1/5/97 - 16:40 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

World Englishes, Vol 16, No. 1, pp. 326, 1997. 08832919

Your language, my language or English? The potential language choice

in communication among nationals of the European Union

NORMAND LABRIE and CARSTEN QUELL*

ABSTRACT: Data on foreign language learning and the ability to take part in a conversation using a
foreign language were collected by Eurobarometer in 1994 from representative samples of the population
in 12 member states of the European Union (n = 13,029). Drawing on these data, the authors observe that
knowledge of foreign languages has increased considerably in Europe in the last 40 years, thereby
improving the potential for communication among Europeans. They note that the three most learned
and spoken foreign languages, English, French, and German, are all expanding. However, English is by far
the language which has progressed the most, which raises the question of the eventual emergence of English
as a lingua franca. The authors use the representative data from the Eurobarometer study, differentiated
by country and by age group, to estimate the probability that a particular language will be used when
nationals of two different countries belonging to two different age groups (1524, and 55 and older)
interact. Some sociolinguistic implications are examined in the conclusion.

1. INTRODUCTION

Major changes have occurred in Europe over the last 40 years with respect to the
acquisition and use of foreign languages. This is apparent on at least two levels: the
development of a political and a popular discourse around the importance of foreign
language learning, and an actual increase in the opportunities to learn and use foreign
languages, be it in a regular school context, in private language schools, or through any
other opportunities provided through professional or cultural activities or tourism (Labrie,
1993).
The benefits of these changes have not been distributed equally among all European
languages. According to the political and the popular discourse, English is the language
which has benefited the most from the increasing interest in foreign languages. Some
French observers, for instance, have noted that in Italy and Portugal, French, which was
the foreign language that the older generations were most proficient in, is no longer spoken
by the younger generations.
As well, some surveys have confirmed the hegemony of English in the expanding market
for foreign languages. For instance, Storti (1989) who had been sponsored by the French
Government to prepare a survey on foreign language learning in 11 member states of the
European Community (all, except France), concluded that in more than half of the EC
countries, one foreign language was mandatory. With the exception of the two English-
speaking countries, English had the lead as the first foreign language (Storti, 1989: 8).
Storti comments:
Much is being said about multilingualism in Europe. For the time being, it is bilingualism (mother
tongue plus English) which is winning. In Denmark, in Spain, in Greece, in Italy, in the
Netherlands, in Portugal, English is the first foreign language learned. It is ahead in Belgium
and in Luxembourg, after the different national languages. (Storti, 1989: 10, trans.)

*Ontario Institute for Studies in Education/University of Toronto, Centre de recherche en education franco-
ontarienne, 252 Bloor Street West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5S 1V6.

# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA.
1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

4 Normand Labrie and Carsten Quell

This article will make use of data collected in 1994 by a Eurobarometer survey from
representative samples of the population in 12 member states of the European Union on
foreign language learning and the ability to take part in a conversation using a foreign
language. Drawing on these data, we intend to verify whether, as political and popular
discourse and research suggest, knowledge of foreign languages has increased in Europe in
the last 40 years and, if so, which languages have benefited the most from this change and
to what extent. We also intend to verify if English is the language which has progressed the
most. In order to determine if English really is emerging as a lingua franca, the
representative data from the Eurobarometer study, differentiated by country and by age
group, will be used to estimate the probability that a particular language will be used when
nationals of two different countries from two different age groups (1524, and 55 and
older) interact.

2. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

A foreign language has been defined by Dabene (1994: 28, trans.) as `the mother tongue
of a group of people, the teaching of which can be offered by the institutions of another
group for whom it is not the mother tongue.' Referring to Weinrich (1989), she notes that
there are degrees in the foreignness of the languages, which she calls in French `degres de
xenite.' Degrees of foreignness are determined by three types of distance: material, cultural,
and linguistic distance. A small degree of foreignness can facilitate the learning of a foreign
language but is not enough to explain why some languages appear to be more attractive
than others.
Another concept very close to that of degree of foreignness is the concept known as
`language of proximity.' This concept has been put forward by supporters of the reciprocal
learning of `neighbouring' languages, such as languages belonging to the same linguistic
family (Romance languages), or languages spoken on both sides of a national border (e.g.,
German in Alsace). However, `proximity' is by no means the primary determinant in
foreign language learning. The prestige of a language could be seen as a more decisive
factor than the `degree of foreignness' or `proximity' when attempting to explain why some
languages appear to be more popular than others for foreign language learners. By prestige
we refer to a conglomerate of factors which, taken together, can lead to the popular
recognition of a given language as having symbolic value. These factors include, but are
not limited to, the existence of an internationally recognized literature in the language, use
of the language in science and politics, number of native speakers of the language, etc.
Language prestige seems to be closely linked to language spread, which can be defined as
`the phenomenon whereby uses and users of a language increase' (Cooper, 1982: vii). This
phenomenon implies the spread of a language among populations as a mother tongue, but
also as a foreign language (Laforge and McConnell, 1990).1
Multilingualism, as it is practised in Europe, appears to favour only the most prestigious
languages. This can be explained mainly through the simple principle of supply and
demand, i.e., languages offered within the school curriculum and languages selected by the
learners. Prestigious languages have benefited most from the general popularity of multi-
lingualism. Even within the context of the European Institutions which are legally required
to respect the equality of all the languages of European Union member countries, only
English and French are used to a significant extent, as the work by Quell (1993, 1995) on
the European Commission has shown. This factual inequality also extends to EU-funded

# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997

1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

Your language, my language or English? 5

programs. For instance, Druesne (1994) indicated that of a total of 1,897 students who
participated in the Lingua Program in 19901991, 32 percent of students from the United
Kingdom chose to go to Spain and 22 percent opted for France; 77 percent of students
from France chose to go either to Germany, the United Kingdom or Spain; 72 percent of
German students went either to France, Italy, the United Kingdom or the Netherlands;
finally, 46 percent of students from Spain chose to go to the United Kingdom. It appears
that the other languages which are spoken in EU countries, even those having the official
status as national languages, such as Greek or Danish, do not attract significant numbers
of students (Haberland and Henriksen, 1991), not to mention less widely-spoken languages
(Grin, 1993).
It can therefore be concluded that some languages are in a better position to fulfil a
vehicular function as a foreign language (Calvet, 1987: 124; Dabene, 1994: 5556). In this
respect, English can be considered to be a relatively powerful language (Ammon, 1994;
Truchot, 1994; Domaschnew, 1994; Phillipson and Skutnabb-Kangas, 1994) whose role as
a lingua franca is being increasingly confirmed through a general process of language
spread. It has been demonstrated, for instance, that the economic power of Anglo-Saxon
countries, their vigorous cultural policies, and the well-organized programs for English
language teaching contribute to the dominant role played by English (Phillipson, 1992).
This paper will examine the following questions: How has the learning and speaking of
foreign languages in the European Union developed over the last 40 years? Which
languages have benefited most from this development? How do the various countries
differ with respect to knowledge of foreign languages? How do countries whose language is
widely learned and spoken differ from those with less prestigious languages? How does
language spread affect different age groups? What is the probability that a particular
foreign language will be used as a lingua franca in transnational interaction?

3. THE EUROBAROMETER DATA

Since 1973, the European Commission has commissioned public opinion surveys in
order to assess public awareness and public attitudes towards various aspects of European
integration. The data we are using for the purposes of this article were collected by
Eurobarometer. Eurobarometer is a unit within the Directorate-General for Information,
Communication, Culture, Audiovisual of the European Commission. This unit does not
carry out the actual surveys itself but is responsible for organizing the contracting,
financial management and methodological control of the data obtained from the polling
agencies in each of the member states. The survey questions that are asked of representa-
tive samples of the population in each member state are identical except for the fact that
they are translated into the respective official language of each country. A brief overview of
the data presented here was published as part of the publication Eurobarometer 41
(European Commission, 1994). We have made use of the published data as well as
charts sent to us by the Eurobarometer unit detailing results for countries by age group.
All graphs contained in this article are based on the numbers provided by Eurobarometer
except for the calculations on the probability of English, French or German being used in
communication among Europeans.
It must be pointed out that the questions on language which figure so prominently in
this article comprise only three out of almost 30 questions that were asked by Euro-
barometer. These three questions elicited the mother tongue of the respondent, the
# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997
1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

6 Normand Labrie and Carsten Quell

languages s/he had learned and the languages in which s/he felt able to carry out a
conversation (excluding the mother tongue). While many more interesting language-
related questions could have been asked, the fact is that, to our knowledge, this constitutes
the largest ever sampling concerning the foreign language abilities of Europeans. The
survey was carried out in metropolitan, urban and rural areas of each member state with
the interviews being conducted face-to-face in the homes of each respondent. In calculating
the results, national weighting was used to adjust the survey data to known population
information in each country. Though the language data are not as extensive as we would
have hoped, we are at least very confident that they were elicited and analysed in a
professional manner, which allows us to draw conclusions based on highly valid data.
Our own calculation of probabilities is based on a simple procedure which we will
outline briefly. Take young Danes for example: 64 percent of them indicated they could
speak German well enough to participate in a conversation. If they encounter young
Germans (100 percent of whom have German as their mother tongue), the probability that
German will be used is calculated at 0.64 (0.64 6 1). Of course, this is not the only choice.
What, for example, is the likelihood that English will be used between them? Of young
Danes, 92 percent speak English, compared to 61 percent of young Germans. The
probability that English will be used is then calculated at 0.56 (0.61 6 0.92). Thus, in
spite of the fact that English is a second language for both nationals and even though the
knowledge of German is very high among young Danes, English runs a very close second
in terms of possible language choice.2 We wish to emphasize strongly that these
probabilities are merely theoretical calculations based on the hypothesis that mother
tongue and foreign language knowledge play a prominent role in determining language
choice in real-life encounters. Many Europeans who choose to live in another European
country or go there frequently will obviously learn the local language rather than rely on
the indirectness of a second language. There are, however, contexts in which the hypothesis
outlined here might be close to reality: there are, for example, extensive efforts being made
across Europe to bring ordinary citizens together through the twinning of towns and cities.
Sport is usually viewed as an essential tool to further communication. Let us assume, for
example, that a junior football team from France visits its partner team in Germany as part
of such a municipal partnership. Many of the team members will go, not because they have
studied French, but simply as a result of their being part of the sports club. Based on the
hypothesis and calculations outlined above, the probability that English will be used in
personal contacts between young French and Germans is 0.22 while the respective native
languages rank lower (French at 0.15 and German at 0.11). We offer these data as
hypotheses, the accuracy of which must be tested in empirical research on actual
encounters.3
The reason why we chose to limit our presentation to only three languages which we
termed major foreign languages is somewhat arbitrary: we consider those languages which
across all age groups and across the EU more than 5 percent of respondents had indicated
they could use in a conversation. This resulted in the consideration of only English, French
and German.4
Another consideration was the question of which countries ought to be included for
detailed cross-generational analysis and for the analysis of the probability of language
choice.5 For reasons of space, a consideration of all 12 countries was not possible. France,
Germany and the UK were included as the most populous countries in which the three
languages considered here are spoken as native languages. We then decided to exclude

# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997

1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

Your language, my language or English? 7

Belgium, Luxembourg and Spain as the particular linguistic make-up of each of these
countries would have necessitated a consideration of data from separate parts of the
countries which were not available to us (Dutch and French in the case of Belgium,
Spanish and Catalan in Spain) while the relationship between mother tongue and foreign
languages in Luxembourg is in many ways very different from that in other European
countries. In choosing the remaining three countries, we excluded Ireland as the UK was
already included as a country of mostly anglophone native speakers. Greece was positively
chosen as a country whose language is neither Romance nor Germanic. Finally, Denmark
was chosen over the Netherlands in order to include another small country (in terms of
population).
The Eurobarometer survey was conducted between April 4 and May 6, 1994, and its
exact overall sample was 13,029 in the 12 member countries. The survey does not include
any data from Austria, Finland and/or Sweden as the survey was carried out prior to their
becoming members of the EU. The sample size per country was around 1,000, except for
Luxembourg (500).6 All results which refer to the EU as a whole are weighted on the basis
of the adult population in each member country.7
The following abbreviation for a recurring data type will be used in the analysis: FLK
refers to Foreign Languages Known. The question that was asked of the survey participants
was `Which of these languages (a list of all the official EU languages followed) can you
speak well enough to take part in a conversation?' This is quite obviously a rather vague
and subjective measure of one's own language proficiency. Coupled with the question on
language learning it does, however, draw the respondents' attention to the issue of whether
they are able to use the foreign languages they have learnt, thus prompting a more
conservative estimate. What one believes to be sufficient for participating in a conversation
is, of course, highly personal. We believe that the purpose which this type of self-
assessment serves is to give an indication of whether an individual feels able to manipulate
a foreign language for interactive purposes (i.e., not just reading storefront signs as a
tourist) at a low level. This is the way we have used the label FLK (foreign languages
known).

4. INCREASE IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE ACROSS THE

EUROPEAN UNION

One frequently voiced complaint by politicians, educators and business leaders alike is
that not enough people are able to communicate in a foreign language. What is the reality
behind this perception? The results from the Eurobarometer study can be considered as
both good news and bad news. The good news is that there has been a considerable
decrease in the number of people who have neither learned a foreign language nor speak
one. As Figure 1 shows, more than half of the people who started school around or before
the end of the Second World War did not learn one single foreign language in school, and
nearly two-thirds from that generation say that they cannot speak a foreign language,
speaking being defined as the self-assessed ability to take part in a conversation. Among
the youngest age group (1524 years old), these figures have been reduced from more than
half to roughly one-tenth of people not having learnt a foreign language, while the inability
to speak one has fallen from two-thirds to about one-third. The bad news is that there are
still 11 percent of young people in the EU who have not received any foreign language
instruction.
# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997
1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

8 Normand Labrie and Carsten Quell

English English
100 100
French French
80 Germ an 80 Germ an
in percent

in percent
none 65 60 64 none
60 55
54 53
46
40 39 39 40 41
34 33 32 35
27
20 21
18 22
18 21 20 21 19
10 14 11 11 14 13 10
8
6 7 9
0 0
55+ 40-54 25-39 15-24 55+ 40-54 25-39 15-24

Age groups Age groups

Figure 1. Foreign languages learned and spoken

The rise in foreign language knowledge has been most pronounced for English, which
has seen three to fourfold increases in learning and speaking. This rise has not been to the
detriment of the other two major foreign languages, French and German, which have
gained ground, even though the progress is admittedly eclipsed by the staggering rise of
English.8
Before we look at these results in terms of individual countries, however, let us give a
brief overview of the mean values, i.e., all generational data conflated, of foreign language
knowledge for each EU country (see Figure 2).
It can be seen that there are enormous differences between countries. Whereas
Luxembourg, Denmark and the Netherlands occupy exemplary positions in terms of the
multilingual abilities of their citizens, most other countries still have a higher value for the
inability to speak a foreign language than for the ability to speak one.
Although it is interesting to take a look at the EU as a whole, this does, of course, fudge
the issue. While the general trend of increasing FLK is reflected in the particular data for
each country, the differences in the extent of FLK between countries are striking. In the
United Kingdom (see Figure 3), nearly half of the young people are unable to hold a
conversation in a foreign language: a full two-thirds of those between the ages of 25 and 39
lack that ability. However, it is interesting to see that there has recently been a significant
increase in the knowledge of both French and German. Twice as many 15 to 24-year-olds
have a knowledge of these two languages than 25 to 39-year-olds.
In France, the rate of young people who do not speak a foreign language is lower than
in the UK, which is mostly due to the increase of English (fivefold across the generations)
overshadowing the rise in the knowledge of German, which has only doubled (see
Figure 4).
As far as Germany is concerned, we will only consider its Western part here. This is
firstly because East Germany's foreign language curriculum strongly emphasized Russian
and secondly because East Germans used to have few opportunities to practise English or
French. This makes their experience difficult to compare with West Germany's or that of
the other Western European countries. In general, West Germans occupy very much the
middle ground in their foreign language ability. While the decrease of those without any

# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997

 100

90

# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997

80

70

60
1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

50

40

30

20

10

0
Your language, my language or English?

countries

E nglish F rench German other languages none of these languages

Figure 2. Foreign languages known

9
1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

10 Normand Labrie and Carsten Quell

100
90
80
73
70 68 66
in percent

60 English
50 French 47
40 Germ an 38
30 none
20 21 18
15 17
10 8
4 5
0
55+ 40-54 25-39 15-24

Age groups
Figure 3. Foreign languages spoken (United Kingdom)

100
English
90
French
80
Germ an
70 69 none
62
in percent

60
55
50 51
40 38
30 30
24
20
10 11 11
5 6 6
0
55+ 40-54 25-39 15-24

Age groups

Figure 4. Foreign languages spoken (France)

ability is steady, the level of FLK in the oldest age group is already comparatively high.
The increase in the knowledge of English, as in other countries as well, far outstrips the
gains that French has made (see Figure 5).
Denmark, the first small country to be considered here, presents a very different picture
(see Figure 6). There has been a striking reduction in the inability to speak a foreign
language, with only one percent of the young people claiming not to know a foreign
language well enough to have a conversation. At the other end of the spectrum, more than

# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997

1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

Your language, my language or English? 11

100
Englis h
90
French
80
Germ an
70
none
in percent

60 61
50 52

40 42
37
30 31
20 20 22
19
13 15
10 8 6
0
55+ 40-54 25-39 15-24

Age groups
Figure 5. Foreign languages spoken (West Germany)

English
100
French
90 92
Germ an 87
80
none
70
67 64
in percent

60 59
50
44 43
40
36
30 29
24
20
10 10 9 11
4 6
0 1
55+ 40-54 25-39 15-24

Age groups
Figure 6. Foreign languages spoken (Denmark)

nine out of ten young Danes are able to speak English while more than six out of ten also
speak German. The gains of both these languages far outweigh the relatively minor
advance made by French.
Greece, on the other hand, presents us with the reverse picture of that of Denmark (see
Figure 7). Even though it is also a small country whose language is barely spoken beyond
its borders, a large part of the young population (42 percent) claim to be unable to speak

# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997

1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

12 Normand Labrie and Carsten Quell

100 English

90 French
83 Germ an
80 78
none
70

60 60
in percent

53
50

40 42
33
30

20
15
10 10
5
4 6
4 6
3
0
55+ 40-54 25-39 15-24

Age groups

Figure 7. Foreign languages spoken (Greece)

English
100
French
90
81 Germ an
80
70 none
68
in percent

60 58
50 48
40
36
30 27
23 22
20 18
10 12
7
4
0 2 3 3
55+ 40-54 25-39 15-24

Age groups
Figure 8. Foreign languages spoken (Italy)

any foreign language while English by far leads the field among those who do know a
foreign language.
Finally, Italy is similar to Greece in that nearly half of the young people are unable to
speak a foreign language (see Figure 8). It is different, however, in that it is not so clearly
oriented towards English. Both French and English started at about the same level and

# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997

1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

Your language, my language or English? 13

while French among the 4054 age group is nearly twice as widely spoken as English,
among the younger people English has clearly taken the lead.

5. PROBABILITIES OF USE OF ENGLISH, FRENCH AND GERMAN

The probability that English, French or German will be used in communication between
pairs of nationals from two age groups (age 55 and older, and age 1524) from six EU
countries (United Kingdom, France, Germany (West), Denmark, Greece, and Italy) was
calculated (see table `Probabilities' in the Appendix). This section will take a closer look at
the language that nationals from these two age groups are most likely to use when they
interact with other EU nationals from the same age group. The estimate is based on the
participants' own assessment of their ability to take part in a conversation in the different
national languages.

The British
British citizens from the older generation (55 plus) appear to have fairly limited
possibilities of interacting with other European citizens from the same age group. English
is the most likely choice in communication with speakers of other Germanic languages, i.e.,
with Danes (0.35) and Germans (0.20) (see Figure 9). Theoretically, then, 35 percent of
encounters between British and Danish citizens and 20 percent of encounters between
Britons and Germans could be managed using English as the language of communication.
The figures for interaction between Britons and Greeks and Britons and Italians are 0.10
and 0.07 respectively. French is most likely to be used between British and French citizens
(0.15), compared to 0.11 for the use of English. The probability that French would be used
in communication between British and other EU citizens (Germans, Danes, Greeks and
Italians) is very low (0.01). Finally, German would be an option in some encounters
between Britons and Germans (0.04) and between Britons and Danes (0.01).

English

0,8 French

German

0,6

0,4

0,2

0
British-French British-German British-Danish British-Greek British-Italian

Figure 9. Likely language choice between British and other Europeans (age 55+)

# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997

1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

14 Normand Labrie and Carsten Quell

English
0,8 French

German

0,6

0,4

0,2

0
British-French British-German British-Danish British-Greek British-Italian

Figure 10. Likely language choice between young British and other young Europeans

The younger generation of British citizens (1425) possesses greater foreign language
competence although English is the language that is most likely to be used in all types of
interaction. English is an option for communication with Danes (0.92), Germans (0.61),
the French (0.54), Greeks (0.53) and Italians (0.36) (see Figure 10). French is much less
likely to be spoken than English, even with French nationals (0.38). The probability that it
would be spoken with Italians is 0.09, with Germans 0.06, with Danes 0.04 and with
Greeks 0.02. German would be an option principally with Germans (0.18) and Danes
(0.11) and, in some cases, with Greeks and Italians (0.01).
The younger Britons are in a much better position to communicate with their fellow
Europeans than the older generation. Although the older generation has little scope to
communicate with other Europeans of the same age group, some interaction is possible
with other speakers of Germanic languages using English, or, to a lesser extent, with
French people using French. The younger generation has a much broader communicative
potential. The probability that their mother tongue, English, will be used ranges from one-
third of the interaction with the Italians to more than 90 percent with the Danes. It should
also be noted that the probability that French will be used with their French counterparts
has more than doubled, although the use of English is still a more likely choice in
interaction with young French nationals.

The French
Similarly, the older generations of French nationals would have few possibilities to
communicate with people of the same generation from other European countries (see
Figure 11). In all cases, the language that is most likely to be used is French. The
calculations are as follows: with the British 0.15, with Germans 0.08, with Italians 0.07,
with Danes 0.04, and with Greeks 0.03. The second most likely language to be used is
English, be it with British nationals (0.11), or, to a much lesser extent, with Danes (0.04),
# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997
1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

Your language, my language or English? 15

English
0,8
French

German
0,6

0,4

0,2

0
French-British French-German French-Danish French-Greek French-Italian

Figure 11. Likely language choice between French and other Europeans (age 55+)

English
0,8 French
German

0,6

0,4

0,2

0
French-British French-German French-Danish French-Greek French-Italian

Figure 12. Likely language choice between young French and other young Europeans

Germans (0.02) and Greeks and Italians (both 0.01). German would be a possible language
choice only in communication with Germans (0.05) and with Danes (0.02).
Young French people are much more able to interact with other European nationals
from the same age group, primarily using English (see Figure 12). The likelihood that
English would be used with young British people is 0.54, and with Danes 0.50. It is also a
likely choice in interaction with Germans (0.33), Greeks (0.29) and Italians (0.20). French
is the second most likely choice with most of these same nationality groups. French would

# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997

1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

16 Normand Labrie and Carsten Quell

be used to a relatively large extent with the British (0.38), Italians (0.22), Germans (0.15),
Danes (0.11), and Greeks (0.06). Only in communication with Italians would French be the
most likely language choice: 22 percent compared to 20 percent for English. German is in
third position even with Germans (0.11, compared with 0.33 for English and 0.15 for
French). German could also be used with Danes (0.07) and with Greeks (0.01). It is not an
option for interaction between the French and the British or between the French and the
Italians.
The young French are more able to communicate with their European peers than the
older generation. The older generation is most likely to communicate in French, i.e., it is
dependent on the foreign language knowledge of its counterparts. The younger generation
is in a better position mainly due to its competence in English, but also in part to the
increased capacity of its peers to converse in French. Their increased proficiency in
German also plays a role.

The Germans
Older Germans have limited opportunities regarding communication with their fellow
Europeans. Interaction is possible provided their counterparts have some knowledge of
German. German is most likely to be used with the Danes (0.29), but also, to a lesser
extent, with the French (0.05), the British and Italians (both 0.04) and with the Greeks
(0.03) (see Figure 13). English is also an option in interaction with the British (0.20), the
Danes (0.07), the French (0.02), the Greeks (0.02) and the Italians (0.01). French is in third
position. It is most likely to be used in interaction with the French (0.08), and to a much
lesser extent with the British and Italians (0.01). French is not an option with the nationals
from the remaining three countries.
The younger German generation has considerably increased its potential for commun-
ication with its peers from other EU countries. This is due mainly to its competence in
English, but also to the ability of other EU nationals to use German. Young Germans are

English
0,8
French

German

0,6

0,4

0,2

0
German -British German-French German-Danish German-Greek German-Italian

Figure 13. Likely language choice between Germans and other Europeans (age 55+)

# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997

1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

Your language, my language or English? 17

English
0,8
French
German

0,6

0,4

0,2

0
German -British German-French German-Danish German-Greek German-Italian

Figure 14. Likely language choice between young Germans and other young Europeans

also more able to take part in conversations in French (see Figure 14). English is most
likely to be used with the British (0.61) and Danes (0.56), but also with the French (0.33),
Greeks (0.32), and Italians (0.22). German would be the first option in encounters with
Danes (0.64), compared to 0.56 for the use of English with Danes, and with the British
(0.18), the French (0.11), the Greeks (0.06) and the Italians (0.03). Finally, French is twice
as likely to be used in communication among peers of the younger generation than among
the older generation. It is the second most likely language choice after English for
communication with French nationals (0.15, compared to 0.33), and is ahead of
German (0.11). French is also an option with the British (0.06), Italians (0.03), Danes
(0.02) and Greeks (0.01).
Similar to the French, young Germans have made enormous progress in their capacity
to communicate with other EU nationals. While the older generation is very limited in its
knowledge of foreign languages and mostly dependent on the other European nationals'
knowledge of German, the young generation has increased its possibilities mainly by
acquiring English. Possibilities for interaction with Danes have increased due to the latter's
increased knowledge of German. Germans also benefit from their having acquired French.

The Danes
There has been a marked improvement among Danes with regard to their ability to
communicate with other EU nationals. Among the older generation, communication
remains possible mainly through the use of English with Britons (0.35), and through
German with their neighbours in Germany (0.29) (see Figure 15). Communication with all
their EU counterparts remains relatively difficult. English is an option with Germans
(0.07), French and Greeks (0.04) and Italians (0.02). German is an option with the French
(0.02), or any other nationals, i.e., the British, Greeks or Italians (0.01). Finally, French is
an option with the French (0.04), or the British (0.01). Communication in French would
appear to be impossible with elderly people from the remaining three countries. The use of
# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997
1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

18 Normand Labrie and Carsten Quell

English

0,8 French

German

0,6

0,4

0,2

0
Danish-British Danish-French Danish-German Danish-Greek Danish-Italian

Figure 15. Likely language choice between Danish and other Europeans (age 55+)

English
0,8 French
German

0,6

0,4

0,2

0
Danish-British Danish-French Danish-German Danish-Greek Danish-Italian

Figure 16. Likely language choice between young Danish and other young Europeans

Danish is not an option for the elderly Greeks, all probability figures being lower than
0.01, i.e., 0.007 with older Germans, 0.006 with older British people, and 0.000 with all the
other groups.9
The situation has changed dramatically for the younger generation of Danes. English is
the most likely language choice, except for German in communication with young German
nationals (see Figure 16). The young Danes are likely to use English with the British (0.92),
the Germans (0.56), the French (0.50), the Greeks (0.49), and the Italians (0.33). German is

# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997

1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

Your language, my language or English? 19

most likely to be used with Germans (0.64, compared to 0.56 for English) and it is the
second option in communication with most of the other nationality groups, i.e., with the
British (0.11), the French (0.07), the Greeks (0.04), and the Italians (0.02). French is in
third position. The probability of it being used with French nationals is much lower than
English (0.11 compared with 0.50) and relatively low in interaction with other nationals,
i.e., the British (0.04), Italians (0.03), Germans (0.02) and Greeks (0.01). The probability
figure for the use of Danish with any other nationals is 0.000.
While the older generation of Danes has limited options regarding communication with
other EU nationals of the same generation, the young generation has considerably
increased its potential for communication with all Europeans, particularly with Britons.
While the older generation is more at ease with German, communication among young-
sters is possible primarily through English. However, the traditional role of German may
still be observed among the younger generation, since it is the second most likely language
to be used. It is the most likely language to be used in conversation with young Germans.

The Greeks
Older Greek people are unlikely to find a common language for communication with
other EU nationals of the same age group. English is most likely to be used but the figures
are very low: 0.10 for interaction with the British, followed by 0.04 with the Danes, 0.02
with the Germans, and 0.01 with the French and Italians (see Figure 17). Their second
option would be French, but to a very small extent: 0.03 with the French and 0.01 with the
British. It is no option at all with the nationals of the three remaining countries (0.00).
Their third option is German with Germans (0.03) and with Danes (0.01), but German
cannot be used with nationals of the three other countries. The use of Greek is not an
option for the older Greeks in their interaction with EU nationals from the same age group
since the probability figures are lower than 0.01 in all cases: 0.003 with the British and
Italians, and 0.000 for all the others.

English
0,8 French

German

0,6

0,4

0,2

0
Greek-British Greek-French Greek-German Greek -Danish Greek-Italian

Figure 17. Likely language choice between Greek and other Europeans (age 55+)

# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997

1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

20 Normand Labrie and Carsten Quell

English
0,8 French
German

0,6

0,4

0,2

0
Greek-British Greek-French Greek-German Greek -Danish Greek-Italian

Figure 18. Likely language choice between young Greek and other young Europeans

The younger generation of Greeks are much more likely to find a common language
with their EU counterparts, although less likely than young Danes, for instance. Their
position is similar to that of young French people. English is by far the most likely
language to be used with their peers from all the other countries (see Figure 18). It is likely
to be used with the British (0.53), the Danes (0.49), the Germans (0.32), the French (0.29)
and the Italians (0.19). German and French can also be used with other EU nationals,
although to a lesser extent. French is a possible language of communication with all the
groups: with the French (0.06), the British (0.02) and with young people from any of the
other three countries (0.01). German is an option for communication with Germans (0.06),
Danes (0.04), the British and the French (0.01). It cannot be used in interaction with young
Italians. It is extremely unlikely that Greek would be spoken between young Greeks and
other Europeans since all probability figures are under 0.01: 0.008 with Italians, 0.006 with
the British, 0.004 with the French, and 0.000 with the other two groups.
The older generation of Greeks have virtually no possibilities to communicate with their
EU counterparts. The younger generation, however, has much more potential. This is due
primarily to its knowledge of English. The use of French and German is limited to
communication with nationals of the respective countries.

The Italians
Older Italians also have rather limited possibilities to communicate with EU nationals
from the same age group. English and French are equally likely to be used. The probability
that English will be used is 0.07 with the British, 0.02 with the Danes and 0.01 with the
French, Germans and Greeks (see Figure 19). Similarly, French can be used to the same
extent with the French (0.07), the British and the Germans (0.01), but not with nationals
from Denmark or Greece (0.00). German represents a third option, but is restricted to
interaction with Germans (0.04) or Danes (0.01). Italian is in fourth position, with figures

# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997

1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

Your language, my language or English? 21

English

0,8 French

German

0,6

0,4

0,2

0
Italian-British Italian-French Italian-German Italian-Danish Italian-Greek

Figure 19. Likely language choice between Italians and other Europeans (age 55+)

English
0,8 French

German

0,6

0,4

0,2

0
Italian-British Italian-French Italian-German Italian-Danish Italian-Greek

Figure 20. Likely language choice between young Italians and other young Europeans

such as 0.026 with the British, 0.025 with the French, 0.009 with the Greeks, 0.007 with the
Danes and 0.006 with the Germans.
The younger generation of Italians is in a better position to communicate with its peers
from other EU countries, but to a lesser degree than most of the other young nationals
examined in this paper (see Figure 20). Young Italians can rely on English for commun-
ication with the British (0.36), Danes (0.33), Germans (0.22), French (0.20), and Greeks
(0.19). French is the second most likely language to be used. The figures are as follows:

# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997

1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

22 Normand Labrie and Carsten Quell

with the French (0.22), with the British (0.09), with Germans and Danes (0.03) and with
Greeks (0.01). Italian is also an option for the younger Italian generation, especially with
the French (0.052), but also with the Greeks (0.016), Germans (0.015), and British (0.01).
Italian is not an option in communication with young Danes (0.00). German is in fourth
position. It can be used with the Germans (0.03), Danes (0.02) and British (0.01).
The older generation of Italians has a limited ability to interact with other Europeans of
the same generation because of its lack of knowledge of English and French and, to a lesser
extent, German. The younger generation has increased its potential for communication
mainly due to a greater proficiency in English, but also to a more widespread knowledge of
French. Italian can be used to a small degree and German even less so.

Discussion
The comparison between the two age groups regarding language ability shows that the
older generation has rather limited options. A major development can be observed among
the younger generation where there has been a surge in the opportunities for commun-
ication. Although knowledge of French and German has increased considerably, as
demonstrated in the first part of this paper, knowledge of English predominates every-
where. As a result, the increased knowledge of French and German seems to be restricted
to communication between nationals from the corresponding countries, while English is
generally the first option with all nationals (see `Probabilities' table in the Appendix)
including French and German.
Among the younger generation, those who have seen the greatest increase in their
potential for finding a common language for communication are the British and the
Danes. However, the difference between the two is quite obvious. While the young Britons
can now communicate with a large proportion of other Europeans, this is achieved despite
the fact that nearly half of them do not speak any foreign language (i.e., the spread of
English clearly serves their own interests). Their Danish counterparts, on the other hand,
have achieved the same potential for communication by making the deliberate effort of
learning a second language. Although to a lesser extent than for the Danes, this holds true
for many other young Europeans as well.

7. CONCLUSION

Through the analysis of data from a large-scale European public survey, we have
attempted to show that the future of communication between Europeans is unlikely to
consist of an English-only Europe, nor will multilingualism flourish simply because of
greater opportunities for contact. The truth is more complex. Foreign language education
both responds to pressures of the linguistic market and is involved in its creation. The
teaching of English is clearly a response to the worldwide appeal of that language. Students
need little encouragement to study English as its utility is so clearly evident. For other
languages, on the other hand, a conscious effort may be required to ensure that their
popularity does not wane completely in the face of English. Opportunities ought to be
created which will show young Europeans that languages other than English, especially
those which are native to one of the interlocutors involved, also represent an option for
communication.
From the data available on the probability of language choice in communication among
nationals of the European Union, it is obvious that language spread does not imply any
# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997
1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

Your language, my language or English? 23

kind of `reciprocity.' On the contrary, language spread favours the emergence of linguae
francae. Speakers whose language is being learned on a large scale, such as English, French
and German, are in a very different position from those belonging to smaller linguistic
communities. It is as a result of the efforts made by the latter that an increase in the
capacity to communicate has been achieved. English has benefited most from this
development, much more so than French and German, and appears to be emerging as
the lingua franca.
Ideally, our study will now have to be followed up by field work. We need to know
whether our predictions are borne out by reality. Which other factors besides foreign
language knowledge determine which languages are chosen in a given setting? Researchers
will have to approach these questions very carefully. Anecdotal and unrepresentative
evidence will not suffice if we wish to obtain a true understanding of the linguistic
dynamics. Of course, there may be some Greeks who interact with Danes in Greek or
Danish; and among the many Germans who go to Italy each year, there will be a much
higher percentage of Italian-speaking Germans than in the general German population.
However, language contact very often does not arise by choice, but rather by necessity. As
part of the partnerships between towns across Europe, a Dutch youngster may suddenly
find himself playing football against Spanish youngsters. There are many occasions when
Europeans come together in conferences or meetings for professional, political or other
reasons. From youth to senior citizens' groups, from academic conferences to sports clubs,
networks across Europe are being created as part of the increased integration among
nations which require people to communicate with one another. People are confronted
with each other without any particular interest and knowledge about their respective
languages and cultures. It is under these circumstances that the type of contact situation
among ordinary Europeans will arise, which has formed the basis for our study here. An
equitable and mutually acceptable solution of the communication challenges which lie
ahead for Europe's future in the next century will not come about effortlessly. It requires
monitoring of current linguistic trends through research, public awareness of the linguistic
challenges of European integration and a concerted political effort to tackle an issue which
has for too long been regarded as a political minefield and consequently ignored. Investing
in multilingualism means investing in a peaceful and democratic future for all of Europe,
while ignoring linguistic issues may come back to haunt us.

# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997

# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997

1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

APPENDIX 1

Foreign languages spoken: means of individual countries and EU as a whole (in percent)
Belgium Denmark Germany Germany Germany Greece Spain France Ireland Italy Luxembourg The Portugal United EU 12
(W) (all) (E) Netherlands Kingdom

English 34 68 40 35 16 25 13 30 0 19 46 71 20 0 25
French 30 8 11 9 2 4 9 0 14 17 89 16 20 21 13
German 15 47 0 0 0 5 1 7 4 3 88 60 1 8 8
Other 2 5 3 4 11 3 11 3 11 1 0 4 1 3 4
languages
None of 46 21 30 32 38 68 60 55 59 65 2 13 68 65 51
these
languages
1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

Your language, my language or English? 25

APPENDIX 2
Probability that English, French or German will be used in contact of pairs of nationals from
six EU countries for two age groups
Oldest group (age 55+ years) Young people (age 1524 years)
English French German English French German

British-French 0.11 0.15 0.00 0.54 0.38 0.02

British-German 0.20 0.01 0.04 0.61 0.06 0.18
British-Danish 0.35 0.01 0.01 0.92 0.04 0.11
British-Greek 0.10 0.01 0.00 0.53 0.02 0.01
British-Italian 0.07 0.01 0.00 0.36 0.09 0.01
French-British 0.11 0.15 0.00 0.54 0.38 0.02
French-German 0.02 0.08 0.05 0.33 0.15 0.11
French-Danish 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.50 0.11 0.07
French-Greek 0.01 0.03 0.00 0.29 0.06 0.01
French-Italian 0.01 0.07 0.00 0.20 0.22 0.00
German-British 0.20 0.01 0.04 0.61 0.06 0.18
German-French 0.02 0.08 0.05 0.33 0.15 0.11
German-Danish 0.07 0.00 0.29 0.56 0.02 0.64
German-Greek 0.02 0.00 0.03 0.32 0.01 0.06
German-Italian 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.22 0.03 0.03
Danish-British 0.35 0.01 0.01 0.92 0.04 0.11
Danish-French 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.50 0.11 0.07
Danish-German 0.07 0.00 0.29 0.56 0.02 0.64
Danish-Greek 0.04 0.00 0.01 0.49 0.01 0.04
Danish-Italian 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.33 0.03 0.02
Greek-British 0.10 0.01 0.00 0.53 0.02 0.01
Greek-French 0.01 0.03 0.00 0.29 0.06 0.01
Greek-German 0.02 0.00 0.03 0.32 0.01 0.06
Greek-Danish 0.04 0.00 0.01 0.49 0.01 0.04
Greek-Italian 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.19 0.01 0.00
Italian-British 0.07 0.01 0.00 0.36 0.09 0.01
Italian-French 0.01 0.07 0.00 0.20 0.22 0.00
Italian-German 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.22 0.03 0.03
Italian-Danish 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.33 0.03 0.02
Italian-Greek 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.19 0.01 0.00

NOTES
1. Although the idea that foreign language learning is achieved mainly through schooling is generally accepted, a
recent survey by Eraly (1995), conducted among 87 management employees in international firms in the
French-speaking part of Belgium, shows that only 12 percent of the interviewees had learned the foreign
languages they needed at work while they were at school or university. Of those interviewed, 51 percent
indicated they learned the foreign languages `sur le tas' (on the job), 25 percent while receiving training abroad,
15 percent while they were working in foreign countries, 20 percent through special training offered by the
company, 5 percent because they lived in a foreign country, 16 percent because they took evening classes on
their own, 12 percent within the family context (mixed couples), and 2 percent through courses in interpreting.
It is therefore impossible to draw conclusions on foreign language knowledge based on foreign language
learning only. Having learned a foreign language does not guarantee that one will be able to use it in a
conversation.

# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997

1/5/97 - 16:41 96/89 WENG 89_2 SueH

26 Normand Labrie and Carsten Quell

2. Our calculations essentially indicate the amount of overlap between foreign language knowledge of an age
group from one country with the foreign language knowledge or the mother tongue of the same age group from
another country. Our assumption that this indicates probability of use is based on the idea that having a
common language is the most basic requirement for communication to take place.
3. For details on the foreign languages spoken in individual European countries as well as the probabilities of
language choice, please refer to the Tables in the Appendix.
4. The figures for ability to use the other languages in a conversation were as follows: Spanish 5 percent, Italian
2 percent, Portuguese 1 percent, Dutch 1 percent, Danish and Greek 0 percent each.
5. Note, however, that mean data for all EU countries is given in the next section.
6. The numbers of participants from individual countries are as follows: Belgium = 1,028; Denmark = 1,000;
Germany (East) = 1,058; Germany (West) = 1,028; Greece = 1,002; Spain = 1,000; France = 996; Ireland =
1,004; Italy = 1,055; Luxembourg = 500; the Netherlands = 1,001; Portugal = 1,000; Great Britain = 1,051;
Northern Ireland = 306.
7. The confidence limits for sample sizes of about 1,000 are as follows for the following observed percentages:
Observed percentages: 10% or 90% 20% or 80% 30% or 70 % 40% or 60 % 50%
Confidence limits: 1.9% 2.5% 2.7 % 3.0% 3.1%
The above information only pertains to the data obtained directly from Eurobarometer and does not apply to
our calculations of probability.
8. In Figures 28, only a partial picture of the results is presented, so percentages do not simply add up to 100.
The category none refers to the fact that no foreign language was learnt or is spoken at all. It does not refer to
the absence of knowledge of English, French or German.
9. Figures concerning the use of Dutch, Greek and Italian are not included in Figures 920 or in the table
`Probabilities.' They are included here for comparison only.

REFERENCES
Ammon, Ulrich (1994) The present dominance of English in Europe. With an outlook on possible solutions to the
European language problems. Sociolinguistica, 8, 114.
Calvet, Louis-Jean (1987) La Guerre des Langues et les Politiques Linguistiques. Paris: Payot.
Cooper, Robert L. (1982) A framework for the study of language spread. In Language Spread. Edited by R. L.
Cooper. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. 536.
Dabene, Louise (1994) Reperes Sociolinguistiques pour l'Enseignement des Langues: Les Situations Plurilingues.
Paris: Hachette.
Domaschnew, Anatoli (1994) Englisch als die einzige Verkehrssprache des zukunftigen Europa? Eine Stellung-
nahme aus osteuropaischer Sicht. Sociolinguistica, 8, 2643.
Druesne, Gerard (1994) Le programme europeen Lingua. In Les Langues dans l'Europe de Demain. Edited by
Fernand Carton and J. M. Oderic. Paris: Presses de la Sorbonne Nouvelle. pp. 3136.
Eraly, Alain (1995) L'Usage du Francais dans les Entreprises en Belgique. Conseil de la langue francaise. Langue et
mondialisation: enjeux et defis pour le francais. Quebec: Conseil de la langue francaise.
European Commission (1994) Eurobarometer, 41 (July 1994). Luxembourg: European Commission.
Grin, Francois (1993) European economic integration and the fate of lesser used languages. Language Problems
and Language Planning, 17(2), 101116.
Haberland, Hartmut and Henriksen, Carol (1991) Danisch Eine kleine sprache in der EG. Sociolinguistica, 5
(Statut et fonction des langues dans les organes de la Communaute europeenne), 8598.
Labrie, Normand (1993) La Construction Linguistique de la Communaute Europeenne. Paris: Honore Champion.
Laforge, Lorne and McConnell, Grant D. (Eds.) (1990) Language Spread and Social Change. Dynamics and
Measurement. Quebec: International Centre for Research on Bilingualism.
Phillipson, Robert (1992) Linguistic Imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Phillipson, Robert and Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove (1994) English, panacea or pandemic. Sociolinguistica, 8, 7387.
Quell, Carsten (1993) Perspectives on European language contact with special emphasis on a survey
investigating language use in the European Commission. Unpublished M.A. thesis.
Quell, Carsten (1995) Die Europaische Union 1995 Mehr Lander, weniger Sprachen? Die Sprachen der
Europaischen Institutionen zwischen Anspruch und Wirklichkeit. Germanistische Mitteilungen, 41, 2545.
Storti, Martine (1989) Rapport sur l'Apprentissage des Langues Etrangeres et sur la Situation du Francais dans les
Onze Pays Partenaires de la France au sein de la Communaute Economique Europeenne. Paris: Ministere des
Affaires etrangeres.
Truchot, Claude (1994) La France, l'anglais, le francais et l'Europe. Sociolinguistica, 8, 1525.
Weinrich, Harald (1989) Les langues, les differences. Le francais dans le monde, 228.

(Received 15 April 1996.)

# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997