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ADM IN WAR

CONTENTS

Section Subject Page

1. The Principles of Administration 1

2. Factors Affecting Administration 7
3. The Maintenance System 12
4. Maintenance Organisation from Base to Army Maintenance 35
Area
5. Maintenance Organisation Forward of Army Maintenance 43
Area
6. Communication Zone 49
7. Divisional Administrative Area 57
8. Divisional Maintenance Area 67
9. Administration in Underdeveloped Areas 70
10. Replenishment in Armoured Division 97
11. Maintenance Planning 101
12. Supply and Transport Planning 114

APPENDICES

Section Appendix Subject Page

3 A Glossary of Administrative Terms 30

3 B Chain of Replenishment 34
9 C Modified System of Maintenance 96
10 D Layout of Replenishment Area for an Armd Bde 100

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SECTION 1

THE PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION

1. Administration is the function of command and deals with the

organization, discipline and well being of men, and the provision,
maintenance and movement of troops and material. Administrative
arrangements must ensure that the greatest value is obtained from the
Commander's resources including men and that these are properly prepared
and correctly balanced to deal effectively with the task in hand. Commanders
at all levels are responsible for the administration of their command.
Administrative responsibility should not be divorced from operational
responsibility.

2. Administration covers the following aspects:-

(a) General Administration. This is the formulation, issue and

general application of major administrative policy for a force or a
theatre of war. General administrative policy for a force is laid down
by the highest commander and involves the control of all
administrative resources available to the force. Control of certain
aspects of general administration may, however, be delegated to the
lower headquarters.

(b) Local Administration. This is the particular application and

execution of the administrative policy as it affects a particular area or
unit. It deals with the provision of supplies, accommodation, medical
and sanitary arrangements, and allied facilities to troops located in an
area. The responsibility regarding discipline and grant of leave will be
specified in orders.

3. The administrative machinery must cater for the initial maintenance

resources for a field force and the subsequent rapid replacement of
deficiencies in personnel, animals and materials. It must also provide for the
prompt removal of everything not required in the forward areas such as
casualties, damaged equipment, prisoners and salvage. Treatment of
casualties, repair of stores and equipment and their subsequent return and
reissue is an important aspect of administration.

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4. If the administrative system is to function effectively, it is essential that

all officers and not only those in administrative appointments understand the
working of the system and play their part in solving the problems involved.

THE PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION

5. In every campaign, the administrative arrangements must permit the

implementation of the tactical plan. The complexity and quantity of modern
equipment, the speed of movement of modern armies, and the increased
vulnerability of administrative installations and maintenance communications
to attack from the enemy air force, missiles, armoured columns and special
task forces are all complicating factors. There are however, certain basic
rules of administration which from the basis of sound administration. These
are: -

(a) Foresight.
(b) Economy.
(c) Flexibility.
(d) Simplicity.
(e) Co-operation.

Foresight

6. Administrative preparations take time and therefore, should be the

first ones to be taken in hand when operations are being planned. Foresight
would involve that a commander while making his plans, is able to visualise
the capabilities and limitations of operational and administrative situations.
He should be able to correctly understand the resource capacity obtaining in
his command and visualise well in time the necessary additional efforts. He
should evolve his plans keeping in view the correct relationship of the
operational and administrative situations. A good administrative staff officer
should look ahead, anticipate the course of operations and forecast the
requirement of men, animals and material and plan their movement and
maintenance. He must ensure that his commander's tactical plan is not
hindered or delayed by the lack of some essential items which could have
been foreseen. He must, therefore, know the intentions of his commander

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and keep in touch with the General Staff so as to be in the constant picture
of the present developments and the future trend of operations.

7. In mountain warfare foresight involves a careful study of the time and

space factor to plan the provision of stores. The problem is complicated for
the following reasons: -

(a) A number of carrying agencies are involved with varied load

carrying capacities such as 3 ton and 1 ton vehicles, jeeps, mules and
porters.

(b) There is a variation in their carrying capacities owing to

gradients, change in altitude and weather.

(c) Apart from the expenses involved and limited lift capacity air
supply is erratic due to its dependence on the availability of DZs and
helipads as also owing to the inclement weather which is a common
feature along our mountainous frontiers, besides tactical air situation.

8. The administrative staff officer must also anticipate difficulties that

may arise to upset the logistic plan. Foresight is required not only in planning
but also in execution and decisions on administrative matters will have to be
made well in advance of the commencement of operations.

Economy

9. Economy implies the most efficient use of the available resources

such as manpower, material and movement resources. As applied to reserve
stocks, it means the correct and judicious allocation in relation to present
and projected operations. Over insurance in holding is uneconomical.
Material unnecessarily demanded, moved and subsequently returned or
abandoned results in a waste of theatre stocks, movement resources and
manpower. Furthermore, accumulation of stocks by one formation may
deprive another of its more pressing operational requirements.

10. Another sphere where economy must be strictly enforced is

transportation. The employment of the available transportation agencies
must be constantly reviewed to ensure their most effective use in lifting the
maintenance requirement. The heaviest transportation agency should carry

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stocks the furthermost feasible and changes in transportation agencies

should be avoided wherever possible.

11. The other aspects of economy are: -

(a) Proper care and maintenance of vehicles and equipment.

Traffic accident and damage due to carelessness or misuse result in
an avoidable drain on resources.

(b) The correct positioning of repair facilities, well considered

deployment of workshops, forward repair teams and spanner patrols
will ensure rapid repair of vehicles and equipment. The extent of
repair to be carried out and the priorities of repair should be clearly
laid down so that the available effort is utilised in putting the maximum
equipment and vehicles into service.
(c) Adequate and efficient salvage arrangements.
(d) Maximum use of local resources and improvisation.
(e) Proper deployment of medical and veterinary resources and
efficient organisation for evacuation and treatment.
(f) Minimising handling of stores to effect economy in manpower.
(g) Maximum use of captured enemy equipment.
(h) Maximum use of prisoners of war in accordance with the
provisions of the Geneva Convention.

(j) Laying down realistic usage norms.

(k) Use of modern efficient methods and machinery such as
electronic data processing system and material handling equipment.
(l) Control of resources at the highest possible level.
(m) Demands are kept to the minimum essential requirements.
(n) Resources are properly planned and used for the purpose for
which they are intended and once used are recreated at the earliest.

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Flexibility

12. Flexibility implies the ability to provide adequate administration

support to meet unforeseen requirements. Flexibility also implies the
preparedness to use alternative maintenance routes and transportation
agencies. To achieve this administrative staff must acquire a thorough
knowledge of the terrain and routes. They must utilise all the available
agencies to their full capacity and must be prepared to switch over the
maintenance organisation from one formation to another if the need arises.
Tactical air supply is one kind of transportation agency which provides the
maximum flexibility in giving logistic support at short notice. However, air
supply is uneconomical when compared to other transportation agencies and
should only be used when surface means of transportation are not available
or due to operational necessity. It must be ensured that proper signal
communications are available to administrative staff and services.

13. Decentralisation of administrative resources tends to result in loss of

flexibility. Administrative control must always be centralised at the level
capable of exercising efficient control and of reacting to changing
circumstances.

Simplicity

14. Administration is a complex function and needs precise, accurate and

detailed staff work. Its application should be reduced to a common sense
approach to the day to day problems. The resulting plan should always be a
simple one. Similarly, organisation and administrative procedures should
also be simplified. Only a simple administrative system will function
efficiently and will stand the strain of the changing battle situations. Simplicity
makes a plan more amenable to adjustment.

15. To achieve simplicity, the correct balance between centralisation and

decentralisation in planning and execution of administrative plans and
resources must be drawn. Administrative planning must never be too
optimistic and must take into account the normal failures and setbacks. It
may pay better dividends to plan with an allowance and hold some reserves
to cater for unforeseen difficulties that may crop up during execution of
administrative plans. As far as possible, standard organisation and system of
replenishment should be adhered to, if necessary systems as early as
possible.
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Cooperation

16. Sound administration requires the intimate co-operation of all the

branches of staff and services who must make every effort to keep each
other informed of the developments and intended actions. Plans must be
formulated in consultation and executed with the mutual co-operation of all
the members working as a team towards a common goal.

17. Co-operation between units and services is equally important. Close

liaison and Personal contact will help to develop mutual confidence. The
services must do their utmost to help units. Units on their part must realise
that if they follow the normal system and procedures they make the work of
the services much easier.

18. In joint operations, the administrative staff of the three services must
work closely together. Every effort should be made to pool the administrative
resources to avoid duplication of effort.

19. Co-operation with civil Government agencies plays a vital part in

administration, close liaison and goodwill result in the efficient utilisation of
available local resources and other facilities like transport, labour, workshop
and hospitals.

Conclusion

20. These principles together form the basis of sound administration.

Their relative importance and application will vary according to the tactical
needs and the administrative importance would require considerable
experience and judgement on the part of the commander. His leadership
and direction are as essential to the efficient administration of his formation
as they are to its tactical performance.

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SECTION 2

FACTORS AFFECTING ADMINISTRATION

General

1. The organisation and method of operation of an administrative system

should be governed by its environment and the system should be so evolved
that it utilises to the best advantage, the conditions in which it is to function.
It is therefore necessary to consider the factors which have a direct impact
on the organisation of the system.

General Environment

2. In the event of a war, the aggressor will attempt to achieve surprise by

a quick strike. The pre-hostilities period of tension is, therefore, likely to be
short. He may also employ subversive elements, guerrillas and paratroopers
to support his operation. Simultaneously, strong international political,
diplomatic and economic pressures are likely to be brought to bring the
conflict to an end. This may affect the duration of the war.

3. These conditions have two fold impacts on administration: -

(a) The administrative system must always be in a high state of

readiness, prepared to maintain our forces in the field at short notice.
This implies complete preparations at all times, of layout,
organisations and procedures to be adopted in war. Any necessity to
resort to make shift arrangements, at the last moment, on the
outbreak of hostilities may lead to disaster.
(b) Secondly, the local protection of the administrative installation
and the security of the maintenance communications will assume
great importance. While service units must be prepared to defend
themselves provision must be made for dealing with raids and
sabotage attempts on dumps and installations.

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FACTORS

Operational Plan

4. The operational objectives, sought to be achieved, will dictate the

order of battle of a field force, which in turn will determine its normal
maintenance requirements such as supplies and petroleum, the range of
ordinance stores, the repair cover for the vehicles and equipment of the
force, the medical and veterinary cover for men and animals respectively
and other facilities such as mail and canteen stores.

5. The operational plan and the possible intensity of fighting expected

will dictate the requirements of ammunition and will indicate the casualty rate
in men, animals and equipment for which provision will have to be made. In
addition, the implementation of the operational plan may require certain
specialised store like bridging equipment and defence stores, and may
necessitate the dumping of stores. To meet all these requirements
administrative resources, including transport required to lift these resources,
will have to be deployed.

6. The requirements further need to be related to the anticipated

movement of the force both in terms of distance and speed. This will have a
major impact on the problem of transportation and movement as well as on
the layout of the administrative system.

Enemy Threat

7. In modern war the administrative installation and the communications

are attractive targets for the enemy. The threat will be in the form of air
attacks, raids by mobile columns or special service groups and subversive
guerrilla activities.

8. The enemy air threat will force greater dispersion of units and
installations and may entail a greater decentralisation of stocks. It will hinder
move, materially reduce the range of operation of transport and its lift
capacity. The administrative layout will have to cater for this.

9. The dispersion, forced by the enemy air threat, will make the security
of installation difficult. The administrative units must be trained and prepared
to protect themselves. Convoys must be ready to counter the enemy ground
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threat and may have to be escorted. The administrative units do not have the
resources to form a mobile reserve to operate beyond their own parameters.
Such reserve will have to be created if the enemy ground threat makes it
necessary.

Maintenance of Communications

10. In case of conflict, large quantities of material must be transported

from the depots in the country to the various sectors and delivered to the
formations at the front. The existing communications system in the country
and operational areas, and their capacity, will largely decide the
administrative system required to maintain the forces in the field. All
available communications - road, inland water transport, sea, where
applicable and air - must be considered according to their suitability and the
most efficient use made of each in its proper sphere.

11. The length of communications is a major consideration, but the time

required to traverse the distance is also an equally important factor and is
determined by the conditions under which the movement takes place.
Restrictions on day movement, reduced density of movement, speed,
weather conditions, state of the communications, serviceability of the
transport and the efficiency of the men who operate it, will influence the time
required to complete the move.

12. The susceptibility of communications to interruption by natural causes

or enemy action, will indicate the amount of reserves that must be held
forward for the maintenance of the force during the period of interruption.
The resources required for the repair and restoration of the communication
must also be catered for.

Terrain

13. Terrain has a double impact on administration by its effect on

communications and the transport agencies and by its special effects on the
deployment of units.

14. The army has to operate in different types of terrain such as plains,
desert, jungle mountains and at high altitudes. The plains will have good all
weather roads and movement will be easy. In the desert, the roads will be
limited cross country movement may be possible though there would be
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special navigation and driving problems. In the jungles, movement may only
be possible by light vehicles, animal transport and porters. In the mountains,
roads are narrow, winding with steep gradients, generally allowing only
one-way traffic. Their classification progressively decreases away from the
base and in the forward areas light vehicles and later only animal transport
and porters can function. The overall capacity and efficiency of road
communications is considerably reduced at high altitudes.

15. The availability of airfields or the effort required to construct one, will
also depend on the terrain. In mountains and jungles it may be difficult to
find a suitable dropping zone and in mountains it may take considerable
effort to construct even a helipad.

16. All these factors determine the transport agency to be used, the turn
round time, lift capacity and ultimately the maintenance layout.

17. The ease of deployment of administrative units and the cover

available will also materially affect the administrative layout which will vary
considerably according to the terrain. The problem is particularly acute in the
mountains, where the administrative elements should be to the minimum
essential in order to make the best use of limited space.

Climate

18. Climate has an important bearing on administration. The effect of

climate in each particular terrain, on men and equipment must be studied
and measures taken to achieve maximum efficiency. Personal clothing,
equipment and rations must be suitable for use under the prevalent
conditions and special efforts in research and development may be needed
to achieve this. Similarly vehicles and equipment may need modifications
such as provision of water condensers in the desert or pre-heating at high
altitudes.

19. Climatic conditions can also cause quick deterioration of equipment,

vehicles and stores. To prevent this special precautionary measure may
have to be enforced.

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Local Resources

20. Local resources must be utilised to the fullest extent possible so as to

reduce the maintenance lift and economise in transportation. Such resources
include fresh rations, fuel, oil and lubricants, labour, timber and other
construction material, accommodation, power supply, workshop and hospital
facilities. These resources will be scarce in the remote areas of our borders,
and it is important that accurate information about their availability is
obtained.

21. As all our administrative bases are located within the country, intimate
liaison should be established with the civil officials. It should be ensured that
use of local resources is controlled and organised to avoid indiscriminate
waste. The development of such resources should also be encouraged.

Civil Population

22. People living in the border areas may have to bear considerable
hardships and an appreciable amount of their resources may have to be
appropriated for defence need. The army must maintain good relations with
the civilians since their close co-operation will be an important factor in the
functioning of administration, particularly with regard to accommodation,
transport and labour.

23. The co-operation and assistance of the civil population will be crucial
in combating sabotage and raids against installations and dumps by
guerrillas and enemy paratroopers. The civil population will need to be
organised for this and the army should encourage and assist them.

Conclusion

24. To work a maintenance system effectively, the environment under

which it is to operate must be studied and the factors affecting administration
must be carefully assessed. Only then will it be possible to evolve an
administrative system which will work to the best advantage under the
conditions in which it is required to operate.

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SECTION 3

THE MAINTENANCE SYSTEM

Appendices: - A Glossary of Administrative Terms.

B Chain of Replenishment.

General

1. An efficient administrative organization should ensure a smooth and

even flow of men and materials from the procurement and holding
organisation in the country to the forward troops. The system should utilize
the existing network of transportation agencies and follow the principles of
longest haulage by the maximum capacity transport agency. It should also
employ intermediary administrative installations to regulate the flow, but such
intermediate stages or the changes in transportation agencies, should be
kept to the minimum to reduce handling of stores by different agencies. A list
of administrative terms used in the system is given at Appendix 'A'.

Variation in the Maintenance System

2. The conditions of terrain and climate, and the length and layout of the
maintenance communications vary radically in our Western, Northern and
Eastern regions. The maintenance system adopted in each case is designed
to meet the peculiar requirements of each region and to ensure the utmost
economy and efficiency in the deployment and use of administrative
resources.

3. Further, forces remain deployed along the borders in the likely areas
of operations. Static depots and installations are established for the non
operational daily maintenance of these forces. Such installations have a
major function in the maintenance system in case of a conflict. This is
particularly so in case of supplies and fuel, oil and lubricants, and the
replenishment of these depots may continue to follow the channels followed
under peace conditions. The operational requirements must therefore be
given the necessary importance when deciding the location, capacity and
layout of these depots and providing transit facilities for them.
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Dispersion and concealment must be particularly borne in mind. This aspect

is also important in the case of stores, such as ammunition, which do not
form part of daily maintenance in peace. The sitting and location of various
adm installations must be dictated by the location of troops dependent upon
them. Administrative installations must be sited forward of existing or likely
bottle-necks.

4. In the mountains, the road communications are subject to seasonal

interruption due to rain or snow. The need to hold stocks forward for the
maintenance of formations has necessitated locating some types of depots
in the midst of their area of operational responsibility. In some cases,
therefore, the command and control of these depots have also devolved on
the field formations.

5. Similarly, air supply remains a constant requirement for the

maintenance of our units located in difficult areas. Depots located at rear
airfield and the organisation now functioning for air supply, will continue to
function during operations.

6. In view of expected short warning period and the possible limited

duration of a conflict, it is of paramount importance that the administrative
layout is suitable, and the resources of manpower and material adequate, to
meet the additional stress of operational requirement.

Stocks

7. Stocks held by the depots are of two categories-reserve and

maintenance stocks.

8. Reserve. Reserve is defined as the quantity of stocks required to be

held to ensure against emergency, unforeseen fluctuations and expenditure,
delay in procurement and transit, misfortune and so on. In peace these
include provision for requirements from the outbreak of war until adequate
supplies become available from production. As the assessment of the enemy
threat and the likely intensity of operations are material factors in deciding
upon the level of reserves, the quantity of stocks is determined in
consultation with the General Staff who may decide to control the reserves of
operationally important items such as ammunition. Reserves are expressed
in any of the following terms: -

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(a) Number of days actual consumption eg 15 days supplies.

(b) Number of days of war wastage rates eg 30 days of war
wastage rates.

(c) Percentage of Vehicles, assemblies and equipment in the force

such as 15% of tanks in the armoured division.

(d) Actual units or quantity, numbers or weight.

9. Reserves are also held for specifically planned operations. Reserve

intended to cover increased wastage on commencement of hostilities are
know as War Wastage Reserves. Reserves may be designated after the
purpose for which they are intended and though the location of reserves is
important, it is the control over their expenditure which must be well thought
out and judiciously decided.

10. Maintenance Stocks. These are the stocks required for the day to
day maintenance so that the reserves are not touched for any purpose other
than that for which they are held. Their level must cover the interval between
replenishments and should also cater for expected delays in transit. The
reaction time between supply and demand will also affect range and level of
stores held. The state of the maintenance communications is therefore the
major consideration in deciding the level of maintenance stocks.

11. Distribution of Stocks. Over a lengthy communications system from

Army Headquarters depots to forward troops, it may be necessary to locate
some stocks at intermediary depots to ensure smooth maintenance. Buffer
stocks are required at each change in transportation agency, to ensure a
regular flow of material forward. In addition, taking into consideration the
operational situation, the capacity and reliability of the transportation system,
stocks are decentralised to the control of lower formations. This is necessary
for the following reasons: -

(a) To cater for any break or interruption in the communications,

either by natural calamities or enemy action, so that forward
maintenance can continue uninterrupted until communications are
restored.

(b) To give the commander a degree of administrative

independence and flexibility in tactical regrouping.
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(c) To absorb the shock of any sudden and unforeseen or

increased demand due to the increase in strength or operational
requirement.

Chain of Replenishment

12. The stocks, the control of which is decentralised to formations, are

held in maintenance system. The following are the possible links in the
chain: -

(a) Army Headquarters Depots and installations.

(b) Army Maintenance Area (AMA).
(c) Corps Maintenance Area (CMA).
(d) Forward Maintenance Area (FMA).
(e) Divisional Administrative or Maintenance Area.
(f) Brigade Administrative or Maintenance Area.

13. Not all links need be used in the maintenance of a particular

formation. An additional link in the maintenance organisation is established
only when absolutely necessary. The rule is to establish as few links as
possible. The normal channels of replenishment are shown in Appendix B.

Army Headquarters Depots and Installations

14. Army Headquarters are responsible for provision, procurement,

storage and distribution of all the material needs of the Army. Based on the
operational requirements, the Government lays down the minimum period for
which the Army should be self sufficient. The stocks are then actually held
according to the availability of the item in the country, procurement delays
and production capacity. If stocks of a particular item are readily available in
the country, the holding of that item in army depots would be considerably
less. In the case of seasonal food-stuffs, one year's stock may be procured
and imported items of equipment may have to be provisioned for longer
periods.

15. The policy and control of stock, of all the base installations, rests with
the Army Headquarters. These installations are located in relation to the
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procurement centres, communication facilities to forward troops and in

accordance with a plan to disperse these in vulnerable areas.

16. Similarly Army Headquarters also control the following: -

(a) Strength of recruitment and holding of reinforcements.

(b) Procuring and holding of animals.
(c) The scale of repairs and load on base workshops.
(d) The overall treatment capacity of army hospitals.

17. As the railway constitutes the main means of logistic support from the
Army Headquarters depots, rail movement is controlled centrally by Army
Headquarters. This ensures the economical and efficient use of the available
rail resources. As far as possible, stores are moved direct to the forward
most store holding units. This is particularly applicable to items of daily
maintenance such as supply, fuel, oils and lubricants, and common user
ordnance items.

Army Maintenance Area (AMA)

18. The Command Headquarters arranges logistic support for the Corps
by establishing an AMA. This may consist of permanent or semi-permanent
depots located centrally to supply the field formations under the Corps. As
the AMA is established on a long term basis, considerations of dispersion,
concealment and protection must be kept in view from the early stages of
development.

19. The heads of Services at Command Headquarters are responsible for

the operation and technical supervision of their respective depots. The local
sub area headquarters will be responsible for the detailed control and local
administration. Replenishment of the AMA is the responsibility of the Army
Headquarters.

20. Stock held at the AMA will depend upon the intensity and scope of
operations, the length and state of communications behind the maintenance
area, and expected interruption of supply by enemy action and natural
hazards.

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21. The AMA will also have other installations necessary to support the
Corps, such as hospitals, workshops, transit camps, prisoners of war camps
and canteen bulk issue depots. AMA installations normally open up re-filling
points from where formations draw their requirements in their own second
line transport. Where a CMA or FMA is established in support of a division,
AMA continues to be responsible for initial stocking and subsequent
replenishment.

22. The AMA will usually be replenished by rail and will need well
developed rail head facilities including an adequate reserve transportation
area. This will include a separate rail head for each of the major commodities
such as ammunition, fuel, oil and lubricants, supplies, ordnance stores,
vehicle and engineer stores, and in addition, adequate rail head facilities for
troops and other stores.

23. Move by rail may be supplemented by road transport in an

emergency, where distances from rear depots permit their employment.
Where, however, the AMA is located ahead of a rail head an adequate
provision of transport and elaborate transhipment and movement
arrangements will have to be made. This will remain the responsibility of the
Command Headquarters.

24. No standard establishment has been worked out for an AMA. No and
size of depots will be dictated by the No of troops dependent upon them and
the variety of the equipment held by the forces. Local units in the
neighbourhood of AMA draw their maintenance requirements from the
depots or dumps, loc in the AMA.

25. A reasonable guide to stocks that might be held in an AMA is as

under: -
Items Normal Maximum
(a) Ammunition 5-10 days (WWR) 10 days (WWR)
(b) FOL 250-300 KM 500-550 KM
(c) Supplies 5 days 13 days

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Corps Maintenance Area (CMA)

26. There will be occasions when the turn-round between the AMA and
forward troops is so great that the divisional second line transport cannot go
back for a refill. The Corps may then open refilling points forward within easy
turn-round of the second line transport or may establish a CMA.

27. In addition to the factor of turn round a CMA may be established in

the following circumstances: -

(a) If road communications ahead of the army maintenance area

are insecure or unreliable, reserves will need to be located further
forward.

(b) In case of intended offensive operations, the Corps may stock

up its maintenance area and use it only when the operation starts.

28. The CMA establishes temporary depots to hold stocks and is capable
of moving. The stocks held on the ground are then either consumed or taken
over by some other agency.

Functions

29. The functions of corps maintenance area are as follows: -

(a) To enable corps to control a reserve of essentials stores within

reach of second line transport. It will however never be possible to
hold stocks of all requirements, eg in the case of ordnance stores.
The range of items held, should be to those not carried in divisional
ordnance units but which are essential to operations.

(b) To enable a reserve to be held within reach of second line

transport so that fluctuations of day to day requirements can easily be
met without overworking transport between the Army maintenance
area and the corps maintenance area. These fluctuations include
demands caused by sudden switching of units and formations from
one corps to another.

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(c) To enable provision to be made for an advance by stocking up

another corps maintenance area well forward, whilst divisions
continue to draw on the established corps maintenance area.

(d) To decrease the time required to get material forward for any
sudden operational demand, such as dumping programme.
Bottlenecks on the maintenance communications are thus overcome
by maintaining stocks in the corps maintenance area.

(e) To provide repair facilities in the form of infantry and armoured

troops workshop to take the over load from the field workshops.

(f) To provide facilities for treatment and evacuation of casualties.

(g) To control such units as postal, transit camps, prisoners of war

cages, animal reinforcement units and salvage.

(h) Provide refilling is for second line etc.

Control

30. The CMA is controlled by the Corps Headquarters. Stocks in the

depots and the technical working of unit are controlled by the respective
heads of Services of the staff at Corps Headquarters. The detailed
functioning is the responsibility of headquarters CMA Control Centre. The
present organisation of CMA Control Centre includes an officer commanding
and administrative commander (Lt Col), one DAQMG, one staff captain or
STO, with the necessary clerical staff and transport. The duties of CMA
Control Centre are: -

(a) Detail reconnaissance and layout of the CMA in the general

area selected by the Corps Headquarters.
(b) Setting up the report Centre and traffic control within the CMA.
(c) Coordination of transport and labour allotments.
(d) Protective measures and coordination of defences.
(e) Local administration.

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Layout

31. The Corps Headquarters will lay down the general area for the
location of the CMA in consultation with the Command Headquarters who
are responsible for stocking the CMA. The exact location and the detailed
layout is decided by the Corps Administrative staff, in consultation with the
General Staff and officer commanding CMA Control Centre. The points
affecting the location and layout are: -

(a) Dispersion and concealment against enemy air attack.

(b) Maximum use of available local facilities such as hospital and
storage accommodation, workshop facilities, electricity and power and
telephone communication.
(c) Availability of road communications both rear wards for
replenishment and to forward formation.

(d) Availability of adequate internal traffic circuits for operating

the CMA.
(e) Availability of harbour areas for transport columns.
(f) Availability of hard standings.

32. For ease of functioning, it will be usual to group the transport units
and units required to maintain the corps troops into an administrative area,
distinct from the depots and installations which maintain the forward units
and form the CMA.

Stocks

33. The level of stocks to be maintained by the CMA will be decided by the
Corps Headquarters, in consultation with the Command Headquarters. The
CMA should be kept as light as circumstances permit. The considerations
that govern the quantity of stocks to be held in the CMA are: -

(a) Anticipated rate of expenditure.

(b) Time required for replenishment from AMA or Command
depots.

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(c) Availability, condition and capacity of maintenance

communication and transport.
(d) Availability of labour for handling and loading stores.
(e) Period for which the CMA will be required and the possibility of
its move.
(f) Possible enemy threat.

34. As a guide stocks that can be held in CMA are: -

(a) Ammunition. Required number of days in terms of war

wastage rates - usually 2 to 5 days.
(b) Fuels, Oil and Lubricants. 150 to 250 KM per vehicle.
(c) Supplies. 2 to 5 days.
(d) Ordnance. Selected items for specific operations.

Replenishment

35. The stocking and replenishment of the CMA is the responsibility of

Command Headquarters. The stocks may be despatched from the Army
Headquarters or Command depots, or from the AMA. Where the
replenishment is by rail, the Command Headquarters will control the move. If
however the replenishment is by road, it may be necessary for Command
Headquarters to allot necessary transport to the Corps who will control and
coordinate the replenishment.

36. The depots in the CMA will act as refilling points from which the
second line transport will draw their requirement. Should the divisions go
beyond one days turn round from the CMA, the Corps will arrange the
opening of refilling points forward, within easy reach of formations or may
move the CMA forward.

Signal Communication

37. Reliable signal communication is essential for the efficient functioning

of the CMA. The CMA will have its own internal telephone circuit and will be
connected to the Rear Corps Headquarters. The rear Corps Headquarters
has communications with Command Headquarters and forward to Division
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Headquarters by speech and telegraph circuits on radio and line, and tele-
printer circuit on line. When the AMA is located away from Command
Headquarters, radio links between the AMA and the rear Corps
Headquarters will have to be provided.

Move of CMA

38. The following considerations are important in carrying out move

of CMA: -

(a) Keep the move to minimum.

(b) Move in as large bounds as possible.
(c) Move in consultation with higher HQ.
(d) Before a major advance is envisaged or a major attack is
contemplated, an advance maintenance area should be established
as far forward as possible.

(e) Move must be so timed that there is least interference with the
replenishment programme for the day.

(f) Move should be anticipated fairly early in order to consume or

dispose off the stocks at the present loc.

39. The distance between CMA and the fwd troops is also taken into
consideration, while selecting the area. The major consideration, however, is
that if it is required to move frequently it will be non-functional for the period
required to close down at the present location, move to the new location and
reset itself. Due to lack of transport it may not be possible to move the entire
administrative area in one night, the move will often be carried out over two
nights.

Forward Maintenance Area (FMA)

40. A FMA is established for the maintenance of smaller force up to

division strength in the following circumstances: -

(a) When the force is operating directly under the Command

Headquarters on an independent axis and it is not possible for the
second line transport to draw its requirements directly from the AMA.
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(b) When there is a major obstacle between the AMA and a

formation.

41. An FMA is established for a specific force and its size and
composition will be suited to meet its requirements. Units, sub units or
detachments required to man the FMA will be found from command
resources. The FMA will aim at providing all the facilities of a CMA but on a
reduced scale.

42. Stock to be held will be laid down by the Command Headquarters, but
control and administration is usually delegated to Area/Communications
Zone Sub Area.

43. Replenishment of FMA may be by rail or road and coordinated by the

controlling Headquarters. The FMA provides refilling points for the
dependent formations and may be given the capability of opening such
refilling points forward of FMA, if required.

Divisional Administrative Area

44. Divisional administrative area is established to reduce transport in the

forward areas and to locate administrative units together in an area from
where they can carryout their functions and where their defence can be
coordinated.

45. Composition of the administrative area will differ according to the type
of operations. Normally, there will be more troops and vehicles during
defence than in attack. In an infantry division, during defence, there may be
as many as 400-500 troops and between 900-1200 vehicles as some
F and A echelon transport not required in the defended areas would also be
located in the divisional administrative area. A divisional administrative area
would occupy approx 18 to 25 map squares, on a metre map.

46. In the divisional administrative area only second line and maintenance
scale laid down are held on wheels or on ground.

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Divisional Maintenance Area

47. The divisional maintenance area is invariably established in mountain

divisions. Under certain circumstances, it may also have to be established in
an infantry division on a temporary basis. In a mountain division, services
are organised to hold limited stocks on the ground in excess of the second
lines and maintenance scale laid down. In an infantry division, if a divisional
maintenance area is to be established, service units will have to hold
additional stocks in excess of second lines and laid down maintenance
scale. Since these units are not organised for this, the establishment of a
maintenance area in an infantry division will be an exception rather
than a rule.

48. When a brigade operates independently, it has elements of

administrative units grouped with it for its maintenance. It may then establish
a brigade administrative/maintenance area.

49. Details of divisional administrative and maintenance areas are

discussed in sections 7 and 8 respectively.

Maintenance by Air

50. Organisation Structure. Supply by air forms an important

supplementary channel of maintenance particularly for the units and
formations deployed in difficult terrain. The army components in the air
supply organisation are as under

(a) Air Maintenance Cell. Air Maintenance Cell is located with

the Command Headquarters and plans and controls the air
maintenance resources allotted to it. It plans and executes in
conjunction with the Air Force, the army responsibilities in the air
supply system. The organisation of air maintenance cell is as follows:-

(i) Officers.
AQMG (Lt Col) - 1
DAQMG (Maj) - 1
(ii) JCOs.
Head Clk (Nb Sub) - 1
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(iii) OR.

Hav Clk (GD) - 1

Nk Clk (GD) - 1
Sep Clk (GD) - 1
Office Orderly/Dvr(MT) - 1

(iv) Car 250 Kg 4X4 - 1

(b) Air Maintenance Battalion. It is a compact ASC unit with

integral elements of supply, air despatch and transport platoons for
the execution of air maintenance tasks as ordered by the air
maintenance cell. There are two types of ASC Bn (Air Maint) their
major difference being in the authorisation of the transport platoons.
The various component of ASC Bn (Air Maint) are:-

(i) Bn HQ.
(ii) 'A' Coy (Air Despatch) comprising of three AD Platoons.
(iii) 'B' Coy (Composite) - Two MT Platoons and one supply
platoon (Type 'A' Bn). In case of Type 'B' Bn, 'C' Coy Comp
consisting of one MT and one Sup Pl is authorised.

(iv) One Pioneer Coy for type 'A' and one Pioneer Pl only in
case of type 'B' Bn allotted by Command Headquarters.

(v) Transport Workshop Section for type 'A' and URO for
type 'B'.

(vi) Ordnance Section consisting of following: -

(aa) JCO (Amn) (Tech) - 1

(ab) Hav (Amn) (Tech) - 1
(ac) Clerk store - 1
(ad) Store Keeper (Tech) - 1
(ae) Sep SHGD - 3

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(vii) Postal. Postal Directorate has to supplement the

existing static postal cover to meet the requirement of an ASC
Bn (Air Maint)

(viii) DSC Personnel. For guarding SDE and other stores

within the air field. Requirement is assessed by a board of
officers.

51. Functions of Air Maintenance Cell. The functions of air

maintenance are: -

(a) To implement the overall air supply plan in theatre as laid down
by the highest HQ.
(b) To Control ASC Bns (Air Maint) working under it.

(c) To receive, allot priorities and take action on demands for air
maintenance received from the various units through their
formation HQs.
(d) To apportion the accepted demands, after all possible
adjustments to ASC Bn (Air Maint) in accordance with the stocks
capacity and to provide all relevant information regarding air lift
forecast, broken down into commodities and to specify methods of
delivery such as air handling or supply dropping to the ASC Bn
(Air Maint).

(e) To ensure that adequate stocks of concerned items are held by

ASC Bn (Air Maint) when required and are immediately available at
army depots.

(f) To control supply dropping equipment (SDE).

(g) To ensure adequate signal communications in conjunction with
the concerned formation.

52. Function Of ASC Bn (Air Maint). The functions of air maintenance

battalions are as under: -

(a) To execute air maint commitments as allotted by air

maintenance cell.

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(b) To arrange bulk utilisation of available air craft in consultation

with local Air Force Transport Squadron/Wing.
(c) To hold pre-packed stores for supply drops, where so
designated.

(d) To position stores at the airfield and to load these in aircraft.

(e) To provide ejection crew, if necessary.
(f) To demand, hold and maintain SDE.
(g) To maintain records and prepare load manifests.
(h) To liaise with Q staff at higher HQ, local depots of all types
including FSD and the AF.

53. Employment of sub Units. The sub units are employed as

follows: -

(a) A Coy (Air Despatch). It can command three platoons, each

platoon having a capability per day for packing and dropping 20 tons,
or dropping 40 tons or loading up to 80 tons. It can also carry out the
following duties: -

(i) Pack stores in SDE prior to the dropping,

(ii) Pack cargo parachutes.
(iii) Demand, receive, maintain and hold reserve of SDE.
(iv) Move packed stores to aircraft loading aprons/bays in
conjunction with transport platoons of the Battalion.
(v) Load the aircraft in accordance with flight safety rules.

(vi) Provide ejection crew.

(vii) Provide personnel for air landed sorties.

(b) B & C Coys (Comp). MT Pls provides transport for

carriage of stores and items of ration required to be air dropped.

54. System of Demand. Maintenance by air includes emergency supply

as well as routine supply. The former mode may have to be adopted due to

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operational necessity or disruption of communications. It should specify a

particular air maint cell and also ASC Bn (Air Maint) for this task in a
particular theatre, as and when required from the start of an operation.

55. Messages demanding air maint (QQ Msgs) are sent by formation HQ
concerned to the specified Air Maint Cell with information to higher formation
HQ and ASC Bn (Air Maint). When time is inadequate the message may be
addressed directly to the ASC Bn (Air Maint) with information to higher
formation HQ. These will be acknowledged by ASC Bn (Air Maint) through
QK message. Format of QQ and QK message remain unchanged.

56. The system of pre-planned and routine air supply, allotted on

quarterly basis remains unchanged except that it will function through the air
maint cell and ASC Bn (Air Maint) as described above. No QQ/QK
messages are necessary in such cases, since the requirements are of a
standing nature.

57. Where supplies cannot be landed by aircraft, they are dropped at the
dropping zones organised by recipient units or formations.

58. Allotment of Air Effort. Air Headquarters, in consultation with Army

Headquarters, will allot transport aircraft resources to their operational
commands. At the Command level, the Army and Air Commands jointly lay
down the policy and priorities. Based on this the air supply plan is evolved
and executed by the Air Maintenance Cell in conjunction with the Air Force.

Maintenance of other Services

59. The Army is frequently required to provide administrative support to

the other two Services and to the personnel of Directorate General Border
Roads. In addition, on outbreak of hostilities, additional Para Military Force
like Assam Rifles, and Police Force like Border Security Force, Central
Reserve Police and State Police may be placed under the operational
control of the Army. In such cases, administrative support will also have to
be provided to such a force.

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Conclusion

60. The maintenance of force, involves the provision of all the

requirements of the force over communication system with the most
economical use of administrative resources. This is achieved by the utmost
utilisation of the transportation capacity and keeping the demands on
communications to the minimum. In the replenishment system, only those
links should be employed which are necessary. A detailed assessment will
be necessary to be evolved and efficient administrative layout required to
meet the operational needs of each theatre.

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Appendix A
(Refers to Para 1 of
Section 3)

GLOSSARY OF ADMINISTRATIVE TERMS

Administration

1. The management and execution of all military matters, primarily in the

fields of logistics and personnel management and also internal management
of units.

Administrative Area

2. An area in which administrative units and administrative echelons are

located and from where they carry out their functions. This may involve
off-loading of transport in the area, but does not hold dumped stocks in
excess of the formation's second line holding. An administrative area will
take its name from the formation which establishes it and controls it, such as
divisional administrative area.

Army Maintenance Area

3. An area usually located near the army rear boundary where stores
are delivered from the base to army control. Delivery may be by road,
railway, inland water transport, air or pipeline. Depots and dumps are
established in the AMA under control of army administrative staff for
maintenance of fighting formations and local units and to hold reserves
against any urgent demands. Stores may be drawn from AMA by transport
allocated to Corps by Army HQ or by second line transport directly.

Communication Zone

4. The rear part of the theatre of operations (The communication zone is

contiguous of the combat) which contains the lines of communications,
establishments for supply and evacuation, and other agencies, required for
the immediate support and maintenance of field force. The communication

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zone is contiguous to the combat zone and the extent of communication

zone shall continue to change with the progress of operations.

First Key Plan

5. A plan for the layout of a projected advance base or maintenance

area or administrative area made from maps and such information of terrain
as may be available when access to the area is not possible.

Logistics

6. The science of planning and carrying out the movement and

maintenance of forces. In its most comprehensive sense, it includes those
aspects of military operations which deal with: -

(a) Design and development, acquisition, storage, movement,

distribution, evacuation and disposition of material.

(b) Movement, evacuation and hospitalisation of personnel.

(c) Acquisition or construction, maintenance, operation and

disposition of facilities.

(d) Acquisition or furnishing of services.

Maintenance

7. All action taken to retain material in serviceable condition, or to

restore it to serviceability. It includes inspection, testing, servicing,
modifications, overhauling and classification as to serviceability, repair,
rebuilding and reclamation.

8. All supply and repair action, taken to keep a force in condition to carry
out its mission.

Maintenance Communication

9. All routes, land, water and air which connect an operational military
force with its base, and along which materials and reinforcements move.

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Maintenance Area

10. An area where administrative reserves are held and depots or

installations are located for the maintenance of a force. Maintenance area
will be called by the name of the formation controlling them, such as
divisional maintenance area. Where however a maintenance area is
controlled by an area or sub area headquarters, it will be termed as Forward
Maintenance Areas.

Maintenance Project

11. A plan for the maintenance of a force including the development of

the necessary facilities.

War Wastage Rates

12. These rates lay down the wastages for all items of equipment,
vehicles and stores. They form the basis for provisioning for the army and for
stocking the Army and Corps Maintenance Area. They cover the following
conditions:-

(a) Peace.
(b) Quiet.
(c) Contact.

13. Some examples of the manner, of expressing the war wastage rates
each of which would be applicable to one of the above conditions, are as
under: -

(a) Ammunition wastage rates per weapon per day.

(b) Clothing and equipment percentage wastage rate per month.
(c) Mines and explosives number of quantity per unit/per
formation.

14. The wastage rates, particularly of contact, will vary widely in different
types of terrain. These rates are determined from past experience and need
to be revised constantly and brought up-to-date.

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Advance Base

15. An advance base is established in a theatre of war when it is

impracticable to maintain the armed forces operating in the theatre directly
from the base because of lack of time for development of natural resources
or deficiency of artificial facilities. An adv base will provide the same facilities
as available in a base, though on a reduced scale.

Beach Maintenance Area

16. An area in the vicinity of the beaches comprising service units and
detachments for the maintenance, in the initial stages, of troops landed in an
overseas amphibious operation.

Communications Zone Maintenance Area

17. Maintenance area designed to maintain troops in the Communications

Zone when distance precludes their maintenance direct from base depots or
army maintenance area.

Daily Maintenance

18. The replenishment of those items of stores and supplies which are
normally required daily, such as ammunition, FOL, rations and urgently
required medical and ordnance stores as also reinforcements.

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(Refers to Para 13)

CHAIN OF REPLENISHMENT

Porter Pack Animal Pack

1 TON
RD H
TP

1 TON One Way 1 Ton TFC

RD H
One Way all other TRF
MAIN

Two Way 1 Ton TFC

TP One Way all other TFC

REAR

One Way 3 Ton TFC

One Way 3 Ton TFC
RD Enters Mins
RD Enters Mins
Two Way 3 Ton TFC

RP

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SECTION 4

MAINTENANCE ORGANISATION FROM BASE TO

ARMY MAINTENANCE AREA

Introduction

1. A country can wage war, for any length of time, only if it has the
potential to function as a base to sustain its armed forces in battle.

System of Maintenance

2. General. A maintenance system in war hinges on moving the

men and materials of war from the base, over a communications zone, to a
series of maintenance areas of the field force. If the communications zone is
extended then an advance base might be formed at a suitable place to
ensure that a regular flow of the requirements of the field force is maintained
and not affected by any interruptions in the communications. The exact
organisation depends on the distance of the field force from the base. In
case of close proximity, it might for example, not be necessary to have an
advance base and even an army maintenance area.

3. The above is the basic or conventional system of maintenance

evolved during World War II. During World War II the allied forces were
fighting in different theatres across the seas. Such a contingency is not
visualised in our case. In our country several Army Headquarters
Depots/installations are located on our frontiers. Therefore, for a war on our
frontiers, the maintenance would normally be carried out direct from
Army/Command Headquarters depot installation to maintain the field force.
There would not be any necessity of a base or advance base or even Army
maintenance Area. The base would obviously be our own country as far as
we are concerned. Hence, in the chain of the maintenance system there
would also be fewer links from the base or Army Headquarters
depots/installations to the fighting troops. All the conventional components of
the maintenance system would invariably not be required.

4. We have therefore perforce adopted certain variations in the

conventional maintenance system as discussed in Section 3 to suit our own
peculiar needs and conditions. However, it is desirable to know and
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understand the basic concept, in the system of maintenance even though

the same may not be applicable entirely under our peculiar conditions.

5. Base. A base might be defined as- A country with its raw materials,
defence and civil industries, harbours, railways, power, transportation and
communications fully developed, coordinated and directed for the service of
armed forces but not to the exclusion of the essential civilian needs". The
requirement of a base are: -

(a) Development of Defence Industries.

(b) Re-orientation of civil industries for defence production.
(c) Development of ports, railways and road transportation system
and harnessing it for the use of armed forces.
(d) Expansion and harnessing of signal communications.
(e) Provision of troops accommodation.
(f) Provision of hospital facilities.
(g) Provision of facilities for training.
(h) Provision of depots, stores, accommodation and workshops.
(j) Provision of oil, its storage and pipelines.
(k) Airfields.
(l) A sound civil defence.
(m) Provision of food and canteen stores.

6. Advance Base. An advance base is a geographical expression

denoting the region or area containing administrative installations and
depots required to maintain a field force. It is formed only when it is
impractical to maintain the forces direct from the base due to factors like turn
round and likelihood of interruptions in the communication system.

7. Communication Zone. The communication zone is the rear part of

the theatre of operations. Through the communication zone will run the
various communication routes required for the maintenance of the field force.
A communication zone is sub-divided, for ease of command and control, into
a number of communications zone areas and sub-areas depending upon the

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size of the communications zone. This responsibility may, of course, devolve

on existing areas or sub-areas.

8. Maintenance Communications. Maintenance communications are

the communication routes on land, water or air required for the maintenance
of the field force.

9. Maintenance Areas. Forward of the communication zone are the

maintenance areas in which personnel and supply depots, workshops and
other installations are established on a temporary basis for the maintenance
of the forces in the field. Maintenance areas are called by the name of the
formations directly controlling them and are established for the following two
purposes: -

(a) To act as places where stores can be transferred from higher

formation to a lower. The daily requirements of the force pass from
the base or an advance base through the various maintenance areas
to the users.

(b) To hold reserves of major items on ground and be ready to

meet any urgent demands.

10. It is important to understand how maintenance areas fit into the

general system of maintenance. The stock in the maintenance area will form
part of Army Headquarters holding just as the stock in the base. The overall
holdings are partly decentralised under control of formation for two main
reasons as follows: -

(a) Maintenance communications may be interrupted, and the rate

of the delivery may not be maintained.

(b) Sometimes the rate of expenditure by formations may

temporarily exceed the rate of delivery.

11. The quantities of stores held in any maintenance area are affected at
all times by these considerations. There are of course, many other factors
which must be considered before deciding what level of stocks can be
maintained eg the scope of anticipated operations, the turn-round and the
facilities for handling stores.

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Replenishment

12. Chain of Replenishment. There are normally the following four links
which could possibly be activated between the base and fighting troops:-

(a) Base to Army Maintenance Area (through the communication

zone).

(b) Army Maintenance Area to Corps Maintenance Area/Forward

maintenance Area if established.
(c) Corps Maintenance Area/Forward Maintenance Area to
Administrative Area.
(d) Divisional Area/Brigade Maintenance Area/Brigade 'B'
Echelon/fighting troops.

13. Base.

(a) Control. The control of the base installations in India will

be exercised by Army Headquarters through existing regional
commands, and additional new commands, if created.

(b) For a war on the frontiers of India, if the operations are not on a
large scale or distance and maintenance communications allow it, it
will not normally be necessary to form an advance base and the
maintenance may be carried our direct from the base to maintenance
areas of the force. In this case the level of stocks to be held in the
maintenance areas will be laid down by Army Headquarters in
consultation with Headquarters field force, normally army or
command. The replenishment up to the maintenance areas of the
field force will then be the responsibility of Army Headquarters.

(c) When, however, the lack of adequate maintenance

communications or their vulnerability necessitates the formation of an
advance base, this can be controlled by the Army Headquarters or an
existing Command Headquarters.

14. Level of Stocks. In case of sub Para (c) above, the level of stocks in
the maintenance areas of the field force will be laid down by Army

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Headquarters in consultation with Headquarters field force or Command

Headquarters.

15. Replenishment. Command Headquarters will be responsible for

replenishment of stocks in the field force maintenance areas.

16. These are the following two basic considerations in planning

maintenance replenishment: -

(a) The various links of maintenance replenishment between the

base and field force maintenance area are established gradually and
only if absolutely necessary.

(b) The best system of replenishment is that which meets the

requirements of units with the minimum number of links. However,
these must be related to the need for operational commands to have
a degree of control over their administration.

17. Army Maintenance Area. This maintenance area is designed to

serve army and is the first link in the chain in the combat zone through the
communications zone, to forward troops. It consists of permanent or semi -
permanent depots holding stocks. Its function is to provide the following: -

(a) A reserve for maintenance of fighting formations in the event of

breakdown of maintenance communications or an important change
of administrative grouping, and to meet the requirements of any
special operations.

(b) A reserve to supplement daily maintenance during period of

intense operations.

(c) A reserve to meet any sudden commitment such as an

unexpected refugee or prisoners of war maintenance problems.

18. Local units in the neighbourhood of the army maintenance area draw
their daily maintenance requirement direct from the relevant depots or
dumps.

19. An army maintenance area is controlled by headquarters field army.

This control is usually exercised by the administrative staff and services at
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headquarters field army through maintenance area headquarters. The heads

of services at the headquarters field army are responsible for the operation
and technical supervision of their own depots.

20. A reasonable guide to the stocks that might be found in an army

maintenance area is given below: -

Ser Item Maximum Normal

No
(a) Ammunition The required number Approximately for
of days at the activity ten days at the
expected possible 5 activity expected.
to 10 days WWR.

(b) Fuel, oils and 250 to 300 Kms 450 to 500 Kms
lubricants

(c) Supplies 5 days 10 days

Transportation Agencies to Army Maintenance Area

21. Rails. This is the most economical and efficient form of

transportation and must be utilised to the maximum and as far forward as
possible. It is very vulnerable, to enemy action, especially air. The point at
which it delivers to the army maintenance area is known as the rail head
unless transport is used ahead of it to the corps maintenance area. It is
desirable to have separate railheads for major commodities, though it may
not always be feasible. Possible railhead should be for supplies, ammunition,
fuel oils and lubricants, engineer stores and tanks. The important
consideration of keeping transportation area clear of any depots and
avoiding congestion at various railheads must be borne in mind when
leaving them out. These railheads may be either, a number of railway
stations along one railway or several sidings in one large railway station.

22. Road. When rail is not available, road will be the major form of
transportation and even where rail is available, road will always be utilised to
supplement rail transportation. This road transport is called general

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transport. Road transport also takes over from rail when the latter does not
reach the army maintenance area. The point at which communications zone
transport transfers the commodities to the field formation is known as road
head. Again there should be separate road heads for major commodities
and these road heads will usually be located in the depots or dumps of the
respective commodities in the Army maintenance area.

23. Inland Water Transport. Where available, it is economical though it

is a slow form of transportation and is also very vulnerable to the air attack. It
is very useful in supplementing the two major transportation agencies rail
and road - but only in exceptional circumstances can army be maintained
solely by it. Here again, the point at which inland water transport delivers to
the field formation is known as inland water transport head, and wherever
necessary there should be separate inland water transport head for each
major commodity.

24. Air. It is most flexible of all the transportation agencies, but has a
limited carrying capacity and its use is easily by bad weather and an
unfavourable air situation. It is useful as a supplementary agency but can
seldom entirely replace the other agencies. It is very useful for urgent
deliveries. Air head will be the nearest airfield to the field force maintenance
area and stores will be collected by the formation transport from the airfield.

Development

25. The development of advance bases and communications zones will

take considerable time and effort. During the initial stages of a campaign, a
field force will be dependent on the peace time installations supporting it.
Some of these may be located in it territorial jurisdiction. As the operations
progress and their nature and scope crystallise, advance bases and
communications zone will develop possibly around existing facilities.

26. Movement agencies play an important part in the development of

advance bases and communications zone. Therefore, these will have to be
developed, the important ones being rail and road.

27. Signal Communications. The rapid clearance of train and turn round
of transport requires close coordination of staff with the services. Early
warning of all traffic movement is essential. All this requires good signal
communications, with alternative means where possible.
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Responsibilities to the Air Force

28. It is army's responsibility to maintain the Air Force in a theatre with

supplies, fuel, oils and lubricants, ammunition and other common user items.
The Air Force collects its requirements in its own transport from Army depots
if they are within 40 Kms of the Air Force installations. If the distance is
greater, then the army delivers at an agreed point within close distance of
the Air Force installations.

29. Experience has shown that the Army and Air Force requirements can
both be handled on the same system of maintenance communications. The
closest cooperation therefore, must be maintained between the respective
administrative staff in the interest of economy and efficiency.

30. Maintenance cover which is peculiar to the Air Force is their

responsibility. For this they have special supply and servicing units.

31. The air force units allotted to Tactical Air Centres for providing offensive
support to corps are also maintained as outlined in paragraphs 10 and 11.

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SECTION 5

MAINTENANCE ORGANISATION FORWARD OF

ARMY MAINTENANCE AREA

Introduction

1. The organisation necessary to bring commodities as far forward as

the army maintenance areas has been discussed in the previous section.
This section deals with the various organisations which may be necessary to
deliver these commodities to the forward troops.

Replenishment
2. The first link of replenishment base to AMA has already been dealt
with in Section 4. The remaining three links are as follows: -

(a) Army Maintenance Area to Corps Maintenance Area

(CMA).

(i) The transport used in this link is normally road transport.

This transport is allotted by Army Headquarters to a field army
and may be sub-allotted by army to corps. Both general
transport, which operates in the communications zone and
corps transport may be used to supplement this lift.

(ii) There may, however, be occasions when other

transportation agencies such as rail, inland water transport and
air will be available for use up to corps maintenance area.
Under these circumstances Army Headquarters may not have
to allot any mechanical transport for haulage between army
maintenance area to crops maintenance area.

(b) Corps Maintenance Area to Divisional or Corps Troops

Administrative Area. Normally this link is operated by corps troops
third line transport which collects requirement from the corps
maintenance area and carries them to the divisional or corps troops
administrative areas. Corps headquarters control the movement and
timings of drawal by these transport columns.

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(c) Divisional Administrative Area to Fighting Troops. This

link is normally operated by unit first line transport which draws
requirements from second line transport in the
Divisional Administrative Area or from commodity points opened
forward and deliver them to the fighting troops. The same system
applies to independent artillery brigades.

3. It must be understood that the above is not a rigid system. Need for
these various links will depend entirely on such factors as distances, state of
roads, state of vehicles, degree of enemy interference and so on. For
example if the army maintenance area is within easy reach of divisional
second line transport, then the corps maintenance area might be eliminated.
In fact, this may be the normal case at the outset of a campaign. On the
other hand if divisional transport is out of reach of the corps maintenance
area, then corps may have to interpose an additional link. An arrangement of
this nature might mean that corps would require additional transport from
outside resources. In other circumstances, it may be impossible to site corps
maintenance areas where they are not given adequate protection from an
enemy threat. In that case they might have to be dispensed with and
divisional maintenance area might be formed. The criterion is that stocks of
essential commodities must be within easy reach of the fighting formation.

4. The aim of the maintenance organisation is to have the minimum

number of transport links, bearing in mind, however, the supply of
commodities forward must not be interrupted and that the operational
commanders should have a degree of control over some administrative
resources. The following case may occur:-

(a) Second Line Transport Drawing From Army Maintenance

Area. The turn round from army maintenance area to forward troops
permits formation second line transport to draw and lift forward to
points from which units first line transport can collect on the same
day. This is the simplest case and is discussed in paragraph 5 below.

(b) Second Line Transport unable to draw from Army

Maintenance Area. The turn-round from army Maintenance area to
forward troops is so great that the formation second line transport can
not draw and deliver forward to the unit first line transport on the same

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day. The various alternatives resorted to in this case are dealt with in
paragraph 6 below.

5. Second Line Transport Drawing from Army Maintenance Area.

(a) Formation second line transport draws commodities in bulk

from army depots. These depots are also known as refilling points for
second line transport, eg the supply depot becomes supply refilling
point and ammunition depot, ammunition refilling point. The bulk loads
have to be split into packets before they can be collected by units
transport. The splitting of loads is usually done in the second line
transport harbour area, which is normally in the divisional
administrative area. The place of splitting bulk into unit load is known
as the bulk breaking points (BBP).

(b) If the divisional administrative area or divisional maintenance

area is within the turn-round of unit first line transport, unit first line
transport will collect its requirement from the bulk breaking point in the
divisional administrative area. If, however, the divisional
administrative area or divisional maintenance area is not within the
turn round of units first line transport then, having broken bulk,
divisional second line transport takes commodities forward to
commodity points where the transfer to unit first line transport is
effected.

6. Second Line Transport Unable to Draw from Army maintenance

Area. There are as stated above, frequent occasions, when the turn-round
between army maintenance area and the forward troops is so great that
divisional second line transport can not go back daily to army maintenance
area to refill. It is then necessary to adopt one of the following alternative: -

(a) Army moves forward its army maintenance area so as to be

near enough to the formation for daily drawing. This needs time and
planning for the move of the army maintenance area.

(b) Army gives corps extra transport to carry forward maintenance

requirements from the army maintenance area to refilling point
chosen by corps from where second line transport turn round is
practicable.
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(c) Corps may be asked to establish a corps maintenance area

which is within daily turn round of formation.

Corps Maintenance Area

7. In addition to the factor of turn-round, a corps maintenance area may

be established for the following reasons: -

(a) To have reserve with in easy reach of corps to meet sudden

fluctuations of maintenance requirements or demands caused by
switching over own formations or by enemy action.

(b) To provide for offensive operations by having stocks well

forward which will not be used until the operations start.

8. The forming of a corps maintenance area is the responsibility of corps

headquarters and the stocks held there are the corps reserves to meet the
unexpected demands due to changes in the tactical situation. It will normally
hold up to 5 days stocks of various commodities. These stocks may also be
drawn upon in an emergency by formation from army or from another corps.

9. The following considerations are important in carrying out move of

corps maintenance area: -

(a) Keep move to the minimum.

(b) Move in as large bounds as possible.

(c) To be done in consultation with next higher HQ.

(d) Before a major attack or contemplated break through, CMA

should be moved as far forward as possible.

(e) Move must be so timed that there is least interference with

replenishment programme of the day.

(f) Move should be anticipated fairly early in order to consume the

stocks at the present location.

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Divisional Maintenance Area

10 In a mountainous terrain, division would normally be deployed over

more extended frontages than in the plains. The existing road and their
condition as also the distance would often preclude normal maintenance
being carried out, in terms of time, from the corps maintenance area. Due to
this lag and to guard against interruption in normal maintenance, it may be
necessary to locate some reserves forward. A divisional maintenance area
will, therefore, be a more common feature in this type of terrain.

11. At times even brigades may well operate so widely separated that it
may not be possible to carry out daily maintenance from divisional
maintenance area. They may, therefore, have to hold some reserves
converting their 'B' echelon areas into maintenance area.

Administrative Areas

12. General. An administrative area is primarily a place where the

administrative units of formation are located and carry out their functions. It
should be clear of transit, assembly and concentration areas for fighting
troops. It takes its name from the formation which controls it.

13. Difference between Administrative Area and Maintenance Area.

The administrative area differs from a maintenance area in that the reserves
of stores are not normally held on the ground in an administrative area.

14. Composition. The administration area at army and corps contain the
administrative units required to maintain army and corps troops. The
maintenance areas at army and at corps hold reserve of stores and handle
items coming forward in bulk for use by the whole army or whole corps
respectively. One might say that the Army or corps administrative areas has
the retail store for Army or corps troops while the army or corps
maintenance area has the 'wholesale' stove for the entire army or corps.

15. Administrative Group. The administrative units located in an

administrative area are normally referred to as administrative group. They
normally have a commander, who is responsible for their local
administration, ie, defence, movement, siting and so on.

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16. Army Administrative Area. The Army administrative area has a

headquarters known as Army Troops Headquarters which is responsible for
the local administration of the administrative units. The technical control is
still maintained by the appropriate service head at army headquarters.

17. The administrative units are, if possible, located in one geographical

area. This may often not be possible, and consequently the army
administrative area may not actually exist as an easily distinguishable area
on a map. This invariably complicates the problem of local administration.

18. All the army troops, therefore, are not dependent on the army
administrative area for their maintenance. They will be dependent on the
nearest maintenance areas which may be controlled by the communications
zone or by a corps.

19. Corps Administrative Area. The corps administrative area is similar

to the army administrative area. There is however, no headquarters to
coordinate the local administration; this is done by the staff at corps
headquarters.

20. Divisional Administrative Area. This is an area where the

administrative units of a division are located and function. As these units are
integral to the formation, such an area is essential for his maintenance of the
formation.

Conclusion

21. The system described in this and the previous section explains the
maintenance organisation in the field in broad outline only.

22. It must be clearly understood that the system described in these

section is in no way rigid. The necessity for various maintenance areas and
transport link depends upon the distance, state of maintenance,
communication, state and availability of transport, degree of enemy
interference and many other factors. The most important point to beat in
mind is the need for flexibility in all administrative arrangements. Any
tendency to a rigid or routine system must be avoided. Administrative staff
must be ready always to change, adopt or modify arrangements.

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SECTION 6

COMMUNICATION ZONE

General

1. The maintenance communications supporting the field formations

deployed along out borders, originate in the heart of our country. The whole
communications system must ensure a smooth flow of men and materials to
the field force, and the administrative organisation must ensure the holding
of necessary reserves and maintenance resources to meet its need. The
Communications Zone is organised for this purpose. It includes the whole
geographical area behind the combat formations usually divisions and
brigades, and whole communications system rail, road and air within this
area. Inland water and sea transport may also be utilised in certain
circumstances. It is essential to understand the organisation and functions of
Communications Zone.

2. Conditions in the Communications Zone will vary widely from the

relatively peace time conditions in the country, to field or active service
conditions in more forward areas. Therefore, the procedure laid down for the
system of accounting and the terms and conditions of service in the field,
applicable to combat formations, will be applicable to the Communications
Zone, only in specified areas.

3. Communication Zones were created during Second World War. The

theatre of war was overseas with long communications lines between the
mainland India and the battle front. To ensure smooth flow of men and
material these were necessary then. The conditions have changed now and
thus the contents are of academic interest only for information.

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATIONS ZONE

Administrative

4. Administration falls under two categories general and local. General

administration involves the control of all administrative resources and the
issue of the administrative policy on matters effecting their employment.
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Local administration, on the other hand, is the provision, of day-to-day

requirements of units and formations in accordance with the policy. In more
detail the general and local administration covers the following: -

(a) General Administration.

(i) Control of movement of men, material and animals.

(ii) Control of rail movement.

(iii) Control of general reserves of all kinds.

(iv) Policy on control and allocation of road transport.

(v) Policy on control and allocation of pioneers and labour.

(vi) Location, construction and control of administrative

installations.

(vii) Policy and allocations responsibility for liaison with the

civil Government and the public.

(viii) Policy regarding security, health and hygiene and

refugee control.

(ix) Control of pay services and accounting transactions of

all services.

(x) Policy on recruitment and supply of reinforcements.

(b) Local Administration.

(i) Discipline, as specified in orders.

(ii) Accommodation, water, light and power.

(iii) Provision of supplies, fuel, oil and lubricants.

(iv) Medical and sanitary arrangements.

(v) Fire protection.

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(vi) Traffic Control and road movement.

(vii) Transit facilities to troops passing through.

(viii) Allocation of local pool of transport and labour.

(ix) Local protection.

(x) Relations with civil officials and the civil population.

(xi) Burials and cremations.

(xii) Dental.

(xiii) Education.

(xiv) Field Security.

(xv) Interior economy.

(xvi) Leave.

(xvii) Legal.

(xviii) Local repair and recovery.

(xix) Pay.

(xx) Salvage.

4. Army Headquarters are responsible for the general administration of

the Communications Zone. It may, however, delegate the control of certain
aspects of general administration to lower headquarters. Orders in this
regard should be specific and clear. Local administration remains the
responsibility of the appropriate lower headquarters in the Communications
Zone.

Movement

5. Movement forms by far the most important function of a

Communication Zone. This may necessitate, in the first case construction of
a road and its subsequent maintenance which will involve a commitment of
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men, materials and transport. The forward movement of the following will be
required: -

(a) Construction material for roads and installations.

(b) Daily maintenance requirements of the forward as well as

Communications Zone Troops.

(c) Stocks for building up reserves in forward areas.

(d) Men, animals, vehicles and equipment for replacing

casualties or as new induction.

6. Rail movement is carried out according to a centrally coordinated

programme in conjunction with the railways. The Communications Zone
ensures smooth transit facilities and makes alternate arrangements in case
of disruption of rail communication. Movement by road is controlled by the
local subordinate headquarters.

Local Protection

7. The main threat to the Communications Zone will be from enemy air
attack, a sabotage, subversion, action by paratroops guerrillas and enemy
agents, in more forward areas, in addition from raids. The aim of these
activities will be to create chaos in the rear areas and to interrupt movement.
The main targets will be communication centres and defiles, as well as
administrative installations.

8. The Communications Zone should take the following steps to reduce

its vulnerability to enemy air raids: -

(a) Disperse the installations and locate them away from attractive
targets such as communication centres. Requirements of such
facilities as transport, labour, accommodation, or power will often
conflict with their siting.

(b) Ensure effective concealment and camouflage measures.

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(c) Ensure efficient movement and harbouring drills particularly

at night.

(d) Provide air defence cover, if available, to vulnerable points.

(e) Issue clear instructions on the use of light automatic weapons

against enemy aircraft, and ensure proper training and briefing of gun
crews.

(f) Ensure efficient fire fighting and other control arrangements to

reduce the effect of air raids.

9. The enemy ground threat is an equally live problem, and adequate

measures to counter it would be necessary. These would include the
following: -

(a) Adequate training of administrative personnel in minor tactics

and use of their, personal weapons.

(b) Preparation of a local defence scheme.

(c) Suitable, location and grouping of units and installations, and

the coordination of their defence schemes.

(d) Provision of a central mobile reserve to assist units or to

operate outside installations.

(e) Adequate security measures, including screening of civil

labour, in conjunction with the civil authority and the police.

(f) Provision of escorts to maintain convoys where necessary.

Liaison with Civil

10. Any unrest amongst the civil population will adversely affect the
functioning of installations and communications in the Communications
Zone. Local commanders must maintain close liaison with civil authority and
give them reasonable assistance to ensure peaceful conditions. In this
connection, civil defence measure plays an important part and the Army
should be closely associated with them.

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11. The Army will need considerable help from the civil sector for the
procurement of civil labour, requisition of transport or property and local
purchase. Care must be taken to ensure that sufficient resources are left
over for civil use and all payments are made promptly. It may be necessary
to promulgate regulations to govern the powers of military commanders to
requisition civil property and transport.

RESPONSIBILITIES

Army Headquarters

12. The responsibility for the overall general administration of the

Communications Zone rests with Army Headquarters. This will include: -

(a) Policy and control of stocks, at the Army Headquarters depots

and installations.

(b) Decentralisation of reserves to commands and earmarking

Army Headquarters reserves in forward areas.

(c) Approval of the location of maintenance areas dependent and

replenishment of such maintenance areas.

(d) Formulation and execution of an overall integrated rail move

plan, in conjunction with the railways.

(e) Issue of necessary instruction for the execution of Government

policy on the utilisation of civil resources.

(f) Coordination with Air Headquarters on allotment of air transport

effort to Commands.

Command Headquarters

13. The Command Headquarters exercises command and control over all
administrative units, depots installations and army communications system
in its territorial jurisdiction. It undertakes general administration within the
framework provided by Army Headquarters. In the case of Army
Headquarters depot installations, however, it is responsible for local
administration only, and provides all the facilities required for their efficient
functioning.
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14. As regards the holding of reserves, it: -

(a) Decides, in consultation with Army Headquarters, upon the

location of the AMA and the stocks to be held in the AMA.

(b) Decides the stock to be decentralised to lower formations.

(c) Approves the location of CMA, FMA and divisional

maintenance area and arrange their stacking and replenishment.

15. As regards rail moves, the Command Headquarters ensures that rail
moves are initiated and carried out smoothly in accordance with the
instructions of Army Headquarters.

16. The utilisation of air transport is centralised at Command

Headquarters. It allots priorities and broadly allocates air effort to tasks,
while the detailed execution is affected through Army Air Transport
organisations.

17. Command Headquarters will bear the major share of responsibility for
liaison and coordination with the State Government and lay down its policy
and procedures as required.

Area and Sub Area Headquarters

18. Depending upon the extent of territory and communications under its
jurisdiction, a command is divided into areas for ease of command/control.
An area will usually be subdivided into Sub-Areas. Areas/Sub Areas which
are likely to provide immediate administrative backing of field formations
during hostilities may be designated communications Zone Areas/Sub
Areas.

19. When the maintenance communications lie within the operational

jurisdiction of a Corps, the sub areas may be placed under the Corps which
then takes over the duties of area headquarters also.

20. Area headquarters may be required to establish and operate an FMA

over which it then exercises complete control.

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21. Area and sub area headquarters, particularly the latter, take the
major load of local administration of all units in the Communications Zone
and of the implementation of protective measures. In the case of rail move,
they will be required to provide rail head facilities. Area headquarters will
usually be required to control road moves.

Conclusion

22. The main function of a Communications Zone is to ensure the smooth

movement of men and materials between depots or maintenance areas and
formations in the field in accordance with the Communications Zone is
designed to enable this to be done as efficiently and expeditiously as
possible. For this careful planning and coordination are essential.

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SECTION 7

DIVISIONAL ADMINISTRATIVE AREA

General

1. The divisional administrative area is an area where the administrative

units and administrative echelons of the division are located and from where
they carry out their functions. The divisional administrative area is formed for
the following reasons: -

2. The divisional administration area is formed for the following reasons:-

(a) To locate the administrative units of the division.

(b) To reduce the amount of transport in the forward areas, such
as B Echelon and at times even a part of F and A Echelon.

(c) To facilitate signal communication between divisional

headquarters and administrative units.
(d) To coordinate the defence of administrative units.
(e) To provide reception area for reinforcements and
replacements.

Composition

3. The administrative group may consist of following units less those

elements whose function requires them to be with the brigades and
divisional troops: -

(a) Rear division headquarters (if not located forward).

(b) B echelons of fighting unit when not in brigade areas.
(c) Forward delivery squadron when allotted.
(d) Air defence artillery integral to the organisation of the armoured
division and if allotted, in the of the other types of divisions.
(e) Field Park Company of Divisional Engineer Regiment.

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(f) ASC units, ASC Battalion, tank transport company or

independent tank transport platoon.

(g) AMC unit, field hospital, Medical battalion.

(h) AOC units, Divisional ordnance unit and cinema section.

(j) EME unit, Composite Workshop Company and infantry brigade

workshop companies if not located forward.
(k) Divisional postal unit.

Location

4. Normally in attack, the administrative area should be well up

immediately behind fighting troops (eg 10 to 13 kms). In defence or in
withdrawal it may be well back (eg. 24 to 30 kms or more). The limiting
factors are the tactical situation, topographical features such as available
routes, brigades and defiles, radio communication and control. If possible it
should be outside enemy medium artillery range.

Selection of the Area

5. In all cases the Q staffs are responsible for the selection of the
administrative area. The administrative units must be sited where they can
best carry out their tasks. Other factors which must be taken into
consideration when selecting all administrative area as follows: -

(a) Access of the main divisional maintenance route.

(b) Adequate number of roads and tracks to allow for good traffic
circuits and dispersion.

(c) Adequate spaces to allow unit to work and rest.

(d) Suitable cover to provide concealment from air.

(e) Availability of hard standings.

(f) Defence potential of the area.

(g) Suitability for efficient signal communications.

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(h) Cleanliness and hygiene.

(j) Proximity of landing strips.

(k) Communications on to the refilling pts/CMA.

(l) Availability of water.

(m) Within one days turn round.

6. The limiting factors in siting the administrative area the tactical

situation, topographical features such as available routes, bridges and
defiles, radio communications and control. Preferable, it should be outside
the range of enemy medium guns.

Layout of Divisional Administrative area

7. An administrative area may be laid out as follows:-

(a) In bridge and divisional troops group based on the ASC

transport company serving the group with the ASC company
commander as officer commanding of the area sub-allotted to it.

(b) On a service basis to facilitate control by head of services.

(c) A compromise between (a) and (b). Some services grouped

together on a service basis and others on divisional troops and
brigade basis.

Siting of Units

8. The general layout of a divisional administrative area, particularly in

open country will normally follow a set pattern which will be laid down in the
divisional standing orders. The standard layout will naturally need minor
modifications to suit varying conditions. The following points must be
considered when allocating areas to various administrative units: -

(a) Units, such as ASC which have daily maintenance traffic to

corps should be sited to the rear.

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(b) Brigade B echelons, which have to visit forward troops

regularly, should be sited forward.

(c) Units, best capable or defending themselves, should be

allotted sites along the outer perimeter.

(d) Units, e.g AMC, who have a lesser number of fighting

personnel should be sited in the middle or to the rear.

(e) All units must have sufficient suitable standing and dispersal
areas for their vehicles and equipment.

(f) Unit should be allotted adequate room in accordance with the

strength of their personnel, vehicles and equipment and their
functional commitments.

(g) Workshop must have level sites and hard standings if possible,
to facilitate the repair of vehicles.

(h) Medical units must in a shady, quiet and comparatively safer

place. it should also be ensured that casualties are not visible from
the routes along which the troops carry out movement.

(j) Available covered accommodation should be allotted to

functioning medical units, workshops and headquarters in that order
of priority.

(k) Units utilising second line transport should be sited near ASC
harbour.

(l) Animal holding units should be sited near water.

(m) Traffic circuits must be so arranged that units can get in and
out of their allotted areas with minimum movement.

(n) Rear divisional headquarters and officer commanding

divisional administrative area should be centrally located.

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Drill for the Occupation of the Administrative Area

9. (a) Open Country.

(i) The 'Q' staff will select the area from a map and air
photos after consultation with the General Staff. They will then
make a first key plan of the layout. Service representatives will
be given a copy of first key plan as early as possible before the
move. A 'Q' staff officer, normally the AQMG, or officer
commanding administrative area or both will meet service
representatives at a rendezvous near the new site. From the
key plan the allotted area will be pointed out, and the service
representatives will then reconnoitre their respective areas.
Service, representatives may be accompanied by harbour
parties, if considered necessary.

(ii) During the move of service representatives to their

allotted area, the AQMG or officer commanding divisional
administrative area, or both, should establish a temporary
report centre. The centre will deal with any minor difficulties
that may arise. The report centre should be small, consisting of
the AQMG or officer commanding divisional administrative area
and two or three orderlies.

(iii) Before the occupation is completed, a coordinating

conference should be held on the spot to ensure that
arrangements are satisfactory, or to make any adjustment that
still be required.

(b) Jungle or Cross Country Terrain and Mountainous.

(i) It will be unlikely that the 'Q' staff can complete all
detailed allotments of areas from the map and air photos. Once
the key plan has been made, a reconnaissance by the staff will
be necessary. The composition of reconnaissance party will
vary according to circumstances, but it should be kept to the
minimum and including the following: -

(aa) A 'Q' staff Officer (normally AQMG) or officer

commanding divisional administrative area or both.
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(ab) A medical representative.

(ac) An officer from the divisional signal regiment with

a signal vehicle to provide signal communications.

(ad) Rep divisional engineer regiment.

(ae) Despatch riders.

(af) Service harbour parties (if necessary) who will

wait at a rendezvous for instructions from the small staff
reconnaissance party.

(ii) After the staff reconnaissance, verbal instructions will be

given to service harbour parties, who will then proceed to lay
out their own areas and await the arrival of the units. Quite
often the time lag between reconnaissance and the actual
move of the administrative group may be between two to four
days, as a considerable amount of preparation of the area such
as improvement and development of roads and tracks,
development of vehicle unloading and training areas and
development of dump sites, has to be completed.

10. Service Harbour Parties. The harbour parties must be equipped

to improve the entrance and tracks so that the main body can get off the
road quickly. There must be no congestion at the entrance to the area. A
service harbour party may consist of the following: -

(a) One officer or Junior Commissioned Officer.

(b) Four other ranks and-one or two other ranks per sub-unit.
(c) 1 x 1 ton or 1 x 3 ton vehicle per company or equivalent
containing sign posts, pick axe, shovels and night signs.

Command and Control

11. Command of Divisional Administrative Area. There should be a

commander and staff responsible for defence, organisation and movement
of the divisional administrative area. At present, no commander and staff is

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authorised so an ad-hoc headquarters from divisional resources is therefore

formed. The AAG/AQMG/OC Div Ordnance Unit is the most suitable choice
to carry out the function of the commander of the divisional administrative
area. Necessary staff, will have to be found from the divisional resources,
divisional headquarters may detail a staff officer, eg GSO 2 (Education) with
some clerks for this purpose.

12. Duties of Commander Divisional Administrative Area. These

include the following: -

(a) Reconnaissance for selection of the administrative area in

conjunction with or as ordered by the staff.
(b) Sub-allotment of area as directed by the staff.
(c) Coordination of the defence of the administrative area as a
whole.
(d) Organisation of the move of the administrative group when
ordered by the staff.

13. Location of Rear Divisional Headquarters. From the functional

point of view, the rear headquarters of a division is best located within the
administrative area. For ease of radio communication forward it would be
normally sited towards the front of the administrative area. However, when
the main divisional headquarters, or the forward brigade headquarters tend
to go out of range, and it is not advisable to move the administrative area as
often as these headquarters. The rear divisional headquarters may have to
deploy forward so as to be within radio range. In such a case additional radio
communications from the rear headquarters to the administrative area will
have to be arranged. Also representatives of the service heads, possibly
their seconds-in-command, with a nucleus staff will have to be located with
the rear headquarters of the division for assisting the staff in the day-to-day
planning.

14. Signal Communications. The staff is responsible for ensuring that

adequate signal communications are provided. Signal communications, are
normally required between the formation headquarters and its administrative
group. The normal signal communications apart from line and despatch
riders between main and divisional headquarters are as follows: -

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(a) Radio relay.

(b) RT (Q) net (D4) with divisional administrative area as out
station. Control on this net can be exercised from main or rear
divisional head-quarters, depending on-the location of the AQMG/
Col Adm.
(c) Command CW (G) net (D2). The command is exercised form
main divisional headquarters and in addition to brigades the rear
divisional headquarters is an out station of this net.

15. Within the administrative area, line communications should be utilised

to the maximum, even though it may not be possible to provide a separate
line to each administrative unit. In addition, each unit will usually attach one
despatch rider or runner to the headquarters administrative area for internal
communication.

16. There is no specific exclusive allocation of radio resources for

communications from the rear headquarters to administrative units or
installations. There is, however, a pool of radio detachments catered for in
the rear divisional headquarters as a reserve for use by the services.

17. Allotment of Accommodation. Cover accommodation should be

allotted to functioning medical units, workshops and group headquarters in
that order of priority.

18. Traffic Control. It is usual for one section of a provost unit to be allotted
for traffic control within the administrative area.

Local Protection

19. Whole administrative units are responsible for their own protection
and armed with personnel weapons and light machine guns. The defence of
the administrative area poses the following problems:-

(a) The administrative units have a full time job in which they are
fully engaged. It is, therefore, difficult to find personnel for any
thing more than essential domestic protective duties.

(b) The units are forced to occupy larger area for dispersion and
concealment with their limited manpower.
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(c) In operations the main administrative functions and

replenishment is done by night, precisely when the requirement of
protection are maximum.

(d) Administrative units have little or no internal signal

communications; this seriously limits the effectiveness of the alarm
and system passage of accurate information.

20. All administrative units therefore, are capable of meeting only minor
threat from jitter parties, saboteurs or infiltrators, without seriously affecting
their primary function. If any threat larger than this envisaged special
arrangements for the protection of the administrative area would be
necessary.

21. When selecting an area, it is often necessary to comprise between

what is administratively desirable and what is practicable from the defence
aspect. Once an area has been occupied and administrative area divided
into two sectors, each based on a major unit. Each organises its local
protection around the perimeter, deploys perimeter patrols organises alarm
system and keeps a central reserve for any emergency. Arcs of fire of light
machine guns, deployed on the perimeter are coordinated by the sector
commander. The coordination of fire and patrolling between various sectors
is arranged by the officer commanding the administrative area. Officer
commanding the administrative area also earmarks a central mobile reserve
and locates it suitably. This reserve is normally found from the non-working
administrative elements or of other units in the area. The officer commanding
the administrative area and the rear headquarters of the division also
coordinates measures for the passage of quick information and warning of
enemy threat. When the threat expected is beyond the capabilities of
administrative area to counter, a suitable force is detailed, briefed and
controlled by either the rear divisional headquarters or the officer
commanding the administrative area.

22. Protection against enemy air attack is mainly obtained by passive air
defence measures. Camouflage and concealment are, therefore, the prime
consideration in the layout of an administrative area. In addition each unit
should detail air sentries to give warning of air attack. The sector
commander should lay down areas of observation for the sentries to cover
all approaches. One light machine gun per company or equivalent unit is
normally deployed in the anti aircraft role. Clear orders are necessary to
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ensure that those do not open fire prematurely and give away the location of
the units. They should open fire only when their areas are definitely attacked
and the enemy aircraft is in range. In an armoured division, due the
presence of a large number of vehicles carrying ammunition and petroleum
oils and lubricants in the administrative area, one battery of the air defence
regiment is usually deployed in the ASC area.

23. When the administrative units are on the move, they automatically
become responsible for their own protection against any ground or air threat.
Action to be taken in such contingencies must be laid down in the standing
orders of the unit.

Movement

24. Moves of the administrative units are ordered by divisional

headquarters in consultation with corps headquarters. Divisional
Headquarters gives the general location, Routes and block timing and the
officer commanding of the divisional administrative area issues the detailed
orders.

25. Reconnaissance in daylight is essential and is undertaken by the

divisional administrative staff or officer commanding the administrative area
under instructions from Col Adm/AQMG, who may detail a staff officer to
assist.

26. A divisional administrative group should not be moved more than

once in 72 hours and should not be put at less than 4 hours notice. It is well
to remember that the complete administrative group can seldom move as
whole. Due to lack of transport, it may not be possible to move the entire
administrative area in one night, the move will often be carried over two
nights. The service units, which are functioning, require time to close down.
It is possible that the movement will be in blocks as under: -

(a) B echelons, supply points, ammunition points, ambulance

company, a workshop company and provost and recovery
detachments move under command of a fighting formation or
separately to the new location.
(b) Remaining services units after closing down.
27. Whenever feasible, the movement should be on two routes.
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SECTION 8

DIVISIONAL MAINTENANCE AREA

General

1. A maintenance area differs from administrative area in that it hold

stock on the ground in excess of the formations second line holdings. The
necessity to hold such stock will rarely occur in the plains and as such the
infantry division does not incorporate such store holding units in its
establishment. When stocks need to be held by an infantry division, space
for the stocks has to be catered for, within the usual layout of the divisional
administrative area which itself is converted into a maintenance area. In
mountainous terrain, however, the establishment of a maintenance area
would be normal.

Conditions for Establishing a Divisional Maintenance Area

2. In the plains, the conditions that may necessitate the establishment of

a divisional maintenance area are: -

(a) The necessity to hold reserves within easy reach of the

commander to enable him to exploit fleeting opportunities in
favourable tactical situation.
(b) The need to keep some reserves near the troops forward of an
obstacle eg a river or an insecure road communication, to guard
against interruption of normal maintenance.

3. In such circumstances, unless the maintenance area is of a

permanent or semi-permanent nature, the divisional administrative units
themselves hold the commodities for which they are responsible.

4. In mountainous terrain, a division would normally be deployed over

more extended frontages than in the plains. Due to interruptions of
communications it is usually necessary to locate some reserves forward for
normal maintenance. A divisional maintenance area will therefore be
common feature in this type of terrain.

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5. At times, even a brigade may operate widely separated and it may not
be possible to carry out daily maintenance from the divisional maintenance
area. It would then have to hold some reserves converting its B echelon area
into a maintenance area.

Deployment In Mountainous Terrain

6. In the mountains it is extremely difficult to find suitable and adequate

deployment area for the administrative echelons and units. This will mean
that a division has to severely cut down its transport, administrative loads
and personnel and operate on only what is essentially required. The
elements not required forward usually are heavier vehicles that are located
in a suitable area well behind the division.

7. The need to take the administrative units forward must be assessed in

each case and units such as field companies workshop, transport companies
or part of the divisional ordnance units less ammunition section and
elements holding operational stores may have to be left behind.

8. The administrative units will have to take the best use of the little
deployment areas they find in the mountains. They will thus be stretched
along the road communication and it will not be possible to lay out
maintenance areas as one entity.

Composition

9. The composition of a divisional maintenance area will be the same as

that of a divisional administrative area. On occasions due to lack of space,
some non-essential administrative units may be located further back forming
a divisional rear echelon.

10. To give a guide of its holdings, a divisional maintenance area in a

mountain division may hold following stocks on the ground: -

(a) 15 days supplies for men and animal.

(b) Petroleum, oils and Lubricants for 50 kilometres for every

vehicle.
(c) Divisional second line scale of ammunition, plus two second
line scales.
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(d) Medical engineers and ordnance stores for 15 days.

(e) Up to four defence bricks.

Layout

11. There is generally a broad distinction of administrative units into store

holding units and non-store holding units. The functional administrative units
such as the field workshop company and medical units are located towards
the front of a maintenance area while the store holding units such as the
supply platoon and ordnance units are located to the rear.

12. Every unit normally has to be squeezed into the available deployment
space. This results in unit areas not necessarily contiguous to each other. A
unit, like the divisional ordnance unit which holds stocks of different items,
may have to be spread out into the available deployment areas.

13. This type of layout combined with suitable conditions for infiltration
and sabotage poses a major defence problem. While an administrative unit
must remain responsible for its own local protection, it is not capable of
sending out parties of any strength to evict infiltration and saboteurs from the
maintenance area. The size of the infiltrating parties is also likely to be much
larger than that expected in the plains. It is, therefore, necessary to have
strong mobile reserve in the maintenance area. Troops may, therefore, have
to be earmarked for the protection of administrative units and suitably
located in the maintenance area.

Command and Control

14. Arrangements, for command and control of a divisional maintenance

area are similar to that of a divisional administrative area ie, Col A/OC DOU
usually performs the duties of the officer commanding the maintenance area.

15. The location of rear divisional headquarters continues to be dictated

by two factors - desirability to be near the maintenance area and radio
communication with forward troops and main divisional headquarters.

16. The possibility of interruption in line communication necessitates

efficient radio communications and radio relay. Efficient line communication
within the maintenance area is essential for its smooth functioning.
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SECTION 9

ADMINISTRATION IN UNDERDEVELOPED AREAS

Introduction

1. In the 'operations of war' series, considerations governing

administration, in different operations, have been given. The system already
explained is applicable to well developed terrain but the Army has to be
prepared, to operate anywhere and under varying conditions. In under
developed areas different administrative problems will present themselves
and the difficulties may be such that they exert a predominant influence on
operational planning. The general considerations, however, remain the same
although improvisation to the normal methods will be necessary. This
Section is divided into four parts as under: -

(a) Part 1 - Conditions applicable to all underdeveloped areas.

(b) Part 2 - Mountain Warfare.

(c) Part 3 - Jungle Warfare.

(d) Part 4 - Desert warfare.

PART I

CONDITIONS APPLICABLE TO ALL UNDERDEVELOPED AREAS

Acclimatization

2. The average fit man can stand extremes of climates but he must
undergo a period of adjustment in under developed areas before he can give
his best. The adjustment has three factors; physical, involving changes in
the natural processes of the body to meet the new environment, mental,
being the mental reorientation involved and psychological in which the day to
day pattern of living is altered to fit in with new conditions.

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The Enemy

3. The enemy may be highly skilled in the type of warfare peculiar to the
areas of operations whereas our troops may generally, in the first instance,
be without experience and unaccustomed to the climate. The belief must not
be allowed to spread that the enemy is superior in any way.

Communications

4. Secure communications, by rail, road and air, are the life line of
modern armies. In under developed areas, a force may have to rely on the
road/railway of doubtful quality to carry both 'G' and 'Q' requirements. These
restrictions will aggravate the problem of dispersion. The length of
communications from the main base area and the shortage and bad state of
communications within the theatre will mean that the whole machinery of
administration has to be adjusted. Success in operations depends upon
good administrative planning which inspite of the scanty means of
communications will give mobility and flexibility and thereby provide the
means of gaining and retaining the initiative.

Economy

5. The distance of the theatre from the main base and the poor
communications in underdeveloped areas make economy more essential
than before. The strict economy must be practiced by individual units and
formations and all ranks must be imbibed with a sense of responsibility to
eliminate wastage and losses. The following should be borne in mind: -

(a) Care of arms and equipment.

(b) Good driving and servicing of vehicles.

(c) Indenting for essentials only.

(d) Holding nothing above the authorised scales.

(e) Avoidance of unnecessary dumping.

(f) Realisation of importance of salvage.

(g) Strict priorities must be laid down for types of stores.

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Reserves

6. The difficulties of movement into and within theatre mean the

reserves must be built up within theatre and located suitably before any
major offensive can be carried out with success. Effect of climate conditions
on such reserves should also be borne in mind and remedial action taken.

Improvisation

7. The inevitable shortage must not be allowed to cause a feeling of

frustration which tends to lead to lack of initiative. On the contrary the
shortage should act as a challenge to initiative, to get the job done with the
tools available. It is important to make use of local resources and develop
them to the full extent.

Organisation

8. There is always a tendency to create special organisation to meet

special conditions. The quantity of types of transport may have to be altered
to offset the lack of good movement facilities, but the changes in the fighting
units must be kept to a minimum. On the other hand, scales and types of
transport in all units and formations require foresight both in planning and
provision to ensure full mobility in various areas of operations.

Weapons and Equipment

9. There will be certain items of equipment issued specially to meet the

abnormal conditions, but these must be kept to the minimum. Special
clothing may have to be issued not only for health and comfort but also to
tone in with the colour of the country side.

Repair and Recovery

10. Climatic conditions and terrain in under developed areas produce

unusual repair and recovery problems. The maintenance and servicing of
equipment should therefore, receive special attention.

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Medical

11. In under developed areas due to climatic conditions, casualties from

sickness are generally greater than those suffered in battles. The high rates
of such casualties can endanger success but is preventable by instilling in all
ranks the need for strict health discipline. Evacuation of casualties is
generally difficult, slow and uncomfortable. Air evacuation should be
considered and organised.

Training

12. In underdeveloped areas formations and units will usually be fighting

on a wide frontage. Therefore, administrative units may have to give
administrative support over large areas. They may also find themselves
engaged at any time in active fighting. All personnel must, therefore, be
skilled in the use of their weapons and be confident in their ability to fight.

Leadership and Discipline

13. The mental and physical strain of warfare in unpleasant conditions

demands a high standard of leadership and discipline. Good discipline can
only be achieved if the administration is treated with the sympathy and
thorough understanding of men's problem. Men must have full confidence in
their commanders.

Welfare and Morale

14. There is always a tendency for the troops fighting far from home, to
think that they are forgotten. To counter this feeling, it is necessary to
ensure, prompt delivery and despatch of mail in both directions. Owing to the
time lag in delivery of newspapers from home, it is of particular importance
that "Force News Sheet" should be published and distributed on a generous
scale. Radio receivers should be issued to the units to hear the news
bulletins and entertainments programmes.

15. Normal entertainment and spare time occupation may be difficult to

provide. Well run rest camps are essential. Mobile cinemas, canteens and
entertainment parties are invaluable.

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PART II

MOUNTAIN WARFARE

General

16. The space of this part is confined to operations in mountains free of

snow and ice. Fighting in jungle covered mountains is not considered here
as the methods do not vary from those in Part III of this Section.

Peculiarities of Mountainous Country

17. The features in mountainous country vary greatly, but there are
certain characteristic which are common to all and these are as follows: -
(a) There are high ridges and spurs running out from the main
features, deep valleys and gradients in between them and slopes
are very steep. All these features hinder movement whether on foot or
by vehicle. In the latter supply columns are very vulnerable to the air
attack, ambushes and snipers. Foot and animal tracks usually follow
the spurs and bridges because movement against the grain of the
country is difficult. Mountains are normally passable to men and pack
animals but both need training to give them agility.

(b) Vegetation varies according to the rainfall, the temperature and

height. As observation plays such a vital part in mountain warfare and
high features often command such an excellent view, the
concealment afforded by the vegetation is of great importance.

(c) Extreme variations of temperature and rainfall occur with the

seasons and between comparatively small differences in altitude.
Generally, weather is changeable. Sudden rain and storms may wash
away roads or cause landslides to block them, hamper movements
and change dry river beds, in a very short time, into dangerous
torrents. Clouds and thunderstorms may blot out observation and
restrict air supply.

(d) Some acclimatization in addition to physical fitness is generally

necessary for troops operating at altitudes in excess of 8,000 feet.

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(e) Air supply is of very great value, and owing to the difficulty of
finding sites suitable for forward air fields, helicopters are particularly
suitable for forward air supply and air evacuation of casualties.

18. It will be seen from the above that restrictions on movement are
common to both mountain and jungle warfare.

Mobility

19. The main task of the administrative staff and services is to overcome
the problems of movement and retain mobility. To do so the methods used
for the maintenance of the force must be very flexible. Air supply is the ideal
solution to the problem but sufficient resources may not be available in the
early stages of any campaign to enable a force to rely on more than a small
percentage of its total maintenance requirements being supplied by air.

Air Supply

20. The difficulties of land communication may well be such that air
supply, if available, is the best and most economical method of maintenance.
There are however certain problems regarding air supply, in mountainous
country, which must be considered. Low clouds may often blot out DZs, bad
weather restrict flying and it is usually difficult, if not impossible, to find sites
for suitable forward airfields. Air landing of supplies except by helicopters
may therefore, be ruled out and air supply may have to be confined to air
dropping which is uneconomical. Also a high percentage of stores dropped
may fall into nallahs or rivers from where recovery is difficult. All
arrangements and equipment necessary for air supply must be held in
readiness and unit must be familiar with the procedure for demanding and
receiving air drops, the selection of DZs and methods of ground/air
intercommunication.

21. The switching from maintenance by land to maintenance by air

requires a flexible administrative organisation, foresight and careful planning.

Mechanical Transport

22. The great danger from narrow, twisting and hilly roads and tracks is
that all movement may be slowed down, or halt altogether in the event of
vehicles breaking down, if vehicles in excess of the road capacity attempt to
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use them. Too generous a scale of transport is likely to reduce rather than
increase mobility. Vehicles must, therefore, be reduced to the bare
essentials and the surplus created must be kept well back outside the area
of operations to the base as a pool for relief or to increase the scale when
conditions permit. Fighting units must be prepared to operate for
considerable periods with no mechanical transport or at best with, very few
vehicles.

23. Skilful driving is necessary to negotiate the steep gradients, blind

corners and narrow roads with a drop of several hundred feet on the outside
edge, without accident. If non-skid chains are required to negotiate certain
section of the road, it is important to lay down the points at which chains are
to be put upon and taken off as they have unnecessary tyre wear. Drivers
should be given some practice on mountainous roads before being
committed to operational driving.

24. A defective vehicle on mountain roads may cause accident or

breakdown either of which may block the road. Road space is generally of
such importance that, if the vehicle cannot be restarted or moved quickly to
allow other traffic to pass, it should be pushed over the edge of the road
even if this means the total destruction of the vehicle and the loss of its load.
Good maintenance and careful driving will greatly reduce such waste.

25. Owing to the difficulty of finding suitable and secure sites for RPs the
daily run of maintenance vehicles may be longer than is usual in more open
country. In such circumstances it may well be necessary to centralise control
of all transport resources available to a division or brigade group, if not
operating independently, including first line transport not accompanying
units. This pool of transport is then operated by ST under the control of the
Q' staff.

Traffic Control

26. Many stretches of mountain roads can take only one way traffic and
their use is likely to be restricted further by enemy action and road
maintenance. One way traffic routes are always difficult to control and
priority vehicles which cannot be forecast eg casualty evacuation, may
prevent all other movement in the opposite direction for some time. Careful
planning and right traffic control is essential to ensure that the available road

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is used to maximum capacity. It is usual to lay down block timings for up and
down convoys.

Road Maintenance

27. One of the main problems of road maintenance is keeping the berm
intact and the drains open. For this reason drivers must understand that: -

(a) They must not damage the sides of the road.

(b) They must not park except at recognised places where
adequate preparations have been made.

28. In bad weather, engineer maintenance squads will be working

continuously to keep the routes open.

Animal Transport

29. Various kinds of animals are used for transport in Peace, in

mountainous countries. They provide the best means of transport in places
inaccessible to mechanical transport and full advantage should, therefore,
be taken. But before they can be used on any large scale, arrangements
must be made for the following: -

(a) Selection of suitable animals.

(b) Feeding of suitable animals.
(c) Medical care of the drivers and veterinary care of the animals.
(d) Provision of clothing, saddlery and harness equipment.
(e) Adequate time for training.
(f) Security aspect of operations.

30. These arrangements require considerable fore-thought and planning

but, since local animals can usually carry their loads almost anywhere, they
will pay a good dividend by reducing the number of porters which would
otherwise be needed.

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Porters

31. In mountain warfare it is more than ever essential to keep the load of
the fighting man down to a minimum, if the force is to maintain mobility, and
to this end the requirements of troops, engaged in battle should be carried
as close as possible to their positions. If transport cannot fulfill this task
because the positions are inaccessible to them or too exposed, porters will
have to be employed. Hill men are generally accustomed to carrying heavy
weights over the rugged country, their loads varying between 18 to 36 Kgs.
The danger with special non-military porters is that, if attacked from the air or
shot at from the ground they may panic and jettison their loads. On the other
hand if fighting troops are used instead, the effective fighting strength of any
unit/formation may be reduced from 1 to 1/3. For these reasons it is
un-desirable to misappropriate trained fighting man to act as porters. If no
alternative exists, then a fighting porter pack column should be organised on
a unit or brigade group basis from men left out of the battle because their
vehicles are grounded or their weapons are not being used. As a last resort
it may be necessary to detail complete unit or sub-units for the task.

Maintenance

32. From the above it will be seen that the means of transportation for the
maintenance requirements will vary greatly according to the availability of the
roads and the types of ground over which they must travel. The principle
however is to continue the normal system of maintenance for as long and as
far forward as possible. Appendix 'C' illustrates in diagrammatic form a
modified system of maintenance.

33. The following should be noted: -

(a) There will normally be only one road generally of inferior

quality, to serve all brigades in division. Normally second line vehicles
will carry their loads from the RP as far forward as possible along this
road to a 3 ton road head (3 ton Rd H). The side for the 3 ton rd H
must allow room for dispersed packing of transport and transferring
loads. It should be free from enemy observation and out of range of
his artillery and if the enemy air forces are active defence must be
arranged.

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(b) From the 3 ton rd H loads are carried forward in 1 ton vehicles
or jeeps with trailers, to jeep rd H which may be in unit area, but at
least some are likely to be some distance from the foremost units.
Therefore, loads must be transferred to the next movement
agency-pack transport or even porters.

(c) Generally pack transport will be able to reach unit areas but it
may be unsound to expose them as far forward as the foremost
sub-units and an animal rd H will be established where loads are
transferred to porters.

34. It must be remembered that at each of those areas there must be a

suitable organisation, including harbour, to control traffic and the unloading,
distribution and reloading of load.

Dumping

35. Dumping of stocks forward in divisional or brigade area as and when

the opportunity occurs might appear to offer an easy solution to the problems
of maintenance but dumping is always wastage. Dumping is only justified
under the following conditions: -

(a) The weather conditions are likely to deteriorate and restrict

maintenance.

(b) If it is known that for a given period road repairs or

improvements are going to limit maintenance traffic.

(c) If normal expenditure of any commodity is expected eg mortar

and artillery ammunition before an attack.

(d) In defence, provided no withdrawal is contemplated.

Supplies

36. The energy expended by men in mountain warfare and especially at

high altitudes and during the cold weather, is considerably more than on
lower ground. Rations therefore, must have sufficient calorific values to keep
men at peak physical fitness. Fresh rations are the best for this purpose and
should be issued whenever possible and for as long as possible. They are

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however more difficult to distribute to sub/units in exposed positions and

their weight and bulk may preclude their use if the capacity of the
maintenance route is very limited. Pack rations are easily distributed to
individuals or sections and are ready for consumption with little or no
preparation. Solid fuel cookers should be issued so that tea can be made
and other food heated.

Water

37. In some mountainous areas the supply of water may be a major

problem requiring its carriage to and storage in the forward positions. A
standard discipline similar to that required in desert warfare will have to be
inculcated in all ranks.

Medical

38. Mountainous areas are healthy for the very fit men but tend to reduce
those of lesser fitness to casualties. Every man must, therefore, be brought
up to the stage, of real physical fitness before committed to battle. This can
be done by:-

(a) Progressively harder training over mountainous country,

including instruction in load carrying and the use of mountain
clothing.

(b) Not being asked to carry too heavy loads.

(c) Good and proper clothing.

(d) Good hygiene discipline.

(e) Organised rest.

39. Normal preventive measures must be taken against any prevalent

diseases in the theatre. Common troubles in the mountains are as follows: -

(a) Frost Bite. This can be avoided by taking proper

precautions. First-aid treatment must be known by all ranks.

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(b) Sunburn. A small percentage of men do not acquire a

protective tan and they must use sunburn cream which gives
complete protection.

(c) Sprains. Casualties from sprained ankles and knees will

occur unless men have developed their muscles to withstand the
unaccustomed strain.

(d) Trench Feet. Good hygiene of the feet including the use of
foot powder, avoidance of damp socks and the maintenance of good
circulation in the legs and feet will prevent this condition.

(e) Glare. Eyes give trouble and many who are not normally
affected by glare may have to wear dark glasses.

Evacuation of Casualties

40. The early stages of casualty evacuation will be very slow unless it is
possible to improve helicopter landing areas near RAPs, but in any case
evacuation by helicopter is likely to be limited to more serious cases. AMC
personnel or stretcher bearers, supplemented by other returning pack
transport may be used to carry casualties form the RAP to the ADS. The
siting of the ADS needs careful thought. It should be sited well forward and
to reduce the time taken for evacuation to it from the RAP.

41. It is necessary to locate all wounded during or after an attack in the

broken country and on mountain tops. A careful search must be made to
ensure no wounded are left.

42. If any stage of evacuation is done by air, it will be necessary to

establish dressing stations at the airfields with facilities for the care and
treatment of wounded for the period they have to be held before onward
transportation. Transport and equipment for their loading and unloading
must also be provided.

Veterinary Cover

43. Veterinary personnel with formations and units will have to be

provided if pack transport units are used to ensure that they function

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efficiently. This applies equally whether the units are army one's or locally
improvised.

Ordnance

44. Ammunition and other vital stores are required as much in mountain
warfare as in any other circumstances. Certain items will be in greater
demand and the unusual conditions will create the need for a range of stores
not provided under more normal conditions of terrain and climate, eg pack
saddlery and sleeping bags. Against this the scale of ammunition and stores
which units can carry is considerably less than usual and the transport lift
forward is likely to be much less than the normal.

45. It will, therefore, be necessary to establish stocks of ammunition and

vital stores well forward. When considering the establishment of these
stocks, thought must be given to the requirements caused by the unusual
conditions, eg wear and tear on clothing, boots and equipment and the need
for special equipment. As much repair and re-issue of equipment as possible
should be done in the corps maintenance area to avoid delay and strain on
transport resources.

Repair and Recover

46. In mountain warfare emphasis will be on forward repair whenever

practicable since backloading will be difficult, if not impossible. The extent to
which forward repair can be undertaken will be determined mainly by the
availability of suitable roads and tracks. Narrow roads and weak bridges will
limit the size of recovery and machinery vehicles. When forward repair is
possible the staff must ensure that EME repair vehicles are given suitable
priorities for road movement. Special provision must be made to equip the
leading workshops with suitable repair and recovery equipment.

47. A stage will be reached when vehicles can no longer be used in some
forward areas. The EME commitment for repair and recovery of vehicles in
those areas will then diminish but the requirement to maintain light
equipment such as instruments, radio sets and small arms used by the
troops will remain.

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Planning

48. The restriction imposed by the limited capacity of the lines of

communication within the corps area and possibly even further to the rear,
will dictate the size of the force which can be maintained effectively in the
forward areas. Very careful planning with all branches of formations staffs
working in the closest cooperation is necessary to ensure that a proper
balance is struck between 'G' and 'Q' requirements and fullest use is made
of the sender movement resources. In general terms the aim must be to
have only such teeth arms committed as would directly influence the battle
and they in turn should carry no arms or equipment which are not essential.

Reinforcements

49. The men who have not been trained in mountain warfare or are not
physically fit must not join their unit in action and is not physically fit. Care
must be taken that reinforcements are not held for long in RHUs.

PART III

JUNGLE WARFARE

General

50. This part deals with the major administrative problems in jungle where
they differ essentially from those in other types of terrain.

51. The considerations governing, administration in jungle warfare remain

unchanged from those in normal warfare but owing to the nature of the
country, the methods used to maintain a force need modification.

Peculiarities of the Jungle

52. The peculiarities of the jungle which have an important influence on

administration are as follows: -

(a) Flat land is often cultivated while mountainous country is

generally virgin jungle. Movement by road in developed area is
usually confined to a very limited road and/or earth track network and

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in primary jungle it is rare to find more than a trail suitable for

movement on foot, if that exists.

(b) Visibility from the air and ground is very limited. Concealment
presents little difficulty except for columns which are confined to the
network of metalled roads. Such columns are exposed to air attacks.

(c) Rivers abound, and in mountainous regions fast flowing

streams, cut deep gorges until they emerge on to the plains where
they converge into wide sluggish rivers, often with swamp grounds
spreading outwards from both banks. These rivers are usually
navigable by small crafts and may provide a useful means of
communication.

(d) There is generally little variation in average day temperature

and due to the heavy rainfall it is very humid but at nights the
temperatures may drop considerably. The combined effect of heat
and humidity is very enervating. High rainfall restricts movement
during the wet seasons to existing roads and/or tracks. The humidity
makes all equipment and stores deteriorate rapidly unless special
precautions are taken.

(e) Railways, if any, have a very limited capacity with shortage of

roads, because movement on them is generally impossible and in the
absence of any roads in the jungle itself greater reliance may have to
be placed on other means of transportation. Air support is ideal, but
full use must be made of porters, animal transport and water
transport. A heavy engineer effort is required to construct air fields
and improve existing road communication or built new ones.

(f) The restrictions on movement both ground and in the air during
the rainy season, have a considerable bearing on planning large
scale operations.

(g) Operations vary from slow movement through thick jungles to

rapid advances covering the plains during the dry season. This
requires a very flexible administrative organisation.

(h) Casualties from disease exceed by far those suffered from

enemy action unless hygiene of a very high standard and all other
preventive measures are strictly observed.
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(j) There are usually local supplies of fish, fruit and vegetables
and possibly some rice, meat, eggs and poultry. However, as fresh
rations are heavier and more bulky than the tinned or dehydrated
equivalent and deteriorate quickly due to the climate, it is usually
necessary to rely on tinned rations. The jungle itself has many plants
which are edible.

(k) There may be a severe shortage of labour because of the

sparse population in some areas.

(l) The jungle provides means for adequate shelter to those

trained to use its resources.

54. The above peculiarities of the jungle have such a profound effect on
administration that administrative problems normally govern the whole
course of operations. It is no doubt that this consideration promoted an
experienced jungle commander of the 1936-45 war to say "Jungle Fighting
consist of 10 percent tactics 40 percent engineer effort and 50 percent
administration. Remember this and you would not go wrong.

Mobility

55. Generally the biggest problem in jungle warfare is to maintain mobility

since both the climate and country combine to restrict movement. The final
victory in Burma in 1945 entailed an advance of some 1100 kms and
success was due to mobility and speed attained by the air supply.

56. It must not be assumed, however, particularly in the early stages of a

campaign, that there will be sufficient aircrafts to the force to rely on air
supply alone. Mobility can and must be maintained by other means although
the effort required may be prodigious. Administration must be flexible to
overcome restrictions on movement and to switch from one method of
maintenance to another at very short notice. Much improvisation is therefore
called for.

Mechanical Transport

57. If there is a dry season, vehicle can be used off the roads, along
unmetalled tracks or on tracks made across rice fields by levelling the small

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banks. Where rain is prevalent throughout the year, progress off existing
roads is only possible with some hardening of the surface.

Water Transport

58. The local boats are often the most suitable form of transport in the
navigable rivers and full use must be made of them. Some can be fitted with
outboard motors thereby increasing their rate of turn round. Use can be
made of locally constructed rafts.

Animal Transport

59. Where vehicles or water transport cannot be used or do not provide

sufficient capacity, the best form of transport is pack mules.

Porters

60. Porters may be necessary but they are the most unsatisfactory form
of transport since they stretch out into a long and vulnerable tail and are
prone to panic. Between 400 and 500 porters may be needed to carry the
supplies and ammunition for a battalion for one day. When local inhabitants
are used as porters it is essential that they are properly organised, handled,
controlled by specially selected personnel and are kept to a minimum.

Traffic Control

61. Roads are often narrow and seldom capable to carrying two way
traffic. Occasionally road are open only at certain times in the interest of
security. Traffic control is therefore of great importance if the essential traffic
in both directions to be kept. Movement of vehicles on the roads must be
strictly controlled to a time table.

Air Transport

62. Air transport is the best method of overcoming the obstacles on the
ground. Air transport of troops and vehicles combined with air supplies gives
to the force the mobility and speed otherwise unattainable, yet essential to
maintain the initiative. Air evacuation of sick and wounded also provides the
quickest and best way of dealing with casualties.

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Supplies

63. Transport difficulties and rapid deterioration of fresh rations often

necessitates troops living for long periods on tinned or dehydrated food. A
great deal can be done if the difficulties involved in developing local
resources are tackled with determination and ingenuity.

64. If animal transport is being used, force must be provide in bulk for the
force and brought forward with other supplies as none may exist in the
jungle. Water points must be established specially towards the end of the dry
season when the shortage of water in the jungle may be acute.

Ammunition

65. The use of artillery in the jungle is usually restricted by the nature of
the country and artillery ammunition expenditure is generally low in
comparison to other theatres. Expenditure of other types of ammunition is
also normally less than other theatres.

FOL

66. The reduced scale of road transport automatically reduces the quantities
of FOL and may reduce the spares needed for maintenance, but it must be
remembered that such vehicles, as are employed do much low gear driving
over bad tracks which increases their petroleum consumption.

Ordnance

67. Conditions in the jungle may preclude the close support of units by
Div Ordnance Unit. It is therefore, important to provide rapid communication
of demands to the supporting AOC units and for the fastest possible means
of moving stores satisfactorily forward into the jungle.

Medical

68. A jungle casualty is not only a loss to his unit but employs a
disproportionate number of men and transport in his evacuation and
treatment. A casualty from disease is one that can generally be avoided,
thus leaving the medical staff free to attend battle casualties.

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69. It is essential that all ranks receive proper instructions in tropical

hygiene before being committed to a campaign in the jungles and units
standing orders must include the precautions necessary to prevent diseases.

70. Arrangements must be made to treat casualties in the forward areas

so that the causalities after recovery are returned to their own unit with as
little delay as possible. This may be done by siting general hospital well
forward in direct support of a division.

71. The two principal diseases of the jungle are generally malaria and
dysentery. Malaria can be immobilized by strict anti malaria discipline, and it
is the duty of every commanding officer to ensure that such discipline is
enforced.

72. Dysentery is caused by consumption of infected food or water and the

fly is often the cause of contamination. All food must be protected from flies
and fly breeding place should be eliminated. No water must ever be drunk
unless it has been filtered or chlorinated. Every Individual must carry and
use sterilizing outfit as directed, before drinking water from his water bottle.

Storage Problems

73. Heat, rain and humidity combine to cause rapid deterioration of

weapons, ammunition and equipment of all kinds unless special care is
taken on cleanliness and preservation. Weapon rust and corrode very
quickly unless cleaned thoroughly and oiled regularly. All ammunition and
other stores must be kept off the ground and shielded against rain and the
drip from trees.

74. Signal equipment, compasses field glasses and all optical and
spares of optical equipments are particularly vulnerable to jungle conditions
and may be ruined because the growth of fungus. In radio sets, telephones,
switch boards and other electrical equipment the deterioration of insulation
through dampness is the main cause of defects. If equipment has not
already been tropicalized suitable steps as soon as possible must be taken
to inform workshops to do the necessary protection.

75. Constant and skilled inspection is essential to ensure that weapons,

ammunition, equipment and stores are being maintained in efficient
condition.
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Repair and Recovery

76. The adverse effects of the climate and rough country on all equipment
can only be minimised by frequent and thorough servicing. Units may have
to request additional assistance through EME to enable more frequent
inspection of the equipment to be carried out.

77. If EME are to carry out their functions properly, EME repair and
recovery vehicles must be able to reach damaged equipments and workshop
sites should have sufficient space to operate efficiently.

78. Units cannot maintain operational efficiency if they have to wait for
such equipment to be back loaded. Although every effort will be made to
carry out repairs as far forward as possible, the density of the jungle and the
lack of tracks may prevent even small EME repair teams moving forward.
There is thus a requirement for a pool of such equipment to be held well
forward so that units can replace defective items on a clean exchange basis.

Defence

79. Owing to the narrow fronts covered by formations and the likelihood of
enemy out flanking operations, the strictest protective measures must be
carried out at all levels. When an administrative column halts, no matter for
what reason or for how short a time, all round defence must be adopted
immediately and while on the move the column must be so organised that it
can take immediate action against any surprise attacks.

80. Administrative units must be organised to defend themselves.

Defence plan must include perimeter defence and mobile reserve.

PART IV

DESERT WARFARE

General

81. A German General during the Second World War called the "North
African Desert" a tacticians dream; but he wisely qualified his remarks by
adding that it was 'The 'Q' officer's nightmare'.

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82. Administration in the desert is more difficult than in well developed

area, but the general considerations, procedures, organisations and working
of the administration staff and services remain the same as those already
described in earlier sections. The peculiarities of the desert however, add
importance to sound administration and emphasize to some degree the
application of certain considerations and procedures. These are explained in
the succeeding paragraphs.

Peculiarities of the Desert

83. The main peculiarities of the desert are as follows: -

(a) Shortage of water.

(b) Lack of normal communications.
(c) Absence of civilised resources.
(d) Scarcity of landmarks and lack of cover but ample space.
(e) Abundance of flies and insects.

Shortage of Water

84. It is not true that there is no water in the desert. It does exist, but at
widely separated points and supplies at such water points are very limited.

85. The effects of the shortage of water are as follows: -

(a) The supply of water becomes as much 'Q' responsibility as

rations, ammunitions or FOL.

(b) Water is normally rationed and medical advice must be

obtained in determining the quantity of the rationing. The water
requirement will vary according to temperature, humidity and the
amount of physical work to be done. Under severe desert conditions
upto 15 litres a day may have to be provided to prevent heat
casualties.

(c) When water is rationed, special provision must be made for

certain units including medical and EME repair and recovery units.

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(d) When water is rationed, water control and discipline must be

enforced rigorously not only at water points but at the avoidance of
wastage within units.

(e) Vehicle engines must be filled with water condensers to reduce

the loss of water by evaporations from the radiators.

(f) Each vehicle must carry a reserve of water at all times for the
use by crews of broken down or lost vehicles. The emergency reserve
of water must be checked daily.

(g) Water intelligence is essential.

Transport and Communication

86. Owing to the lack of railways, transportation by wheeled vehicles is on

a very large scale, but roads in the desert are an exception rather than the
rule. This results in much cross country movement, especially by first and
second line vehicles. Drivers must, therefore, be trained in desert driving.

87. The wear and tear of vehicles is heavier than normal because: -

(a) The desert is frequently rough, so reducing the life of vehicles

and tyres.

(b) Dust permeates everywhere and produces rapid wear of

moving parts, and

(c) The drag of driving through the softer belts of sand imposes a
great strain on engines and transmission.

88. An exceptionally high standard of vehicles servicing by unit is

therefore essential to counteract the adverse conditions and prolong the
reliability of vehicles.

89. Estimates of petroleum consumption in cross country movement must

not be over optimistic. Considerable higher expenditure than on metal roads
must be expected, even when going appears hard and good.

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90. All transport units must be fully trained in cross-country navigation.

This requires a very high standard of map reading and ability to use
magnetic compass accurately and navigate by stars at night.

Security of Landmarks

91. Though landmarks exist in the desert; the prominent ones are few at
long distances and to detect a remainder one needs exceptionally good map
reading and experience. Frequently part of the desert are not accurately
mapped and movement by dead reckoning may therefore often be
necessary.

92. First and second line transport has to move cross-country over long
distance, owing to lack of roads. The following matters require particular
attention: -

(a) All officers and NCOs in charge of convoys must be able to

navigate.

(b) Convoy leaders must carry binoculars to pick up route markers,

leaders, land marks and to identify units.

(c) Speedometers must be accurate and in soft sand, four wheel

drive engaged.

(d) In any form of fluid warfare, isolated detachments such as

those of ammunition points and recovery points and recovery post
must be provided with radio.

(e) A clearly marked formation axis is vital since it is along this axis
that maintenance traffic flow, and in mobile operations wounded
personnel and broken down vehicles are directed to it.

(f) Excessive dumping should be avoided as it leads to greater

waste in the desert than else where. Once a dump is left behind, It is
most difficult to locate it again, unless it happens to be on a well
marked axis.

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Lack of Cover

93. Cover from air during the morning and evening when the atmosphere
is usually clear is virtually impossible, but at other times dust and heat affect
both visual observation and photographic reconnaissance. However,
there are bridges escarpments and depressions which give cover from
ground observation. Complete concealment is nearly impossible and
extensive deception is normally limited by the lack of necessary equipment.
Administrative units must therefore rely largely on dispersion and the skilful
use of camouflage nets to provide a measure of protection from observations
and air attack.

94. Dumps of ammunition and other supplies must be very widely

dispersed and vehicles loading and unloading at such dumps must be strictly
controlled.

95. All ammunition dumping programmes have to be carried out by night

except in the most favourable conditions.

Space

96. A feature of the desert is its vastness. There are few places where
both flanks of any force are secure. It is the rule rather than the exception to
have at least one open flank. These characteristics and the lack of cover,
mean that forces operate over extremely wide frontages. Penetrations and
envelopment by mobile enemy columns are therefore common than the
normal terrain. In consequence: -

(a) Administrative units must be alert and be prepared to fight, and

(b) When the enemy is known to be about to attack, unwanted first
line transport and administrative units should be drawn much further
back from the battle area than is normal.

Lack of Resources

97. The fact that the desert lacks every form of resources or amenities is
obvious; but the consequences that follow must not be overlooked. These
are: -

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(a) Everything which is repairable or may be of use must be

salvaged.

(b) During an advance, all troops must be inquisitive and every

endeavour made to discover enemy supplies and equipment. Once
found they must be guarded against destruction and pilferage.

(c) In withdrawal more care than usual must be taken to ensure

that nothing of immediate use to the enemy falls into his hands. This
applies particularly to: -

(i) FOL.
(ii) Rations.
(iii) Vehicles and
(iv) Water Sources must be destroyed or rendered unfit for
human consumption.

Supplies

98. The difficulties of providing fresh meat, vegetables and fruit are such
that tinned supplies are the normal issue. It is, therefore, essential to have
special ration scales with greater variety which contain the necessary
calories and vitamins, in addition vitamin tablets are usually included in the
daily ration. Without these precautions, food deficiency and diseases cause
casualties and lower morale.

Medical

99. The rapid collection and evacuation of wounded is of great

importance; but the problems involved in this are rather difficult as compared
to those in normal terrain. Units should be allotted vehicles for this purpose.

100. Helicopters can land with little or no preparation and can therefore, be
used most effectively for quick or comfortable evacuation.

Ordnance

101. The normal method of supply may prove too slow in the fast and
lengthy move common in desert. Ordnance unit must not be permitted to
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loose contact within the formation they serve and routes are restricted. It is
essential to give them road space to keep up with the units which need this
support.

Repair and Recovery

102. Operations in the desert conditions, imposes a heavy strain on

equipment in general and on vehicles in particular, eg, the total mileage of 'B'
vehicles may be reduced by as much as one third of that expected under
more normal conditions. Unless vehicles and equipment are thoroughly
serviced at unit level, EME repair and recovery will be overloaded and unit
will have to accept undue delays in the return of the repaired equipments.
The need for careful servicing must therefore be emphasised at all levels.
Adequate time must be allowed for servicing and this may to some extent
influence operational planning.

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(Refers to Para 32 of
Section 9)
SYSTEM OF MAINTENANCE

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SECTION 10

REPLENISHMENT IN ARMOURED DIVISION

Appendix D - Layout of Replenishment Area for an Armoured Brigade.

Introduction

1. Normal system of maintenance is usually applicable when the

armoured formation or unit is not in action, or is operating with secure
communications. The characteristics and functions of armoured formation
however required that special arrangements are available for replenishment
in all other situations.

2. These characteristics include:-

(a) Mobility.

(b) Administrative freedom.

(c) Ability to move far and wide away from the main line of
advance, to attack the enemy's flanks and rear.

3. The effect of these characteristics on replenishment is as under: -

(a) Special protective arrangements may be required for second

line transport.

(b) Replenishment may not be required daily but periodically, it

may be full or partial.

(c) Replenishment must be as rapid as possible.

Replenishment Conditions

4. Protective Arrangements. In the initial phases when armoured

formations are penetrating into hostile territory, form of maintenance by
wheeled vehicles may be impracticable. Until such time it is practicable to
push forward lorry borne replenishments either with or without armoured
escort, replenishment can only be by air dropping.

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5. Replenishment may be Full or Partial. An armoured formation is to

a certain extent self contained and is not therefore dependent, as are other
formations, on a daily refill. Its operations will often include searching for, an
enemy, who evades action. In such circumstance, it will require full
replenishment of Fuel, Oil and Lubricants (FOL) and none of ammunition.
Conversely, it may be heavily engaged at once and needs full
replenishments of ammunition, and only partial replenishment of FOL.

6. Replenishment must be Rapid. Rapidity of movement and control

are essential in armoured formations, and this applies also to replenishment.
It is usually impracticable for the B echelon transport to be withdrawn and
revert to division or brigade control before first light. Further, the number of B
echelon and of second line replenishment vehicles for an armoured
formation is large and offers a correspondingly vulnerable target. Hence,
replenishment must be quickened up until it becomes a drill, which is
completed in the shortest possible time.

Replenishment Area

7. A replenishment area is a dispersed area in which all second line

loads can be transferred to unit transport at one time. It provides the means
for replenishment when:-

(a) Second line transport and B echelon transport can not be

permitted, for tactical reasons, to move at will at time of the day and
night.

(b) The echelons are formed to move from harbour to harbour,

special arrangements being necessary for their protection when on
the move.

8. Prior to its move forward, the Army Service Corps battalion will
require: -

(a) Orders regarding the amounts of ammunition and FOL to be

brought up.

(b) The latest information of any re-grouping of units within the

armoured division.

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9. Replenishment area is normally allotted on a brigade group basis, the

areas chosen being as widely dispersed, as possible one from another.

10. Reconnaissance is carried out by transport company commanders, in

conjunction with officers of the armoured formation B echelon. In each
replenishment area, there are four commodity areas; water, ammunition,
supply and FOL. Relative position of each of the four areas has to be
decided and fixed (See Appendix D). There are thus four reconnaissances in
each replenishment area, and reconnaissance parties will bring with them
the requisite equipment for marking their areas. FOL and ammunition will be
laid out by commodities.

11. A harbour in proximity to the replenishment area is required for

second line transport. In some cases, it may be possible for second line
transport to take up positions on the replenishment area and for 13 echelons
transport of armoured formation to load, up directly from them; usually,
however, the presence of both these types of transport at same time in
replenishment areas will be too great a risk from the point of view of air
attack. Hence, second line transport proceeds to replenishment area, off
load their commodities and personnel to hand over and return to harbour. B
echelon transport then arrives, unloads empties and back loads, and begins
the return journey. The drill on reaching the replenishment area applies also
to second line transport.

12. The limitations of the replenishment area system are that, until the
next replenishment, the amounts available are restricted to the total
remaining in unit 'A' and 'B' echelons. This is insufficient for intensive mobile
operations when heavy demands for ammunition and FOL have to be met as
they occur.

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Appendix D
(Refer to Para 10
of Section 10)

LAYOUT OF REPLENISHMENT AREA FOR AN ARMD BDE

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SECTION 11

MAINTENANCE PLANNING

General

1. The Army in peace time should be ready for war and fit to take the
field as soon as possible. It follows that maintenance requirement for war
must, wherever possible, be planned in peace time. The location of various
peace time depots and installations in a country, therefore, has a bearing on
possible requirements of maintenance in war, particularly if the war is being
fought on the frontiers of the Country. Where ever previous facilities exist,
bases will have to be developed as operations progress and warrant their
establishment.

2. For a war on the frontiers of India, an advance base may or may not
be established.

3. This section deals mainly with maintenance and planning by Army

Headquarters in case an advance base is to be established under the
control of Army Headquarters and when it may have to function through
headquarters commands of headquarters field army. The over riding rule
which must be observed, when establishing an advanced base is, that it is
impracticable to use an advance base for maintenance until it is completely
ready. The development of advance base will take considerable time and
effort. It is therefore, necessary to improve and work on adhoc arrangements
until the advance base depots ire ready to supply total requirements. A
typical example is to maintain are force directly from the main base with
transit depots established at convenient places, till the advance base is
ready. These transit depots may be peace time installation developed and
adopted for the particular operation.

Problem

4. The following three main problems will normally face Army

Headquarters planning: -

(a) The development of the advance base, which will comprise the
following: -

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(i) Development of the transportation area (roads, railways

and docks if required).

(ii) Development of advance base depots area(s).

(iii) Development of advance base workshops.

(iv) Arrangements for temporary maintenance of the field

force while (i) and (ii) are in progress.

(b) The development and protection of the communication which

include the following: -

(i) Efficient layout of the transportation with particular

reference to facilities and transhipment points.

(ii) The most economical allocation of tasks to movement

agencies, and arrangements for the effective control of the
agencies.

(iii) Organisation of command.

(iv) The conflicting demands of defence and administration

convenience.

(c) The movement of the field force to the theatre operations in its
correct order. There will always be a conflicting demand between 'G'
demanding speedy arrival of fighting units and Q pressing for early
arrival of administrative units and for time to get initial layout on a
sound basis.

Development of an Advance Base

5. Before an advance base can be developed, the following have to be

considered: -

(a) Location of the advance base.

(b) Reserve transportation areas.
(c) Location of temporary depots (if required).
(d) Location of the advance base workshops.
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6. Selection of the Advance Base. The selection of the advance base

will depend on the following main factors: -

(a) Distance between the main base and the proposed area(s) for
the advance base and also the distance between the proposed
area(s) for the advance base and combat area.

(b) Capacity of railways and roads from the main base depots to
the proposed advance base area and forward of it including any
bottle-necks in the communication layout.

(c) Existence of suitable sites in the proposed area.

(d) Liability of interruption of normal maintenance traffic by enemy

action particularly air threat.

(e) Availability of covered accommodation.

7. Paragraph 6 (a) and (b) above will indicate the general area(s) for the
advance base, while the other factors will reduce the choice to the most
suitable location for the advance base.

8. If enemy air threat is liable to dislocate the functioning of the advance

base, the following measures will have to be taken :-

(a) Advance base disperse over a large area containing a number

of small depots instead of concentrating it into one small area with a
few large depots.

(b) The location of a greater proportion of the maintenance reserve

forward of the advance base, compatible with security.

(c) Active air defence of the area (s).

9. Reserve Transport Area. This is an area in immediate vicinity of

communication terminals, such as railway station. This area is required, for
the actual working of the transportation agencies concerned. No stores and
personnel should be allowed to accumulate here and any congestion will
slow down the unloading and movement of stores from railway buildings to
advance base depots and also reception of further personnel and stores.
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10. The advance base depots and installations should neither be too far
away from the transportation area to make the movement of stores to them a
problem, nor should they be so close to the transportation areas so as to
interfere with the working of the various transportation services and the quick
clearance of stores.

11. Temporary Depots.

(a) As the establishment of permanent depots and installations

takes a considerable time, it is essential to begin by marking a
temporary layout for immediate use, as distinct from the layout
intended for permanent maintenance. This will contain temporary
depots for supplies, ordnance and other stores and may require some
railway and road construction to enable it to operate.

(b) The necessity to form temporary depots for advance base may
not exist if the peace time depots in the country can supply the
requirements of the field force direct till the advance base is
established. On the other hand, if the operation envisaged is short, it
may not be worthwhile establishing permanent maintenance depots.

(c) If however, temporary depots have to be formed the same

factor that affected the location of the same factors of the advance
base (paragraph 6 above) will affect the Location of temporary depots
also.

(d) The temporary maintenance period is one of improvisation.

Speed in establishing temporary maintenance is essential and
temporary depots, and installations must be established in existing
buildings or put under canvas.

(e) Remember that if suitable arrangements for temporary

maintenance are not made, chaos will result.

(f) The duration of the temporary maintenance depends on the

time taken to establish permanent maintenance and will vary in each
case. Should there be any stocks in the temporary depots when the
advance base is ready to supply the requirements of the field force,
the stock in the temporary depots will first be eaten down before
issues are made from the advance base.

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12. Base and Advance Base Workshops. Base and advance base
workshops take a long time to build. During this period it will be necessary to
utilise the static base repair workshops already in existence in the support
area. Where this is not practicable due to distance involved or limited
capacity of communications or no availability of adequate reserves to
replace equipment casualties which cannot be repaired in the field, the
utmost priority will have to be given for the provision so that workshops can
commence functioning as early as possible. Adequate technical manpower
and workshops equipment for these workshops should be catered for from
the earliest stages when operation is envisaged since these cannot be
produced in a short period.

13. Control. A headquarters base, or sub areas, or both will be formed

for the administration of the advance base, transportation areas and
temporary depots.

14. The advance base depots area will include all or some of the
following: -

(a) Advance base depots for ordnance and engineer stores,

ammunition, supplies, fuel, oils and lubricants and so on.

(b) Transit and reinforcement camps.

(c) Hospitals.

(d) Advance base workshops.

(e) All the units required for working in the advance base, including
engineers, signals, transport units, store holding units, fire services,
labour and prisoners of war camp.

15. The IAF may also have various depots and installations in the
advance base. Their requirements must, therefore, be taken into account
when planning an advance base.

Planning

16. Planning Data. Before detailed planning can begin, following

information, much of it requiring General Staff decisions, must be available: -

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(a) Initial size of force (in terms of divisions and Air Force
squadrons).

(b) Maximum possible expansion (up to so many divisions and Air

Force squadrons).

(c) Availability of roads and railways, their capacity and any new
construction required. In overseas theatres, the port(s) to be used and
at what stage of operations they will be available.

(d) Likely effect of ground and air activity on communications and

administrative installations.

(e) Number of days reserves to be held, and the priority for

stocking.

(f) Policy regarding distribution of reserves to be held, and the

priority for stocking.

(g) Policy regarding distribution of reserves in communications

zone.

(h) Rate at which the force and its reserves will be built up.

17. From the above requirements, heads of services will workout the
following: -

(a) Covered accommodation required.

(b) What transportation agencies are necessary or what

improvements are necessary, to the existing agencies, and at what
rate transportation agencies must expand.

(c) Tonnage of materials, machinery and stores for construction

and development.

(d) Administrative units and labour required.

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18. Local resources and facilities must be carefully assessed. The extent
to which these will be damaged by enemy action must be estimated and
allowed for in all calculations.

19. The above calculations will enable the order of battle of administrative
units, which will form the overall order of battle for the operations. It is then
possible to calculate the approximate tonnage of stores which will be
required. When this has been done, it may be found that the administrative
units catered for are not enough and an adjustment will have to be made.
Experience, however, will generally make any major adjustment necessary.

20. War wastage Rates. Calculation of the field force requirements

mentioned in paragraph 16 above will be based on war wastage rates. War
Wastage Rates (WWR) lay down the wastage for all items of equipment,
vehicles and stores. They form the basis of overall provisioning of the Army
and of stocking maintenance areas in the field, ie, army maintenance area
and corps maintenance area. They are expressed in various terms as given
below: -

(a) 'Peace' rates of wastage.

(b) 'Quiet' rates of wastage.

(c) Contact rates of wastage.

21. The wastage rates, particularly that of contact, will vary widely in
different theatres, eg in good tank country, a large number of anti-tank mines
will be wasted out while-in the jungle country with poor road
communications, the wastage rate of petroleum, oil and lubricants will not be
very high. Thus the actual tonnage required will be based on the war
wastage rates modified to suit the terrain and the likely enemy position. The
modification of war wastage rates requires close cooperation between the
general staff and administrative staff. Apart from estimating requirements
based on war wastage rates, it is possible to foresee actual requirements of
certain stores, such as bridging. These will naturally depend upon the
geography of the country.

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22. The following example will clarify use of war wastage rates. The war
wastage 'contact' rates for anti-tank and anti-personnel mines shown below:-

Good Average Difficult Very Purely

tank tank tank difficult Infantry
country country country tank country
country

(a) Anti-tank 30000 15000 5000 1000 200

mines per
division per
month
(b) Anti- 10000 10000 10000 15000 20000
personnel
mines per
division per
month

23. War wastage rates should be revised continuously during peace as

weapons and techniques change and cause higher or lower rates of
wastage. It is equally important that soon after the initial stage of war these
rates which are revised in peace time are again reviewed, based on further
experience gained in battle. This will ensure that maintenance plan for
subsequent operations are realistic.

24. Maintenance Project. When all available local information has been
collected and all estimates have been made by services, Q (plans) issues a
maintenance project. The aim of this Maintenance Project is to provide all
those concerned and particularly the services, with the information they need
to enable them to carry out their detailed planning. It is set out in the form of
an administrative instruction and gives a proposal for the maintenance of the
theatre of operations. It covers both temporary and permanent maintenance.

25. First Key Plan. The most important part of the maintenance project is
the proposed allotment of areas to the depots and installations required in
the advance base. This is known as the first key plan and is in the planning
stage made from the main or whenever possible from a preliminary
reconnaissance. It is produced in the form of a trace or marked map. If
information about the area to be used is good, there is no reason why the
ultimate layout should not in general conform to the first key plan. Again if
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the advance base is to be established in the home or friendly country,

detailed plans and even earmarking of resources can take place well before
hand.

26. Reconnaissance and Advance Parties. A detailed reconnaissance

will be carried out by a reconnaissance party consisting of staff officers and
representative of services which will verify the proposals, in the maintenance
project and the first key plan and if necessary, suggest amendments to the
first key plan and perhaps the maintenance project. If considerable
amendment is necessary revised maintenance project and a second key
plan may have to be produced.

27. An advance party will follow the reconnaissance party to make the
preliminary arrangements for the establishment of the advance base or
maintenance area. Finally the main bodies will arrive and the advance base
or if that is not required a maintenance area will be set up.

28. In difficult cases, final decision of the layout of the permanent

maintenance system may not be possible until a detailed railway survey (and
in some cases a work survey) has been carried out. Any alterations
necessary as a result of this survey will be embodied in the amendments to
the second key plan. If alterations are considerable, and affect the policy
previously decided upon, a third maintenance project and a third key plan
may be issued.

29. The maintenance projects produced during planning will include the
administrative order of battle and the order in which the administrative units
are to arrive. The order of arrival will differ in all cases as it depends on what
type of development has to be undertaken first. This may vary from
construction of covered accommodation to construction of new roads and
railways.

30. Despatch of Stores. The plan for the despatch of stores, supplies
and materials is made by Army Headquarters in consultation with
headquarters command or field force commander a "Provisional
Programme". This is divided as follows:-

(a) Initial requirement on a temporary basis to last for a certain

number of days at field force committee rates suitably modified for the

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theatre. The number of days will differ depending on the ease of

maintenance and certainly of replenishment.

(b) Subsequent despatches to carry out normal maintenance and

to build up stocks in the advance base to the authorised level.

(c) This programme will continue to operate till the advance base
is established. Army Headquarters will then make out a firm "Stores
Programme", in consultation with headquarters command or field
force headquarters. The delivery of stores to the advanced base will
then be made on this programme with suitable modification made
necessary by actual expenditures.

31. Planning Staff. Administrative planning staff must be completely

separate from the administrative units taking part in the operation.

Layout and Organisation

32. It is important from the point of view of economy in transportation

resources that depots should be near the main routes leading from the
advanced base to the combat zone.

33. In defining the limits of the transit area, ample room for expansion
must be allowed from the outset. It is impossible to do so later.

34. The following are some points regarding the siting of various
installations: -

(a) Hospitals. Should be well clear of likely bombing targets. Early

decision must be obtained from 'G as to whether hospitals are to
have splinter proof operation theatres and wards and are to be
dispersed and concealed or whether they are to rely on the Red
Cross for protection. It is important that there should be easy access
to the main trunk system. Climatic conditions in particular theatres of
war may necessitate the use of sites which are otherwise unsuitable
from a transport point of view.

(b) Ammunition Depots. Should be sited so that any explosion

does not damage other installations or the main railway line. The
question of dry ground and drainage is particularly important.

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(c) Petroleum Depots. These take time to construct and supply

will have to be on a container basis for a long period.

(d) Reinforcement Transit and Rest Camps. As far as possible,

these should be within marching distance of railheads and near good
water supply.

(e) Workshops. Require hard standings and covered

accommodation for the installation of machinery. Light and power are
desirable.

(f) Mechanical Transport. In selecting sites for mechanical

transport, and for AOC and EME Services connected with mechanical
transport remember that a wide area of ground is required for
dispersed mechanical transport standings. Road or rail approaches
are required.

(g) Supply and other Store Holding Depots:-

(i) Cover is necessary for supplies (permanent or

temporary).

(ii) Road facilities are essential and rail facilities are highly
desirable.

(iii) Hard standing and adequate dunnage are essential.

(iv) It is desirable that the depots should be fed by rail, road

and, if possible by inland water transport.

35. Air Force Areas.

(a) In planning the layout of the base, Air Force and Army
requirements must always be considered together. The initial advance
party for the advance base should, therefore, include Air Force
representative for the reconnaissance of the Air Force installations.
(b) The perimeters of airfields and other Air Force installations and
the perimeters of Army should be separated. Depots and camps
should be compatible with available space and easy working.
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(c) The supply of all common user items for the Air Force is an
Army responsibility, and allowances must be made for their holdings
in various depots.
(d) Air Force bombs, ammunition and so on are held in the
advanced bases Area by Air Force ammunition depots. If the
quantities are not very large, Air Force ammunition may also be held
in Army depots in which case Air Force personnel are attached to
supervise storage and issue.
(e) Both ammunition and petroleum depots require internal
dispersion for normal safety reasons apart from passive air defence.

36 Area Required for Depots. As a guide for preliminary planning, it

may be accepted that with full dispersion any large depot, irrespective of
tonnage, if four railway spurs are to be used, will require an area of at least
1.6 square mile (approximately 600 acres). This does not include room for
expansion. Further details are given in 'ASC Hand Book'.

37. Covered Accommodation for Temporary Layout. The best use

must be made of existing building or sheds. If there are no suitable buildings,
tentage must be used to provide cover for offices and retail work in depots.
For storage purpose the storage tent is the most suitable and these may be
pitched together as required. A store tent provids cover over an area of 6000
square feet. Tents IP give a covered area of 320 square feet, but are
expensive and have short life. The staff must ensure that an adequate
supply of tarpaulins is made available from ordnance resources.

Miscellaneous

38. The amount of mechanical transport required for the permanent

working of the advanced base is based on the following:-

(a) Daily tonnage to be lifted by mechanical transport from the

transportation area to the advanced base depots and distances to
these depots. It should be possible in time to extend branch lines from
transportation area direct to the depots. In fact this should be covered
in the plan and carried our as soon as possible.

(b) Average Daily requirement of services for the internal working

of their depots and installations.
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39. When calculating requirements, figures should be based on the

average daily needs of (a) and (b) above and permanent allotment made. A
pool should then be kept for allotment during the peak periods. This pool
should also supply any transport required by works and transportation
services for new construction. Transport for daily working in the
transportation area will be allotted by headquarters communication zone.

40. Signal Communications. Very early provision of an adequate

signal despatch service and a telephone system line communication to all
depots, headquarters base area, movement control office and railway
office is essential.

41. Health.

(a) The hygiene problem in an advanced base area is a big one,

as there are a large number of civilian labourers and non combatants
in addition to the troops permanently located as well as those in
transit. The most careful and constant supervision is vital.

(b) Another problem in very hot climate is heat exhaustion. To

combat this, heat stroke centres should be established at centres of
activity.

Conclusion

42. Before any force can be committed to battle, a plan for the
maintenance of that force and the proposed maintenance areas for it must
be worked out.

43. Whatever form future operations may take, the administrative

organisation to support them must be simple, flexible and ruthless to
eliminate everything and every body not absolutely essential.

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SECTION 12

SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT PLANNING

Introduction

1. This section deals with the mechanics involved in ST planning and

consideration of broad facts affecting such planning.

Sequence of Planning

2. Broadly, the sequence follows the pattern as given below: -

(a) 'G' Staff Operational Planning. The G Staff gives the

following information to the administrative staff: -

(i) Scope of the operation and maximum anticipated

expansion.

(ii) Size, composition and strength of formation.

(iii) 'G' order of battle and strength of other two services.

(iv) Build up policy and reactions to changes.

(v) Enemy ground and air threat envisaged.

(b) Administrative Planning. Based on the information given by

the G Staff, the administrative staff carries out its own planning to
support the operation. It considers the following points: -

(i) Outline maintenance plan including tentative proposals

for initial maintenance, development of installations and
permanent maintenance with order of battle of formations
indicating basic and non-basic units.

(ii) Arrival schedules of the force.

(iii) Build up and daily maintenance tonnages.

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(iv) Service units required.

(v) Any assumptions made for provisioning or any other

information of interest.

(c) ST Planning. ST Planning is mainly confined to: -

(i) Supply considerations.

(ii) FOL considerations.

(iii) Transport considerations.

ST Planning

3. Supply Considerations.

(a) Rationing of troops immediately on arrival in the theatre.

(b) Phasing of supply units and their deployment.

(c) Build up of reserve.

(d) Supply policy, which should cover the following: -

(i) Ration scales.

(ii) Ration alterations and turn over issues, special packs,

size of pack needing modification for AT/Air maintenance.

(iii) Local resources available and development possible.

(iv) Demand procedure.

(v) Stock deterioration.

(vi) Anti-pilferage and anti-pest measures.

(vii) Total fuel requirement.

(viii) Disinfectants and hygiene chemicals.

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(ix) Hospital comforts.

(x) Feeding of prisoners of war and civilians.

(xi) Cold storage items.

(xii) Fresh supplies.

(xiii) Frequency of refilling ie by advance stocking, winter
stocking and airlifts.

4. FOL Considerations.

(a) Consumption rates of different types of vehicles for initial

stocking.
(b) Bulk/pack ratio and provisions for containers.

(c) Priorities for stocking and policy regarding reserve.

(d) Local resources.

(e) Frequency of refilling.

(f) Terrain, weather and enemy interference.

5. Transport Considerations.

(a) Enemy interference, both ground and air.

(b) Availability of roads, capacity, state of repairs, defiles,

locations, gradients, distances.

(c) Limitations imposed by climatic conditions, altitudes and

terrain.

(d) Type and methods of movement, speeds, density.

(e) Harbour areas.

(f) Movement of refugees and other civilian traffic.

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(g) Tonnage to be lifted by air, AT or porters.

(h) Hours of darkness, timings allotted for maintenance of roads.

(j) Vehicles and driver's capacities.

(k) Depot capacities including/unloading timing.

Conclusion

6. (a) The above and other aspects such as air maintenance are
balanced to produce the ST Plan.

(b) Continuous review and checking back is necessary to fit in with

changed circumstances.

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