Land Revenue Systems During British Rule

May 14, 2015

Tax from the land was a major source of revenue for the kings and emperors from ancient times. But the ownership
pattern of land had witnessed changes over centuries. During Kingship, land was divided into Jagirs, Jagirs were
alloted to Jagirdars, these Jagirdars split the land they got and allocated to sub-ordinate Zamindars. Zamindars
made peasants cultivate the land, in-return collected part of their revenue as tax.

BRITISH AGRARIAN POLICY

It is a well-known fact that India is primarily an agricultural country. The overwhelming majority of its people
depend on agriculture for sustenance. If the crop is good, prosperity prevails otherwise it leads to famine and
starvation. Till the 18th century, there was a strong relation between agriculture and cottage industries in India. India
was not only ahead in the field of agriculture than most other countries but it also held a prominent place in the
world in the field of handicraft production. The British destroyed handicraft industry in the country while unleashing
far-reaching changes in the countrys agrarian structure by introducing new systems of land tenures and policies of
revenue administration. Indias national income, foreign trade, industrial expansion and almost every other
dominion of economic activity, depended on the countrys agriculture. The British policies revolved around getting
maximum income from land without caring much about Indian interests of the cultivators. They abandoned the age -
old system of revenue administration and adopted in their place a ruthless policy of revenue collection. After their
advent, the British principally adopted three types of land tenures.

Roughly 19 per cent of the total area under the British rule, i.e., Bengal, Bihar, Banaras, division of the Northern
Western Provinces and northern Karnataka, were brought under the Zamindari System or the Permanent
Settlement. The second revenue system, called the Mahalwari Settlement, was introduced in about 30 per cent of
the total area under British rule i.e., in major parts of the North Western Provinces, Central Provinces and the Punjab
with some variations. The Ryotwari System covered about 51 per cent of the area under British rule comprising
part of the Bombay and Madras Presidencies, Assam and certain other parts of British India.

Zamindari System

The main features of the Permanent Settlement were as follows:

Zamindari System was introduced by Cornwallis in 1793 through Permanent Settlement Act.

It was introduced in provinces of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Varanasi.

Also known as Permanent Settlement System.

The zamindar was recognised as the owners of land as long as they paid the revenue to the East India
Company regularly.

The amount of revenue that the zamindar had to pay to the Company was firmly fixed and would not be
raised under any circumstances. In other words the Government of the East India Company got 89%
leaving the rest to the zamindars.

The realized amount would be divided into 11 parts. 1/11 of the share belongs to Zamindars and 10/11 of
the share belongs to East India Company.
The ryots became tenants since they were considered the tillers of the soil.
This settlement took away the administrative and judicial functions of the zamindars.

The Permanent Settlement of Cornwallis was bitterly criticised on the point that it was adopted with undue haste.
The flagrant defect of this arrangement was that no attempt was made ever either to survey the lands or to assess
their value. The assessment was made roughly on the basis of accounts of previous collections and it was done in an
irregular manner.

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Effect of the system

The effects of this system both on the zamindars and ryots were disastrous. As the revenue fixed by the
system was too high, many zamindars defaulted on payments. Their property was seized and distress sales
were conducted leading to their ruin. The rich zamindars who led luxurious lives left their villages and
migrated into towns. They entrusted their rent collection to agents who exacted all kinds of illegal taxes
besides the legal ones from the ryots.

This had resulted in a great deal of misery amongst the peasants and farmers. Therefore Lord Cornwallis
idea of building a system of benevolent land-lordism failed. Baden Powell remarks, The zamindars as a
class did nothing for the tenants. Though initially the Company gained financially, in the long run the
Company suffered financial loss because land productivity was high, income from it was meagre since it
was a fixed sum. It should be noted that in pre- British period a share on the crop was fixed as land tax.

Nevertheless, this system proved to be a great boon to the zamindars and to the government of Bengal. It
formed a regular income and stabilised the government of the Company. The zamindars prospered at the
cost of the welfare of the tenants.

Ryotwari System

Ryotwari System was introduced by Thomas Munro in 1820.

Major areas of introduction include Madras, Bombay, and parts of Assam and Coorgh provinces of British
India.

In Ryotwari System the ownership rights were handed over to the peasants. British Government collected
taxes directly from the peasants.

There was no intermediary like a Zamindar between the peasant and the government. So long as he paid the
revenue in time, the peasant was not evicted from the land. Besides, the land revenue was fixed for a period
from 20 to 40 years at a time.

The revenue rates of Ryotwari System were 50% where the lands were dry and 60% in irrigated land.

Every peasant was held personally responsible for direct payment of land revenue to the government.
However, in the end, this system also failed. Under this settlement it was certainly not possible to collect
revenue in a systematic manner. The revenue officials indulged in harsh measures for non payment or
delayed payment.

Mahalwari System

Mahalwari system was introduced in 1833 during the period of William Bentick.

It was introduced in Central Province, North-West Frontier, Agra, Punjab, Gangetic Valley, etc of British
India.

The Mahalwari system had many provisions of both the Zamindari System and Ryotwari System.

In this system, the land was divided into Mahals. Each Mahal comprises one or more villages.

Ownership rights were vested with the peasants.

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 The villages committee was held responsible for collection of the taxes.

Though the Mahalwari system eliminated middlemen between the government and the village community
and brought about improvement in irrigation facility, yet its benefit was largely enjoyed by the government.

The structure of Atmosphere and Heat Budget

Apr 24, 2015

The Atmosphere of Earth

The atmosphere is made up of gases and vapour, and receives incoming solar energy from the sun giving rise to
what we call climate. We actually live at the bottom of this indefinite layer of atmosphere where the air is densest.
With altitude the air thins out and it is still a matter of conjecture where the atmosphere ends. One estimate puts this
limit at about 600 miles above sea level.

Composition Of The Atmosphere

Compound Distribution
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Argon 0.9%
Water vapour 0.4% (around 1% at the surface)
Carbon dioxide 0.03%

1. Structure Of The Atmosphere

The structure of the atmosphere can be broadly divided into five layers viz. Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere,
Thermosphere and Exosphere. The drawing below shows the different layers of the atmosphere. The ground is
shown in brown at the bottom of the picture. The altitude in kilometres is given on the left hand scale and is
approximate.

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1.Troposphere

1. Begins at the surface and extends to between 7 km (at the poles) and 20 km (at the equator)

2. Temperature in the troposphere decreases with altitude i.e. the lowest parts are the warmest

3. The troposphere contains roughly 75% of the mass of the atmosphere and 99% of its water vapour

4. The lowest part of the troposphere, where friction with the Earths surface influences air flow is called the
planetary boundary layer. Usually extends from a few hundred metres to about 2 km.

5. The tropopause is the boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere

2. Stratosphere

1. Extends from the troposphere to about 51 km

2. Temperature increases with height

3. Restricts turbulence and mixing

4. Commercial airliners usually fly within the stratosphere (10 km) to optimize jet fuel burn and to
avoid atmospheric turbulence.

5. The stratopause is the boundary between the stratosphere and the mesosphere.

3. Mesosphere

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 1. Extends from stratosphere to about 80 km

2. Upon entering the earths atmosphere, most meteors burn up in the mesosphere

3. Temperature decreases with height

4. The mesopause, the end of the mesosphere, is the coldest place on Earth with an average
temperature of -100 C

4. Thermosphere

1. Biggest layer of the atmosphere

2. Extends from the mesosphere to about 500-1000 km

3. Thermopause is a temperature boundary contained within the thermosphere

4. Temperature increases up to the thermopause, then remains constant

5. The temperature can reach 1500 C. However, despite the high temperature one would not feel warm
because the atmospheric density is too low to enable heat transfer

6. The International Space Station orbits in the thermosphere (320 380 km)

7. The ionosphere is formed in this layer as a result of ionization caused by ultraviolet radiation

8. The boundary between the thermosphere and the exosphere is called exobase.

5. Exosphere

1. Uppermost layer of the atmosphere

2. It is a transitional zone between the Earths atmosphere and interplanetary space and does not fully fall
within the atmosphere

3. Extends to about 190,000 km. This is half the distance to the Moon, at which the influence of solar
radiation becomes greater than the Earths gravitational pull

4. The density is so low that molecules can travel hundreds of km without colliding with each other

5. Composed mainly of the lightest gases such as hydrogen and some helium

2. Other Layers And Boundaries Of The Atmosphere

Within theses broad layers there are sub layers of research significance.

1. Ozone layer

1. It is contained within the stratosphere at about 10 50 km above the Earths surface

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 2. About 90% of the ozone layer is present in the stratosphere

3. The ozone layer absorbs 93-99% of harmful ultraviolet light

4. Ozone is formed when UV light strikes oxygen in the stratosphere to split the oxygen atoms, which then
reform as ozone

5. The ozone layer was discovered by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson in 1913

6. British meteorologist GMB Dobson established a worldwide network of ozone monitoring stations
between 1928 and 1958 that continues to operate today. He also developed a spectrophotometer (called the
Dobsonmeter) to measure stratospheric oxygen from the ground. The Dobson unit, a measure of ozone
density is named in his honour.

2. Ionosphere

1. Stretches from the thermosphere to the exosphere (100 km 700 km)

2. This is caused due to ionization by solar UV radiation

3. Responsible for radio propagation by reflecting radio waves back to the Earths surface thereby
enabling long-distance communication

4. Plays an important part in atmospheric electricity (like lightning)

5. Responsible for auroras

3. Homosphere and Heterosphere

1. Homosphere is the part of the atmosphere where gases are well mixed due to turbulence

2. This includes the troposphere, stratosphere and mesosphere

3. Heterosphere is the part of the atmosphere where gases are not well mixed

4. This usually happens above the turbopause (100 km) where distance between particles is large due to low
density

5. This causes the atmosphere to stratify with heavier gases like oxygen and nitrogen present in the lower
layers and lighter gases like hydrogen and helium in the upper layers.

4. Planetary boundary layer

1. Part of the troposphere closest to the Earths surface and most influenced by it

2. Friction with the earths surface causes turbulent diffusion

3. Ranges from 100 m to about 2 km

5. Magnetosphere

1. A mix of free ions and electrons from solar wind and the Earths atmosphere

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 2. It is non-spherical and extends to more than 70,000 km

3. It protects the Earth from harmful solar winds

4. Mars is thought to have lost most of its former oceans and atmosphere to space due to the direct impact of
solar winds. Similarly Venus is thought to have lost its water due to solar winds as well

6. Karman line

1. Defines the boundary between the Earths atmosphere and outer space

2. Lies at an altitude of 100 km above mean sea level

3. At this altitude the atmosphere becomes too thin for aeronautical purposes

4. However, there is no legal demarcation between a countrys air space and outer space.

7. Van Allen Belt

1. It is a region of energetic charged particles (plasma) around the Earth held in place by the Earths magnetic
field

2. Extends from about 200 km to 1000 km

3. Has important implications for space travel because it causes radiation damage to solar cells, integrated
circuits, sensors and other electronics.

3. Physical Properties Of The Atmosphere

1. Pressure and thickness

1. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1 atmosphere (around 14.7 psi)

2. 50% of atmospheric mass is below an altitude of 5.6 km

3. 90% of atmospheric mass is below 16 km

4. 99.99% of atmospheric mass is below 100 km

2. Density and mass

1. Atmospheric density decreases with height

2. Density at sea level is about 1.2 kg/cu.m

4. Optical Properties Of The Atmosphere

1. Scattering

1. When suns rays pass through the atmosphere, photons in light interact with the atmosphere to produce
scattering

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 2. Eg: on overcast days there are no shadows because light reaching the surface is only scattered, indirect
radiation, with no direct radiation reaching the earth

3. Scattering is responsible for blue appearance of the sky, and for red appearance of sunset

2. Absorption

1. The atmosphere absorbs radiation of different wavelengths, allowing only certain ranges (UV to IR) to pass
on to the earths surface

3. Emission

1. The atmosphere absorbs and emits IR radiation

2. Earth cools down faster on clear nights than on cloudy nights because clouds absorb IR radiation from the
Sun during the day and emit IR radiation towards the Earth at night

3. Greenhouse effect is directly related to emission, where certain greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide) prevent
IR radiation from the earths surface to exit back to space

4. Water Vapour in the Atmosphere

1. 99.9% of water vapour is contained in the troposphere

2. Condensation of water vapour into liquid or ice is responsible for rain, snow etc

3. The latent heat released during condensation is responsible for cyclones and thunderstorms

4. Water vapour is also a potent greenhouse gas

5. Water vapour is most common gas in volcanic emissions (around 60%)

5. Carbondioxde in the Atmosphere

1. It is an important greenhouse gas

2. Natural sources of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere include volcanic activity, combustion of organic
matter, respiration, decay of frests etc

3. Current carbon dioxide levels (0.0384%) are around 35% higher than the levels in 1832

4. The concentration of carbon dioxide is higher in the northern hemisphere because it has greater land mass
and plant mass than the southern hemisphere

5. Carbon dioxide concentrations peak in May (just after the end of winter in the Northern Hemisphere) and
reach a minimum in October (at the end of summer in Northern Hemisphere, when the quantity of plants
undergoing photosynthesis is greatest)

5. Insolation

1. The only source of energy for the earths atmosphere comes from the sun which has surface temperature of
more than 10,800 F.

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 2. This radiation from the sun is made up of three parts, the visible white light that we see when the sun
shines and the less visible ultra-violet and infra-red rays.

3. The visible white light is the most intense and has the greatest influence on our climate.

4. The ultra violet rays affect our skin and cause sun-burn when our bare body is exposed to them for
too long a period.

5. The infra-red rays can penetrate even dust and fog and are widely used in photography.

6. Only that part of the suns radiation which reaches the earth is called insolation.

6 Heat Budget

It is estimated that of the total radiation coming to us, 35percent reaches the atmosphere and is directly
reflected back to space by dust, clouds and air molecules. It plays practically no part in heating the earth
and its atmosphere.

Another 14 percent is absorbed by the water vapour, carbon dioxide and other gases. Its interception by the
air causes it to be scattered and diffused so that the visible rays of the spectrum between the ultra-violet
and infra-red give rise to the characteristic blue sky that we see above us.

The remaining 51 percent reaches the earth and warms the surface.

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 In turn the earth warms the layers of air above it by direct contact or conduction, and through the
transmission of heat by upward movement of air currents or convection.

This radiation of heat by the earth continues during the night, when insolation from the sun cannot replace
it. The earth-surface therefore cools at night.

The rate of heating differs between land and water surfaces.

Land gets heated up much more quickly than the water. Because water is transparent, heat is absorbed more
slowly and because it is always in motion, its absorbed heat is distributed over a greater depth and area.
Thus any appreciable rise in temperature takes a much longer time.

On the other hand the opaque nature of land allows greater absorption but all the radiant heat is
concentrated at the surface, and temperature rises rapidly. Because of these differences between land and
water surfaces, land also cools more quickly than water.

Variations in the Heat Budget Across the Globe

There is an excess of incoming shortwave radiation between 35 S and 40 N and a deficit at higher latitudes
compared with the outgoing longwave radiation budget. If equilibrium were to be maintained at every latitude the
short and longwave radiation should balance locally and the two curves in the figure would be identical.

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 The fact that they are not, and as local mean temperatures close to the equator are not increasing with time and
those close to the poles are not decreasing, heat energy must be transported from low latitudes poleward. This is
achieved by circulation within both the ocean and the atmosphere, transporting heat away from the equator towards
the pole and maintaining a higher temperature at latitudes greater than 50 than would be possible from a system
in radiative equilibrium, illustrated by the thin broken curve in the figure.

Heat Transfer in the Ocean and Atmosphere

Much of the heat transport polewards takes place by atmospheric circulation

However, a significant fraction, especially near the equator, the Hadley Cell only weakly transfers heat polewards,
most transfers takes place through the surface waters of the ocean.

The ocean surface heat transport is largely by wind blowing across the sea surface driving surface water currents

The oceans are capable of storing heat for a wide range of time scales and subsequently transporting it to other
locations.The thermohaline circulation (can store heat for 1000s of years.

The strongest thermohaline circulationis in the Atlantic Ocean, whereas the Pacific Ocean is much fresher and
features shallower circulations.This is largely due to differences in salinity. The atmosphere transports water vapour
across the isthmus in central America from the Atlantic to the Pacific, leaving the former saltier than the latter.

National Heritage Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY)

Apr 09, 2015

The programme called Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) is to launched for
conserving and preserving the heritage characters of these cities. For the beginning programme is launched in the
cities such as Mathura, Amritsar, Gaya, Kanchipuram, Vellankani and Ajmer. HRIDAY seeks to promote an
integrated, inclusive and sustainable development of heritage sites, focusing not just on maintenance of monuments
but on advancement of the entire ecosystem including its citizens, tourists and local businesses. With 32 UNESCO
recognized natural and cultural heritage sites, ranking second in Asia and fifth in the world, the tourism potential of
the country is still to be fully harnessed and the new scheme will help in this regard.

It is a central sector scheme, where 100% funding will be provided by Government of India. The duration of this
scheme is four years i.e. from December 2014 to March 2018. The scheme would be implemented in a mission
mode.

As a pilot, this flagship scheme of the government focuses on revitalising twelve heritage cities. Gaya (Bihar),
Dwaraka (Gujarat), Badami (Karnataka), Puri(Odisha), Amritsar (Punjab), Ajmer (Rajasthan), Kanchipuram and
Velankanni (Tamil Nadu),Warrangal (Telangana) and Mathura and Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh) , Amrawati (Andhra
Pradesh)

Why the Scheme

India is endowed with rich and diverse natural, historic and cultural resources. It is a palette of different cultures,
religions, traditions, home of various forms of art & handicrafts, music and literature, architectural styles et al.
However, it is yet to explore the full potential of such resources to its full advantages
In order to make these cities vibrant, competitive and to address some of stated challenges, a planned approach is
necessary for tapping the unlimited potential underlying in tourism and heritage sector unleashing the power of
skilful artisans and traditional economy.
To enable smooth dovetailing of modern concept of local economic development through locally available
knowledge, resources and skills.

Objective of Scheme

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 Planning, Development and implementation of heritage sensitive infrastructure
Service delivery and infrastructure provisioning in core areas of historic city
Preserve and revitalize heritage wherein tourist can connect directly with citys unique character
Develop and Document a heritage asset inventory of cities
Local capacity enhancement for inclusive heritage-based industry

The scheme will broadly focus on four theme areas i.e. Physical Infrastructure, Institutional Infrastructure,
Economic Infrastructure & Social Infrastructure for reviving and revitalizing the soul of Heritage City.
Identified cities/towns will be required to prepare Heritage Management Plan (HMP) for the city/town and develop
and execute Detailed Project Reports (DPRs) for identified projects (after consultation with all stakeholders) for
availing assistance under the scheme, through either empanelled agencies, state para-statals, Public Sector
Undertakings, Special purpose vehicles.

Bilateral ties between India and Russia

Dec 29, 2014

The term Druzhba-Dosti signifies a shared vision for strengthening the Indian-Russian Partnership over the next
decade. India deeply values the contributions made by Russia to Indias developmental and defence needs since the
second half of the twentieth century. The Declaration on Strategic Partnership of 2000 and the Annual Summits it
initiated between the two countries, have allowed the two countries to redefine and strengthen their partnership in
the twenty-first century. Annual Summit meeting between the Prime Minister of India and the President of the
Russian Federation is the highest institutionalized dialogue mechanism under the Strategic Partnership between
India and the Russian Federation. The scope of bilateral ties and cooperation has been extended to include the
following.

Oil and Gas:

Russia is the world`s top source for hydrocarbon resources and, India one of the world`s largest importers.
Yet, despite close friendship, the bilateral collaboration in this sector has been disappointing. But a new
start with a few important agreements has been made.
The bilateral program on enhanced cooperation in oil and gas sphere underlines the serious commitments
of the two countries to develop cooperation in this area of great promise.
The two countries will study the possibilities of building a hydrocarbon pipeline system, connecting the
Russian Federation with India.
Besides, ONGC Videsh Limited has substantive investments in oil and gas projects in Russia and its Arctic
offshore.

Nuclear energy:

The two countries have a joint vision for cooperation in nuclear energy, aimed at serial construction of
nuclear power units, based on Russian design. Russia offered 12 nuclear reactors to India.
Towards this objective, the Indian side has agreed to identify a second site, in addition to Kudankulam, for
the construction of the Russian-designed nuclear power units in India.

Regional multilateral cooperation in energy:

The first Asia-Pacific Energy Forum (APEF), held in May 2013, laid the foundation for an enhanced
regional energy dialogue under the auspices of the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the
Pacific (UNESCAP).

Energy Efficiency:

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 The energy efficiency agencies of the two countries will engage more closely to exchange experiences and
best practices.
India and Russia will also cooperate in the development and efficient use of renewable energy.

Space Technology:

The space agencies of India and Russia will engage more actively on space technology applications, space
transportation, satellite navigation, space science, planetary exploration and peaceful uses of outer space.
India launched its first satellite Aryabhata in 1975 using Soyuz launch vehicle.
The two countries are currently engaged in cooperation on GLONASS and other space applications.

Defence:

The two countries have already moved to a phase of joint design and development of defence systems (for
instance, Brahmos).
India has permitted foreign direct investment in the defence sector up to 49 per cent.
The two countries will enrich bilateral interaction through regular joint military exercises, training in each
others services institutions and institutionalized consultations between the armed forces.
Russia has offered to fully manufacture in India one of its most advanced helicopters. It includes the
possibility of exports from India. It can be used for both military and civilian use.

Scientific and technological cooperation:

The two countries will develop various support mechanisms for joint research aimed at creating
institutional linkages between scientific research institutions of the two countries.
In view of the importance of safeguarding food security, the two countries would expect to conduct further
joint research in the fields of horticulture and biotechnology.
Further academic exchanges will also be promoted through schemes for visits by scientists that will
enhance human resource capacity building in the science and technology sector.

Arctic region:

The two countries are to facilitate scientific cooperation to study the challenges (like melting ice, climate
change, marine life and biodiversity), facing the rapidly-changing Arctic region.

Rare-earth minerals:

Given the strategic importance of rare-earth minerals and their economic and commercial utility, the two
countries will enhance cooperation in rare earth minerals mining, technology development and research.
They will explore joint development of technologies for processing rare earth materials.

Expanded economic engagement:

The two countries have an enormous untapped potential in bilateral trade, investment and economic
cooperation. Indias Make in India programme provides wide range of opportunities of economic
engagement to Russia.
The International North-South Transport Corridor can vastly improve the efficiency of bilateral trade by
significantly reducing transit time and freight costs.
The two countries have promoted mutual direct trade of diamonds. The opening of Indias rough-diamond
procurement policy by India will mean Mumbai can dream of becoming a worldwide hub for the industry.
Both the countries have jointly inaugurated World Diamond Conference. Indias diamond sector has
established itself as the worlds largest manufacturing centre of cut and polished diamonds for the last

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 many years. It is generally believed that diamond is India`s gift to the world. Till about the 18th century,
India was considered to be the only source of diamond.

Mutual trade:

The two countries target a bilateral trade of goods and services of US$30 billion by the year 2025. The
level of mutual investments by then is expected to be over US$15 billion each way.
The two countries will encourage payments in national currencies for bilateral trade. The Working Group
established for this purpose will make recommendations on eliminating the existing barriers and
stimulating transactions in national currencies.
The two countries agreed on mutual trade facilitation measures, particularly with regards to simplified
customs procedures. In this context, they agreed to finalize shortly a protocol on a "Green Corridor
project.

Mutual investment:

India-Russia mutual investment is expected to become a new point of growth in bilateral economic
cooperation.
Emphasis will be laid on promoting Russian investments in India in major infrastructure projects like
DMIC, Smart Cities and Freight Corridors, as well as in broader sectors like telecom, power and roads.
Similarly, Indian participation in Russian economy will be encouraged.

Global order and world peace

India and Russia will work for democratization of global political, economic, financial and social
institutions so that these institutions better represent the aspirations and interests of all segments of the
international community.
India and Russia oppose economic sanctions that do not have the approval of the United Nations Security
Council.

Cooperation in UNSC reforms:

Both the countries support the UN Security Council reform in order to make it more representative and
effective in dealing with emerging challenges and reflective of contemporary realities.
Russia will extend its support for Indias candidature for permanent membership of the Council.

Cooperation in other multilateral fora:

The two countries will consult and coordinate in multilateral fora such as G20, EAS, BRICS and RIC.
Russia looks forward to India becoming a full member of the SCO following the completion of all required
negotiations procedures.

Counter-terrorism:

The two countries agreed to work together for the adoption of the Comprehensive Convention on
International Terrorism by the UN.
Both the countries hope that all safe havens and sanctuaries for terrorists will be wiped out without delay
and terrorism would be completely eradicated from the common region within a decade.

Support to Indias membership:

Russia confirmed its support to Indias intention to seek full membership in the Nuclear Suppliers Group.

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 Russia also supported Indias interest in full membership in the MTCR and Wassenaar Arrangement.

People-to-people ties:

The two countries supported enhancing measures by their governments to promote and support cultural
exchanges through annual festivals of culture, exchanges between cultural institutions, think tanks, tourism
promotion events and other initiatives.

Cooperation in education:

Education ties will be strengthened by supporting the establishment of institutional linkages between
universities and academic institutions of the two countries. The two countries will promote in this context
the development of network partnerships between universities.
Early conclusion of agreements on mutual recognition of education, qualification and degrees should
further encourage leading universities and research institutions of India and Russia to support greater
exchanges of student research scholars, post-doctoral candidates and faculties.

Simplified visa regime:

The Russian side welcomed the simplified visa regime introduced by the Indian side in November, 2014
under which nationals of Russia will be granted electronic visa on arrival at designated airports in India.
Both countries agreed to further ease visa requirements for mutual travels of certain categories of citizens
of the two countries, including business visas. This will further enhance people-to-people contacts and
boost tourism. The character of global politics and international relations is changing. However,

the importance of this relationship and its unique place in India`s foreign policy will not change. In many
ways, its significance to both countries will grow further in the future.

Some irritants in the relationship:

There is no denying that the old lustre of the India-Russia friendship has dimmed somewhat, and many of the
affirmations in the Druzba-Dosti joint statement of friendship they issued seem problematic.

Even before his arrival in Delhi, President Putins decision to decline the offer to address a joint session of
Parliament indicated that all is not well in the relationship. The problems seem evident: Russia has watched
with displeasure as India has diversified its military imports, especially when it comes to helicopter and
aircraft purchases.
The slide is not recent, and last year a senior Russian official had called the decision to buy fighter aircraft
and missiles from France, the U.S. and Israel illogical and unfair.
India was outraged by the Russian decision to lift its embargo on defence sales to Pakistan, and the first-
ever Russia-Pakistan framework agreement that was finalised recently.

Given that India still maintains about 70 per cent of its defence inventory from Russian hardware, and is one of
Russias biggest buyers, the unhappiness on both sides may not change the equations of dependence between them,
but it must be addressed.

With 15 successful years of strategic partnership, India and Russia are poised to increase the level and quality of
engagement and cooperation in bilateral, multilateral and global issues.

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
Dec 01, 2014

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Architecture accommodated the local and regional cultural traditions and social requirements, economic prosperity,
religious practice of different times. Hence, the study of architecture reveals to us the cultural diversities and helps
us to understand the rich traditions of India. Indian art is inspired by religion. Indian architecture, belonging to
different periods of history, bears the stamp of respective periods.

Indus Valley Architecture/ Harappan Architecture:

The most ancient

architectural remains in the
subcontinent are the 4500
year-old (2600-1900 BC)
ruins of the mature Indus
Valley civilization: their
planned cities and
monumental buildings (such
as the Great Bath at
Mohenjodaro).
Architecture and Sculpture
was not integral to Indus
Valley civilization. Its
building are utilitarian
without artistic flourish
(2500-2000 BC)
All the sites consisted of
walled cities which provided security to the people. The cities had a rectangular grid pattern of layout with
roads that cut each other at right angles. People used standardised burnt mud-bricks as building material.
Extensive town planning evident from the gridiron pattern for the layout of cities, some with fortification
and the elates rate drainage and water bricks. Bricks of fixed sizes, as well as stone and wood were also
used for building.
Great bath- MohanJodarao, bath had galleries and room on all sides.
Another important structure was granary complex comprising of blocks with an overall area of 55 43mt.
constructed with strategic air duets and platforms divided into unit.
The most important features of Harrapan architecture are their superior town planning skills and cities that
have been built on a clear geometric pattern or grid layout. Roads cut each other at right angles and were
very well laid out.
The Harappans had the knowledge and skill of sculpting and craft. The worlds first bronze sculpture of a
dancing girl has been found in Mohenjodaro
The stone statuaries found at Harappa and Mohenjodaro are excellent examples of handling three
dimensional volumes.
The art of bronze-casting was practised on a wide scale by the Harappans. Their bronze statues were made
using the lost wax technique.
The Indus Valley people made terracotta images also but compared to
the stone and bronze statues the terracotta representations of human
form are crude in the Indus Valley. They are more realistic in Gujarat
sites and Kalibangan.
Archaeologists have discovered thousands of seals, usually made of
steatite, and occasionally of agate, chert, copper, faience and terracotta,
with beautiful figures of animals, such as unicorn bull, rhinoceros,
tiger, elephant, bison, goat, buffalo, etc.
A large quantity of pottery excavated from the sites. The Indus Valley
pottery consists chiefly of very fine wheelmade wares, very few being
hand-made. Plain pottery is more common than painted ware.
Polychrome pottery is rare and mainly comprises small vases decorated
with geometric patterns in red, black, and green, rarely white and
yellow.

16
 The Harappan men and women decorated themselves with a large variety of ornaments produced from
every conceivable material ranging from precious metals and gemstones to bone and baked clay. The
Harappan people also made brilliantly naturalistic models of animals, especially monkeys and squirrels,
used as pin-heads and beads

Mauryan Period : The art and architecture of the Mauryan Empire constitutes the culminating point of the progress
of Indian art. The period was marked by mature use of stone and production of masterpieces.

Nothing remains of the cities built by Mauryas (as described by Magasthenes).

Pataliputra the city, occupying a parallelogram about 10 miles long and two miles wide, was gridded by
stupendous wooden wall pierced with loopholes for the archers wall provided in 500 towers and 64 gates
within enclosures royal palace.
Mauryan art and architecture depicted the influence of Persians and Greeks. During the reign of Ashoka
many monolithic stone pillars were erected on which teachings of Dhamma were inscribed.
Mauryan Pillars: The most striking monuments of Mauryan art are the celebrated Pillars of Dharma. These
pillars were free standing columns and were not used as supports to any structure. They had two main parts,
the shaft and the capital. The shaft is monolith column made of one piece of stone with exquisite polish.
The art of polishing was so marvelous that many people felt that it was made of metal.

Average height is 40 feet surmounted by a circular abacus ornamental with animal and floral motifs in relief. There
is a crowning animal sculpture on the round, which is usually the lion, bull or elephant, represented singly on the
early capitals and grouped on later.

Pillars were carved in two types of stone. Some were of the spotted red and white sandstone from the region of
Mathura, the others of buff-coloured fine grained hard sandstone usually with small black spots quarried in the
Chunar near Varanasi.

The Mauryan pillars are rock-cut pillars thus displaying the carvers skills, whereas the Achamenian pillars are
constructed in pieces by a mason.

Rock cut architecture In Ashokas rein contain inscription which show they were donated for habitations of
certain Ajivika ascetics (closely related to Jains ex. Barbar & Nagarjuna hills, near Gaya.

Stupas are huge halls, capped with domes and bare symbol of Buddha .They were built at places where Buddhas
remains were preserved and at the major sites where important events in Buddhas life took place. Stupas were built
of huge mounds of mud, enclosed in carefully burnt small standard bricks. One was built at his birthplace Lumbini;
the second at Gaya where he attained enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree, the third at Sarnath where he gave his
first sermon and the fourth at Kushinagar where he passed away attaining Mahaparinirvana at the age of eighty.

The stupas of Sanchi and Sarnath are symbols of the achievement of Mauryan architecture. The gateways of the
Sanchi Stupa with the beautiful sculpture depicting scenes from Jataka stories are specimens of the skill and

17
aesthetic sense of the artisans.

GUPTA PERIOD (4 7th AD), golden age of architecture of India . The enormous wealth of the country during
the imperial Guptas had led to a cultural resurgence in India. The period witnessed a culmination of earlier
tendencies and style and the beginning of new style and technique in the field of architecture. Sarnath emerged as a
school par excellence marked by deep spiritual quality and a vision.

The Gupta architecture is revealed through the cave and temple architecture of those times, which also include two
Buddhist stupas. The "Mirpur Khas stupa" was built in 4th century A.D., which contains a number of arches. The
curve of this Stupa denotes that arch-making was known to the Indians before the advent of Muslims to India. The
relics of the "Dhameka Stupa" built of bricks represent the idiom of the Gupta architecture. The caves of the
Buddhist and Hindus sects denote the architectural pattern of the Guptas. Ajanta, Ellora caves and the Bagh cave
paintings denote the Buddhist outline, which was very popular during the Gupta period. Hindu caves are found in
Udayagiri, Bhopal. The cave paintings of Gupta period conspicuously differ from the others due to their artistic
elegance and design

Temple Style Gupta mark beginning of temple architecture in India.

The Gupta Age indicated a new era in the history of

temple architecture.
Cave temples were replaced by structural temples for
the purpose of idol worship. The different kinds of
temple structures denote the artistic brilliance of the
Gupta Empire. These temple designs became the
benchmark for the subsequent creations so made by the
latter Dynasties like for instance the temple of
Dasavatar at Deogarh is a sheer delight with brilliant
carvings and panel constructions.
Free standing sculptural temple were the chief features
of temple architecture during the Gupta period.
For the first time they initiated permanent materials
like brick and stone, instead of perishable materials
like bamboo, wood etc. Structural temples, instead of
cave temples were erected during this period for the convenience of idol worship.
The Gupta architects had invented an artistic standard, which became the general rule of temple
construction in the successive ages.
The `shikara` or top of the temple are the chief attractions about these constructions.
The Siva temple at Nachana, the Parvati temple at Ajaya Garh in Uttar Pradesh, the Vishnu temple in the
Central Province, the Ekkalinga Shiva temple at Satana are some of the other examples of temple
architectures belonging to this Dynasty

Temple Architecture

Nagara (developed regionally)

eveloped in Northen India

Northern, temple is a square with a number of graduated projections.
Rathakas in the middle of each face which gives it a cruciform shape on the exterior a tower (Shikhara)

Dravida

Developed in South, during the Chola Empire, between 9th12th Century AD

In this sanctum is situated within an ambulatory hall and there is pyramidal tower formed by an
accumulation of several strays

18
 Circular passage around the garbhagriha to allow devotees to do pradakshina.
Viimana: were multiple storeys built above the garbhagriha (chief dietys room). Number of storeys varied
from 5-7.
Mandapa: a
pillared hall
with
elaborately
carved
pillars and a
flat roof
was placed
before the
dietys
room. It
acted as an
audience
hall which featured ceremonial dances too (by devadasis).
Courtyard and Gopuram: Entire structure was enclosed within a courtyard surrounded by high walls. This
courtyard would have high gates to allow passage of people. Gates called gopuram

Vesara They are between the vindhyas and the Krishna black basalt, special characteristic is its fine finish; figures
much decorated and well polished seen at Nalanda, Rajgriha, Bodhgaya.

Sculpture of Gupta Period - Sculpture was taken to an altogether different level by the Gupta Empire. Originally,
the art of sculpting started in Mathura but subsequently it was at Sarnath that this art was made nothing less than
perfect. It was the same place where Gautam Buddha turned the wheel of law. Hence, Mathura and Sarnath became
the prime centers where sculpting was practiced.

The Shiv-Parvati relics in Kosam, the Ramayana panel in Deogarh and also at Sarnath were some of the main
sculptures so erected during the Gupta period. The sculpture of this period truly depicts the artistic perfection of the
Gupta period artists. Additionally, the Gandhara School of art and sculpture as well as the Mathura school of art also
contributed heavily to the art of sculpting.

Hoysala Art

(1100 1350 AD), developed in Karnataka region. It

has complicated plans, which may be polygonal or star
shaped with numerous angled projection ex. - at Belur,
Halelid, Sringeri.
Hoysala influence was at its peak in the 13th century,
when it dominated the Southern Deccan Plateau
region.
Large and small temples built during this era remain as
examples of the Hoysala architectural style, including
the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara
Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at
Somanathapura
Hassan said to have starting point in the early
chaulukya but when it finally developed in Mysore
region it manifest itself to Hoysala art in large number
of cases the structures are double temples, having their
essential parts in duplicate and quite often they are
triple, quadruple and even quintuple in plan.
In this Sandstone given up in favor of chloritic schist.
Temples are decorated with an increasing wealth of

19
 sculptured ornamentation. Chennakeshwar temple built by Vishnu Vardhan in Belur.
Some of the distinctive styles of Hoysala architecture style:
* The temples have a star shaped base with the main structure standing on a raised platform.
* There are three shrines structured around a central pillared hall, each with a tower.
* Pillars with horizontal mouldings, produced by a mechanical process.
* There are intricate grille windows, an abundance of sculptural details.
* The sikharas unlike the northern style (parabolic) are constructed in well defined horizontal tiers.

Chandel

Architecture flourished in 10 11th Centuries

Chief work of this style is Khajuraho group of temples
Khajurahos temples are also known for their extensive

erotic sculptures; the erotic expression is given equal

importance in human experience as spiritual pursuit, and it is seen as part of a

larger cosmic whole

finest is shavite temple known as Kandariya Mahadev

Other temples are dedicated to Vishnu and Jaina pontiffs.
They stand as high terraces.
Each temple divided into 3 main component the cells, Garbha
Griha, an assembly hall or Mandapa and an entrance portico or ardha
Mandapa, these entities were treated as a whole

Vijaynagar (Hampi)

Characteristic feature of this period is the development of the temple complex.

Concentric series of rectangular enclosures walls with the gopuras in the middle of each side.
Temple architecture reached to new heights under the patronage of Krishnadevaraya and Achyuta Raya. It
received a new impetus and did not remain a stagnant art. New elements were introduced which added to
its variety and richness.
Famous temples are Temple of Pampapati, Hazara Rama temple and the Vittyalasunna temple.
In Vijaynagar monuments, the sculpture had an important part in the scheme of things..
Sculpture of this period are exemplifies by large Monolith carving. Nandinear Lepaksh temple largest in
country.

Temples of Odisha

These temples dated from 8th to mid 13th century

Earliest movements in Indo-Aryan architecture in Bhubaneswar several sanctuaries were erected
The main architectural features of Odisha temples are classified in three orders, i.e., rekhapida, pidhadeul
and khakra.
The temples of Odisha constitute a distinct substyle within the nagaraorder. In general, here the shikhara,
called deulin Odisha, is vertical almost until the top when it suddenly curves sharply inwards. Deulsare
preceded, as usual, by mandapas called jagamohana in Odisha.
Ground plan of the main temple is almost always square which, in the upper reaches of its superstructure
becomes circular in the crowning mastaka. This makes the spire nearly cylindrical in appearance in its
length.
In Lingraja temple, parabolic curve of the giant tower over the sanctum is a striking specimen.
Odishan architecture have no pillars and roofs were partly supported by iron girders a striking technical
innovation, lavish exterior decoration though interior left unadorned (except at Mukteshwar shrine).

20
 Sun temple erected by Narsimha. It is set on a high base, its walls covered in extensive, detailed
ornamental carving. These include twelve pairs of enormous wheels sculpted with spokes and hubs,
representing the chariot wheels of the Sun god who, in mythology, rides a chariot driven by eight horses,
sculpted here at the entrance staircase.

Rajasthan & Gujarat :

Patronised by Chaulakyas (Solanki) in 11th to 13th centuries

Vimala, Tejpalu and Vastupala temples at mount Abu exhibit style not fundamentally different from
Khajuraho
The most outstanding feature of this style is its minute and lovely decorativeness.

Chalukyan Style :

Early Chalukyan activity takes the form of rock-cut caves while later activity is of structural temples
Vesara style equated with Chalukyan style
The hybridisation and incorporation of several styles was the hallmark of Chalukyan buildings. The most
elaborate of all Chalukyan temples at Pattadakal made in the reign of Vikramaditya II (733-44) by his chief
queen Loka Mahadevi,
Chalukyan style cant be said to have independent origins, represents an outgrowth of the earlier Dravidian
style. A mixture of two idea Dravida and Nagara.

Rashtrakuta Art

Kailash temple at Ellora, built in time of Krishna II representing the boldest attempt in the field of rockcut
architecture
Elephanta cave in second half of 8th century.

Pallava Art

Example of this art is Rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram , five Monolith temple known as Rathas and 3rd
Tirtham or magnificent open air caring in relief on a rock surface
In the representation of animals, this schools excel all.
It Differ from Gupta architecture in the tenderness and the freer movements of the forms, a max oval face
and higher check bones.

Chola :

Pallava heritage passed on to Chola

These architectures are dedicated to Lord Shiva
Brihadiswera Temple at Tanjavur and the temple at Gagaikonda-Cholapuram are great creation of Chola.
Vimana/tall pyramidal tower dominates the whole structure of the shrine
It had a considerable influence on the architecture of the Hindu temples of Ceylon & 8.East Asian
Kingdom.

INDO-Islamic Architecture :

Indo-Islamic architecture begins with the Ghuris occupation of India at the close of the 12 century A.D.
The main elements in the Islamic architecture is the introduction of arches and beams, and it is the arcuate
style of construction while the traditional Indian building style is trabeate, using pillars and beams and
lintels. The early buildings of the Slave dynasty did not employ true Islamic building styles and consisted

21
 of false domes and false arches. Later, the introduction of true arches and true domes start to appear, the
earliest example is the Alai Darwaza by the side of Qutb Minar.
The different religious beliefs are also reflected in the mode of construction and architectural styles.
The Islamic style incorporated many elements from the traditional Indian style and a compound style
emanated. The introduction of decorative brackets, balconies, pendentive decorations, etc in the
architecture is an example in this regard. The other distinguishing features of Indo-Islamic architecture are
the utilisation of kiosks (chhatris), tall towers (minars) and half-domed double portals.
As human worship and its representation are not allowed in Islam, the buildings and other edifices are
generally decorated richly in geometrical and arabesque designs. These designs were carved on stone in
low relief, cut on plaster, painted or inlaid. The use of lime as mortar was also a major element distinct
from the traditional building style.
The tomb architecture is also another feature of the Islamic architecture as the practice of the burial of the
dead is adopted. The general pattern of the tomb architecture is consisted of a domed chamber (hujra), a
cenotaph in its centre with a mihrab on the western wall and the real grave in the underground chamber.
To general tomb architecture, the Mughals added a new dimension by introducing gardens all around the
tomb. The Mughal tombs are generally placed at the centre of a huge garden complex, the latter being sub-
divided into square compartments, the style is known as char-bagh.
The Mughals built large gardens in various levels and terraces on the char-bagh pattern. Scholars trace the
evolution of the char-bagh pattern of gardening to the original land of the Mughals, the Kabul Valley,
where depending upon the landscape and terrain, gardens and residential complexes were laid out. The
Mughals inherited this garden type and superbly transformed it according to the new terrains in India. Thus,
evolved a transformed style of char-bagh pattern of gardening.
The Mughals are also credited to have introduced the double dome system of dome architecture and the
pietra-dura style of inlay decorations.

Quwwatul-Islam Mosque by Qutbu-Din Aibek in 1191-98 marks the beginning of mew architectural style.

Qutb Minar founded by Aibak completed by Iltutmish, subsequently repaired by Firoz & Sikander Lodhi, 5-streys

Arhai Din Ka Jhonpra at Ajmer, started by Aibak and provided with arched screening Iltutmish has a beautiful
prayer hall.

Alai Darwaza forms part of the ambitious scheme of Alaud-din-Khalji to enlarge the Quwwatul Mosque. Red
sandstone & while marble used for its exterior work.

MUGHAL PERIOD

It is Characterized by imposing facades with four centered arches and semi-domed roofs, vaults of intersecting
arches, domes with constricted necks and inverted lotus tops, pinnacles, ornament in stone or marble carving, inlay,
Important Contribution is double dome.

Humayun's Tomb

Humayuns tomb was built by his widow Haji Begum in 1565 A.D.
The mausoleum stands in the centre of a square enclosed garden. The garden is divided and sub-divided
into squares, typical of Mughal gardens.
The lofty double storeyed structure is built on a huge high platform terrace which has a row of calls with
arched openings.
The central chamber is octagonal in shape and contains the tomb. Each side of the mausoleum has a large
arched alcove in the centre with smaller ones on either side, having a high marble double dome in the
centre and pillared kiosks with cupolas surrounding it.
It is Built of red sandstone with an inlay of black, white and yellow marble presents an imposing picture.
It is Planned by a Persian architect and constructed by Indian workers, it is a combination of both Persian
and Indian styles of architecture.

22
 Entrance to the mausoleum is through two double storeyed gateways.

Agra Fort

Major part completed in Akbars time starting in 1565 AD and completed it in 1574 A.D.
The special feature of this fort is the 2.5 kms. long and 21 metres high circuitous wall of solid red sand
stone. The stones are linked with iron rings so close that not even a hair can pass through.
Entrance to the fort is through two gateways. The main entrance known as Delhi Gate was the ceremonial
entrance to the fort. The other smaller gateway is called the Hathi Pol or Elephant Gate because of the two
huge elephants on either side of the gate and was meant for private use.
The Delhi Gate entrance archway is flanked by two double storeyed octagonal bastions crowned by
octagonal domed kiosks. A balcony separates the two storeys. The structure above the balcony has arched
recesses.
Some of the important buildings inside the fort are the Jahangiri Mahal built for Jahangir and his family,
the Moti Masjid, and Mena Bazaars.
The Jehangiri Mahal is an impressive structure and has a courtyard surrounded by double-storeyed halls
and rooms. The corbel brackets, doorways and the chajja above them are profusely carved.

Fatehpur Sikri

Akbars greatest architectural achievement

The construction was started in 1569 A.D. and completed in 1574 A.D.
It contained some of the most beautiful buildings both religious and secular
The religious edifices worth mentioning are the Jami Masjid and Salim Chistis Tomb. The tomb built in
1571 A.D. in the corner of the mosque compound is a square marble chamber with a verandah. The
cenotaph has an exquisitely designed lattice screen around it.
The secular architectures are Jodh Bais palace, the Panch Mahal, the Diwan-i-khas and the Buland
Darwaza.

Buland Darwaza

A magnificent gateway added to commemorate Akbars conquest of Gujarat.

Built of red sand stone and marble it is said to be the most perfect architectural achievement in the whole
of India".

Jama Masjid, Delhi

The Jama Masjid in Delhi is the largest mosque in India and was built between 1650-1656A.D.
Constructed on a high platform and approached by a flight of steps on three sides.
The main entrance is a double storeyed gateway and leads to a vast square courtyard which is enclosed by
pillared corridors.
The prayer hall, rectangular in plan has a facade of eleven arches. The high central arch is flanked by tall
slender minarets with cupolas.
White marble panels with inscriptions frame the arches. Three domes with alternate black and white marble
stripes surmount the prayer hall. On the eastern corners, stand two tapering four storeyed minarets.

Taj Mahal

Built by Shah Jehan as a memorial to his beloved wife Mumtaz Begum.

Started in 1632 A.D. and took 22 years to complete.
Marble from Makrana and precious stones from different parts of the world were used in its construction.
Planned by Isa, a Persian architect it is a masterpiece of architecture.

23
 The Taj is situated in the centre of a high marble terrace.
A marble minaret of four storeys stands on each of the four corners of the terrace. The minarets are
crowned with domes.
The main structure is a square.
A huge, vaulted recess with smaller arched recesses in two storeys on either side make up the facade of the
building on all sides.
An octagonal hall with an exquisite perforated marble screen contains the cenotaphs of Mumtaz and Shah
Jehan.
The vaulted ceiling is crowned in the centre by a large bulbous dome which tapers off into a foliated crest.
Around the dome are four cupolas. The surface of the walls exterior and interior and the cenotaphs are
beautifully decorated with pietra dura, floral and geometrical designs. Borders of inscriptions decorate the
main archways.
A Mosque on the west and a corresponding structure on the east in red sand-stone complete the effect of
symmetry. Situated in a large enclosed rectangular garden with fountains, ornamental pools and water-
courses, entrance to the Taj is by a majestic gateway.

Colonial influence

With colonization, a new chapter in Indian architecture began. The Dutch, Portuguese and the French made their
presence felt through their buildings but it was the English who had a lasting impact on architecture. In the
beginning of the colonial rule there were attempts at creating authority through classical prototypes. In its later phase
the colonial architecture culminated into what is called the Indo-Saracenic architecture.

Palladian style It sought to be introduced in 18th century constantia in Lucknow is best example of this
architecture. A great central tower rising from the succession of terraced roof is a characteristic of this style.

Indo Gothic Style

It drew elements from native Indo-Islamic and Indian architecture, and combined it with the Gothic revival and
Neo-Classical styles favoured in Victorian Britain.

The first building of this style is said to be the Chepauk palace, located in the neighborhood of Chepauk, in
present day Chennai . Chief characteristics of this style are:

Onion (bulbous) domes Bulbous, onion like roofs with a pointed projection.
Doomed kiosks Indigeniously called chhattris; supported by 4 columns; largely used to lend visual
symmetry
Towers/Minarets Tall spires with a conical crown; provide a visual focal point. Also functional in air
conditioning mechanism.
Overhanging Eaves Protruding edge of roofs providing protection against bad weather.
Pinnacles Ornamental capping of towers and buttresses.
Vaulted roofs
Open pavilions

French gave distinct urban design to its settlement in Pondicherry by applying the Cartesian grid plans and classical
architectural patterns.

Modern Architecture

Architecture traditionally, i.e., before the arrival of British on the Indian soil, was from the social point of view,
a creation of spectacular sculptural forms hewn out of stone. Architectural material was stone; tools, chisel and
hammer, and the aim was glorification. When British arrived on the scene, it was through them that the first
introduction to elementary modern building construction and planning was introduced into India. The most
significant architectural phenomenon that took place during the first half of this century in this country was building

24
of Imperial Delhi. This was an anachronism of the highest order, because, while at that time contemporary
Europeans were engaged in most progressive thinking in architecture, Sir Edward Lutyen's was a masterpiece in
high renaissance architecture, the result of a way of thinking typical of the early nineteenth century in Europe

After Independence various organisations are created which are some way or other are responsible for creation of
Buildings in India:

CENTRAL PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT (C.P.W.D.)

TOWN COUNTRY PLANNING ORGANISATION
HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION
CENTRAL BUILDING RESEARCH INSTITUTE
NATIONAL BUILDING ORGANISATION
HINDUSTAN HOUSING FACTORY
STATE HOUSING BOARDS TO DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITIES

THEATRE FORM IN INDIA

Dec 16, 2014

The Indian theatre has a tradition going back to at least 5000 years. The earliest book on dramaturgy anywhere in the
world was written in India. It was called Natya Shastra, i.e., the grammar or the holy book of theatre by Bharat
Muni. Its time has been placed between 2000 B.C. to 4th Century A.D. A long span of time and practice is needed
for any art or activity to form its rules and notifications. Therefore, it can be said with assurance that to have a book
like Natya Shastra, the Indian theatre must have begun long, long before that if we go back to historical records,
excavations and references available in the two great epics The Ramayana and The Mahabharata.

Theatre in India started as a narrative form, i.e., reciting, singing and dancing becoming integral elements of the
theatre. This emphasis on narrative elements made our theatre essentially theatrical right from the beginning. That is
why the theatre in India has encompassed all the other forms of literature and fine arts into its physical presentation:
Literature, Mime, Music, Dance, Movement, Painting, Sculpture and Architecture - all mixed into one and being
called Natya or Theatre in English.

In different regions of India, there are religious festivals, fairs, gatherings, ritual offerings, prayers, almost
throughout the year. During these occasions, traditional theatre forms are presented. They reflect the common mans
social attitudes and perceptions. In this social portrayal, there is also the individuals role which is given due
importance.

In traditional theatre forms there are certain conventions of presentations depending upon and changing according to
the form and size of the stage or the platform and other available situations. There is no formal setup governing the
entry or exit of the actors. Depending on the situation or context, the actors enter into the stage and enact their role
without being formally introduced.

Traditional theatre forms have definitely been influenced by industrial civilization, industrialization, and
urbanization. The socio-cultural aspects of these influences should be carefully studied. Traditional theatre forms
have a common distinguishing feature that is the element of simplicity. Secondly the development of traditional
theatre forms is based on such local and regional peculiarities which are not bound and restricted by social and
economic divisions, limitations, etc. Traditional art forms have influenced classical art forms and vice-versa.

KOODIYATTAM

This theatre form originated in Kerala but the

exact date of its inception is not known. It is
based on Sanskrit theatre traditions
It is considered to have been introduced in
India by the Aryans.

25
 Koodiyattam is the oldest existing classical theatre form in the entire world, having originated much before
Kathakali and most other theatrical forms. It is considered to be at least 2000 years old.
Traditionally, Koodiyattam is presented by Chakyars, a temple caste of Kerala, and Nangiars, the women of
Nambiar caste.
Koodiyattam, unlike the most other theatre forms allows an active role for women. The Nangiars recite
shlokas and play female characters.
Koodiyattam was traditionally a part of the temple rituals, performed as a kind of visual sacrifice to the
deity and is normally performed in koothambalams or temple theatres that are decorated with exquisite
carvings.
Conventional in its make-up, costume as well as form, it is an elaborate blend of symbolic gestures, stylised
movements and chanted dialogue and verse in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Malayalam.
In Koodiyattam, there is a Vidooshaka (Royal clown) who humourously narrates the thematic development
of the text, to the audience in Malayalam. His words and actions convincingly portray the true character of
the protagonist. In the past he was a social auditor. His diatribes against the establishment and those in
power were a corrective force in the feudal-society.

Bhand Pather

Traditional theatre form of Kashmir,

Unique combination of dance, music
and acting,
Music is provided with surnai, nagaara
and dhol,
Actors of Bhand Pather are mainly from
the farming community, the impact of
their way of living, ideals and sensitivity
is discernible.

Swang

Originally the theatre was mainly music-based.

Musical folk-drama evolved in 18th century.
The softness of emotions, accomplishment of rasa alongwith the development of character can be seen in
this theatre form.
Swang incorporates suitable theatrics and mimicry (or nakal) accompanied by song and dialogue. It is
dialogue-oriented rather than movement-oriented.
The two important styles of Swang are from Rohtak and Haathras.
In the style belonging to Rohtak, the language used is Haryanvi (Bangru) and in Haathras, it is Brajbhasha.

Nautanki

Usually associated with Uttar Pradesh.

Before the advent of cinema in India, it was the most popular form of entertainment prevalent in these
areas.
The most popular centres of this traditional theatre form are Kanpur, Lucknow and Haathras.
The meters used in the verses are: Doha, Chaubola, Chhappai, Behar-e-tabeel,
There was a time when only men acted in Nautanki but nowadays, women have also started taking part in
the performances. Among those remembered with reverence is Gulab Bai of Kanpur.

Raasleela

26
 Based exclusively on Lord Krishna
legends;
Nand Das believed to write the initial
plays based on the life of Krishna;
In this theatre form the dialogues in
prose combined beautifully with songs
and scenes from Krishna's pranks.
Rasa dance is part of the traditional
story of Krishna described in Hindu
scriptures such as the Bhagavata Purana
and literature such as the Gita Govinda,
where he dances with Radha and her
sakhis.
It is a popular form of folk theatre in the
regions of Mathura, Vrindavan in Uttar
Pradesh, especially during the festivals of Krishna Janmashtami and Holi, and amongst various followers of
Gaudiya Vaishnavism in the region.

Bhavai

Traditional theatre form of

Gujarat;
The centres of this form are
Kutch and Kathiawar;
The instruments used in Bhavai
are: bhungal, tabla, flute,
pakhaawaj, rabaab, sarangi,
manjeera, etc;
Traditionally performed during
Navratri
One of the most interesting
facts of Bhavai is that it is
performed only by males even
the female parts. The women
are only spectators
Bhavai is an extremely simple
form of theatre when considered in terms of production requirements.
It is not dependent on heavy stage, lights and theatrical assistances and is performed in the available open
space.
The only musical instruments used are Drums, cymbals and Sarangi.
Rare synthesis of devotional and romantic sentiments.

Maach

Traditional theatre form of Madhya Pradesh.

Maach is believed to be around 300 years old, and originally a
Rajasthani folk theatre that survives in the villages of Madhya Pradesh.
Originally a drama in verse, it is only recently that dialogue has been
introduced into the form.
Songs are given prominence in between the dialogues.
The term for dialogue in this form is bol and rhyme in narration is
termed vanag. The tunes of this theatre form are known as rangat.
Maach is thought to be a two or three century old tradition which was
shaped by the religious developments of the 19th century. While originally associated with the festival of

27
 Holi, it is now performed on many occasions. Although a form of theatre, acting is under-emphasised and
the theme unfolds through the songs and dances in the play. The background of the play is set by curtains
and the dancers usually double up as singers. It is a sung drama with only occasional use of speech.

Jatra

Jatras are traveling theatre groups which perform

under the open sky. They are essentially in the form of
an opera with definite characteristics.
It assumes different forms in different regions within
the eastern parts of India, which include mainly the
states of Assam, West Bengal and Orissa. Yatra
literally means a procession or a pilgrimage from one
point to another.
Fairs in honour of gods, or religious rituals and
ceremonies have within their framework musical plays
are known as Jatra.
This form was born and nurtured in Bengal.
Jatras are usually epic four-hour-long plays, preceded
by a musical concert often lasting an hour, used to
attract audiences.
Krishna Jatra became popular due to Chaitanya's influence.
Later, worldly love stories too, found a place in Jatra.
The earlier form of Jatra has been musical. Dialogues were added at later stage.
The actors themselves describe the change of scene, the place of action, etc.

Bhaona

It is a traditional form of entertainment, always with religious messages, prevalent is Assam, India.
The plays of bhaona is popularly known as Ankiya Nats and their staging is known as bhaona
cultural glimpses of Assam, Bengal Orissa, Mathura and Brindavan can be seen,
The Sutradhaar, or narrator begins the story, first in Sanskrit and then in either Brajboli or Assamese.

Tamaasha

Traditional folk theatre form of Maharashtra.

came into existence in the early 16th century
Evolved from the folk forms such as Gondhal, Jagran and Kirtan,
Tamasha includes songs and dance along with the musical instruments like the Dholki, Drum, Manjira,
Harmonium etc.
Unlike other theatre forms, in Tamaasha the female actress is the chief exponent of dance movements in the
play. She is known as Murki.
Classical music, footwork at lightning-speed, and vivid gestures make it possible to portray all the emotions
through dance.

Mudiyettu

Traditional folk theatre form of Kerala is celebrated in

the month of Vrischikam (November-December).
It is usually performed only in the Kali temples of
Kerala.

28
 It enacts the mythological tale of a battle between the goddess Kali and the demon Darika and depicts the
triumph of goddess Bhadrakali over the asura Darika.
In 2010 Mudiyettu was inscribed in the UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage
of Humanity.

Dashavatar

Theatre form of the Konkan and Goa regions;

Performers personify the ten incarnations of Lord
Vishnu.
Dashavatar performers wear masks of wood and
papier mache.
It personify the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu
Matsya (fish), Kurma (tortoise), Varaha (boar),
Narsimha (lion-man), Vaman (dwarf), Parashuram,
Rama, Krishna, Buddha and Kalki.
The Dashavatar performers wear masks of wood
and papier-mache.

Yakshagaana

Traditional theatre form of Karnataka;

Based on mythological stories and Puranas;
The most popular episodes are from the Mahabharata i.e. Draupadi swayamvar, Subhadra vivah,
Abhimanyu vadh, Karna-Arjun yuddh and from Ramayana i.e. Raajyaabhishek, Lav-kush Yuddh, Baali-
Sugreeva yuddha and Panchavati.

Kariyila

Popular folk drama form of

Himachal Pradesh.
Most popular in the districts of
Shimla, Solan and Sirmour.
The season of Kariyala generally
starts after the festival of
Deepavali.
It is an open-air theatre, which
consists of an entertaining series
of small playlets, farces, skits,
revues and burlesques.
It is generally staged during
village fairs and on some festive
occasions.
The Kariyala entertainment starts
in the evening and goes on
throughout the night staging
various popular items one after
other.
The square-performing arena is
called Khada.
In the centre of Khada, a bonfire is
lit which is considered very sacred.

29
 A number of musical instruments like chimta, nagara, karnal, ranasingha, shahanai, basuri, dholak and
khanjiri are used to provide background music.

Oja-Pali

Theatre of Assam
Storytelling with dramatic techniques associated with the worship of Manasa, the serpent goddess
The performers take many days to narrate the story, which is divided into three parts: Deva Khanda, Baniya
Khanda and Bhatiyali Khanda.
The Oja is the main narrator-singer and the Palis are his associates or members of his chorus.

INDIAN CLASSICAL DANCE

Nov 14, 2014

Dancing is considered to be an age-old tradition. A land of diverse cultures, traditions and languages, the country
has given birth to a large number of classical dances, shaped by the influences of a specific period and environment.
The origin of Indian dance can be traced back to Bharata Muni (a learned saint) who lived between the 1st and 2nd
century and composed a magnum opus on dance, which is known to the world as Natya Shastra.

In ancient times, dance was not merely a form of entertainment. On the contrary it was considered a medium of
instruction of morality, good values, and scriptures and the expression of reality. There are two basic aspects of
Indian classical dance: Tandava (denote movement & rhythm) and Lasya (denote grace, Bhara and rasa Abhinaya)

Bharatanatyam

Popular in Karnataka & Tamilnadu

It is almost 2000 years old derived from the Sadir the solo dance performance by devadasis, the temple
dancers.
Because of the social change and change of king in the kingdom the Devadasis (temple dancers) face so
much of money problem and came down to prostitution. E Krishna Iyer and Rukmini Devi Arundale
bought this temple dance form (Bharatnatyam) to the society and started performing on stage.
The items of the performance were only Devotional character such like Rama, Krishna etc..
Two famous style of it are Pandanallur & Tanjure style Recital usually begins with Alarippu.

Kuchipudi (Andhra)

Kuchipudi born from BHAGAVATMELA (a dance drama format)

tradition which used to perform by the telegu Brahmins who lives in
kuchelapuram. Siddhendra yogi (a great scholar and poet) who
revolute kuchipudi from Bhagavatmela tradition. During 1960
kuchipudi started performing as a solo dance form on stage.
It Exhibits scene from Hindu Epics, legend and mythological tales
through combination of music, dance and meeting. Bala Saraswathi
& Esther Sherman brought out it from obstructing.
It combines Lasya & Tandava elements, folk & classical shades.
It also comprises pure dance, mime and histrionics but it is the use of
speech there distinguishes its presentation as dance drama.
Movements in Kuchipudi are comparatively faster than other Indian
classical dance form and scintillating, rounded and fleet-footed.
Performed to not only classical Carnatic music also Hindustani
classical music
It shares many common elements with Bharatanatyam

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Odissi

It is almost 2000 years old

It has originated from Orissa and its history can be traced back to the 2nd century BC.
The dance form has been extensively depicted in the sculptures of Brahmeswara temple and Sun Temple at
Konark.
The divine love tales of Radha and the cowherd God Krishna are favourite themes for interpretation, and a
typical recital of Odissi will contain at least one or two ashtapadis (poem of eight couplets) from
Jayadevas Gita Govindam, which shows the complex relationship between Radha and her Lord.
The technique of Odissi includes repeated use of the tribhangi, (thrice deflected posture) in which the body
is bent in three places, the shape of a helix. This posture and the characteristic shifting of the torso from
side to side, make Odissi a difficult style to execute. The language of the music is Oriya.
The formal repertoire of Odissi has a certain order of presentation, where each successive item is
systematically put together to produce the desired rasa. The opening item is Mangalacharan, followed by
Batu danced in praise of Batukeshwar Bhairava or Shiva. Next is an abhinaya number. And the
performance concludes with another abhinaya number called moksha.

Kathakali

Originated in Kerala
It literally means Story Play known for its heavy, elaborate makeup
and costumes.
It Represents theme derived from Ramayana, the Mahabharata & other
Hindu epics, mythologies & legends.
It is a group presentation, in which dancers take various roles in
performances traditionally based on themes from Hindu mythology,
especially the two epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
Costumes and make-up are elaborate and designed so as to give a super
human effect. Different group of characters have a defining get-up,
which helps identify the characters. for eg: the heroes have a green
base of make-up; the anti-heroes sport a moustache and a small knob
on their nose and forehead etc.
A simple stage is used. A large oil-fed lamp is placed in front of the
stage and two people hold a curtain called Tirasseela on the stage, the
main dancers stand behind it before the performance.
For body movements and choreographical patterns, Kathakali is also indebted to the early martial arts of
Kerala.
The facial muscles play an important part. The movement of the eyebrows, the eye-balls and the lower eye-
lids as described in the Natya Shastra are not used to such an extent in any other dance style.
The technique of Kathakali is a highly developed language of hand gestures; through hand gestures the
artist can tell the whole sentences and stories.
The body movements and footwork are very rigorous. a Kathakali dancer undergoes a very hard course of
training, and special periods of body massage.
The orchestra of a Kathakali performance includes two drums known as the chenda and the maddalam,
along with cymbals and another percussion instrument, the ela taalam. Normally, two singers provide the
vocal accompaniment. The style of singing particular to Kathakali is called Sopaanam.
A traditional Kathakali performance begins in the evening and continues throughout the night, when Good
finally conquers Evil. Today, however, it has been modified for the proscenium stage, and the audiences
can participate in this theatre experience in the span of a couple of hours.

Manipuri

Dance form is indigenous to Manipur

Style is inextricably woven into the life pattern of Manipuri people

31
 The most striking part of Manipur dance is its colorful decoration, lightness of dancing foot, delicacy of
abhinaya (drama), lilting music and poetic charm.
The Manipuri dance form is mostly ritualistic and draws heavily from the rich culture of the state of
Manipur.
This style is extricably women into the life pattern of Manipuri people striking part is its colourful
decoration, lightness of dancing foot, delicacy of drama, lilting music & poetic charm mostly ritualistic.
Important feature of the Manipuri repertoire are the Sankirtana and the Raas Leela, based on the devotional
theme of Krishna and Radha. The Raas Leela depicts the cosmic dance of Krishna and the cowherd
maidens
Other feature of Manipuri is the Pung Cholam or Drum dance, in which dancers play on the drum known
as Pung while dancing with thrilling leaps and turns to a fast rhythm. The dance form also known for
beautiful elegant female costume.

Kathak

Originated in Northern India,

The name Kathak has been derived from the Sanskrit
word 'katha', meaning story
It had its origin in the Rasleela of Brajbhoomi,
influenced by Vaishnavism. Gharanos Lucknow,
Jaipur, Varanasi, Rajgarh.
Typical characteristic of Kathak are its intricate
footwork ,knees are not bent or flexed.
Both Indian and Persian costumes are used
Themes range from Dhrupads to Tarana, Thumris &
Ghazal.
A solo recital begins with Ganesh Vandana/Salami
(Mughal Style)
Recitation of the rhythmic syllables is common with
the dancer often pauses to recite these to a specified
metrical cycle followed by execution through
movement.
The nritta portion of Kathak is performed to the
nagma. Both the drummer (here the drum is either a
pakhawaj, a type of mridangam, or a pair of tabla) and
the dancer weave endless combinations on a repetitive
melodic line.
It is the only classical dance of India having links with Muslim culture, it represents a unique synthesis of
Hindu and Muslim genius in art. Further, Kathak is the only form of classical dance wedded to Hindustani
or the North Indian music. Both of them have had a parallel growth, each feeding and sustaining the other.
A special feature of it is Padhant in which dancer recites complicated bols & demonstration then.

INDIAN PAINTING
Oct 25, 2014

BHIMBETKA

Cave is near Bhopal

One of the earliest example of Indian Painting. The paintings date from 1500-2000 BC.
Largest and oldest collection of rock paintings belonging to Neolithic age and depicting everyday lives of
the people hunting, daring and decoration of bodies, of Magical significance.
Declared as World Heritage site
Executed mainly in red and transparent with the occasional use of green and yellow.

32
Fig: Rock paintings at Zoo-rock, Bhimbetka

Ajanta

There are 30 caves chiseled out of the rock in a semicircular fashion,

executed between 2nd century B.C. and 7th century A.D.
9, 10 painting are of Surga period, other are of Gupta inspiration, subject
relate to decoration figure portraiture and topical narration. Scene of life of
Buddha.
Compositions of these paintings are large but the majority of the figures
are smaller than life size. Principal characters are in heroic proportions
No frame divides a scene from the next but blends into the other, there is
no perspective but an illusion of depth is given by placing the background figures
Somewhat above those in foreground
Decorative design include pattern & scrolls and figures of animals,
flowers & trees.
Mythical king freely used to fill the space.
Painting of Dying Princess

33
Sittanavasal

Here paintings are connected with JAINA theme

The ceilings have depiction of a lotus tank with natural looking images of men, animals, flowers, birds and
fishes representing the Samavasarana faith of Jainism.
The pillars are also carved with dancing girl and the king and the queen.
Enjoy the same norm and technique as that of Ajanta.
Most paintings are made in Pandyan period - 7th century AD.

Bagh Cave Painting

Caves are group of nine rock-cut monuments, situated on the slopes of the Vindhyas in Madhya Pradesh
(Dhar district).
They are Buddhist in inspiration, all the caves are viharas
Same stylistic form as Ajanta, but Bagh figures are more tightly modelled, and are stronger in outline.
They are more earthly and human than those at Ajanta. Unfortunately, their condition is now such that they
can only be appreciated at the site.

BADAMI CAVE

Earliest Brahmanical paintings so far known, belonging to 6th century A.D.

The technique follows that of Ajanta and Bagh, the modelling is much more sensitive in texture and
expression and the outline soft and elastic.

34
PALA School

The earliest examples of miniature painting in India exist in the form of illustrations to the religious texts
on Buddhism executed under the Palas of the eastern India and the Jain texts executed in western India
during the 11th-12th centuries A.D.
This School developed illustration on palm leaf and paper manuscripts and on their wooden covers
This school is inspired by Vajrayana Buddhism characterized by sinus lines, subdued tones and simple
composition.
It is a naturalistic style which resembles the ideal forms of contemporary bronze and stone sculpture, and
reflects some feeling of the classical art of Ajanta
They are Mughal painting in reduced dimension continuing tradition of Bagh & Ajanta.

Western Indian School of Painting

Prevailed in the region comprising Gujarat, Rajasthan and Malwa. The motivating force for the artistic
activity in Western India was Jainism just as it was Buddhism in case of the Ajanta and the Pala arts.
Counterpart of Pala in western India (11th to 15th) earlier phase of illustrated manuscripts on palm leaf and
later phase on paper.
This is an art of primitive vitality vigorous line and forceful colours.
Notable figure are angular faces in 3/4th profile, pointed noses, eyes protruding beyond the facial live, an
abundance of accessory details and careful ornamentation subject matter Jaina sacred text (early phase)
later
Vaishnav subject such as Gita Govinda.

Vijaynagar

35
 Rooted in Deccan ex. Ellora & in Chola painting
Best preserved are those of Virabhadra temple.
Ceiling Panels are as long as 11 meter and painted borders with abstract motifs set the composition off
from their architectural setting.
Lepakshi painting are characterized by the earth tones and the nearly complete absence of blue, in fact
primary colours in general forms of the figures and the details of their costumes are outlined in black and
the colours applied in a flat manner.
Realism doesnt seem to be main concern.

Sultanate Painting

Fusion of Persian & traditional Indian style.

Nimat Nama

fusion of Jaina & Persian style

In the Nimat Nama style the Persian influence is visible in the scroll like clouds, flowering trees, grassy
tufts and flowering plants in the background, female figures and costumes.
Indian elements are noticeable in some female types and their costumes and ornaments and colours.

36
Mughal

The origin of the Mughal School of Painting is considered to be a landmark in the history of painting in
India. With the establishment of the Mughal empire, the Mughal School of painting originated in the reign
of Akbar in 1560 A.D.
In the beginning of his rule an ateliar of painting was established under the supervision of two Persian
masters, Mir Sayyed Ali and Abdul Samad Khan, who were originally employed by his father Humayun. A
large number of Indian artists from all over India were recruited to work under the Persian masters.
Mughal style evolved as a result of a happy synthesis of the indigenous Indian style of painting and the
Safavid school of Persian painting.
The Mughal style is marked by supple naturalism based on close observation of nature and fine and delicate
drawing.
It is of a high aesthetic merit. It is primarily aristocratic and secular.
Realism key stone of it, incident drawn from magnificent court life of time,
Under Jahangir, painting acquired greater charm, refinement and dignity. He had great fascination for
nature and took delight in the portraiture of birds, animals and flowers. Some important manuscripts
illustrated during his period are, an animal fable book called Ayar-i-Danish.
Jahangir commissioned or fist to desired portraits of rare animals & god.
Under Shah Jahan the Mughal painting maintained its fine quality. But the style, however, became over-
ripe during the later period of his rule. Portraiture was given considerable attention by his painters. The
well-known artists of his period are Bichiter, Chaitaraman, Anup Chattar, Mohammed Nadir of
Samarquand, Inayat and Makr.
Aurangzeb was a puritan and therefore did not encourage art. Painting declined during his period and lost
much of its earlier quality. A large number of court painters migrated to the provincial courts.

37
 During the period of Bahadur Shah, there was a revival of the Mughal painting after the neglect shown by
Aurangzeb. The style shows an improvement in quality.

Rajsthani Painting

Origin dates back to sultanate period illustration influenced by the contemporary literacy and musical forms
and drawn upon their motifs.
Unlike Mughal painting which is primarily secular, the art of painting in Central India, Rajasthani and the
Pahari region etc. is deeply rooted in the Indian traditions, taking inspiration from Indian epics, religious
texts like the Puranas, love poems in Sanskrit and other Indian languages, Indian folk-lore and works on
musical themes.
All are decorate in their composition & colour schme done with utmost care and in minute details with
story lines & bold colours set in harmonies.
The cults of Vaishnavism, Saivism and Sakti exercised tremendous influence on the pictorial art of these
places. Among these the cult of Krishna was the most popular one which inspired the patrons and artists.
The themes from theRamayana., the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata, the Siva Purana, the Naishadacarita, the
Usha Aniruddha, the GitaGovinda of Jayadeva, the Rasamanjari of Bhanudatta, the Amaru Sataka, the
Rasikapriya of Kesavadasa, the Bihari Satasayee and the Ragamala etc., provided a very rich field to the
painter who with his artistic skill and devotion made a significant contribution to the development of Indian
painting.
All the sub style possess certain common factors that suggest a generic Rajasthani style which gave birth to
region styles of Bundi, Mewar, Amber, Malawa etc.

38
a) Mewar Painting

Rangmala Painting in Portray incident mainly from the life of Krishna and his frolic with the gopi
the hero & heroine themse of Indian Poetry and pictorial representation of the Indian musical (Rangmala)
under Bhagvat and Ramayana illustration conceived & executed on wider scale.
Portrayal of birds and animal show their Gujrati origin though Mughal influence can be felt.
Landscape lack the naturalism of the Mughal school but has imaginative character, tree types with dense
foliage, rivers full of lotus blossoms and drops of rain falling from deep blue clouds, strengths of gold
indicating lighting are all striking.

b) Malwa Painting

17th-century school of Rjasthan miniature painting centred largely in Mlwa and Bundelkhand (in
modern Madhya Pradesh state)
Mandu was the main center in the early era of pre-Mughal times where "Kalpsutra" was painted in 1439
A.D. This was also the painting period of "Niyamatnama".
The painting tradition of Malwa influenced the painting tradition of Mewar.
Mlwa paintings show a fondness for rigorously flat compositions, black and chocolate-brown
backgrounds, figures shown against a solid colour patch, and architecture painted in lively colour. The
schools most appealing features are a primitive charm and a simple childlike vision.

c) Marwar

Developed pictorial art on its own lines and Mughal stylistic trends began to get into the background.
One of the earliest examples of painting in Marwar is a series of the Ragamala in the collection of Kumar
Sangram Singh, painted by an artist named Virji in 1623 A.D. at Pali in Marwar.
Jodhpur & Nagaur painting show very bold types of expression with broad, fish eyes in human faces and
highly stylized tree types school is by 18th painting spend to other centers which is essentially Hindu is
feeling.

d) Kishangarh (Banithani Painting)

Offshoot of Jodhpur school, rose around the personality of Raja Samant Singh (1748-64)
popular subject loves of Radha & Krishna
Nihalchand developed Mannerist style which exaggerated the slender curves and almond eyes of his
figures the facial type, though idealized, is extremely lyrical in the beauty contest.

39
 The painting is marked by delicate drawing, fine modelling of the human figures and cows and the broad
vista of landscape showing a stream, rows of overlapping trees, and architecture.
The artist has displayed a masterly skill in the grouping of many figures in the miniature. The painting has
a golden inner border..

e) Jaipur

It is generally believed that a school of painting originated at Amber, the old capital of the Amber State, in
early 17th century. Later on in the 18th century, the centre of artistic activity shifted to Jaipur, the new
capital.
Mughal sense to make any genuine impression.
Painting become an extra vulgarity decorative art.

f) Bundi

The Bundi style of painting is very close to the Mewar style, but the former excels the latter in quality.
Bundi School Concentrated on court scheme, many scenes of nobles, lovers & ladies in palaces were
produced.
The peculiar characteristics of the Bundi painting are the rich and glowing colors, the rising sun in golden
colour, crimson-red horizon, overlapping and semi-naturalistic trees.
The Mughal influence is visible in the refined drawing of the faces and an element of naturalism in the
treatment of the trees. The text is written in black against yellow background on the top.

g) Kotah

Renowned for superb hunting scene painted in 18th century.

In Kotah paintings, most of the space is occupied by the hilly jungle which has been rendered with a unique
charm.

PAHARI PAINTING

Developed in small Hindu kingdom of Punjab hills was not sudden development, nor unrelated to life of
people but deeply rooted in the feeling and experiences of the human heart and saturated with the Hillmans
poetry, music and religious belief
Love is inspiration and the main pre-occupation of the PAHARI School.

40
 The Pahari region comprises the present State of Himachal Pradesh, some adjoining areas of the Punjab,
the area of Jammu in the Jammu and Kashmir State and Garhwal in Uttar Pradesh.

a) Basohli

Found in reign of Kripal Singh (1678&1844) appears totally evolved with a strong individual flavor which
could have been the assertion of the folic art tradition in conjunction with the Mughal technique.
The origins of the school are obscure; one of the earliest examples so far discovered, a series of illustrations
to the Rasamajar (c. 1690), exhibits a style already completely formed.
The colours are always brilliant, with ochre yellow, brown, and green grounds predominating. A distinctive
technique is the depiction of jewelry by thick, raised drops of white paint, with particles of green beetles
wings used to represent emeralds.
The Basohli style with its primitive vigor and fierce vitalities, bold lines and brilliant hot colours, continued
to be norm till 1740.
The Basohli style spread to the various neighboring states and continued till the middle of the 18th century.
Political upheaval after that & anxious of merchant, traders & artist from other place give new impetus for
it and invasion of Nadir Shah consequent to this Subpage Intensity of Basohli style abandoned and new
center developed

b) Guler

The nature Guler Kangra style of Himachal developed somewhere around the year 1800. It was a more
naturalized version of painting, with visible difference in the treatment of eyes and modeling of the face.
Landscapes were also commonly used as themes. Along with that, this style also accentuated the elegance
and grace of the Indian women
It is work of Single family
In it lyrical & cool depiction of women are done who bear their lovers work
Miniature devoted to Krishna were associated with it.
There synthesis of Basohli & Mughal style is realized.
Drawings is light & fluid and composition naturalistic. Poses and gestures play important roles in the
portrayal of individuals and face becomes the index of character.

41
c) Kangra

It is fine workmanship of Mughal miniatures

It is the third phase of the Pahari painting and developed in the last quarter of the 18th century.
This style developed out of Guler style
Their tones were subdued and the lines are exquisitely fire & melodious especially in the female figures
illustrating the delicate graces of Indian womanhood
In these paintings, the faces of women in profile have the nose almost in line with the forehead, the eyes are
long and narrow and the chin is sharp. There is, however, no modeling of figures and hair is treated as a flat
mass.

d) Kullu Mandi Style

A folk style of painting developed in the Kulu-Mandi area

It is mainly inspired by the local tradition.
The style is marked by bold drawing and the use of dark and dull colours. Though influence of the Kangra
style is observed in certain cases yet the style maintains its distinct folkish character

Deccan school of Painting

It is contemporary to Mughal painting, though actually deriving their forms from Vijayanagar & probably
Bahamani Court painting.
Early centres of painting in the Deccan, during the 16th and 17th centuries were Ahmednagar, Bijapur and
Golconda. In the Deccan, painting continued to develop independently of the Mughal style in the
beginning. However, later in the 17th and 18th centuries it was increasingly influenced by the Mughal
style.

a) Golconda style

It shows royal taste in fruits, scented flowers and pets replaced by Hyderabadi style.
Influence of the Persian painting is also observed in the treatment of the horizon gold sky and landscape.
The colours are rich and brilliant and are different from those of the northern painting.
Tradition of the early Deccani painting continued long after the extinction of the Deccan Sultanates of
Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda.

42
b) Tanjore style

A style of painting characterised by bold drawing, techniques of shading and the use of pure and brilliant
colours flourished at Tanjore in South India during the late 18th and 19th centuries.
Vishnu, Shiva & Krishna favorite of artist
Made for ritual & worship and not for display
Paintings were made on Jack wood posted with unbleached cloth brilliant colour schemes, jewellery with
stones and copper glasses & remarkable gold leaf work to which a mixture of list, chalk, gum honey are
applied in layers on a sketch of the icon.
Background always painted Red/Green.
Baby Krishna is white but as an adult blue.
Outlines of figures are in a dark reddish brown.
Belong to Maratha Period them mythological.

c) Hyderabad Style

Started with the foundation of the Asafjhi dynasty by Mir Qamruddin Khan (Chin Qulick Khan) Nizam-ul-
Mulk in 1724 A.D.
Influence of the Mughal style of painting on the already existing early styles of Deccani paintings,
introduced by several Mughal painters who migrated to the Deccan during the period of Aurangzeb and
sought patronage there, was responsible for the development of various styles of painting in the Deccan at
Hyderabad and other centres.
Distinctive features of the Deccani paintings of the 18th and 19th centuries are observed in the treatment of
the ethnic types, costumes, jewellery, flora, fauna, landscape and colours.

d) Bijapur

Painting was patronised by Ali Adil Shah I (1558-80 A.D.) and his successor Ibrahim II (1580-1627 A.D.)
There is influence of the Lepakshi mural painting on the female types.
The rich colour scheme, the palm trees, animals and men and women all belong, to the Deccani tradition.
The profuse use of gold colour, some flowering plants and arabesques on the top of the throne are derived
from the Persian tradition.

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Madhubani

In Mithila region
Characterized by line drawings filled in by bright colors and contrasts/patterns
Traditionally done by women by the region uses bright earthy colors.
Work is done on freshly plastered or mud wall, figures from nature and mythology adopted.
These Painting is done with fingers, twigs, brushes, nib-pens, and matchsticks, using natural dyes and
pigments,
Characterized by eye-catching geometrical patterns.
Traditionally done on freshly plastered mud walls and floors of huts, but now they are also done on cloth,
hand-made paper and canvas.
Madhubani paintings are made from the paste of powdered rice.
There are paintings for each occasion and festival such as birth, holi, kali puja, etc
Madhubani paintings mostly depict nature and Hindu religious motifs, and the themes generally revolve
around Hindu deities

Warli Folk Painting

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 Developed in Maharashtra
Warlis are an indigenous tribe living in hilly regions of Maharashtra-Gujarat border
Root trace back to 10th century.
It is vivid expression of daily & social events of Warli tribe, used by then to embellish the walls of village
houses. Women are mainly engaged dont depict mythological character/images of deities but depict social
life.
It uses very shapes: a circle, a triangle and a square. The circle represents the sun and the moon, the triangle
derived from mountains and pointed trees, the square indicates a sacred enclosure or a piece of land.
Painted on austre mud base using one color. In this sax to see straight line.
Human and animal bodies are represented by two triangles joined at the tip; the upper triangle depicts the
trunk and the lower triangle the pelvis. Their precarious equilibrium symbolizes the balance of the universe

Patachitra

Traditional painting of Orissa, and as its name suggests is drawing on canvas (patta)
Paintings are based on Hindu Mythology and specially inspired by Jagannath and Vaishnava cult.
Paintings are done on small strips of cotton cloth. The canvas is prepared by coating the cloth with a
mixture of chalk and gum made from tamarind seeds. Women traditionally make this gum and application.
The master hand, mostly the male member, draws the initial line and gives the final finishing.
The painting is held over a fire-place so that the back of the painting is exposed to heat. On the surface of
the painting fine lacquer is applied.
Natural colours are used.
Tala Pattachitra is one variant of this form, drawn on palm leaf.

Puppetry in India
Oct 18, 2014

India is said to be the home of puppets, but it is yet to awaken to its unlimited possibilities. The earliest reference to
the art of puppetry is found in Tamil classic Silappadikaaram written around the 1st or 2nd century B.C.

Almost all types of puppets are found in India. Puppetry throughout the ages has held an important place in
traditional entertainment. Like traditional theatre, themes for puppet theatre are mostly based on epics and legends.

45
Puppets from different parts of the country have their own identity. Regional styles of painting and sculpture are
reflected in them.

Puppetry has been successfully used to motivate emotionally and physically handicapped students to develop their
mental and physical faculties. Awareness programmes about the conservation of the natural and cultural
environment have also proved to be useful.

Stories adapted from puranic literature, local myths and legends usually form the content of traditional puppet
theatre in India which, in turn, imbibes elements of all creative expressions like painting, sculpture, music, dance,
drama, etc. The presentation of puppet programmes involves the creative efforts of many people working together.

1) String Puppets

2) Shadow Puppets

3) Rod Puppets

4) Glove Puppets

1) String puppets:

Perhaps most common Puppetry in India

Marionettes having jointed limbs controlled by strings allow far greater flexibility and are, therefore, the
most articulate of the puppets.
String puppets are made of wood, or wire, or cloth stuffed with cotton, rags or saw dust.

The puppet is suspended from a hand held control strings that are attached to different parts of the puppet's
body. The puppet is manipulated by operating the control as well as by loosening or pulling the relevant
string(s). Some of the traditional string puppets are very heavy. For the convenience of manipulation and
support, two rods are attached to the hands of the puppets.
Rajasthan, Orissa, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are some of the regions where this form of puppetry has
flourished.
Centuries-old art of string puppetry is slowly dying

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a) Traditional String Puppet of Rajasthan is Known as Kathaputli

Carved from a single piece of wood, these puppets are like large dolls that are colourfully dressed.
Their costumes and headgears are designed in the medieval Rajasthani style of dress.
Mainly the Bhat community practises this art termed Kathputli(Kath meaning wood and Putli meaning
doll).
These people claim that their ancestors had performed for royal families and received great honour and
prestige from the rulers of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab. Their legend goes back to the times of
the Great King Vikramaditya, of Ujjain whose throne Simhasan Battisi had 32 decorative dolls dancing and
doing acrobatic feats. The first Bhat produced a play with 32 puppets on the life and achievements of king
Vikramaditya and his progeny performed it for hundreds of years.

The Kathputli is accompanied by a highly dramatised version of the regional music.

Puppeteers manipulate the puppets with a whistling, squeaking voice and are interpreted by a narrator who
also provides the rhythms.
These puppets wear long trailing skirts and do not have legs.
Their bodies and limbs are made of mango wood and stuffed with cotton. A slight jerk of the string causes
the puppets to produce movements of the hands, neck and shoulder. Many puppets hang on one rope: one
string tied to the head and other to the waist.
Puppeteers manipulate them with two to five strings which are normally tied to their fingers and not to a
prop or a support.

b) Kundhei, Orissa

The string puppet of Orissa is called Gopalila Kundhei (Gopalila meaning story of Radha and Krishna and
Kundhei meaning puppet) as they depict the story of Radha Krishna.
Made of light wood, the Orissa puppets have no legs but wear long flowing skirts.
They have more joints and are, therefore, more versatile, articulate and easy to manipulate.

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 The puppeteers often hold a wooden prop, triangular in shape, to which strings are attached for
manipulation.

The costumes of Kundhei resemble those worn by actors of the Jatra traditional theatre.
The music is drawn from the popular tunes of the region and is sometimes influenced by the music of
Odissi dance.
String puppetry is mainly centred in North Orissa. All puppeteers are Ahir Gopal by caste (cowherds) and
believe that they have migrated from Vrindaban.

c) Gombeyatta, Karnataka

The string puppets of Karnataka are called Gombeyatta.

They are styled and designed like the characters of Yakshagana, the traditional theatre form of the region.
The form is believed to have been prevalent in the ninth century, as mentioned in the Puranas. All the
ritualistic rigours of the Yakshagana are observed.
The string puppets are made of wood. Their costumes are like those worn by the characters from
Yakshagana, with the same elaborate make-up, colourful headgear and heavy jewellery.
These puppets are manipulated by five to seven strings tied to a prop.
Some of the more complicated movements of the puppet are manipulated by two to three puppeteers at a
time.
The person conducting the show is known as Bhagavathar. He is a sensitive musician and an imaginative
storyteller, giving dramatic expressions to the simple or complex situations through the puppets.

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 The contents are drawn from the epics and the Bhagavat Puran.The Maddale and the Shruti (drone) provide
the accompaniment.

Episodes enacted in Gombeyatta are usually based on Prasangas of the Yakshagana plays.
The music that accompanies is dramatic and beautifully blends folk and classical elements.

d) Bommalatam, Tamil Nadu

Puppets from Tamil Nadu, known as Bommalatam.

They combine the techniques of both rod and string puppets.
They are made of wood and the strings for manipulation are tied to an iron ring which the puppeteer wears
like a crown on his head

A few puppets have jointed arms and hands, which are manipulated by rods.
The Bommalatam puppets are the largest, heaviest and the most articulate of all traditional Indian
marionettes.

e) Putala Natch, Assam

The string puppet of Assam is known as Putala Natch (Putala meaning doll and Natch meaning dance)

49
 The puppet theatre is more popular in lower Assam, while fairly competent troupes have been working in
Nowgong and other upper Assam districts, including Satras (hermitages).
The body and hands of the puppets are made of soft wood by joining together different parts forming the
head, torso and limbs with the help of cloth. They cover the head and hand with a paste of clay and cow
dung, and colour them.
Some puppets have joints in elbows but no legs. The lower portion is normally covered with cloth so that,
while manipulated, the figures glide smoothly along the floor of the stage. The size of the puppets varies
from 1 foot to 3 feet.

f) Kalasutri Bahulya, Maharashtra

The Kalasutri puppets are small puppets without legs.

They have only two joints at the shoulders and are manipulated using strings that are attached to the head
and hands of the puppet.
Episodes from Ramayana or other epics of the area are narrated through folk tunes.

g) Nool Pavakoothu, Kerala

The string puppet tradition, earlier confined to Ernakulam district, is called NoolPavakoothu (Nool
meaning string and Pavakoothu meaning doll's dance).
The performance usually begins with a comic prelude full of fun and humour. First, the puppet of a female
character is introduced who dances and plays with some balls --- throwing them up in succession and
catching them all till they come down.
The songs and dialogue of the string puppet plays practised in Malayalam language. The puppets are made
of wood, beautified with paint and with artistic carving. The joints in the bodies of these puppets are so
supple that the head, arms, legs and waist can be easily moved.

h) Keelubommalatta, Andhra Pradesh

The string puppet of Andhra Pradesh is called Keelubommalatta (Keelu meaning string and bommalatta
meaning doll's dance).
The puppeteer manipulates by body movements to animate the puppet tied to a ring placed over his head.
While doing so, he makes a variety of loud sounds, even as the dialogue and music keep on going, to
emphasise the uniqueness of the puppet.

i) Laithibi Jagoi, Manipur

Laithibimeaning doll and Jagoi meaning dance

String puppetry, resembling human or divine figures, is performed at Rasleela, whereas puppet-shows with
animal and demonic forms are performed during Gostha Leela.

50
 A black screen is hung from the floor of the platform reaching the ground. The puppets are lowered to the
ground and manipulated with the aid of black strings, which become invisible against the black backdrop.

j) Kalasutri Bahuliya, Maharashtra

Kalasutri meaning string and Bahulia meaning puppet

String puppets came from the Rajasthan-Gujrat area to Maharashtra and were given patronage by the rulers
of Sawant-Wadi.

2) Shadow puppets

Shadow puppets are flat puppets that are operated against the rear of a tightly stretched white cloth screen. They are
cut out of leather, which has been treated to make it translucent. Shadow puppets are pressed against the screen
with a strong source of light behind it. Manipulation between the light and the screen make silhouettes or colourful
shadows, as the case may be, for the viewers who sit in front of the screen. This tradition of shadow puppets
survives in the states of Andhra Pradesh (Tholu Bommalata), Karnataka (Togalu Gombeyata), Kerala
(Tolpavakoothu), Maharashtra (chamadyache Bahulya), Orissa, and Tamil Nadu (Tolpavaikoothu). Togalu
Gombeyatta

These puppets are mostly small in size.

The puppets however differ in size according to their social status, for instance, large size for kings and
religious characters and smaller size for common people or servants.

a) Tholu Bommalata, Andhra Pradesh

Tholu Bommalata is Andhra Pradesh's shadow theatre.

Tholu Bommalata, meaning dance of leather puppets (tholu leather, bommalata puppet dance).
It has the richest and strongest tradition.
The puppets are large in size.
They are coloured on both sides. Hence, these puppets throw coloured shadows on the screen.
The music is dominantly influenced by the classical music of the region.
The theme of the puppet plays are drawn from the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas.
A really long time ago when there was no radio, television, the knowledge of the local folk tales and the
Hindu epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata were narrated by this puppetry dance in many remote villages.
It combines the techniques of both rod and string puppets.
The puppets are mostly made of skin of antelope, spotted deer and goat. Auspicious characters are made of
antelope skin and deer skin
The strings attached to these puppets are attached to a iron ring which the puppeteer wears in his head like
a crown.
These puppets are the large, heavy and most articulate and some of the puppets have also joined hands and
arms.
The theatre has elaborate preliminaries that are divided into four parts-Vinayak puja, Komali, Amanattam,
and Pusenkanattam.
The puppeteers always stand behind the screen and manipulate the figures. They sing and deliver dialogues
for the figures and the song is supported by one or two vocalists.
The players manipulate the figures by placing them on the screen and then moving them away and thus it
creates a illusion in the mind of the people that the figures are suddenly appear in bodily form and then

51
 fading away.

The puppeteers make the puppets dance as they rotate the dancer detachable head and manipulate their
hands to create an illusion of twirling.. The fighting scenes are enacted by holding the hip of the puppets
rather than the central stick alone to have more balance and control. The scene of fighting is as dramatic as
extremely interesting and charming.
The style of singing and the vocal delivery is very much similar to that of old fashioned drama genre
satyabhamakalapam.

b) Ravanachhaya, Odisha

The puppets are in one piece and have no joints.

They are not coloured, hence throw opaque shadows on the screen..
The puppets are made of deer skin and are conceived in bold dramatic poses.
Held close to a white cloth screen against an oil-lamp, shadows are distinctly visible to the spectators who
sit on the other side.
Apart from human and animal characters, many props such as trees, mountains, chariots, etc. are also used.

Ravanachhaya puppets are smaller in size-the largest not more than two feet have no limbs.

c) Chamadyache Bahulya, Maharashtra

These shadow puppets have no jointed limbs and are delicately coloured with vegetable dyes.
Episodes from Ramayana are narrated using folk tunes. This form is also in the brink of extinction.

52
 This form is prevalent only in the Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra.

d) Togalu Gombeyaata, Karnataka

The leather or shadow puppets locally called togalu (leather) gombe-atta (puppet dance) of Karnataka is
similar to the leather puppets of Andhra Pradesh.
The Gombe atta presents stories based on episodes drawn from epics and puranas.
The highly dramatic music is a blend of folk and classical style.

3) Rod Puppets

Rod puppets are an extension of glove-puppets, but often much larger and supported and manipulated by rods from
below. These puppets have mostly three joints. The heads, supported by the main rod, is joined at the neck and
both hands attached to rods are joined at the shoulders. The main holding rod that supports the puppet may be
hidden by a robe or costume of the puppet. The action rods are usually connected to the hands of the puppet and
manipulated by the puppeteer to show action. The body and hands have a bamboo base covered and plastered with
hay and rice husk mixed and moulded into required shape. Due to the absence of legs the puppets are draped in a
sari or dhoti as per the character. The puppet movements are highly dramatic. This form of puppetry now is found
mostly in West Bengal and Orissa.

a) Yampuri, Bihar

The traditional Rod puppet of Bihar is known as Yampuri.

These puppets are made of wood.
Unlike the traditional Rod puppets of West Bengal and Orissa, these puppets are in one piece and have no
joints.
As these puppets have no joints, the manipulation is different from other Rod puppets and requires greater
dexterity.

b) Putul Nautch, West Bengal

The traditional rod puppet form of West Bengal is known as Putul Nautch.
They are carved from wood and follow the various artistic styles of a particular region.
The music and verbal text and even costumes have close similarity with the Jatra theatre.

c) Kathi Kandhe, Odisha

The puppets in this form are stuck to rods and held aloft and manipulated from below by string.
Besides the head, both hands and sometimes the legs are also manipulated. Stories from mythology, fantasy
and social themes are adopted for the rod puppet plays while a group of musicians provides the musical
interludes.
Only one troupe from Keonjhar district perform the show.

4) Glove Puppets

The glove puppets are worn on hands just like a glove. The middle finger and thumb act as hands of the puppet
and the index finger acts as the head. Also known as hand puppets these are a small figure having head and arms
wearing a long skirt as its dress. One puppeteer can perform with two puppets at a time. The tradition of glove
puppets in India is popular in Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal and Kerala. In Uttar Pradesh, glove puppet plays
usually present social themes, whereas in Orissa such plays are based on stories of Radha and Krishna. In Orissa, the
puppeteer plays on the dholak with one hand and manipulates the puppet with the other.

Glove puppeteers have come from all communities and religions with the nature of stories and legends as no bar to

53
the puppeteer. Puppets, made of wood, paper or terracotta, have no legs and remain covered by costume on the
lower parts. The faces and the dresses are all fashioned after the local customs. Puppeteers perform solo and rarely
in a team.

a) Pavakoothu, Kerala

In Kerala, the traditional glove puppet play is called Pavakoothu.

It came into existence during the 18th century due to the influence of Kathakali.
The theme for Glove puppet plays in Kerala is based on the episodes from either the Ramayana or the
Mahabharata.
The puppets are very colourful and created like a kathakali actor who wears heavy and mask-like facial
make-up, headgear and colourful costumes.
The theme for Glove puppet plays in Kerala is based on the episodes from either the Ramayana or the
Mahabharata.
Bener Putul, West Bengal

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 In West Bengal (mainly south), glove puppets are known as Bener Putul, i.e., dolls of commercial people.
The music is based on either common folk tunes or even popular Hindi or Bengali songs, full of robust
humour and sarcasm.
The puppets have anklets fixed on arms, which are used to keep rhythm by clapping.
There are pairs of male and female puppets used by the puppeteers with two hands. The themes are based
on social events like linguistic differences, escapade of lover- couples, or even family planning.

INDIAN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

Aug 23, 2014

A number of architectural texts known as the Shilpashastras were written in early medieval times. These refer to
three major styles of temple architecture, Nagara, Dravida, and Vesara. The

Nagara style is associated with the land between the Himalayas and Vindhyas.
Dravida style with the land between the Krishna and Kaveri rivers,
Vesara style is sometimes associated with the area between the Vindhyas and the Krishna river.

NAGARA STYLE :

The Nagara style has its origin in the structural temples of the Gupta period, especially the Dashavtara
temple of Deogarh and the brick temple of Bhitargaon.
Two distinct features of the Nagara style are - planning and other elevation.
The plan is square with a number of gradual projections in the middle of each side which Imparts it a
cruciform shape. When there is one projection on each side, it is called triratha, two projections
Pancharatha, three projections Saptharatha and four projections Navaratha. These projections
can occur throughout the height of the structure.
In elevation it exhibits a tower (shikhara) gradually inclining towards in a convex curve.
The projections in the plan are also carried upwards to the top of the shikhara.
It is also called the rekha shikhara.
In Nagara style temples, the structure consists of two buildings, the main shrine taller and an adjoining
shorter mandapa. The main difference between these two is the shape of the shikhara. In the main shrine,
abell shaped structure further adds to the height. In this style, the temples mainly are formed of four
chambers, first the Garbhagriha, then second Jagmohan, third Natyamandir and fourth chamber the
Bhogamandir.
Originally in nagara style there were no pillars.
By the eighth century the Nagara style emerges in its characteristic form. The Nagara style exhibits distinct
varieties in elaboration. The temple belonging to the Nagara style of architecture may be seen from the
Himalaya to the north of Bijapur district in the south, from the Punjab in the west to Bengal to the east. As
a result, there are local variations and ramifications in the formal development of the style in the different
regions. Such variations are cause by local conditions, by different directions in development as well as
assimilation of unrelated trends. However, the cruciform plan and the curvilinear tower are common to
every Nagara temple.
The Lingaraja temple, dating from the 11th century, is one of the grandest and is regarded as a gem of
Nagara architectural style. This temple consists of the sanctum, a closed hall, a dancing hall and a hall of
offerings. The sanctum is Pancharatha on plan. The lower register of the wall is decorated with Khakhara-
Mundis and the upper with Pidhamundis. The Khakhara Mundis contains on the corner Rathas figures of
eight Regents and on the flanking Rathas miscellaneous friezes. The Pidhamundis are inset with images of
various Brahmanical gods and goddesses. The famous temple of Jagannatha at Puri is
roughlycontemporaneous with the Lingaraja. It shows the same mature plan as the latter, but is even loftier
and isnearly 56.70 m high.

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 Source : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_temple_architecture

DRAVIDIAN STYLE :

The Dravida Architectural style is associated with the temples of southern India or Deccan. The earliest
traces of Dravida architectural features go back to Gupta period and are not restricted to the far south
i.e. in Gupta period these traces occur in northern and central India along with Deccan, like in the Parvati
temple at Lad Khan, Kont Gudi and Meguti temples at Aihole.
The outstanding and the common characteristics of the Dravida style is the pyramidal elevation of the
tower (vimari), which consists of a multiplication of storey after storey slightly reduced than the one
below, ending in a domical member, technically known as the stupi or stupica.
The storey in the later period became more and more compressed so much so that they are almost
hidden under a profusion of details which became characteristic of the subsequent evolution of the style. In
plan the Dravida temple presents a square chamber as the sanctum cell within the square enclosure serving
as the pradakshina (circumambulatory passage).
The pillared halls and corridors, and the immense gopurams (gateways) are the additions of the later date to
the Dravida temples.
The two most important characteristics of Dravida temple architecture is :
Temples of this style has more than 4 sides in the sanctum and
Tower or Vimana of these temples are pyramidal.
Pillars and pilasters are vastly used in this architectural style.
In different temples dedicated pavilions can be seen like Shiva templeshave dedicated mandapa of
nandi the bull or Vishnu temples have garuda mandapa.
Boundary walls in south Indian temples were built in early medieval period where north Indian temples
were not walled.
In temples built in the Dravida style, the square inner sanctum is set within a large covered enclosure. The
external walls are divided into niches by pilasters.
The Kailasanatha temple is a major example of the Dravida Architecture. The Kailasanatha temple
complex is situated at Kanchi as a joint venture of Rajasimha or Narasimhavarman II and his son
Mahendra III. The main Vimana facing east is four storeyed, and is essentially a square structure up to the

56
 giva. This is placedabove the sikhara and is usually octagonal. The main sanctum has a large fluted,
sixteen-faced, polished,basalt linga with an immense circular linga-pitha occupying almost the entire floor
of the sanctum. There is a detached multi pillared oblong mandapa in front. This is longer on its north-
south axis and with its containing pilasters Vyala based while in the west these are of the plainer type. The
whole is surrounded by a prakara with a gap in the middle of its east side and enclosing an open court all
rounds.

VESARA STYLE :

It emerged during early medieval period.

It is a hybrid style that borrowed from the northern and southern styles. So, it is a mixture of both Nagara
and Dravida styles of temple architecture.
Temples built in the Deccan under the later Chalukyas of Kalyani and Hoysalas are considered examples of
this style.
Vesara style reduces the height of the temple towers even though the numbers of tiers are retained. This is
accomplished by reducing the height of individual tiers.
The semi circular structures of the Buddhist chaityas are also borrowed in this style, as in the Durga temple
of Aihole.
Many temples in Central India and Deccan have used the Vesara style with regional modifications. The
Papanatha temple (680 AD) in particular and someo ther temples to a lesser extent located at Pattadakal
demonstrate panache for this stylistic overlap.
The trend of merging two styles was started by the Chalukyas of Badami (500-735 AD) who built temples
in a style that was essentially a mixture of the Nagara and Dravida styles, further refined by the
Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (750-983 AD) in Ellora, Chalukyas of Kalyani (983-1195 AD) in Lakkundi,
Dambal, Gadag etc. and epitomized by the Hoysalas (1000-1330 AD).
Most of the temples built in Halebid, Belur andSomanathapura are classified under this style.

PAMBAN BRIDGE: SPANS A CENTURY

Aug 02, 2014

The Pamban Bridge is a basically a cantilever bridge on the Palk straits which connects the holy, pilgrim
town of Rameswaram to mainland India.
The Bridge is 6,776 ft (2,065 m) and was opened for traffic in 1914 and this year it completes 100 years. It
has a double leaf section midway, which can be raised to let ships and barges pass through. The railway
bridge historically carried metre gauge trains on it, but it was upgraded to carry broad-gauge trains in
August, 2007.
the bridge is listed in the 10 Most Dangerous Railroads and 10 Most Amazing Train Routes of the
world.

57
 It is Located in a highly corrosive environment, the bridge was constructed by more than 600 workers
between August 1910 and December 1913.

Until recently, the two leaves of the bridge were opened manually using levers by workers. About 10 ships
cargo carriers, coast guard ships, fishing vessels and oil tankers pass through the bridge every month.
From the elevated two-lane road bridge, adjoining islands and the parallel rail bridge below can be viewed.
It spans a 2 km-strait between mainland and island and is the only surface transport link between the two.
A cantilever bridge is basically a bridge built using cantilevers i.e. structures that project horizontally
into space, supported only on one end. The steel truss cantilever bridge was a major engineering
breakthrough when first put into practice, as it can span distances of over 1,500 feet (460 m), and can be
more easily constructed at difficult crossings.
This bridge, constructed hundred years ago, is still in good condition and is a marvel of engineering. Until
recently, the bridge formed Pamban island's only link with the Indian mainland. Thousands of Hindu
pilgrims on pilgrimage to the holy Hindu shrine of Rameswaram cross the bridge every day.

NATRAJA
Jul 30, 2014

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Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Natarajanata meaning dance or performance, and raja meaning king or lord)

The visual form of Nataraja has Shiva with four arms dancing within a circle of flames (the
prabhamandala.) lifting his left leg and standing on a dwarf, Apasmara, who symbolizes ignorance.
His upper right hand holds the drum of creation (hourglass-shaped drum), beating the pulse of the
universe and also music for Shivas dance.
The drum, called udukkai in Tamil, represents sound as the first element of an unfolding universe.
In his upper left hand, Nataraja holds the fire of destruction, which according to Hindu mythology is the
instrument of annihilation at the end of each cycle of creation. These two symbols, therefore, illustrate the
intricate balance of the forces of creation and destruction in the universe.
Front right hand is in the abhaya mudra (the fear-not gesture, made by holding the palm outward with
fingers pointing up.
The uplifted left leg signifies revealing grace that liberates souls from bondage.
The lower left hand, meanwhile, which points to the uplifted leg in assurance that Shivas foot is a refuge
for all true believers, and surrender to God is the path to liberation.
In classic Sanskrit treatises on dance, this form, the most common representation of Nataraja, is called the
bhujamgatrasa (trembling of the snake).
Shivas third eye is open. The destruction he brings is not blind but serves a purpose. And the open third
eye, of the Ajna chakra of Wisdom symbolizes that he can see what we cannot. The stars and planets are
entangled in his hair as ornaments which gives the universe itself.
The ring of fire around the figure of Nataraja represents the manifest universe.

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 Lotus pedestal on which the entire image rests places this universe within the heart or consciousness of
each person.
The flowing hair of Lord Shiva in his dance symbolizes a rejection of society, showing Shiva as an ascetic.
The figures of Ganges, crescent moon and skull are also usually found in Nataraja sculptures, and are
common symbols of Lord Shiva.
The snake around the waist of Nataraja represents the kundalini, or divine force found in all beings.
The gestures of the dance represent Shivas five activities (pancakritya):

1. shrishti(creation)
2. Sthiti (preservation)
3. Samhara (destruction)
4. Tirobhava (illusion), and
5. Anugraha (grace or salvation).

IT is a dual statement of stillness and motion, the static sculpture representing the intense activity of Lord Shiva. The
stoic face of Lord Shiva represents his composure and neutrality, unaffected and above all forces.

RANI KI VAV
Jul 21, 2014

Rani ki Vav an intricately constructed stepwell situated in the town of Patan in Gujarat, India, has
been approved for inscription on the World Heritage list.
The recognition was granted by the UNESCO at the World Heritage Committee Session currently on at
Doha, Qatar.
UNESCO has recognized this masterpiece as an exceptional example of technological development in
utilizing ground water resources in a single component, water management system and it illustrates the
exceptional capacity to break large spaces into smaller volumes following ideal aesthetic proportions.
Rani-ki-Vav, a stepwell built in the 11th century is the most developed, elaborate and ornate example of a
unique type of Indian subterranean architectural structure, and it marks the zenith in the evolution of
stepwells in India.
The stepwell was built as memorial to King Bhimdev 1 of the solanki dynasty on the banks of Saraswati.
It is a particularly large and complex example of a stepwell, with seven storeys of ornamented panels of
sculptures and relief representing the height of the Maru-Gurjara style.
Following the flooding and disappearance of the Saraswati River due to geotectonic changes, the property
was buried under layers of silt for almost seven centuries and has been preserved underneath in an
exceptional state of conservation by the Archaeological Survey of India.
The stepwell is digitally documented through collaboration between ASI, CyArk and the Scottish Ten.
The initiative of additionally protecting surrounding area around Rani ki Vav with its inclusion in the Local
Development Plan is an exemplary example of integrating heritage with planning and needs to be emulated
for heritage sites across India.
The local residents of Patan who were engaged actively in the process and provided full support to ASI and
State Government in the process including its field evaluation by ICOMOS (the Advisory Body to
UNESCO) deserve a special mention in achieving this target to place this stepwell on Indias World
Heritage List.
Three other sites that are along with inscribed are: Namhansenong in South Korea, the Grand Canal
running from Beijing to Zhejiang province in Southern China, and the Silk Roads network of
Chang'an-Tianshen Corridor.

NDIA'S WORLD HERITAGE SITES

Jun 19, 2014

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There are 30 world heritage sites in India. Out of these 24 are cultural site and rest are Natural sites.

CULTURAL SITEs of INDIA :

1. Agra Fort:

It was constructed by the third Mughal emperor Akbar on the remains of an ancient site known as
Badalgarh.
It comprises many fairy-tale palaces, such as the Jahangir Palace and the Khas Mahal, built by Shah Jahan;
audience halls, such as the Diwan-i-Khas; and two very beautiful mosques.
Built in red sandstone, covering a length of 2.5 kilometres
Monuments in Agra fort are remarkable for the fusion of Persianart of the Timurid and the Indian art form.

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 There are four gates on its four sides, one of the gates was called khizri-gate (the water gate) which opens
to the river front, where ghats (quays) were provided.
It is very close to the famous Taj Mahal with a buffer zone separating the two monuments.

2. Ajanta caves:

Buddhist caves date from the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C.
During the Gupta period (5th and 6th centuries A.D.), many more richly decorated caves were added to the
original group.
These caves were discovered by an Army Officer in the Madras Regiment of the British Army in 1819.
Caves are excavated in horseshoe shaped bend of rock surface nearly 76 m in height overlooking a
narrow stream known as Waghora.
They are cut into the volcanic lava of the Deccan in the forest ravines of the Sahyadri.
Caves contain carvings that depict the life of Buddha, and their carvings and sculptures are considered to be
the beginning of classical Indian art.
Total 30 excavations were hewn out of rock which also includes an unfinished one.
Out of these, five (cave no. 9, 10, 19, 26, and 29) are chaitya grihas and the rest are viharas.
The earliest excavations belong to the Hinayana phase of Buddhism of which similar examples could also
be seen at Bhaja, Kondane, Pitalkhora, Nasik, etc. In total, 5 caves at Ajanta belong to this phase.
World famous paintings at Ajanta also fall into two broad phases:

The earliest is noticed in the form of fragmentary specimens in cave nos. 9 & 10, which are datable to
second century B.C.

The second phase of paintings started around 5th 6th centuries A.D. and continued for the next two
centuries.

3. Ellora Caves:

The Ellora caves, locally known as Verul Leni is located in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra.
These 34 monasteries and temples, extending over more than 2 km.
It represents one of the largest rock-hewn monastic-temple complexes in the entire world.
Ellora is also world famous for the largest single monolithic excavation in the world, the great Kailasa.
Ellora built between 600 to 1000 AD.
Ellora has sanctuaries devoted to Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism which illustrates the spirit of tolerance
that was characteristic of ancient India.
Caves 1 to 12 are Buddhist; Caves 13 to 29 are Brahmanical and Caves 30 to 34 are Jaina.

Buddhist Caves were excavated between the 5th and the 7th centuries AD which appear to be the oldest.

Brahmin caves are mostly Saivite and excavated between 600 to 900 BC.

The Jain Caves are massive, well-proportioned, decorated and mark the last phase of the activity at
Ellora.
The Ellora caves, unlike Ajanta, have a distinction that they were never lost to oblivion, due to their close
proximity to the trade route.
They are excavated in sloping sides of a hill and nit in perpendicular cliff, as a result most of temple have
courtyards and some times an outer wall.

4. Taj mahal :

Taj mahal, the pinnacle of Mughal architecture was Built in Agra between 1631 and 1648.

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 By order of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his beloved wife, Arjumand Bano Begum,
entitled Mumtaz Mahal.
Ustad-Ahmad Lahori was the main architect of the Taj Mahal.
For its construction, masons, stone-cutters, inlayers, carvers, painters, calligraphers, dome builders and
other artisans were requisitioned from the whole of the empire and also from the Central Asia and Iran.
Its recognised architectonic beauty has a rhythmic combination of solids and voids, concave and convex
and light shadow; such as arches and domes further increases the aesthetic aspect.
Taj Mahal is a perfect symmetrical planned building, with an emphasis of bilateral symmetry along a
central axis on which the main features are placed.

5. Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram:

Founded by the Pallava kings.

Monuments were carved out of rock along the Coromandel coast in the 7th and 8th centuries.
Of the nine monolithic temples found in Mahabalipuram, the most important are Five Rathas known after
the famous five Pandava brothers of the Mahabharata fame.
It is also known for its mandapas (cave sanctuaries), and giant open-air reliefs apart from Rathas ( temples
in the form of chariots).
These monuments are carved out of a single rock with choice of all known forms of plan and elevations.
While the Dharmaraja, Arjuna and Draupadi rathas are square on plan, the Bhima and Ganesa rathas are
rectangular and Sahadeva ratha apsidal.
The notable cave temples here are the Varaha mandapa, Mahisamardini mandapa, Paramesvara
Mahavaraha Vishnugriha (Adivaraha cave).
Another piece of architectural beauty is the Shore temple, standing against the background of the deep blue
waters of the ocean. It belongs to a period when the constructional style of the Pallavas was at its peak in its
decorative beauty and intrinsic quality.
The influence of the sculptures of Mahabalipuram, characterized by the softness and supple mass of their
modeling, spread widely (Cambodia, Annam, Java).

6. Konarak (Sun Temple):

Built in the thirteenth century, it was conceived as a gigantic solar chariot with twelve pairs of
exquisitely-ornamented wheels dragged by seven rearing horses. It is directly and materially linked to
Brahmanism and tantric belief systems.
It is also known as the "Black Pagoda".
The Sun Temple is the culmination of Kalingan temple architecture, with all its defining elements in
complete and perfect form.
It was constructed from oxidizing weathered ferruginous sandstone by King Narasimhadeva I of the
Eastern Ganga Dynasty to celebrate his victory over the Muslims.

7. Churches and Convents of Goa:

These monuments owe their existence to the Portuguese rule in this part of the western coast of India.
Constructed between 16th and 18th centuries.
These monuments known as the Rome of the Orient, were established by different Catholic religious
orders.
Of the 60 churches inventoried in the 18th century before the city was abandoned, seven major examples
survive.
These monuments were influential in spreading forms of Manueline, Mannerist and Baroque art in all
the countries of Asia where missions were established.
The churches in Old Goa aimed to awe the local population into conversion and to impress upon them the
superiority of the foreign religion. The facades were accordingly made tall and lofty and the interiors

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 were magnificent, with twisted Bernini columns, decorated pediments, profusely carved and gilded altars,
and colourful wall paintings and frescoes.
Local laterite was used in the construction of the churches.

8. Fatehpur Sikri:

Built by the Emperor Akbar during the second half of the 16th century, Fatehpur Sikri (the City of
Victory) was the capital of the Mughal Empire. Akbar abandoned Fatehpur Sikri in 1685 to fight against
the Afghan tribes and choose a new capital, Lahore.
It was the first planned city of the Mughals.
At Sikri practically, all Mughal institutions such as the Ibadat-Khanah, Din-i-Ilahi, Tarikh-i-Ilahi ,
Jharokha-Darshan, the doctrine of Sulh-i-Kul and policy of liberal patronage to indigenous arts and
literatures, were founded. It was also here that workshops of various handicrafts were established.
All palaces at Sikri were built of red sandstone in the trabeate beam-and-post order, and composed of
pillars, ornamental arches, brackets-and-chhajjas, jharokhas, chhatris, chhaparkhats, chaukhandis and so
on.
Domes have been used sparingly.
Owing to the piety of Akbar, many religious and monuments were constructed at Fatehpur Sikri
The complex of monuments and temples, all are in a uniform architectural style.
Its form and layout strongly influenced the evolution of Indian town planning.

9. Group of Monuments: Hampi:

Situated on southern bank of river Tungbhadra, in the state of Karnataka and was the last capital of
Hindu Kingdom of Vijaynagar.
Monuments were in honour of the sage Vidyaranya, built between 1336-1570 AD, from the times of
Harihara-I to Sadasiva Raya.
Many of royal buildings were raised by Krishnadeva Raya (AD 1509-30), the greatest ruler of the dynasty.
Temple architecture style is Dravidian.
Vijayanagara architecture is also known for its adoption of elements of Indo Islamic Architecture in secular
buildings like the Queens Bath and the Elephant Stables.
Temples of this city are noted for their large dimensions, florid ornamentation, bold and delicate carvings,
stately pillars, magnificent pavilions and a great wealth of iconographic and traditional depictions which
include subjects from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
Jaina temples are also there.

10. Khajuraho Group Monuments:

These were built by Chandellas and architecture reached its apogee between 950 and 1050 AD.
Temples belong to Jaina and Hinduism.
Of the 85 temples which were constructed at Khajuraho during the Chandella period (and which were still
splendid: when the great traveller Ibn Battuta noted them in 1335), 22 still exist.
The temples of Khajuraho are distinguished by a common typology: they comprise an elevated
substructure, over which rises the body of the richly decorated building, the 'jangha', covered with several
registers of sculpted panels on to which open-work galleries are opened. This is crowned by a series of
bundled towers with curvilinear contours, the Sikharas.
The largest and grandest temple of Khajuraho is the immortal Kandariya Mahadeva which is attributed to
king Ganda.
Greatly influenced by the Tantric school of thought, the Chandela kings promoted various Tantric doctrines
through royal monuments, including temples. Sculptors of Khajuraho depicted all aspects of life.
Finest is savite temples and others are dedicated to Vishnu and Jainism.
They stand on high terraces Each temple is divided into three components :

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 The Cella/Gribh Griha

An assembly hall or Mandapa and

An entrance Porticoor ArdhMandapa

These entities were treated as whole.

11. Elephanta Caves :

Off the Bombay harbor, datable from 6th 7th centuries A.D.
These consists of two groups of caves

first is a large group of five Hindu caves.

the second, a smaller group of two Buddhist caves.

Cave is also famous for the exquisite and vibrant sculptures. Some famous one are 3 faced image of Shiva;
others are marriage of Shiva & Parvati, Bhirav shiva in tandav dance
Ganesh Gumpa is one of earliest example of Brahmanical temple in these caves and has been excavated in
a rocky terrace
The interior is divided up into smaller areas by rows of supports. The whole shape carefully imitates a
building; false profiled beams have been carved in the roof of the cave and the supports, which are complex
structures, combine, from bottom to top, the shapes of the pillars, columns and capitals found in bonded
stone architecture.

12. Great Living Chola Temple:

Built by kings of the Chola Empire, which stretched over all of south India and the neighboring islands.
Pallava heritage passed to Cholas.
The site includes three great 11th- and 12th-century Temples: the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur
(dedicated to lord Shiva) , the Brihadisvara Temple at Gangaikondacholisvaram ( built by Rajendra I) and
the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram (built by Rajaraja II).
Vimana/ tall pyramidal tower dominates the whole structure of the shrine.
These architecture has considerable influence on the architecture of the Hindu temple of Ceylone & South
East Asia.

13. Group of Monuments at Pattadakal:

Both Hindu and Jaina temples.

Constructed under the patronage of Chaulukya empire.
Temples constructed here mark the blending of the Rekha, Nagara, Prasada and the Dravida Vimana styles
of temple building.
Under the Chalukya dynasty, a harmonious blend of architectural forms from northern and southern India
can be seen.
Oldest temple at Pattadakal is Sangamesvara built by Vijayaditya Satyasraya.
The Kasivisvesvara temple was the last to be built in early Chalukyan style.
Last addition at Pattadakal was made during the reign of Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna II of the 9th century
A.D. in form of a Jaina temple, locally famous as Jaina Narayana, with its two lower storeys functional.

14. Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi:

Sanchi is famous in the world for stupas, monolithic Asokan pillar, temples, monasteries and sculptural
wealth, most of which date back to the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C.

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 It is the oldest Buddhist sanctuary in existence and was a major Buddhist centre in India until the 12th
century A.D.
Emperor Asoka who laid the foundations of a religious centre at Sanchi.
Buddha never visited the site during any of his former lives or during his earthly existence.
There is famous Sanchi Stupa, Its nucleus is a simple hemispherical brick structure built over the relics of
the Buddha.

15. Humayun's Tomb:

It is garden - tomb and built in 1570 A. D. First garden-tomb was Sikandar Lodi's tomb but Humayun's
tomb which set up a new vogue, the crowning achievement of which is the Taj Mahel at Agra
Humayuns widow Hamida Banu Begam, also known as Haji Begam, commenced the construction of his
tomb in 1569, fourteen years after his death.
Mirak Mirza Ghiyath was the architect of this tomb
This tomb is a well-developed specimen of the double-domed elevation with kiosks on a grand scale and
this building tradition culminated in the Taj Mahal, constructed a century later.
In plan, it is an irregular octagon with four long and four short sides.
The mausoleum is a synthesis of Persian architecture and Indian traditions-the former exemplified by the
arched alcoves, corridors and the high double dome, and the latter by the kiosks, which give it a pyramidal
outline from distance.

16. Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Delhi :

It is the highest tower in India built from red and buff sandstone
Qutbu'd-Din Aibak laid the foundation of Minar in AD 1199 for the use of the mu'azzin (crier) to give
calls for prayer and raised the first storey, to which were added three more storeys by his successor and
son-in-law, Shamsu'd-Din Iltutmish (AD 1211-36).
Built in the beginning of the 13th century, the complex of structures comprises itineraries, the Alai
Darwaza Gate (constructed by Alau'd-Din Khalji ) , the Alai Minar (commenced by Alau'd-Din Khalji,
with the intention of making it twice the size of earlier Mina), the Qubbat-ul-Islam Mosque the tomb of
Iltumish, and an Iron Pillar
Numerous inscriptions in Arabic and Nagari characters in different places of the minar reveal the history of
Qutb.
The Iron Pillar in the courtyard bears an inscription in Sanskrit in Brahmi script of fourth century AD,
according to which the pillar was set up as a Vishnudhvaja (standard of god Vishnu) on the hill known as
Vishnupada in memory of a mighty king named Chandra.

17. Mountain Railway of India (1999,2005) West Bengal & Tamil Nadu:

This includes three Railways:

Darjeeling Himalayan Railway (Opened in 1881)

Nilgiri Mountain Railway ( Completed in 1908)
Kalka Shimla Railway ( Built in the mid-19th century)

18. Champaner-Pavagarh Archaeological Park :

There is a concentration of largely unexcavated archaeological, historic and living cultural heritage
properties cradled in an impressive landscape which includes prehistoric (chalcolithic) sites,
The site also includes, among other vestiges, fortifications, palaces, religious buildings, residential
precincts, agricultural structures and water installations, from the 8th to 14th centuries.
The Kalikamata Temple on top of Pavagadh Hill is considered to be an important shrine.

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19. Mahabodhi Temple Complex, Bodhgaya:

Site is associated with the enlightenment of Lord Buddha (566-486 B.C.).

The first temple was built by Emperor Asoka in the 3rd century B.C., and the present temple dates from the
5th or 6th centuries.
It is one of the earliest Buddhist temples built entirely in brick, still standing in India, from the late Gupta
period.

20. Prehistoric Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka:

A magnificent repository of rock paintings within natural rock shelters is located in the foothills of the
Vindhya range of hills.
Have largest and oldest collection of rock paintings belonging to Neolithic age and painting depict
everyday lives of peoplehunting, dancing, decorating bodies, etc.
It is spread in sandstone formations.
It is an archaeological site of the Paleolithic, exhibiting the earliest traces of human life on the Indian
subcontinent, and thus the beginning of the South Asian Stone Age.
It has more than 700 rock shelters, of which over 400 have paintings.
Cave also has a small inscription of the Maurya/Sunga period.

21. Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (Mumbai):

Formerly known as Victoria Terminus Station.

It is an outstanding example of Victorian Gothic Revival architecture in India, blended with themes
deriving from Indian traditional architecture.
The building, designed by the British architect F. W. Stevens.
The terminal was built over 10 years, starting in 1878.
Building is the expression of the British, Italian and Indian architectural planning.

22. Red Fort, Delhi :

Built as the palace fort of Shahjahanabad the new capital of the fifth Mughal Emperor of India, Shah
Jahan.
The Red Fort is different from the Agra fort and is better planned, because at its back lies the experience
gained by Shahjahan at Agra, and because it was the work of one hand.
The architectural design of the structures built within the fort represents fusion of Islamic, Persian,
Timurid and Hindu traditions.
The Red Fort Complex is a layered expression of both Mughal architecture and planning, and the later
British military use of the forts.

23. Jantar mantar, Jaipur:

An astronomical observation site built in the early 18th century and the site was included in world heritage
list in 2010.
It includes a set of some 20 main fixed instruments. They are monumental examples in masonry of known
instruments but which in many cases have specific characteristics of their own.
Built by Jaipur king Jai Singh II.
Five such sites were built at different locations. Jaipur observatory is the largest among them.

24. Hill Forts of Rajasthan:

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 It includes six majestic forts in :
Chittorgarh
Kumbhalgarh
Sawai Madhopur
Jhalawar
Jaipur
Jaisalmer.
These forts flourished in the region from the 8th to the 18th centuries
They represent a typology of Rajput military hill architecture, a style characterized by its mountain peak
settings, utilizing the defensive properties of the terrain
Enclosed within defensive walls are major urban centres, palaces, trading centres and other buildings
including temples that often predate the fortifications within which developed an elaborate courtly culture
that supported learning, music and the arts.

World Heritage: Natural and Cultural

Jun 19, 2014

These sites are places of importance of cultural or natural heritage as described in the UNESCO World Heritage
Convention, established in 1972. The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural
Heritage is an international agreement that was adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO in 1972.

It is based on the premise that certain places on Earth are of outstanding universal value and should
therefore form part of the common heritage of mankind.
The countries that ratify the Convention (States Parties) have become part of an international community,
united in a common mission to identify and safeguard our world's most outstanding natural and cultural
heritage.
While fully respecting the national sovereignty, and without prejudice to property rights provided by
national legislation, the States Parties recognize that the protection of the World Heritage is the duty of the
international community as a whole.

World heritage criteria :

To be included on the World Heritage List, sites must be of outstanding universal value and meet at least one out of
ten selection criteria. Until the end of 2004, World Heritage sites were selected on the basis of six cultural and four
natural criteria. With the adoption of the revised Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World
Heritage Convention, only one set of ten criteria exists.

Definition of Cultural heritage :

For the purposes of the World Heritage Convention, the following are considered as "cultural heritage":

Monuments: architectural works, works of monumental sculpture and painting, elements or structures of an
archaeological nature, inscriptions, cave dwellings and combinations of features, which are of outstanding
universal value from the point of view of history, art or science;
Groups of buildings: groups of separate or connected buildings which, because of their architecture, their
homogeneity or their place in the landscape, are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of
history, art or science;
Sites: works of man or the combined works of nature and of man, and areas including archaeological sites
which are of outstanding universal value from the historical, aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological
points of view.

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Definition of Natural heritage :

For the purposes of the World Heritage Convention, the following are considered as "natural heritage":

Natural features consisting of physical and biological formations or groups of such formations, which are
of outstanding universal value from the aesthetic or scientific point of view;
Geological and physiographical formations and precisely delineated areas which constitute the habitat of
threatened species of animals and plants of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science or
conservation;
Natural sites or precisely delineated natural areas of outstanding universal value from the point of view of
science, conservation or natural beauty.

Selection criteria :

For a property to be included on the World Heritage List, the World Heritage Committee must find that it meets one
or more of the following criteria:

i. To represent a masterpiece of human creative genius;

ii. To exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a

span of time or within a cultural area of the world, on
developments in architecture or technology, monumental arts,
town-planning or landscape design;

iii. To bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to

a cultural tradition or to a civilization which is living or which
has disappeared;

iv.To be an outstanding example of a type of building,

architectural or technological ensemble or landscape which
illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history;

v. To be an outstanding example of a traditional human

settlement, land-use, or sea-use which is representative of a
culture (or cultures), or human interaction with the environment
especially when it has become vulnerable under the impact of
irreversible change;

vi.To be directly or tangibly associated with events or living

traditions, with ideas, or with beliefs, with artistic and literary
works of outstanding universal significance. (The Committee
considers that this criterion should preferably be used in
conjunction with other criteria);

vii. To contain superlative natural phenomena or areas of

exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance;

viii. To be outstanding examples representing major

stages of earth's history, including the record of life, significant
on-going geological processes in the development of landforms,
or significant geomorphic or physiographic features;

ix.To be outstanding examples representing significant on-going

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 ecological and biological processes in the evolution and
development of terrestrial, fresh water, coastal and marine
ecosystems and communities of plants and animals;

x. To contain the most important and significant natural habitats

for in-situ conservation of biological diversity, including those
containing threatened species of outstanding universal value
from the point of view of science or conservation.

The protection, management, authenticity and integrity of properties are also important considerations.

The benefits of being listed :

Inscription of a property on the World Heritage List can produce many benefits for countries, and in particular, for
local communities.

It can increase tourist visitation from overseas and within a country.

Local communities benefit from possible increase in employment opportunities and income, as well as
improved planning and management of the region.
World Heritage listing also promotes local and national pride in the property and develops feelings of
national responsibility to protect the area.

World Heritage List Nominations :

Only countries that have signed the World Heritage Convention, pledging to protect their natural and cultural
heritage, can submit nomination proposals for properties on their territory to be considered for inclusion in
UNESCOs World Heritage List.

Nomination Process:

1. Tentative List: The first step a country must take is to make an inventory' of its important natural and
cultural heritage sites located within its boundaries. This inventory' is known as the Tentative List, and
provides a forecast of the properties that a State Party may decide to submit for inscription in the next five
to ten years and which may be updated at any time. It is an important step since the World Heritage
Committee cannot consider a nomination for inscription on the World Heritage List unless the property has
already been included on the State Party's Tentative List.
2. The Nomination file: By preparing a Tentative List and selecting sites from it, a State Party can plan when
to present a nomination file. The World Heritage Centre offers advice and assistance to the State Party in
preparing this file, which needs to be as exhaustive as possible, making sure the necessary documentation
and maps are included. The nomination is submitted to the World Heritage Centre for review and to check
it is complete. Once a nomination file is complete the World Heritage Centre sends it to the appropriate
Advisory Bodies for evaluation.
3. The Advisory Bodies : A nominated property is independently evaluated by two Advisory Bodies
mandated by the World Heritage Convention: the International Council on Monuments and Sites
(ICOMOS) and the World Conservation Union (IUCN), which respectively provide the World Heritage
Committee with evaluations of the cultural and natural sites nominated. The third Advisory Body is the
International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM), an
intergovernmental organization which provides the Committee with expert advice on conservation of
cultural sites, as well as on training activities.
4. The World Heritage Committee: Once a site has been nominated and evaluated, it is up to the
intergovernmental World Heritage Committee to make the final decision on its inscription. Once a year, the
Committee meets to decide which sites will be inscribed on the World Heritage List. It can also defer its
decision and request further information on sites from the States Parties.
5. The Criteria for Selection: To be included on the World Heritage List, sites must be of outstanding
universal value and meet at least one out of ten selection criteria. These criteria are explained in the

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 Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention which, besides the text of
the Convention, is the main working tool on World Heritage. The criteria are regularly revised by the
Committee to reflect the evolution of the World Heritage concept itself. Until the end of 2004, World
Heritage sites were selected on the basis of six cultural and four natural criteria. With the adoption of the
revised Operational Guidelines, only one set of ten criteria exists.

Contribution of women in freedom struggle

Jan 25, 2014

Hundreds and thousands of women of our country had participated in the freedom movement with courage. The
entire history of the freedom movement is replete with the saga of bravery, sacrifice and political sagacity of
women.

Some important personalities are mentioned below:

a) Lakshmi Bai : She protested against the Doctrine of Lapse. She refused to surrender Jhansi and fought
bravely attired as a male during the Revolt of 1857 and died in the battle field fighting the British forces. Her
courage inspired many Indians to rise against the alien rule.

b) Sarojini Naidu was responsible for awakening the women of India. She was first woman President of the
Indian National Congress in 1925 at the Kanpur Session. Her famous achievements were Satyagraha Movement,
Khilafat movement, The Rowlett Act and the Montagu Chelmsford Reform through which she earned huge glory
and respect worldwide.

c) Aruna Asaf Ali played a leading role during the Quit Indian Movement.She unfurled the National Flag at
the Gowalia Tank maidan in Bombay to signify the commencement of the Quit India Movement and became a
legend for thousands of youth.She edited Inquilab a monthly journal of the Indian National Congress.

d) Madam Bhikaji Cama : She unfurled the first National Flag at the International Socialist Conference in
Stuttgart (Germany) in 1907, organized Free India Society and began the journal Bande Mataram to spread her
revolutionary thought.

e) Padmaja Naidu : Sarojini Naidus daughter Padmaja Naidu had entered the national scene at the age of
21. She became the joint founder of the Indian National Congress of Hyderabad. She spread the message of Khadi
and inspired people to boycott foreign goods.

f) Annie Besant, Irish by birth was a staunch supporter of Indias struggle for freedom. She founded the
Home Rule League in Madras in 1916. She also founded the Theosophical Society of India. She was the President
(First Woman President) of Indian National Congress for one term at Calcutta in 1917. She also edited New India
and Commonwealth. She had done ample work to formulate favorable opinion about the Indian question in outside
world.

g) Sister Nivedita was an Irish lady named Miss Margaret Nobel who arrived in India in January, 1898 in
search of truth. She propagated for the cause of India throughout America and Europe. She attended the Benares
Congress Session in 1905 and supported the Swadeshi Movement.

h) Kasturba Gandhi : Kasturba, the wife of Mahatma Gandhi, was one of the foremost supporters of the
Gandhis programmes. One of the first women to be imprisoned in Transvaal, she took part in the Quit India
Movement (1942) and was arrested. She died while imprisoned in Poona.

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The Schools of Art in Ancient India
Jan 08, 2014

The Buddhism spread greatly during the first and second centuries, had spurred a renewed artistic fervour to
illustrate the enlightened message of Buddhism. During this prolific time emerged three main schools in India that
had developed their own particular styles and distinctions. These were the Gandhara, Mathura, and Amaravati
schools.

Gandhara School of Art

The Gadhara region extending from Punjab to the borders of Afghanistan was an important centre of Mahayana
Buddhism up to the 5th century A.D. The region became famous throughout the world since a new school of Indian
sculpture known as the Gandhara School developed during that period. Gandhara School imbibed all kinds of
foreign influences like Persian, Greek, Roman, Saka and Kushan.

The Gandhara School of Art is also known as the Graeco-Buddhist School of Art since Greek techniques of Art
were applied to Buddhist subjects. The most important contribution of the Gandhara School of Art was the
evolution of beautiful images of the Buddha and Bodhisattavas, which were executed in black stone and modelled
on identical characters of Graeco-Roman pantheon. The most characteristic trait of Gandhara sculpture is the
depiction of Lord Buddha in the standing or seated positions.

Main features of this school are:

1] Tendency to mould human body in a realistic manner with great attention to physical details.

2] Representation of thick drapery with large and bold fold lines.

3] Rich carving, elaborate ornamentation & complex symbolism.

Mathura School of Art:

The Mathura School of art flourished at the holy city of Mathura especially between 1-3 A.D. It established the
tradition of transforming Buddhist symbols into human form. Buddhas first image can be traced to Kanishkas reign
(about 78 A.D.). The earliest sculptures of Buddha were made keeping the yaksha prototype in mind. They were
depicted as strongly built with the right hand raised in protection and the left hand on the waist. The figures
produced by this school of art do not have moustaches and beards as in the Gandhara Art. These figures can be seen
in the museum of Mathura. The standing Buddha figures resembles the yaksha figures and indicates the Kushan
influence. The seated figures are in the padmasana posture. The Mathura School not only produced beautiful
images of the Buddha but also of the Jain Tirthankaras and gods and goddesses of the Hindu pantheon. Popular
Brahmanical gods siva, vishnu and their consorts were represented. The Guptas adopted the Mathura School of Art
and further improvised and perfected it. The most striking remains are beautiful, richly jewelled female figures of
yakshinis, naginis and apsaras.

Amravati School of Art:

This school of art developed at Amravati, on the banks of the Krishna River in modern Andhra Pradesh. It is the site
for the largest Buddhist stupa of South India. Its construction began in 200 B.C. and was completed in 200 A.D.
The great stupa at Amaravti was adorned with limestone reliefs depicting scenes of Buddhas life and surrounded
with free-standing Buddha figures. The figures and images of males and females carved are best not only in their
size, physical beauty and expression of human emotions but also from point of view of composition. Female figures
in different moods and poses are its best creations. Even statues of men, animals and vegetation have been treated
elegantly.

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Formation of State
Dec 24, 2013

During the reign of the Britishers, India was divided into near about some 600 princely states and provinces. When
India got Independence by the Indian Independence Act, 1947, these states were given the option of either joining
India or Pakistan. The State Reorganization Act was passed in 1956 to brought to an end the differences between the
Part A, B and C states and created 14 states and some union territories. The Constitution of India recognized three
types of States, which were; first; Part A States, these states were those states which had a Governor as their
executive head before Independence i.e. during the British reign, these type of states included states like Bombay,
Madras, and U.P. etc. The second category of states were known as Part B States, these were the states which
were previously known as the Princely Provinces, these type of states included Hyderabad, Mysore and Rajasthan
etc. And the last category was of the Part C states comprising a mixture of states which in the past had either been
a Princely State or a state being governed by a Chief Commissioner.

The history of formation of states is as follows:

1. Andhra Pradesh was created On 1 November 1956 by the States Reorganization Act by merging Telugu-
speaking areas of Hyderabad State (Telangana) and the already existing Andhra State.

2. The State of Bombay was divided into two States i.e. Maharashtra and Gujarat by the Bombay
(Reorganization) Act 1960. The first capital of Gujarat was Ahmedabad; the capital was moved to Gandhinagar in
1970.

3. The Marathi-speaking areas of Bombay state, Deccan states and Vidarbha (which was part of Central
Provinces and Berar) united under the agreement, known as Nagpur Pact, to form the Maharashtra state.

4. Kerala was created by the State Reorganization Act, 1956. It comprised of Travancore and Cochin.

5. Karnataka was created on 1 November 1956. Originally known as the State of Mysore, it was renamed
Karnataka in 1973.

6. Punjab was divided along linguistic lines in 1966; the Hindi-speaking southern half of Punjab became a
separate state-Haryana and Pahari speaking hilly areas in north east formed Himachal Pradesh. The rest
remained as Punjab. Chandigarh was on the border of Punjab and haryana and became a separate union territory but
serves as the capital of both Punjab and Haryana.

7. Meghalaya was first carved out as a sub-State within the State of Assam by 23rd Constitutional
Amendment Act, 1969. Later in 1971, it received the status of a full-fledged State by the North-Eastern Areas
(Reorganization) Act 1971.

8. Sikkim was first given the Status of Associate State by the 35th Constitutional Amendment Act 1974. It got
the status of a full State in 1975 by the 36th Amendment Act, 1975.

9. Goa was separated from the Union-Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu and was made a full-fledged state in
1987. But Daman and Diu remained as Union Territory.

10. Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand formed as full fledge states by the Constitutional Amendment
Act, 2000.

Rise of Buddhism in India

Nov 27, 2013

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Buddhism is a path of practice and spiritual development leading to insight into the true nature of reality. Buddhist
practices like meditation helps in development of the qualities of awareness, kindness, and wisdom.

Gautam Buddha, born in 563 BC at Lumbinivana in Kapilvastu(now in Nepal) was the founder of Buddhism. At 29,
he realised that wealth and luxury did not guarantee happiness, so he explored the different teachings religions and
philosophies of the day, to find the key to human happiness. After six years of study and meditation he finally found
'the middle path' and was enlightened. After enlightenment, the Buddha spent the rest of his life teaching the
principles of Buddhism called the Dhamma, or Truth until his death at the age of 80.

The teachings of Buddhism include Eight fold path:

1. Right Understanding or Perfect Vision

2. Right Resolve or Perfect Emotion
3. Right Speech or Perfect Speech
4. Right Action or Perfect Action
5. Right Livelihood or Perfect Livelihood
6. Right Effort or Perfect Effort
7. Right Mindfulness or Perfect Awareness
8. Right Meditation or Perfect Samadhi

Four noble truths of life taught by Buddha are:

1. Dukha ( life is full of sorrow)

2. Dukha samudaya ( there are causes of sorrow)
3. Dukh nirodha (this sorrow can be stopped)
4. Dukha nirodha gamini pratipada (there is a path leading to the cessation of sorrow)

Schools of Buddhism

There are numerous different schools or sects of Buddhism. The two largest are Theravada Buddhism, which is most
popular in Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Burma (Myanmar), and Mahayana Buddhism, which is
strongest in Tibet, China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, and Mongolia.

All schools of Buddhism seek to aid followers on a path of enlightenment.

Buddhism does not include the idea of worshipping a creator god. The basic tenets of Buddhist teaching are
straightforward and practical: nothing is fixed or permanent; actions have consequences; change is possible. So
Buddhism addresses itself to all people irrespective of race, nationality, caste, sexuality, or gender. It teaches
practical methods which enable people to realize and use its teachings in order to transform their experience, to be
fully responsible for their lives.

Buddhism explains a purpose to life, it explains apparent injustice and inequality around the world and it provides a
code of practice or way of life that leads to true happiness.

GROWTH OF JAINISM
Nov 23, 2013

Jainism is an ancient religion from India that teaches that the way to liberation and bliss is to live lives of
harmlessness and renunciation. The essence of Jainism is concern for the welfare of every being in the universe and
for the health of the universe itself.

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Jainism originated at a time when the Later Vedic period (1000 BC-600 BC) had come to an end and there was a
rise of republics and small kingdoms. The rise of the first kingdoms was marked by the emergence of the ruling
class in each kingdom, which belonged to the Kshatriya or the warrior caste. While the Kshatriyas ruled these
kingdoms and protected the rest of the masses, the Brahmin or the priestly caste catered to the religious and
educational needs of the people, as well as sanctified the rule of the Kshatriyas.

Mahavira (540 BC-467 BC) was the founder of Jainism. Mahavira was born in 540 BC in a Kshatriya royal family
in Vaishali (present-day Bihar) .He founded this religion after attaining Enlightenment. The teachings of Mahavira
revolve around leading a pious life, to shun all violence, and to be austere. . Mahavira came to be known as the 24th
Tirthankara or the great Jain spiritual leader.

Doctrines of Jainism:

Three Gems of Jainism or Triratna:

1. Right faith (samyak shradha)

2. Right knowledge (samyak jnan)
3. Right action (samyak karma)

Five Vows of Jainism ( Pancha Mahavaratas)

1. Non-injury(ahimsa)
2. Non-lying(satya)
3. Non-stealing(asteya)
4. Non-possession(aparigraha)
5. Chastity(brahmacharya)

The first four vows were given by Parshwanath, who was the 23rd Tirthankara(great jain spiritual leader), while
Mahavira added the fifth vow. Mahavira had asked his followers to shed all clothes and go about naked. This meant
that the Jain monks had to observe absolute chastity and abandon all the pleasures of material life. They also had to
perform rigorous asceticism along with long periods of fasting, self-mortification, meditation and study of Jain
scriptures.

Some teachings of Jainism are:

Jains believe that animals and plants, as well as human beings, contain living souls. Each of these souls is
considered of equal value and should be treated with respect and compassion.
Jains are strict vegetarians and live in a way that minimises their use of the world's resources.
Jains believe in reincarnation and seek to attain ultimate liberation - which means escaping the continuous
cycle of birth, death and rebirth so that the immortal soul lives for ever in a state of bliss.
Liberation is achieved by eliminating all karma from the soul.
Jainism is a religion of self-help.
There are no gods or spiritual beings that will help human beings.
The supreme principle of Jain living is non violence (ahimsa).
The texts containing the teachings of Mahavira are called the Agamas.
Jains are divided into two major sects; the Digambara (meaning "sky clad") sect and the Svetambara
(meaning "white clad") sect.
Jainism has no priests. Its professional religious people are monks and nuns, who lead strict and ascetic
lives.

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Most Jains live in India, and according to the 2001 Census of India there are around 4.2 million living there.
However, the Oxford Handbook of Global Religions, published in 2006, suggests that census figures may provide
lower than the true number of followers as many Jains identify themselves as Hindu. The Handbook also states that
there are around 25,000 Jains in Britain.

Vedic literature
Oct 29, 2013

The Vedic literatures are divided into two parts: the srutis and the smrtis. The srutis are the four Vedas: Rg, Sama,
Atharva and Yajur, and the Upanisads, and the smrtis are the Puranas like the Mahabharata, which includes
Bhagavad-gita.

Vedic literature means literature based on or derived from the Vedas. The texts which constitute the Vedic literature
are: 1. The four Vedas i.e. Samhitas, 2. the Brahmanas attached to each of the Samhitas, 3. the Aranyakas, and 4. the
Upanishads.

Vedas:

The Vedas are probably the earliest documents of the human mind and said to have divine revelation. It is divided
as:

a) Rig Veda:

It is a collection of 1028 hyms.

Books II and VII are oldest while I, VIII and X were added later.
Consists of hyms in praises of different gods.
It contains the famous Purushasukta that explains that the four varnas (Castes) (Brahmana, Kshatriya,
Vaishya and Shudra) were born from the mouth, arms, belly and the legs of the Creator.
The universally famous Gayatri mantra (Savitri) is also in Rig-Veda.

b) Sam Veda:

It is a collection of melodies.
It contains stanzas taken from rig veda and set to the tune for the purpose of singing.
The Jha Samaveda is important in tracing the history of Indian music.

c) Yajur veda:

The Yajurveda prescribes the procedures to be adopted at the time of performing different sacrifices.
There are two main texts of the Yajurveda: Sukla Yajurveda or Vajasaneyi (Madhyandin and Kanva) and
Krsna-Yajurveda (Taittiriya, Kathaka, Maitrayani and Kapisthal) .
It is a collection of short magic spells used by a certain class of priests at the time of sacrifices.

d) Atharva veda:

It describes the popular beliefs and superstitions of the humble folk.

It contains charms and spells in verses to ward off diseases and evils.

The Brahmanas:

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The Brahmanas explain the hymns of the Vedas. They act as the appendices to the Vedas. They are written in prose
and they elaborately describe the various sacrifices and rituals, along with their mystic meanings.

Each Veda has several Brahmanas. The two Brahmanas attached to the Rig-Veda are Aitareya Brahmana and
Kausitaki Brahmana.

The Sukla Yajurveda is appended with Satapatha Brahmana which recommends 'one hundred sacred paths'
(Satapatha). It is the most exhaustive and important of all the Brahmanas. The Gopatha Brahmana is appended to
the Atharvaveda.

The Aranyakas:

These are called the forest books mainly written for the hermits and students living in the jungle. They are
appendices to Brahmanas.

They deal with mysticism and symbolism. They form the natural transition of the Upanishads. They offer the
bridge between Karma marga (way of deeds) which was the sole concern of the Brahmanas and the jnana marga
(way of knowledge) which the Upanishads advocated.

The Upanishads:

It criticizes the rituals and lay stresses on the value of right belief and knowledge. The language of Upanishads was
classical Sanskrit not the vedic Sanskrit. It states that goal of the life is to attain salvation which is possible through
self control.

The philosophical principles of Sankara, Ramanuja, Ramakrishna Paramahans, Aurobindo and others are derived
from Upanishads and, by and large, all the philosophical doctrines of subsequent and large, all the philosophical
doctrines of subsequent days have borrowed something or the other from them. There are 108 Upanishads classified
according to the Vedas, and were composed by several learned saints between 800 BC and 500 BC. Some of the
most renowned Upanishads are Aitareya, Kausitaki, Taittariya, Brhadaranyaka, Chhandogya and Kena. Our nation's
motto Satyameva jayate is taken from the Mundakopanishad.

Ancient cities of Indus Valley Civilization

Oct 21, 2013

General characteristics of ancient cities were that: For protection from seasonal floods and polluted waters, the
settlements were built on giant platforms and elevated grounds. Upon these foundations, networks of streets were
laid out in neat patterns of straight lines and right angles. The buildings along the roads were all constructed of
bricks that were uniform in size. The brick houses of all city dwellers were equipped with bathing areas supplied
with water from neighborhood wells. Sophisticated drainage systems throughout the city carried dirty water and
sewage outside of living spaces. Even the smallest houses on the edges of the towns were connected to the systems
cleanliness was obviously of utmost importance.

Major sites of the Indus Valley civilization have been discussed as below:

a) Harappa:

Harappa was an Indus civilization urban center. It lies in Punjab Province, Pakistan on the bank of River
Ravi.

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 The first artifact uncovered in Harappa was a unique stone seal carved with a unicorn and an inscription.
Similar seals with different animal symbols and writings have since been found throughout the region. This
showed direct trade relation with Mesopotamia.
Evidence of coffin burial.
Red sandstone male torso has been found.

b) Mohenjodaro:

Mohenjo Daro lies in Sindh, Pakistan, on the bank of Indus River.

Unicorn seals have been found.
Great Bath is surrounded by corridors on all sides and is approached at either end a by a flights of steps in
north and south. A thin layer of bitumen was applied to the bed of the Bath to ensure that water did not seep
in. Water was supplied by a large well in an adjacent room. There was a drain for the outlet of the water.
The bath was surrounded by sets of rooms on sides for changing cloth.
Pashupati Shiva on seal has been found.
Seal representing mother goddess with a plant growing from her womb has been revealed.
Granary consisting of several rectangular blocks of brick for storing grains has been found.

c) Dholavira

Dholavira is located on Khadir Beyt, an island in the Great Rann of Kutch in Gujarat State, India.
A tantalizing signboard with Indus script has been discovered.
Dholavira appears to have had several large reservoirs, and an elaborate system of drains to collect water
from the city walls and house tops to fill these water tanks.

d) Lothal

Lothal is on the top of the Gulf of Khambat in Gujarat, India, near the Sabarmati River and the Arabian
Sea.
It was the trade centre for Mesopotamia.
Evidence of Rice harvesting has been found in Lothal only.
An artificial dockyard has also been found.
A bead factory and Persian Gulf seal have been found.
Evidence of horse has been found here only.

e) Kalibangan:

It is located in Rajasthan.
It was having houses on both sides of the streets, bathrooms and drains of baked bricks.
It has a citadel in the west and chessboard pattern city in the East.
The furrows or plough-marks have been observed in a field at Kalibangan. These indicate plough
cultivation.
Bones of camel have been found here only.
Burial took place in circular or rectangular grave.

Site River

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Harappa Ravi
Mohenjodaro Indus
Ropar Satluj
Banawali Saraswati
Amri Indus
Kalibangan Ghaggar
Alamgirpur Hindon
Lothal Bhogwa

Indus valley civilization

Oct 18, 2013

Indus Valley civilization was established around 3300 b.c.e. and flourished between 2600 and 1900 b.c.e. Around
1900 b.c.e., it entered a period of decline and ultimately disappeared around 1400 b.c.e.

Geographical extent:

It covered parts of Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Western UP. It extended from Mandu in
Jammu in the North to the Daimabad in the South and from Alamgirpur in west UP to Sutkagengor in Baluchistan in
west. It was estimated to include over five hundred thousand square miles.

Important Sites in India: Lothal, Rangpur and Surkotda in Gujarat; Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Banawali in Hissar,
etc.

Important Sites in Pakistan: Harappa (on Ravi River); Mohenjodaro (on Indus River); Chanhudaro (on Sindh
River). Harappa was discovered by Dayanand Sahni, Mohenjodaro by R. D Banerjee.

Salient features:

The cities were well planned and were built with baked bricks all of equal size.
Roads were laid out in grid patterns and each city was built on a hill with a structure that was a fortress or
temple.
Enormous granaries stored crops that were grown in outlying villages.
House made of bricks had plumbing with baths and chutes that led to sewers.
Drains were made of mortar, lime and gypsum, covered with slabs.
Main occupation was farming. Seeds were sowed in flood plains in November and reaped them before
April i.e. before the advent of next flood due to Monsoon.
They were the first to grow cotton and weave it into cloth.
Crops grown were: Wheat, Barley, Rai, Peas, Dates, Mustard, etc.
Indus Valley people domesticated animals such as cattle, cat, dogs, elephants, etc.
Production of several metals such as copper, bronze, lead and tin was undertaken.
The Harappan society was divided according to occupations.
The Harappans worshipped gods and goddesses in male and female forms with evolved rituals and
ceremonies.
They worshipped Mother Goddess but no temples were found.
Trade was a major activity at the Indus Valley. It was carried through Barter System.
Weights were made of limestone and were generally cubical in 16, 64 denominations.

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 Harappan civilization had extensive trade relations with neighboring regions in India and with distant lands
in the Persian Gulf and in Sumer (Iraq).
Organisation like Municipal Corporation was present to look after the civic amenities of the people.

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