Measuring water content.

2
Qualitative vs Quantitative analysis.
The % of water in a sample can be determined by heating the sample at
110 degrees.
This is referred to as heating to constant mass.
Steps include:
1. Weigh a sample.
2. Heat the sample in an oven at 110 degrees.
3. Allow the sample to cool in a desiccator.
4. Reweigh.
5. Repeat step 2-4 until the mass at step 4 is constant.
Mole.
One mole is a standard amount of substance
The symbol for mole is n.
There are about 6.02x10^23 particles in one mole. (Avagadros number)
n = m/M or n = m/Mr
Gases.
Spread to fill the volume available.
Have low densities
Are easily compressed
Mix together rapidly
General gas equation = pV=nRT
Where R is 8.31 J K mol and T is in Kelvins.
Molar volume of a gas at STP is 22.4L mol and at SLC its at 24.5L mol
n = V/Vm
Calculations involving excess reactants.
You must determine which reactant is completely consumed in the
reaction (called the limiting reactant) and which one is present in excess.
The amount of limiting reactant determines how much product is formed.
Calculate both number of moles and compare with mole ratio in mind.
Finding the composition of a mixture.
The mass of the precipitate formed in a precipitation reaction can be used
to determine the purity or composition of some substances. The solid
precipitate is heated to constant mass to ensure that it is dry.
The composition of a mixture, the purity of a compound and empirical
formula can be determined by gravimetric analysis.
Gravimetric analysis makes use of chemical ideas such as the mole
concept, general gas equation and the degree of solubility of precipitates.
Volumetric analysis. 3
Concentration is the measure of the amount of solute in a specified
volume of solvent.
Expressed in molarity
Concentration = amount of solute, in mol / volume of solution, in L
C = n/V
Standard solutions.
A solution with an accurately known concentration is called a standard
solution.
Substances that are so pure that the amount of substance, in mole, can be
calculated accurately from their masses are called primary solutions.
Volumetric analysis.
VA involves reacting a measured volume of a standard solution with a
measured volume of the solution of unknown concentration.
They are mixed until they have reacted completely, this is known as
titration.
The step of an acid-base titration include:
1. a known volume of one of the solutions is measure using a pipette and
transferred to a conical flask. The volume measure out the pipette is
called an aliquot.
2. The other solution is dispensed slowly into the titration flask from a
burette
3. The equivalence point is the point during the titration when the
solutions have been mixed in the mole ratio shown by the reaction
equation. The volume of solution delivered by the burette is known as
the titre.
4. To minimize errors, the titration is repeated several times and the
average titre is found.
The eq point is reached when the reactants have been mixed in the mole
ratio given by the equation.
Identifying the equivalence point.
An indicator must be added to the reaction mixture to detect the
equivalence point if the solutions are colourless (often the case).
The indicator must be chosen carefully to ensure the point during the
titration at which the indicator changes colour, the end point, closely
matches the equivalence point.
pH levels determine which indicator to use.
To minimize the effects of errors, titrations are repeated several times
and the results are averaged out.

How accurate are our measurements?

Typical uncertainties associated with volumetric analysis occur.
In order to take the right titre, three concordant titres are taken into
account and put into an average.
For example 19.82 + 19.78 + 19.86/3 = 19.82 mL

Analysing acids and bases 4

Acid-base chemistry revisited. 4.1
Acids are proton donors
Bases are proton acceptors
Acid-base reactions involve the transfer of a proton from an acid to a
base.
Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid that ionizes almost completely in water,
forming H3O+ and Cl- ions;

HCl(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) +Cl-(aq)

This is an example of an acid-base reaction. Notice that during the

reaction a proton (H+) is transferred from HCl to the H2O.
Substances such as HCl and Cl- that differ by only one proton are called
conjugate acid-base pairs.
In the above reaction H2O and H3O+ are also conjugate.
Some acids have more than one proton donated. Sulfuric acid, H2SO4 can
donate two protons, and is called diprotic acid.
Phosphoric acid, H3PO4, a triprotic acid, donates 3.
Strong acids readily donate protons and when reacting they almost ionize
completely.
However weak acids differ. They ionize only slightly.
For example ethanoic acid is a weak acid and has a double arrow when
drawn as an equation.
These double arrows represent reversible reactions, where the acid is
weak and dynamic equilibrium.
 Similarly, strong bases are bases that readily accept protons and weak
bases accept protons only to a limited extent.
The concentration of acids and bases can be determined experimentally
by volumetric analysis.
An acid will react with a base to form a salt plus water (neutralization
reaction)
When the base reacting with an acid is a carbonate or hydrogen
carbonate, the products are CO2 as well as a salt and water.

pH. 4.2
The concentration of H3O+ ions in a solution is referred to as the
solutions acidity.
The pH scale is measured through logarithms
The definition of pH is =-log [H3O+]
Where [H3O+] is the C of H3O+ ions measured in mol L
Neutral solutions have a pH= 7 at 25 degrees
Acidic solutions have a pH<7
Basic solutions have a pH>7

Indicators 4.3
An indicator is used during acid-base titration to identify the equivalence
point of the reaction.
An acid-base indicator is a substance whose colour depends on the
concentration of H3O+ ions in solution.
Indicators are weak acids with their acid being one colour and their
conjugates base another.
The indicator must be chosen carefully to ensure that the point during the
titration where the indicator changes colour, the end point, closely
matches the equivalence point of the reaction.
Common indicators have a pH of 3-11
Back titration 4.4
Some acids and bases are so weak that they do not produce a sharp colour
change at the end point of a titration.
A technique known as back titration is used to overcome this problem.
The procedure has to parts:
1. If the substance to be analysed acts as a weak acid, it is mixed with an
excess of strong base. The original amount of strong base is known.. all
of the weak acid reacts in stoichiometric proportions, leaving some of
the strong base unused.
2. The unused strong base is titrated as normal with a standard solution
of a strong acid. Knowing the original amount of strong base and the
amount of strong base left unused, it is possible to work back to find
the amount of weak acid present.
The same procedure can be used to determine the concentration of a
weak base by adding an excess of a strong acid.
Analysing oxidants and reductants. 5
5.1 What is a redox reaction?
Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons from on chemical to
another.
These reactions can be considered into two parts:
1. One of the reactants loses electrons oxidation
2. One of the reactants gains electrons reduction
Oxidation and reduction occurs simultaneously.
Mg Mg2+ + 2e- OXIDATION AS ELECTRONS ARE LOST
O2 + 4e- 2O- REDUCTION AS ELECTRONS ARE GAINED

OIL RIG: Oxidation Is Loss Reduction Is Gain.

Overall equation;
Step 1: balance the elections.
Step 2: Add left hand side and cancel out electrons.
Step 3: Add up the products.

Substances that cause oxidation to occur are called oxidizing agents, or

oxidants. In this case it is oxygen^.
Note that the oxidant undergoes reduction
And the reductant undergoes oxidation

5.2 Oxidation numbers: classifying redox reactions

To determine whether a reaction is a redox reaction, oxidation numbers
are assigned to elements involved in the reaction.
These numbers are determined by applying a set of rules that treat
molecular substances as if they were composed of ions
Oxidation numbers have no physical meaning
Oxidation numbers are also known as oxidation states.
 Oxidation number rules:
1. Free elements have an oxidation number of 0.
Eg. Na(s) = 0
2. In ionic compounds composed of simple ions, the oxidation number is
equal to the charge of the ion
Eg. CaCl2 = +2 -1
3. Some elements have oxidation numbers that are regarded as fixed,
except in a few exceptional circumstances.

- Oxygen usually takes -2 in compounds. (In H2O2 and BaO2 it has -

1)
- Hydrogen takes +1 in compounds, except in metal hydrides such as
NaH and CaH2 where it has -1.
- Electronegative elements such as F, Cl and O take numbers equal
to the charges on their simple ions (-1, -1 and -2 respectively)
4. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a neutral compound is zero.
5. In a polyatomic ion the sum of the oxidation numbers is equal to the
charge on the ion.
6. The most electronegative element in a compound has the negative
oxidation number.

Changing oxidation numbers

An increased oxidation number means the element has been oxidized
A decreased oxidation number means the element has been reduced

5.3 Writing half equations

Add H+ ions to balance out the hydrogen atoms
Add H2O to balance the oxygen atoms
Total charge needs to be balance thus add e-s