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Claus Leitzmann
496S Am J Clin Nutr 2014;100(suppl):496S502S. Printed in USA. 2014 American Society for Nutrition
VEGETARIAN NUTRITION: PAST, PRESENT, FUTURE 497S
TABLE 1 The Indian statesman Mohandas Mahatma Gandhi (18691948)
Staple foods of important early human cultures1 said, There is enough for everybodys feed, but not enough for
Culture Staple foods everybodys greed. Albert Einstein, the German-US physicist
(18751955) believed that Nothing will increase the chances
Egypt Wheat, barley
of survival for life on earth as much as the evolution to a vege-
China Wheat, soya, sorghum
India Corn, rice, wheat, lentils
tarian diet; and Albert Schweitzer, German physician (1875
Middle East Wheat, chickpeas 1965), said, We must renounce meat consumption and speak up
Mexico, Mayas Corn/maize, amaranth against it.
Peru, Incas Potatoes, quinoa
1
Data from reference 6. RECENT VEGETARIAN NUTRITION
In the last decades of the 20th century, plant-based nutrition
There are no records of vegetarian nutrition in Europe after the became a topic of formal scientific inquiry. The attempt to
ancient Greek and ancient Roman periods (sixth century AD). In identify the most beneficial diets for humans was initiated by
the Renaissance era, Leonardo da Vinci practiced vegetarian ecologic data from the then still young science of epidemiology
nutrition. He was convinced that the time will come when we obtained by studies in African, Asian, and Mediterranean
condemn the eating of animals, just as today we condemn the countries. These data showed that populations living in these
eating of our own kind, the eating of humans. During the Age regions had, on average, the lowest rates of diet-related non-
of Enlightenment, individuals such as Tyron, Rousseau, Voltaire, communicable diseases and lived a rather long life (79). Tra-
Wesley, and many others practiced vegetarian nutrition. The ditional Asian and Mediterranean diets are largely based on
TABLE 2
Famous vegetarians in ancient Greece1
Dates of birth
Name Profession and death Reference to vegetarianism
Pythagoras Greek philosopher 570500 BC Considered the founder of ethical vegetarianism. He recommended animal food only
and mathematician from living organisms (milk, eggs).
Plato Greek philosopher 428348 BC In his book Politeia, he suggested that town people be vegetarian to stay healthy. Only
meat eaters living in the country need a physician.
Xenokrates Greek philosopher 395314 BC Wrote the first paper on vegetarianism (not preserved, documented by other Greek
writers).
Theophrastus Greek philosopher 370287 BC Believed that humans and animals are related to one another physically and mentally.
Apolloius Greek philosopher and preacher 4090 AD Was considered the first documented prominent vegan.
Ovid Roman poet 47 BC to 17 AD In his book Metamorphosis he provided strong arguments against eating meat.
Plutarch Greek poet 45120 AD Wrote the first paper on vegetarianism that is preserved. In his book Moralia he
recommends respecting animals.
Plotin Egyptian/Greek philosopher 205270 AD Revived the Pythagorean way of life.
Porphyrios Greek author 234305 AD Wrote the first book on vegetarians that has been preserved.
1
Data from reference 6.
498S LEITZMANN
FIGURE 1. Early model on the adequacy of vegetarian diets that prevailed FIGURE 2. The model on population health risks and benefits of vege-
through the 1960s. The area under each curve represents the proportion of tarian and meat-based diets that prevailed during the 1980s and 1990s. The
individuals in a population for which a given diet pattern may be adequate or area under each curve represents the proportion of individuals in a population
deficient. The variable n on the y-axis represents the number of individuals for which a given diet pattern may be a health risk or benefit. The area in the
in a population following a diet that results in a health outcome, either disease center represents the proportion of individuals for which the diet is optimal
or health. Reprinted with permission from reference 11. or most beneficial. The variable n on the y-axis represents the number of
individuals in a population following a diet that results in a health outcome,
Remarkably, this assessment was not based on the available either disease or health. Reprinted with permission from reference 11.
TABLE 6
Current recommendations for intakes of calcium and vitamin B-12 in selected countries1
Country Calcium Vitamin B-12 Reference or source
mg/d mg/d
United Kingdom 500 1.5 43
Japan 600 2.4 Japanese Society of Nutrition and Food Science2
Canada 700 2.4 Canadian Nutrition Society3
United States 800 2.4 44
Germany 1000 3.0 45
1
Values are for adults 2050 y of age. Data are from references 43 and 44.
2
Y Nishida, personal communication, 4 December 2013.
3
H Delisle, personal communication, 6 December 2013.
VEGETARIAN NUTRITION: PAST, PRESENT, FUTURE 501S
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