear capacity. The effects of
strength and long-term deformability of joint filling material in compression and tension
are not considered. Authors put forward a possibility of future investigations on
analytical and experimental studies to determine the behaviour of segmental structures
with possible effects of bonded joints.

Xiangming Zhou et al. (2005) gives an insight into the shear strength of the joints in
precast segmental bridges. A series of full-scale joints, flat and keyed, dry and epoxied,
single keyed and multiple-keyed, have been tested under different confining stress levels
and epoxy thicknesses. The shear behaviour, shear capacity, and shear transfer
mechanisms of these different kinds of joints have been studied. It was observed that the
shear capacity of joints increased as confining pressure increased, and epoxied joints had
consistently higher shear strength than dry joints; however, the failure was more brittle
than dry joints. The average shear strength for a key in multiple-keyed dry joints was
found to be less than those in single-keyed dry joints due to imperfections in fitting of
keys. The shear strength of keys in multiple-keyed epoxied joints, however, was similar
to those in single-keyed joints, indicating epoxy mitigated the fixing imperfections and
permitted the shear load to be uniformly distributed. The experimental results obtained
in these tests were compared with the AASHTO and other design criterion. It was
observed that these relationships tended to under estimate the shear strength of single-
keyed joints and multiple-keyed epoxied joints by a value up to 40%, but they always
greatly overestimated the shear capacity of dry multiple-keyed joints. Hence, the results
indicate that some strength reduction factors should be introduced to the design
relationships when applied to multiple keyed dry joints.

Moon D Y et al. (2005) investigated the cracks that occurred in the bottom slab of a
precast segmental bridge through a construction sequence analysis, which revealed that
the cracks were caused by excessive deformation during temporary post-tensioning

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while joining the segments. In addition, a parametric study was performed to evaluate
the effects of the prestressing sequence, bottom slab thickness, and position of the
prestressing anchors. The structural behaviour of the girder sections was greatly affected
by the thickness of the bottom slab and the position of prestressing anchors, but not by
the prestressing sequence. A Finite Element (FE) analysis and Non Destructive Test
results showed that longitudinal cracks developed on the bottom slab of the segment box
in a direction parallel to the bridge. These were caused by excessive tensile stresses and
the deformation that occurred during temporary external prestressing for bonding the
adjacent segment box. The thickness of the bottom slab and the anchoring position of
the external prestressing bars were the dominant factors that affected the tensile stresses
in the bottom slab of the segment. Consequently, a proposal to move the anchoring
positions and thereby decrease the stress and deformation of the segment box during the
external prestressing sequence was verified using a FE analysis. This was found to be a
more effective technique than other proposals for preventing cracks during construction,
when the efficiency of the section and construction costs were considered.

Woodward R J (2005) describes an investigation into the collapse of a single-span,

segmental post-tensioned concrete bridge. The structure consisted of precast units
stressed together both longitudinally and transversely. There had been no evidence of
distress before failure, and there was no traffic on the bridge when it collapsed. Author
had found out that the bridge had deteriorated because of corrosion of the tendons where
they passed through the segmental joints. Corrosion had occurred because the tendons
had been inadequately protected at the joints, and this had enabled chlorides to enter the
ducts, which eventually leads to the collapse of the bridge. The results cause concern
about the condition of other post-tensioned segmental concrete bridges world-wide.

Celso Iglesias (2006) conducted an investigation to quantify long-term effects on a

family of four precast segmental bridges. Segments are prefabricated, transported, and
set into place with an appropriate lifting device and a launching gantry. Attention has
been paid to the effects of long-term deformations of concrete, to avoid noticeable
geometrical variations in its shape but also to account for redistribution of stresses,
which creates a difficult analytical problem to solve. An attempt has been made to
provide a practical treatment of serviceability analyses of this type of concrete structure,
having an evolutive process of erection, namely exact incremental step-by-step time

- 15 -
approach, a simplified approach for the inclusion of time dependent effects of creep and
shrinkage and a comparison of both approaches, in order to treat these kinds of problems
by means of a simplified approach. It has been shown that the proposed simplified
analysis is a good approximation of the real stress redistribution.

Mohsen and Abdalla (2007) conducted experiments on structural behaviour of single

key joints precast segmental bridge construction. A group of five full-depth malefemale
shear key specimens were match cast and tested to examine the shear capacity of epoxy-
jointed single keys. Another group of four specimens were match cast using full-scale
dimensions of a segmental construction bridge deck system for testing the fatigue and
water tightness at a segment joint. Both cold-weather and hot-weather epoxy types were
used to join the specimens. In addition to the experimental testing, finite-element
analysis was also used to model the static response of the joint specimens. The observed
failure mode of all shear-key specimens was fracture of concrete along the joint with
shearing of the key. Good agreement was observed between the experimental test results
and the finite-element analysis in terms of the failure mode of unreinforced specimen
and the load of crack initiation of the specimens. Fatigue loading had a minor effect on
the behaviour of the posttensioning bars. The contribution of either the cold-weather or
hot-weather epoxies to the joint shear strength was significant knowing that for similar
concrete properties, the hot-weather epoxy specimens showed an increase of about 28%
in the shear capacity, in comparison to the cold-weather epoxy specimens. The excellent
performance of the epoxy-jointed shear keys was verified by field application on a
prototype model simulating a portion of the Wacker Drive Bridge system. It was
concluded that implementing AASHTO procedures result in conservative estimates of
the shear strength of the single keyed joint since it neglects the contribution of the epoxy
and underestimates the strength of the key itself.

Rombach & Abendeh (2007) conducted studies on bow shaped segments in precast
segmental bridges. There is an unavoidable gap between two adjacent segment elements
caused by the heat of hydration during segment production (bowing effect). This
imperfection may significantly influence the bearing capacity of the structure and its
serviceability. A thermo-mechanical finite element model has been developed and
verified by full-scale test data to study the match-casting process. Thereafter, two real
segmental bridges with perfect and imperfect segments have been modelled. The various

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analyses showed that compressive stresses and the load bearing capacity of the structure
as well as its serviceability may be highly influenced by the bowing effect. Concrete
with low heat of hydration should be used to reduce the bowing effect. Curing blankets
and plastic sheeting are recommended in cold and windy climate. The amount of bowing
depends mainly on the slenderness of segments. Imperfections may cause great stress
changes in bridge decks. Areas of very low compression in the segments centreline and
stress peaks at the tips of the segments cantilever slab have been estimated. Thus the
serviceability and load bearing of the bridge may be highly affected by the bowing. The
gaps between segments have a significant influence on the deflection of bridges and on
the prestressing losses. The creep of concrete plays a large role in closing the gaps. Thus
segments should be assembled on site as fast as possible after production.

Hoon Kim et al. (2007) presents a numerical procedure for analysing the joints between
precast post-tensioned segments. A computer program for the analysis of reinforced
concrete structures was run for this problem. Models of material nonlinearity considered
in this study include tensile, compressive and shear models for cracked concrete and a
model for reinforcing steel with smeared crack. An unbonded tendon element based on
the finite element method, that can describe the interaction between the tendon and
concrete of prestressed concrete member, was experimentally investigated. A joint
element is newly developed to predict the inelastic behaviour of the joints between
segmental members. The proposed numerical method for the joints between precast
post-tensioned segments was verified by comparison of its results with reliable
experimental results. This study also evaluated the shear strength of joints as influenced
by the applied normal stress, the size of the contact area, and the conditions of two
surfaces. The failure mechanism for all tests conducted in this study was a shear friction
failure. Analyses of the results of tests on the frictional behaviour of joints revealed that
the design criteria seems to be rather conservative. The data also manifested that the
surface preparation and the size of the contact area did not seem to influence the shear
strength of such a joint.

Janjic and Stampler (2008) explains about consistent design of cable stayed segmental
bridges. These include detailed modelling of the erection process, accurately considering
the creep and shrinkage behaviour, taking into account structural non-linearity, adopting
optimization techniques and controlling the deformation behaviour throughout the

- 17 -
erection process. Combining all these tasks in a single program for comprehensively
modelling bridge structures and the construction sequence can considerably improve and
accelerate the design procedure. A method to find the optimal tensioning strategy for the
construction of cable-stayed bridges has been especially addressed. The paper describes
the respective optimization method called AddCon Method., and explains how non-
linear and time-dependent effects can be included. The Uddevalla Bridge and the Verige
Bridge serve as practical examples. Pre-camber and erections control is a further major
topic in the design of segmental bridges. Including the respective functionality in a
general design tool even allows for not only using the once established mathematical
model in the design phase but also in the construction engineering phase. This allows
for accurately knowing the fabrication requirements very early in the overall process and
for taking the appropriate measures if any deviations occur during construction.

Kavin Kumar et al. (2008) gives an insight into the automated geometry control of
segmental bridges. The short-line match-cast joint method of pre-casting concrete
segments has proved to be the most versatile and reliable way to building pre-cast
segmental bridges. The success of short-line match-cast joint method relies heavily on
accurate geometry control during match casting as the scale of adjustments during
erection is very small and difficult to implement. The required levels of accuracy in
positioning the segments match-cast against each other are stringent in order to assure
acceptable tolerances in the geometry of the structure. It was found that even a fraction
of millimetre of error in segment casting gets amplified to several meters at the end of
the bridge span and can result in significant rework. Various sources and types of errors
associated with construction and their process of correction is discussed. Finally a
conceptual system comprising of a laser based measurement, processor controlled and a
servo based form adjustment is proposed to automate the entire process of construction.

Zenonas Kamaitis (2008) inspected the joints between segments in many precast
concrete bridges constructed by balanced cantilever method during construction and in
service. Site investigations of 5 major bridges during construction and in service over
the past 15 years showed that the joints between segments perform adequately if proper
construction procedures are followed. The spans are all precast box girders of constant
or varying cross-section. Unfortunately, the joints often represent the weakness zones of
the structure. It was observed that the common sources of trouble are excessive width or

- 18 -
inequality of joint thickness, not adequate strength and deformability of joint filling
material, not completely filled joints leading to local creep and concentration of stresses.
Local concrete cracks and spalls around the segment joints and leakage of joints to
moisture and chlorides can appear. Quality control and retrofitting of deficient joints is
frequently difficult. All these deficiencies should inevitable have the influence on the
durability of the segment structures.

Yu-Chen et al. (2010) experimentally investigates the seismic behaviour of the

proposed precast segmental unbonded posttensioned concrete bridge columns for use in
regions of high seismicity. Posttensioning tendons were placed in the hollow core of the
columns and left unbonded with the surrounding concrete to decrease prestress loss
during earthquakes. Bonded mild steel bars continuous across the segment joints, also
referred to as energy dissipation (ED) bars, were used to enhance the seismic resistance
of the columns. The bars were unbonded at the critical joint to avoid premature low cycle
fatigue failure. Four large-scale specimens were designed and tested with lateral cyclic
loading. Test results showed that the proposed construction method and seismic detailing
for the ED bars were effective in ensuring the ductility and ED capability of the bars.
The specimens exhibited excellent drift capacities that are adequate for use in regions of
high seismicity. The hysteretic ED capacity and residual drift of the column increased
as the ED bar contribution to the expected column strength increased. To maintain self
centering capability, contribution of ED bars to column strength of more than 35% is not
recommended.

Krauser L B (2010) explains about protecting the internal post-tensioning tendon for
100 year service life. Internal post-tensioning tendons are the principal reinforcement
and need to be designed and detailed to protect prestressing steels from corrosion and
other deleterious factors. Combination of the posttensioning tendons protection level
(PL) and protection provided by the structure together provides resistance against the
aggressivity of the environment and the particular exposure condition of the structural
element. Author classifies protection levels into 3 categories, PL1, PL2 and PL3 with
their level of protection increasing respectively. Corrugated plastic duct and segment
duct couplers are recommended for segmental concrete bridges for any PL. Dry segment
joints are not acceptable with any PL. Low- or no-bleed, low permeable, thixotropic,
cementitious grouts are recommended for segmental concrete bridges for any PL. Also,

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there should be provisions for protecting tendon anchorages (encapsulation) and to
monitor or inspect the tendons in segmental bridge construction.

Maria alcalde et al. (2010) evaluated shear strength of dry keyed joints according to
various design codes and compared the results. A finite element model of four different
types of joints, with a number of keys varying between one and seven was developed by
the authors. The brittle cracking model was used for the material. The material model
has been calibrated and validated using the P- curve from single edge notched beams
subjected to three-point-bending test. The model has been tested comparing the
predicted response with the experimental results for one and three keys. Then, the
behaviour of joints and their dependence on the number of keys were analysed. The
results have been compared with the formulation of different codes and authors. The
results show that the average shear stress transferred across the dry keyed joints
decreases with the number of keys but this effect is less appreciated as the compression
stress acting on the joint increases. Comparing with the formulas of design codes, the
ATEP formula underestimates the shear capacity of the joints, and AASHTO formula
overestimates it in the case of multiple keys and low prestressing force.

Yu-Chen et al. (2010) investigated the cyclic behaviour of precast segmental concrete
bridge columns with high performance (HP) steel reinforcing bars and that with
conventional steel reinforcing bars as energy dissipation (ED) bars. The HP steel
reinforcing bars are characterized by higher strength, greater ductility, and superior
corrosion resistance compared with the conventional steel reinforcing bars. Three large-
scale columns were tested. One was designed with the HP ED bars and two with the
conventional ED bars. The HP ED bars were fully bonded to the concrete. The
conventional ED bars were fully bonded to the concrete for one column, whereas
unbonded for a length to delay fracture of the bars and to increase energy dissipation for
the other column. Test results showed that the column with the HP ED bars had greater
drift capacity, higher lateral strength, and larger energy dissipation than that with fully
bonded conventional ED bars. The column with unbonded conventional ED bars
achieved the same drift capacity and similar energy dissipation capacity as that with the
HP ED bars. All the three columns showed good self centering capability with residual
drifts not greater than 0.4% drift. An analytical model referred to as joint bar-slip rotation
method for pushover analysis of segmental columns with ED bars was proposed.

- 20 -
Francis T K et al. (2011) conducted a full range analysis of multi span prestressed
concrete segmental bridges. Most of the existing techniques are only capable of
analysing the behaviour of continuous prestressed concrete beams up to the peak load-
carrying capacity, but the technique presented in this paper can extend well into the post
peak range, which is crucial to the investigation of ductility or deformability. The bridge
was modelled as a series of beam elements each of which is governed by the
corresponding moment-curvature relationship of a representative section within it. Then
various iterations are performed to obtain the admissible nodal forces and displacements
for each imposed load or displacement increment. The technique was then verified by
comparing the calculated load-deflection response of various prestressed concrete beams
against those obtained experimentally by previous researchers.

Algorafi M A et al. (2011) presents an experimental investigation of the structural

behaviour of Externally Prestressed Segment (EPS) bridge under combined bending,
shear, normal, and torsion stresses. The aim of this paper was to improve the existing
AASHTO equation to include the effect of torsion in estimating the failure load of EPS
bridge. A parametric study was carried out by the authors to investigate the effect of
different external tendon layouts and different levels of torsion. The existing equations
in design codes was limited to estimate the failure load of externally prestressed
segmented beam under combined bending moment and shear force only. The ultimate
load depends on safety factors as specified by the code requirements. In this paper, the
existing equation to predict the failure load was modified by including the effect of
torsion. This proposed equation is applicable to predict the failure of the EPS bridge
when the shear failure is governed. The proposed equation predicted the ultimate shear
capacity for EPS beam with error up to 4% compared to experimental value. The
predicted ultimate shear capacity from the modified equation was more conservative
than the predicted ultimate shear capacity from existing equation up to 16%.

Veletzos and Jose (2011) presents a segment joint modelling approach and is an
important initiative to accurately estimate the seismic response of superstructure
segment joints to input ground motions. The approach is a compromise between the
detailed and computationally intensive continuum mechanics based finite element
approach and a simple approach that models the joints with rotational springs. The
- 21 -
approach considers the nonlinear tendon-grout slip response and was validated with data
from large-scale experiments. The proposed modelling approach was developed for two-
dimensional analysis of precast segmental bridge superstructures with bonded tendons;
however, this approach may be also applicable for any jointed type connection and easily
extrapolated to three dimensional. Numerous parameter studies were performed to
optimize and understand the model. It was shown that the results were very sensitive to
the numerical damping model used and the assigned damping ratios. Caughey (constant)
damping model generated a fully populated damping matrix and required a smaller
integration time step for convergence at low levels of damping. Rayleigh damping model
generated larger spurious damping forces across the joint than the Caughey damping
model. The gauge length of the joint concrete truss elements affected the extreme
concrete fibre strain predictions of the model. Shorter element lengths predicted larger
strain demands on the extreme concrete fibres. Bond slip friction affected the shape of
the hysteretic loop, particularly the initial joint opening and unloading stiffness. Segment
joint residual tension stresses affected the moment capacity of the section and the amount
of energy dissipation.

IRC 112-2011 is the recent code of practise for concrete road bridges which is based on
Limit state design philosophy. It is in line with Euro code having specifications for both
Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) and Prestressed Concrete bridges. It explains the
basis of limit state design and analysis of concrete bridges and provides information
about the Ultimate Limit State of linear elements for bending and axial forces, Ultimate
Limit State of two and three dimensional elements for out of plane and in plane loading
effects, Ultimate Limit State of shear, punching shear, torsion and Ultimate Limit State
of induced deformation.

Smith J S (2012) discuss about the Precast Segmental Double-T Girder Systems for
Multi-span Highway Overpass Bridges. Designs for multi-span bridges are presented
using simply supported spans connected by thin flexible linking slabs made of ultra-
high-performance fibre-reinforced concrete and using sections made fully continuous
over intermediate supports. A simplified method of geometry control is presented to
facilitate the proper alignment of precast segments without the use of match casting. The
precast segmental double-T with external, unbonded tendons is intrinsically more
durable than conventional systems. This is due to the fact that its deck slab (normally

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the component of a bridge most attacked by deicing chemicals) is precast and
transversely post-tensioned. Precast concrete is generally more durable than cast-in-
place concrete because of the controlled environment in which it is cast. Also, transverse
post-tensioning reduces cracking in the deck slab, making it less penetrable.

Jacques Combault et al. (2013) explains about the design and construction of
segmental bridges for high speed rail (HSR). The first of this kind appeared in the
construction of the 1500-m-long viaducts crossing the Rhone River near Avignon.
Consisting of 100-m-long spans, these viaducts are made of precast concrete segments
that were assembled according to the balanced cantilever construction process.
Segments were erected using a 225-m-long launching gantry with a capacity of 170
metric tons (187 U.S. tons) and external continuity post-tensioning tendons. Match-cast
segments were designed and assembled according to the state-of-the-art in the field of
precast concrete segmental construction, which meant that there was no sand blasting of
the match-cast faces and no thick epoxy joints. Precast segmental bridge construction
technology was also used for the construction of seven bridges in South west part of
France.

Ibrahim I S et al. (2014) presents the experimental results on the strength of shear key
connection in precast concrete construction. The use of shear key is to connect two
separate precast components to increase the shear resistivity of the joint surfaces.
Triangular, composite rectangular, semi-circle and trapezoidal shear key shapes were
studied by the authors. In addition, the trapezoidal shape is made up with 3 different
keys angles. All specimens are tested using the push-off method to obtain the ultimate
shear capacity of which is due to the failure of the connection. From the analysis,
stiffness, elastic and plastic behaviour, and the mode of failure is discussed in the paper
to determine the most effective shape of the shear key. Authors observed that the semi-
circle shear key produced the highest shear capacity at 62.9 kN compared to that of the
other shapes. Meanwhile, the trapezoidal shape at an angle of 450 produced the highest
shear capacity at 44.1 kN. Together in the aspect of stiffness, the 450 trapezoidal shapes
produced the highest resistance towards slip. Failure mode are mostly due to shear,
sliding and diagonal tension crack. The study suggested that trapezoidal with angle of
300 and 450, and also the composite rectangular shear key have better mode of failure
even though the average ultimate shear capacity is less than the semicircle.

- 23 -
Haibo Jiang et al. (2015) conducted studies on dry joints with castellated keys in precast
concrete segmental bridges. The shear strength and shear behaviour of dry joints with
castellated keys in precast concrete segmental bridges are still debatable. Full-scale dry
joints with castellated keys were tested under different confining stress levels. The main
parameters for tests were the number of keys, the confining stress, the depth in key
geometry, and the distance between two keys. For comparison purposes, flat joints,
monolithic joints, and joints with steel fibres were also tested. The shear behaviour, shear
capacity, and crack pattern of the joints were investigated as well. Two crack modes for
the single-keyed joints are explicitly proposed. The phenomenon of sequential failure of
multi keyed dry joints from the inferior key to the superior one was observed in the tests
and verified by finite-element simulation. The experimental results obtained in these
tests were compared with the design provisions. A shear failure mechanism of sequential
failure for multi keyed dry joints is presented to explain the differences between the test
results and the formula used. Based on the new explanation and test results, a reduced
coefficient of 0.7 is recommended for the shear strength of three-keyed dry joints.

Rabee Shamass et al. (2016) conducted a Numerical Analysis of Shear-Off Failure of

Keyed Epoxied Joints in Precast Concrete Segmental Bridges. A finite-element analysis
was conducted to simulate the shear behaviour of unreinforced epoxied joints, which are
single keyed and three keyed to represent multi keyed epoxied joints. The concrete
damaged plasticity model along with the pseudo damping scheme was incorporated to
analyse the key assembly for micro cracks in the concrete material and to stabilize the
solution, respectively. The epoxy was modelled as linear elastic material because the
tensile and shear strength of the epoxy were much higher than those of the concrete. The
numerical model was calibrated by full-scale experimental results. Moreover, it was
found that the numerical results of the joints, such as ultimate shear load and crack
initiation and propagation, agreed well with experimental results. Therefore, the
numerical model associated with relevant parameters developed in this paper was
validated. The numerical model was then used for a parametric study on factors affecting
shear behaviour of keyed epoxied joints, which are concrete tensile strength, elastic
modulus of epoxy, and confining pressure. It was found that the tensile strength of
concrete has a significant effect on the shear capacity of the joint and the displacement
at the ultimate load. A linear relationship between the confining pressure and the shear

- 24 -
strength of single-keyed epoxied joints was observed. Moreover, the variation in the
elastic modulus of epoxy does not affect the ultimate shear strength of the epoxied joints
when it is greater than 25% of the elastic modulus of concrete. On the last part of the
paper, an empirical formula published elsewhere for assessing the shear strength of
single-keyed epoxied joints was modified, based on the findings of their research, to be
an explicit function of the tensile strength of concrete.

Rabee Shamass et al. (2016) conducted a Finite-Element Analysis for Shear-Off Failure
of Keyed Dry Joints in Precast Concrete Segmental Bridges. A numerical analysis model
was established based on finite-element code to investigate structural behaviour of keyed
dry joints under direct shear. The concrete damage plasticity model along with the
pseudo damping scheme were incorporated to analyse the system for micro cracks and
to stabilize the solution, respectively. The numerical model was calibrated by full-scale
experimental results as described in the literature. Authors found out that the predicted
ultimate load, cracking evolution history, and final crack pattern agreed reasonably well
with experimental results. The validated numerical model was then used for parametric
study on factors affecting shear behaviour of keyed dry joints, in this case confining
pressure. The authors found that shear capacity predicted by the AASHTO code equation
diverges from that predicted by numerical analysis at high confining pressure, because
the contribution of friction in the total shear capacity decreased with an increase in
confining pressure. Hence, the authors recommend reducing the friction coefficient used
in the AASHTO code equation when high confining pressure is applied. The numerical
model established in this paper is only for simulating behaviour of keyed dry joints under
direct static shear caused by vertical load. In precast concrete segmental bridges, keyed
dry joints may be subject to static load and/or dynamic transverse load, for which further
studies are needed.

Haibo Jiang et al. (2016) gives an insight into the shear strength of steel fibre reinforced
concrete (SFRC) dry joints in precast concrete segmental bridges (PCSBs). Dry joints
represent locations of discontinuity in PCSBs through which compressive and shear
stresses must be transmitted. Cracks in dry joints occur more easily than those in epoxy
joints during the construction period or in service. Shear behaviour of various types of
dry joints in PCSBs was investigated by experiments, especially focusing on shear
strength of keyed dry joints of SFRC. The experimental parameters were joint types,

- 25 -
concrete types, key numbers, contacting portions in the sliding plane, and horizontal
confining stress levels. Cracking loads, cracking patterns, failure modes, and ultimate
loads were recorded. Normalized shear stress-vertical slip curves and load-horizontal
dilation relationships have been investigated. It was concluded that the use of SFRC can
improve shear strength and ductility of dry joints in PCSBs. The experimental results
obtained from tests were compared with other design provisions. These provisions
underestimate the shear capacity of single-keyed dry joint specimens of conventional
concrete and SFRC and overestimate those of three-keyed dry joints of conventional
concrete, whereas the design formula can accurately predict the shear strength of three-
keyed dry joints of SFRC.

3. CONCLUSION
Precast concrete segmental bridges have extended the practical and competitive
economic span range of concrete bridges. They are adaptable to almost any conceivable
site condition. This method can reduce environmental impact from that of conventional
cast-in-place and formwork type concrete construction. The designer of a segmental
bridge must have detailed knowledge of the various alternatives, construction and
prestressing equipment, and site conditions. The designer must establish all major
aspects of how the structure will be constructed. Construction procedures should not be
isolated from design and vice versa. Adequate care have to be taken in the design and
construction of segment to segment joints. Thus, precast segmental bridges are the most
appropriate solution, particularly for long span bridges.

4. SCOPE OF WORK
Analysis of precast segmental bridges are complicated and is a challenging task. Despite
of having many advantages, precast segmental bridges are very less in India. It is mainly
due to this complexity of its analysis and design. Even the Indian Standard (IS) Codes
for segmental bridges are very brief and they only provide general guidelines of analysis
and design. Joints between segments to segments are area of potential weakness in the
structure and no special guide lines have been given in the IS code to calculate the
strength of same. So, the work is aimed to provide a complete analysis of precast
segmental concrete bridges including the strength of segment to segment joints and thus
to make the designers work in this field easier.

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