SECTION 2

SECTION - 2
EARTHWORK & FOUNDATIONS
EARTHWORK
2.1. Classification of soils - The earthwork shall be classified under the following categories and
measured separately for each category, unless otherwise specified.
The material to be excavated shall be classified as follows: -
2.1.1. Ordinary or soft soil - Generally any soil which yields to ordinary application of pick axes,
shovels or any other ordinary digging implements, such as organic soil, turf, gravel, sand, sandy soil,
silt, clay, loam, mud, red earth, sudde, black cotton soil, soft shale, loose moorum and all soils
having soil dry density less than 1.80 gm/cc. (IS: 1498-1970) copy enclosed vie Annexure 2-A.1,
removal of gravel and/or any modular material having diameter in any one direction not exceeding 75
mm occurring in such strata etc.
2.1.2. Hard and dense soil - All soils classified in soil groups as per IS: 1498-1970 other than what is
covered in (a) above; gravel, cobblestone, hard shale, soft Laterite, or any other nodular material
having max. diameter in any one direction between 75 mm & 300 mm soft conglomerate, where the
stone can be detached from the matrix with pick axes and shovels. This includes soling of roads,
paths etc., and hard core, stiff heavy clay, hard shale or compact moorum requiring grafting tool or
pick or both and shovel closely applied. Any material, which requires the close application of picks or
scarifiers to loosen and not affording resistance to digging greater than the hardest of any soil,
mentioned above.
2.1.3. Ordinary or soft rock - (i) Rock types such as laterites, shales and
conglomerates, varieties of limestone and sandstone etc., which may be
quarried or split with crow bars, also including any rock which in dry state may be
hard, requiring blasting but which, when wet, becomes soft and manageable by
means other than blasting ;
(ii) Macadam surfaces such as water bound and bitumen/tar bound; compact moorum or stabilised
soil requiring grafting tool or pick or both and shovel, closely applied ;
(iii) Lime concrete, stone masonry in lime mortar and brick work in lime/cement mortar below ground
level, reinforced cement concrete which may be broken up with crow bars or picks and stone masonry
in cement mortar below ground level; and
(iv) Boulders which do not require blasting having maximum dimension in any direction of more than
300 mm, found lying loose on the surface or embedded in river bed, soil, talus, slope wash and
terrace material of dissimilar origin.
Ordinary rock does not require blasting, wedging or similar means. It may be required a split with
crow bars or picks. If required blasting may be resorted to, for loosening the materials but this does
not be any way entitle the material to be classified as Hard Rock.
2.1.4. Hard rock - Any rock (excluding Laterite and hard conglomerate) or boulder for the excavation
of which the use of mechanical plant and/or blasting is required; reinforced cement concrete
(reinforcement cut through but not separated from the concrete) below ground level.
Hard rock requires blasting but where blasting is prohibited for any reason, excavation has to be
carried out by chiseling, wedging or any other agreed method.

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2.1.5. Marshy soil - This shall include soils like soft clays and peat excavated below the original
ground level of marshes and swamps and soils excavated from other areas requiring continuous
pumping or bailing out of water.
2.2 Authority for classification - The engineer shall decide the classification of excavation and his
decision shall be final and binding on the contractor. Merely the use of explosives in excavation will
not be considered, as a reason for higher classification unless blasting is clearly necessary in the
opinion of the engineer.
2.3 Types of excavation
2.3.1 Surface excavation - Excavation exceeding 1.5 m in width and 10 sq. m on plan but not
exceeding 30 cm in depth in all types of soils and rocks shall be described as surface excavation.
Measurements - The length and breadth shall be measured with steel tape correct to the nearest cm
and the area worked to the nearest two places of decimal in square meters.
2.3.2 Rough excavation and filling - Excavation for obtaining earth from borrow pits, cutting hillside
slopes etc., shall be described as rough excavation. Wherever filling is to be done, the earth from
excavation shall be directly used for filling and no payment for double handling of earth shall be
admissible. Filling of excavated earth shall be done as specified, in case of hill side cutting, where the
excavated materials are thrown down the hill slopes; payment for filling excavated earth shall not be
admissible.
2.3.3. Excavation over area (All kinds of soils) - This shall comprise :a) Excavation exceeding 1.5
m in width and 10 sq. m. on plan and exceeding 30 cm in depth.
b) Excavation for basement, water tanks etc.
c) Excavation in trenches exceeding 1.5 m in width and 10 sq. m. on plan.
2.3.4 Excavation over area (ordinary / hard rock) - This shall comprise:
a) Excavation exceeding 1.5 m in width and 10 sq. m. on plan and exceeding 30 cm in depth, .b)
Excavation for basements, water tanks etc, c) Excavation in trenches exceeding 1.5 m in width and
10 sq. m. on plan.
2.3.5 Excavation in trenches for foundations and drains (all kinds of soils) - This shall comprise
excavation not exceeding 1.5 m in width or 10 sq. m. on plan and to any depth in trenches (excluding
trenches for pipes, cables, conduits etc.
2.3.6 Excavation in trenches for foundation and drains (ordinary / hard rock) - This shall
comprise excavation not exceeding 1.5 m in width or 10 sq. m. on plan and to any depth in trenches
(excluding trenches for pipes, cables, conduits etc.)
2.3.7 Excavation in trenches for pipes, cables etc. refilling - This shall comprise excavation not
exceeding 1.5 mts. In width or 10 sq. m. in plan and to any depth in trenches for pipes, cables etc.
and returning the excavated material to fill the trenches after pipes, cables etc. are laid, their joints
tested, passed and disposal of surplus excavated material up to 50 m lead.
2.3.8 Width of trench - a) Up to one meter depth, the authorised width of
trench for excavation shall be arrived at by adding 25 cm to the external diameter of
pipe (not socket/collar) cable, conduit etc. Where a pipe is laid on concrete
bed/cushioning layer, the authorised width shall be the external diameter of the pipe

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(not socket/collar) plus 25 cm or the width of concrete bed/cushioning layer whichever
is more.
b) For depths exceeding one meter, an allowance of 5 cm per meter of depth for each side of the
trench shall be added to the authorised width (that is external diameter of pipe plus 25 cm) for
excavation. This allowance shall apply to the entire depth of the trench. In firm soils the sides of the
trenches shall be kept vertical up to a depth of 2 meters from the bottom. For depths greater than 2
meters, the excavation profiles shall be widened by allowing steps of 50 cm on either side after every
two meters from bottom.
c) Where more than one pipe, cable, conduit etc. are laid, the diameter shall be reckoned as the
horizontal distance from outside to outside of the outermost pipes, cable, conduit etc.
d) Where the soil is soft, loose or slushy, width of trench shall be suitably increased or side sloped or
the soil shored up as directed by the engineer. It shall be the responsibility of the contractor to take
complete instructions in writing from the engineer regarding increase in the width of trench, sloping or
shoring to be done for excavation in soft, loose or slushy soils.

2.4 SPECIFICATIONS FOR PROTECTION DURING EXCAVATION.

Excavation where directed by the engineer shall be securely fenced and provided with proper caution
signs, conspicuously displayed during the day and properly illuminated with red lights during the night
to avoid accidents.
The contractor shall take adequate protective measures to see that the excavation operations do not
damage the adjoining structures or dislocate the services. Water supply pipes, sluice valve chambers,
sewerage pipes, manholes, drainage pipes & chambers, communication cables, power supply cables
etc. met within the course of excavation shall be properly supported and adequately protected, so that
these services remain functional.
Excavation shall not be carried out below the foundation level of the adjacent buildings until
underpinning; shoring etc. is done as per the directions of the engineer for which payment shall be
made separately.

2.5 SPECIFICATIONS FOR BAILING / PUMPING OF WATER

All water that may accumulate in excavation during the progress of work from rains, subsoil water,
springs or any other cause shall be bailed, pumped out or otherwise removed. The foundations shall
be kept dry during excavation and laying of foundations. Pumping shall be done directly from the
foundation trenches or from a sump outside the excavation as necessary in such a manner as to
preclude the possibility of movement of water through any fresh concrete or masonry and washing
away parts of concrete or mortar. No pumping shall be allowed during laying of concrete or masonry
and for a period of at least 24 hours thereafter unless it is done from a suitable sump separated from
concrete or masonry by effective means. Pumping shall be done in such a way as not to cause
damage to the work or adjoining property by blows subsidence etc. Disposal of water shall not cause
inconvenience or nuisance in the area or cause damage to the property and structure nearby.

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2.6 SPECIFICATIONS FOR SITE CLEARANCE

Before the earth work is started, the area coming under cutting and filling shall be cleared of shrubs,
rank vegetation, grass, brushwood, trees and saplings of girth up to 30 cm measured at a height of
one meter above ground level and rubbish removed up to a distance of 50 meters outside the
periphery of the area under clearance. The roots of tress and saplings shall be removed to a depth of
60 cm below ground level or 30 cm below formation level or 15 cm below subgrade level, whichever is
lower, and the holes, or hollows filled up with the earth, rammed and leveled.
The trees of girth above 30 cm measured at a height of one meter above ground shall be cut only
after permission of the engineer is obtained in writing. The roots of tress shall also be removed.
Payment for cutting such trees and removing the roots shall be made separately.
Existing Structures and service such as old buildings, culverts, fencing, water supply pipe lines,
sewers, power cables, communication cables, drainage pipes, etc. within or adjacent to the area if
required to be diverted/removed, shall be diverted/dismantled as per directions of the engineer and
payment for such diversion/dismantling works shall be made separately.
In case of archaeological monuments within or adjacent to the area, the contractor shall provide
necessary fencing all-round such monuments as per the directions of the engineer and protect the
same properly during execution of works. Payment for providing fencing shall be made separately.

2.7. SPECIFICATIONS FOR SETTING OUT AND MAKING PROFILES

A masonry pillar to serve as a bench mark will be erected at a suitable point in the area, which is
visible from the largest area. This bench mark shall be constructed as per Fig.1 and connected with
the standard bench mark as approved by the engineer. Necessary profiles with strings stretched on
pegs, bamboos etc shall be made to indicate the correct formation levels before the work is started.
The contractor shall supply labour and material for constructing bench mark, setting and making
profiles and connecting bench mark with the standard bench mark at his own cost. The pegs,
bamboos etc and the benchmark shall be maintained by the contractor at his own cost during the
excavation to check the profiles.
The ground levels shall be taken at 5 to 15 meters intervals (as directed by the engineer) in uniformly
sloping ground and at closer intervals where local mounds, pits or undulations are met with. The
ground levels shall be recorded in field books and plotted on plans. The plans shall be drawn to a
scale of 5 metres to one cm or any other suitable scale decided by the engineer. North direction line
and position of benchmark shall invariably be shown on the plans. These plans shall be signed by the
contractor and the engineer or their authorised representatives before the earthwork is started. The
labour required for taking levels shall be supplied by the contractor at his own cost.

2.8 SPECIFICATIONS FOR EXCAVATION IN ALL KINDS OF SOILS

All excavation operations shall include excavation and getting out the excavated materials. In case
of excavation for trenches, basements, water tanks etc. getting out shall include throwing the
excavated materials at a distance of at least one meter or half the depth of excavation, whichever is
more, clear off the edge of excavation. In all other cases getting out shall include depositing the

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excavated materials as specified. The subsequent disposal of the excavated material shall be either
stated as a separate item or included with the items of excavation stating lead.
During the excavation the natural drainage of the area shall be maintained. Excavation shall be done
from top to bottom. Undermining or undercutting shall not be done.
In firm soils, the sides of the trenches shall be kept vertical up to a depth of 2 meters from the bottom.
For greater depths, the excavation profiles shall be widened by allowing steps of 50 cms on either
side after every 2 meters from the bottom. Alternatively, the excavation can be done so as to give
slope of 1: 4 (1 horizontal: 4 vertical). Where the soil is soft, loose or slushy, the width of steps shall
be suitably increased or sides sloped or the soil shored up as directed by the engineer. It shall be the
responsibility of the contractor to take complete instructions in writing from the engineer regarding the
stepping, sloping or shoring to be done for excavation deeper than 2 meters.
The excavation shall be done true to levels, slope, shape and pattern indicated by the engineer. Only
the excavation shown on the drawings or as required by the engineer shall be measured and
recorded for payment. In case of excavations the excavations as carried out shall be measured but
payment restricted to what is permissible as per approved drawings and as directed by the engineer.
In case of excavation for foundations in trenches or over areas, the bed of excavation shall be to the
correct level or slope and consolidated by watering and ramming. If the excavation for foundation is
done to a depth greater than that shown in the drawings or as required by the engineer, the excess
depth shall be made good by the contractor at his own cost with the concrete of the mix used for
leveling/bed concrete for foundations. Soft/ defective spots at the bed of foundations shall be dug out
and filled with concrete (to be paid separately) as directed by the engineer.
While carrying out the excavation for drain work, care shall be taken to cut the side and bottom to the
required shape, slope and gradient. The surface shall then be properly dressed. If the excavation is
done to a depth greater than that shown on the drawing or as required by the engineer, the excess
depth shall be made good by the Contractor at his own cost with stiff clay puddle at places where the
drains are required to be pitched and with ordinary earth, properly watered and rammed, where
the drains are not required to be pitched. In case the drain is required is to be pitched, the back filling
with clay puddle, if required, shall be done simultaneously as the pitching work proceeds. The brick
pitched storm water drains should be avoided as far as possible in filled-up areas and loose soils.
In all other cases, where the excavation is taken deeper by the contractor, it shall be brought to the
required level by the contractor at his own cost by filling in with earth duly watered, consolidated and
rammed.

2.9 SPECIFICATIONS FOR FILLING EXCAVATED EARTH IN FOUNDATION TRENCH, IN PLINTH

AND UNDER FLOOR ETC.
2.9.1 Earth - The earth used for filling shall be free from salts, organic or other deleterious matter.
Highly expansive soils like black cotton soil shall not be used, unless so specified. All clods of earth
exceeding 50 mm shall be broken or removed. Earth obtained from borrow pits and surplus earth
from excavation, if any, shall be directly used for filling and double handling avoided.
2.9.2 Filling sides of trenches - As soon as the work in foundation has been completed and
measured, the space around the foundation masonry in trenches shall be cleared of all debris,

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brickbats, etc., and filled with earth in layers not exceeding 250 mm, each layer being watered,
rammed and compacted before the succeeding one is laid. Earth shall be rammed with iron rammer
where feasible and with the butt ends of crowbar where rammer cannot be used.
2.9.3 Filling plinth, under floor and hard standing etc - Filling shall be started from the lowest level
in regular horizontal layers each not exceeding 250 mm in depth. Each layer shall be compacted by
ramming with rammers of 7 to 10 kg weight. Earth filling shall be adequately watered for achieving
maximum compaction.
2.9.4 Filling at the junction of the floors with walls and columns, shall be done with care to
ensure good compaction. The top surface of the filling shall be neatly dressed level or to a slope or
grade as directed.
2.9.5 Filling in large floors, like factory floors, hangars, hard standing, etc., where indicated,
each layer of earth filling shall be compacted by mechanical means such as sheep foot roller or by
hand roller or by power roller to 90 to 95 per cent of standard Proctors density under optimum
moisture conditions.
2.9.6 Filling in trenches for pipes, drains, cables, etc.
Earth used for filling shall be free from salts, organic or other deleterious matter. All clods of earth
exceeding 50 mm shall be broken or removed. Unless otherwise indicated, where the excavated
material is mostly rock, the rock fragment shall be broken into pieces not bigger than 150 mm size
and mixed with fine material consisting of decomposed rock moorum or earth as available, so as to fill
up the voids as for as possible and then the mixture used for filling.
Filling in trenches for pipes and drains shall be commenced only after the joints of pipes and drains
have been tested and passed by the engineer in writing.
Where the trenches are excavated in soil, the filling shall be done with earth on both the sides
simultaneously and on top of pipes in layers not exceeding 250 mm thick, watered, rammed and
compacted; taking care that no damage is caused to the pipe below.
In case of excavation in rock, the filling up to a depth of 300 mm above the crown of pipe shall be
done with fine material such as earth, moorum, or pulverized decomposed rock according to the
availability at site, in the same manner as described for trenches excavated in soil. The remaining
filling shall be done with rock fragments mixed with fine material as available to fill up the voids,
watered, rammed and compacted, in layers not exceeding 250 mm thick. Particular care shall be
taken in back filling to avoid future troubles from bursts and leakage due to differential settlement.

2.10 SPECIFICATIONS FOR MOORUM AND SAND FILLING IN FOUNDATIONS, PLINTH AND IN
FLOORS
2.10.1 Moorum - Moorum shall be obtained from approved pits and quarries of disintegrated rocks,
which contain silicon material, and natural mixture of clay of calcareous origin. These shall not contain
any admixture of ordinary earth. Size of moorum shall vary from dust to 40 mm gauge.
2.10.2 Sand - Sand shall be clean, free from dust, organic and other extraneous matter. It shall not
contain more than 5 percent of clay/silt.

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2.10.3 Shingle - Shingle shall be clean and free from foreign matter and obtained from river or canal
beds. Shingle of all in size ranging from 40 mm down to 4.75 mm gauge shall contain a sufficient
proportion of fine material to fill all interstices and ensure binding when consolidated.
2.10.4 Filling - Filling shall be done in a manner similar to earth filling in plinth except that thickness of
individual layer shall not exceed 15 cm. Shingle or ballast filling shall be binded with earth before
ramming/consolidation. The surface of the compacted moorum, sand or shingle shall be dressed to
the required level, grade or slope. In the case of moorum and sand filling, surface shall be flooded
with water for at least 24 hours, surface allowed to dry and then compacted and graded.
2.10.5. When the filling in floors etc., has nearly dried, any developing cracks shall be tapped and a
thin layer of the same material as used for filling and earth in case of shingle filling shall be spread
over the surface evenly and tapped in.
2.10.6. Measurements
2.10.6.1 The length and breadth of excavation or filling shall be measured with a steel tape correct
to the nearest cm. The depth of cutting or height of filling shall be measured, correct to 5mm, by
recording levels before the start of the work and after the completion of the work. The cubical
contents shall be worked out to the nearest two places of decimal in cubic meters.
2.10.6.2 In case of the ground is fairly uniform and where the site is not required to be leveled, the
engineer may permit the measurements of depth of cutting or height of filling with steel tape, correct to
the nearest cm. In case of borrow pits, diagonal ridges, cross ridges or dead men, the position of
which shall be fixed by the engineer, shall be left by the contractor to permit accurate measurements
being taken with steel tape on the completion of the work. Deduction of such ridges and dead men
shall be made from the measurements unless the same are required to be removed later on and earth
so removed is utilised in the work. In the later case nothing extra will be paid for their removal as
subsequent operation.
2.10.6.3 Where ordinary rock and hard rock is mixed, the measurement of the excavation shall be
made. The two kinds of rock shall be stacked separately and measured in stacks. The net quantity of
the two kinds of rocks shall be arrived at by applying deduction of 50% to allow for voids in stacks. If
the sum of net quantity of two kinds of rocks exceeds the total quantity for each type of rock shall be
worked out from the total quantity in the ratio of net quantities in stack measurements of the two types
of rocks. If in the opinion of the engineer stacking is not feasible, the quantity of ordinary and hard
rock shall be worked out by means of cross-sectional measurements.
2.10.6.4 Where soil, ordinary rock and hard rock are mixed, the measurements for the entire
excavation shall be made. Excavated materials comprising hard rock and ordinary rock shall be
stacked separately, measured, and each reduced by 50% to allow for voids to arrive at the quantity
payable under hard rock and ordinary rock. The difference between the entire excavation and the
sum of the quantities payable under hard rock and ordinary rock shall be paid for as excavation in soil
or hard soil as the case may be.
2.10.6.5 Where it is not possible or convenient to measure the depth of cutting by recording
levels, quantity of excavation shall be worked out from filling. The actual measurements of the fill
shall be calculated by taking levels of the original ground before start of the work after site clearance
and after compaction of the fill as specified and the quantity of earth work so computed shall be

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reduced by 10% in case of consolidation is done by heavy mechanical machinery to arrive at the net
quantity of excavation for payment. No such deduction shall, however, be made in case of
consolidation by heavy mechanical at optimum moisture content, or when the consolidated filling is in
confined situations such as under floors.
2.10.7. Rates - Rates for earthwork shall include the following;
a) Excavation and depositing excavated material as specified.
b) Handling of antiquities and useful material as specified.
c) Protection as specified.
d) Site clearance as specified.
e) Setting out and making profiles as specified.
f) Forming (or leaving) dead men or Tell Tales in borrow pits and their removal after measurements.
g) Bailing out or pumping over water from excavations.
h) Initial lead of 50 m and lift 1.5 m.
i) Blasting operations for having rock as specified.

2.11. SPECIFICATIONS FOR PLANKING AND STRUTTING

2.11.1 When the depth of trench in soft / l loose soil exceeds 2 metres, stepping sloping / or
planking and strutting of sides shall be done. In case of loose and slushy soils, the depths at which
these precautions are to be taken shall be determined by the engineer according to the nature of soil.
Planking and strutting shall be close or open depending on the nature of soil and the depth of
trench. The type of planking and strutting shall be determined by the engineer. It shall be the
responsibility of the contractor to take all necessary steps to prevent the sides of trenches from
collapse. Engineer should take guidance from IS: 3764 for designing the
shoring and strutting arrangements for specifying the profile of excavation.
2.11.2 Close planking and strutting
Close planking and strutting shall be done by completely covering the sides of the trench generally
with short upright, members called poling boards. These shall be 250 x 38 mm in section or as
directed by the engineer.
The boards shall generally be placed in position vertically in pairs, one boards on either side of
cutting. These shall be kept apart by horizontal walling of strong wood at a maximum spacing of 1.2
metres cross strutted with ballies, or as directed by engineer. The length and diameter of the ballies
strut depends upon the width of the trench.
Where the soil is very soft and loose, the boards shall be placed horizontally against the sides of the
excavation and supported by vertical walling, which shall be strutted to similar timber pieces on the
opposite face of the trench. The lowest boards supporting the sides shall be taken in the ground for a
minimum depth of 75 mm. No portion of the vertical side of the trench shall remain exposed.
The withdrawal of the timber members shall be done very carefully to prevent collapse of the trench.
It shall be started at one end and proceeded systematically to the other end. Concrete or masonry
shall not be damaged while removing the planks. No claim shall be entertained for any timber, which
cannot be withdrawn and is lost or buried, unless required by the engineer to be left permanently in
position.

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2.11.3 Open planking and strutting - In case of open planking and strutting, the entire surface of the
side of the trench is not required to be covered. The vertical boards, 250 mm wide & 38 mm thick,
shall be spaced sufficiently apart to leave unsupported strips of 50 cm average width. The detailed
arrangement size of the timber and the distances apart shall be subject to the approval of the
engineer. In all other respects, SPECIFICATIONS for close planking and strutting shall apply to open
planking and strutting.
2.11.4 Measurements - The dimensions shall be measured correct to the nearest cm and the area of
the face supported shall be worked out in square meters correct to the two places of decimal.
Works shall be grouped according to the following,
(1) Depth not exceeding 1.5 m.
(2) Depth exceeding 1.5 m in stages of 1.5 m.
Planking and strutting to the following shall be measured separately:
(3) Trenches.
(4) Areas the description shall include use and waste of raking shores.
(5) Shafts, walls, cesspits, manholes and the like.
(6) Where tightly driven close butt joined sheeting is necessary as in case of running sand the item
shall be measured separately and packing of cavities behind sheeting with suitable material included
with the item.
(7) Planking and strutting required to be left permanently in position shall be measured separately.
2.11.5 Rates - Rates shall include use and waste of all necessary timber work as mentioned above
including fixing maintenance and subsequent removal.

2.12. SPECIFICATIONS FOR EXCAVATION IN WATER, MUD OR FOUL POSITION

2.12.1 All water that may accumulate in excavations during the progress of the work from springs,
tidal or river seepage, broken water mains or drains (not due to the negligence of the contractor), and
seepage from subsoil aquifer shall be bailed, pumped out or otherwise removed. The contractor shall
take adequate measures for bailing and / or pumping out water from excavations and construct
diversion channels, bunds, sumps, coffer dams etc. as may be required. Pumping shall be done
directly from the foundation trenches or from a sump out side the excavation in such a manner as to
preclude the possibility of movement of water through any fresh concrete or mortar. During laying of
concrete or masonry and for a period of at least 24 hours thereafter, pumping shall be done from a
suitable sump separated from concrete or masonry by effective means.
2.12.2 Capacity and number of pumps, location at which the pumps are to be installed, pumping
hours etc. shall be decided from time to time in consultation with the engineer.
2.12.3 Pumping shall be done in such a way as not to cause damage to the work or adjoining
property by subsidence etc. Disposal of water shall not cause inconvenience or nuisance in the area
or cause damage to the property and structure nearby.
2.12.4 To prevent slipping of sides, planking and strutting may also be done with the approval of the
engineer.
2.12.5 Classification - The earth work for various classification of soil shall be categorised as under:

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a) Work in or under water and / or liquid mud - Excavation, where water is met with from any of
the sources as specified shall fall in this category. Steady water level in the trial pits before the
commencement of bailing or pumping operations shall be the sub-soil water level in that area.
b) Work in or under foul position - Excavation, where sewage, sewage gases or foul conditions are
met with from any sources, shall fall in this category. Decision of the engineer whether the work is in
foul position or not, shall be final.
2.12.6 Measurements - The unit, namely, meter depth shall be the depth measured from the level of
foul position/ sub-soil water level and up to the centre of gravity of the cross sectional area of
excavation actually done in the conditions classified. Meter depth shall be
reckoned correct to 0.1 m., 0.05 or more shall be taken as 0.1 m and less than 0.05 m ignored. The
extra percentage rate is applicable in respect of each item but the measurements shall be limited only
to the quantities of earth work actually executed in the conditions classified.
Pumping or bailing out water met within excavations from the sources as specified where envisaged
and specifically ordered in writing by the engineer shall be measured separately and paid. Quantity of
water shall be recorded in kilolitres correct to two places of decimal. This payment shall be in addition
to the payment under respective items of earthwork and shall be admissible only when pumping or
bailing out water has been specifically ordered by the engineer in writing.
Planking and strutting or any other protection work done with the approval of the engineer to keep the
trenches dry and / or to save the foundations against damage by erosion or rise in water levels shall
be measured and paid for separately.
Bailing or pumping out water accumulated in excavation, due to rains is included under respective
items of earthwork and is not to be paid separately.
2.11.7 Rates - The rates for respective items described above shall include cost of all the operations
as may be applicable.

2.13. SPEICIFICATIONS FOR SURFACE DRESSING OF GROUND

2.13.1 Surface dressing shall include cutting and filling up to a depth of 15 cm and clearing of
shrubs, rank vegetation, grass, brushwood, trees and saplings of girth up to 30 cm measured at a
height of one meter above the ground level and the removal of rubbish and other excavated material
upto a distance of 50 meters outside the periphery of the area under surface dressing. High portions
of the ground shall be cut down and hollows depressions filled up to the required level with the
excavated earth so as to given an even, neat and tidy look.
2.13.2 Measurements - Length and breadth of the dressed ground shall be measured correct to the
nearest cm and the area worked out in square meters correct to two places of decimal.
2.13.3 Rates - The rates shall include cost of labour involved in all the operations described above.

2.14. SPEICIFICATIONS FOR JUNGLE CLEARANCE

2.14.1 Jungle clearance shall comprise uprooting of rank vegetation, grass, brushwood, shrubs,
stumps, trees and saplings of girth up to 30 cm measured at a height of one meter above the ground
level. Where only clearance of grass is involved it shall be measured and paid for separately.

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2.14.2 Uprooting of vegetation - The roots of trees and saplings shall be removed to a depth of 60
cm below ground level or 30 cm below formation level or 15 cm below subgrade level, whichever is
lower. All holes or hollows formed due to removal of roots shall be filled
up with earth rammed and leveled. Trees, shrubs, poles, fences, signs, monuments, pipe lines,
cables etc. within or adjacent to the area which are not required to be disturbed during jungle
clearance shall be properly protected by the contractor at his own cost and nothing extra shall be
payable.
2.14.3 Stacking and disposal - All useful materials obtained from clearing and grubbing operation
shall be stacked in the manner as directed by the engineer. Trunks and branches of trees shall be
cleared of limbs and tops and stacked neatly at places indicated by the engineer. The materials shall
be the property of the Government. All unserviceable materials, which in the opinion of the engineer
cannot be used or auctioned, shall be removed up to a distance of 50 m outside the periphery of the
area under clearance. It shall be ensured by the contractor that unserviceable materials are disposed
off in such a manner that there is no likelihood of getting mixed up with the materials meant for
construction.
2.14.4 Clearance of grass - Clearing and grubbing operations involving only the clearance of grass
shall be measured and paid for separately and shall include removal of rubbish up to a distance of 50
m outside the periphery of the area under clearance.
2.14.5 Measurements - The length and breadth shall be measured correct to the nearest cm and the
area worked out in square meters correct to two places of decimal.
2.14.6. Rates - The rates include cost of all the operations described above.
Note: Jungle clearance and clearance of grass are not payable separately for the earthwork..

2.15. SPEICIFICATIONS FOR FELLING TREES

2.15.1 Felling - While clearing jungle, growth trees above 30 cm girth (measured at a height of one
metre above ground level) to be cut, shall be approved by the engineer and then marked at site.
Felling trees shall include taking out roots up to 60 m below ground level or 30 cm below formation
level or 15 cm below sub-grade level, whichever is lower.
All excavations below general ground level arising out of the removal of trees, stumps etc. shall be
filled with suitable material in 20 cm layers and compacted thoroughly so that the surfaces at these
points conform to the surrounding area. The trunks and branches of trees shall be cleared of limbs
and tops and cut into suitable pieces as directed by the engineer.
2.15.2. Stacking and disposal - Wood, branches, twigs of trees and other useful material shall be
the property of the Government. The serviceable materials shall be stacked in the manner as directed
by the engineer up to a lead of 50 m.
All unserviceable material, which in the opinion of engineer cannot be used or auctioned shall be
removed from the area and disposed off as per the directions of the engineer. Care shall be taken to
see that unsuitable waste materials are disposed off in such a manner that there is no likelihood of
these getting mixed up with the materials meant for construction.
2.15.3. Measurements - Cutting of trees above 30 cm in girth (measured at a height of one metre
above ground level) shall be measured in numbers according to the sizes given below

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a) Beyond 30 cm girth, up to and including 60 cm girth.
b) Beyond 60 cm girth, up to and including 120 cm girth.
c) Beyond 120 cm girth, up to and including 240 cm girth.
d) Above 240 cm girth.
2.15.4. Rate - The rate includes the cost involved in all the operations described above. The contract
unit rate for cutting trees above 30 cm in girth shall include removal of stumps as well.

2.16. SPECIFICATIONS FOR EXCAVATION IN ORDINARY / HARD ROCK

All excavation operations shall include excavation and getting out the excavated matter. In case of
excavation for trenches, basements, water tanks etc. getting out shall include throwing the excavated
materials at a distance of at least one meter or half of depth of excavation, whichever is more, clear
off the edge of excavation. In all other cases getting out shall include depositing the excavated
materials as specified. The subsequent disposal of the excavated material shall be either stated as a
separate item or included with the item of excavation stating lead.
During the excavation, the natural drainage of the area shall be maintained. Excavation shall be done
from top to bottom. Undermining or under cutting shall not be done.
Where hard rock is met with and blasting operations are considered necessary, the contractor shall
obtain the approval of the engineer in writing for resorting to the blasting operations. Blasting
operations shall be done as specified and chiseling shall be done to obtain correct levels, slopes,
shape and pattern of excavation as per the drawings or as required by the engineer and nothing extra
shall be payable for chiseling.
Where blasting operations are prohibited or are not practicable, excavation in hard rock shall be done
by chiseling or by such other methods prescribed by engineer.
In ordinary rock excavation shall be carried out by crowbars, pick axes or pneumatic drills and blasting
operation shall not be generally adopted. Where blasting operations are not prohibited and it is
practicable to resort to blasting for excavation in ordinary rock, contractor may do so with the
permission of the engineer in writing but nothing extra shall be paid for this blasting.
If the excavation for foundations or drains is done to a depth greater than that shown in the drawings
or as required by the engineer, the excess depth shall be made good by the contractor at his own cost
with the concrete for foundations. Soft/defective spots at the bed of foundations shall be dug out and
filled with concrete (to be paid separately) as directed by the engineer.
In all other cases where the excavation is taken deeper by the contractor, it shall be brought to the
required level by the contractor at his own cost by filling with earth duly watered, consolidated and
rammed.
In case the excavation is done wider than that shown on the drawings or as required by the engineer,
filling wherever required on this account shall be done by the contractor at his own cost.
Only the excavation shown on the drawings or as required by the engineer shall be measured and
recorded for payment except in case of hard rock, where blasting operations have been resorted to,
excavation shall be measured to the actual levels, provided the engineer is satisfied that the
contractor has not gone deeper than what was unavoidable.

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2.17. SPECIFICATIONS FOR BLASTING
2.17.1 Where hard rock is met with and blasting operations are considered necessary, the
contractor shall obtain the approval of the engineer in writing for resorting to blasting operation.
Note: In ordinary rock blasting operations shall not be generally adopted. However, the contractor
may resort to blasting with the permission of the engineer, but nothing extra shall be paid for such
blasting operations.
The contractor shall obtain license from the competent authority for undertaking blasting work as well
as for obtaining and storing the explosive as per the * Explosive Act, 1884 as amended upto date and
Explosive Rules, 1983. The contractor shall purchase the explosive fuses, detonators, etc. only from a
licensed dealer. Transportation and storage of explosive at site shall conform to the aforesaid
Explosive Act and Explosive Rules. The contractor shall be responsible for the safe custody and
proper accounting of the explosive materials. Fuses and detonators shall be stored separately and
away from the explosives. The engineer or his authorised representative shall have the right to check
the contractors store and account of explosives. The contractor shall provide necessary facilities for
this.
The contractor shall be responsible for any damage arising out of accident to workmen, public or
property due to storage, transportation and use of explosive during blasting operation.
2.17.2 Explosives: An explosive is a solid or liquid substance or a mixture of substances which on
application of a suitable stimulus is converted in a very short time interval into other more stable
substances, largely or entirely gaseous, with the development of heat and high pressure.
2.17.3 Classification of explosives
2.17.3.1 The explosives can be classified into the following types:
a) Low (or deflagrating) explosives;
b) High explosives: (i) Primary and (ii) Secondary.
2.17.3.2 Low explosives were the earliest to be developed. These lead to an explosion which is
really a rapid form of combustion in which the particles burn at their surfaces and expose more and
more of the bulk until all has been consumed. Such an explosion is called deflagration and the
reaction in this case moves slower than the speed of sound. Typical examples of this category are
the gun powder, propellants in ammunition, rocket propellants and pyrotechnics.
2.17.3.3 High explosives, depending on their composition, explode at velocities of 1500 8000 m/s
and produce large volumes of gases at considerable heat at extremely high pressures. High
explosives themselves may be further subdivided into primary explosives and secondary explosives.
Primary explosives are characterised by their sensitiveness to stimuli like mechanical shock, spark or
flame, the application of which will take explosive compounds from state of deflagration to detonation
easily. Examples of these explosives are Mercury Fulminate, Lead Azide, Lead Styphnate, Tetrazene
and other mixtures. These explosives are used as initiating charges in the initiating devices such as
detonators. Secondary explosives are capable of detonation only under the influence of a shock
wave, normally generated by the detonation of primary explosives. Secondary explosives of this type
are military explosives like TNT, RDX, PETN, Tetryl and other combinations of these and industrial
explosives like nitro-glycerin, emulsion, slurries and water gels. These explosives are normally set off
with suitable initiating devices like detonators or detonating cords. The explosive needing another

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high explosive for initiation is called blasting agent such as ANFO, some slurries, some emulsions
and mixtures of emulsions and ANFO.
2.17.4 Nitro-glycerin based explosives - Nitro-glycerin (NG) has been in use for a long time as the
most important sensitiser for commercial explosives.
It is, converted into a more convenient gelatinous (plastic) solid by the addition of 8% guncotton or
nitro-cellulose to form Blasting Gelatine or by absorbing it in Kieselghur to give straight dynamic
(containing about 75% NG), by admixture with other explosive agents and additives to form other
types of dynamites. The properties of nitroglycerine, and the way in which it is mixed with other
ingredients, determines the type of explosive produced.
2.17.5 Ammonium nitrate dry mixes
Ammonium nitrate (AN) and fuel oil (FO) mixtures, known as ANFO, were introduced for blasting
operations in mid 1950s. Ammonium nitrate in a proper form when mixed with carbonaceous or
combustible material in appropriate proportion forms a blasting agent. Although many forms of AN
could be used with a solid or liquid fuel to form a blasting agent, the porous prilled forms are preferred
for ANFO.
AN is stable at ambient temperatures, but can absorb moisture from the atmosphere. To minimise
moisture absorption and caking, the prills are lightly coated with anti-caking agents. Proper mixing of
AN and FO is important for predictable explosive performance.
Some of the nitrogen from the ammonium nitrate combines with this excess oxygen to form nitrous
oxide which, upon exposure to normal atmosphere, forms NO 2, an extremely toxic gas. An oxygen
balanced mixture, thus, maximises energy release while minimising the formation of toxic gases.
The blast hole diameter has a pronounced effect on the VOD (Velocity Of Detonation) of the ANFO.
As the diameter increases so does the VOD. But the energy yield does not vary with blast hole
diameter. Well mixed loose-poured ANFO can be used successfully in blast hole diameters down to
about 25 mm.
Although ANFO mixtures are explosives, they are relatively insensitive and unless suitably primed,
reliable detonation in large blast holes will not occur. In general, the primer should have a high VOD
and the maximum possible diameter. Needless to mention, the primer should be in intimate contact
with the ANFO.
Lack of water resistance is the major limitation and disadvantage of ANFO.
2.17.6 Slurry explosives
Slurry explosives were first developed as a result of attempts to waterproof, improve density and
strength of ammonium nitrate.
A slurry is a mixture of nitrates such as ammonium nitrate and sodium nitrate, a fuel sensitiser, either
explosive or non-explosive, and varying amounts of water. Although they contain large amounts of
ammonium nitrate, slurries are made water resistant through the use of gums, waxes, and cross
linking agents. Most commonly used fuel sensitisers are carbonaceous fuels, aluminium, and amine
nitrates. They are sensitised by air bubbles which are entrapped by churning the mixture. Even
when none of the ingredients are in themselves explosive substances and it is only in the final stages
of production that the compositions acquire explosive characteristics.

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 SECTION 2
Slurries could be manufactured without some of hazards usually present during explosives
manufacture, and the user no longer suffers the discomfort of headache associated with nitro-
glycerine based explosives. Except for their excellent water resistant and higher density and bulk
strength slurries are similar in many ways to dry blasting agents. Good oxygen balance, decreased
particle size and increased density, increased charge diameter, good confinement, and coupling and
adequate priming all increase their efficiency.
Most slurry depends on the entrapped air for their sensitivity. If this air is removed from slurry through
pressurisation from adjacent blast, prolonged periods of time in the boreholes, or prolonged storage,
the slurry may become desensitised. To overcome this problem, Perlite or Microballons are added.
2.17.7 Emulsion explosives
An emulsion is a two phased system in which an inner or dispersed phase is distributed in an outer or
continuous phase. In simpler terms an emulsion is a mixture of two liquids that do not dissolve in one
another. This unique feature coupled with the fact that minute size of the nitrate solution droplets are
tightly compacted within the continuous fuel phase results in good intimacy between the oxidiser and
fuel and increased reaction efficiency compared to other systems.
The emulsion matrix is obtained by emulsification of two immiscible liquids. By the process of
emulsification two types of emulsions are obtained, one is oil-in-water and other is water-in-oil. Water
is in discrete dispersed phase in water-in-oil emulsion in the form of the droplets dispersed in
continuous phase, which is oil phase whereas in oil-in-water emulsion, the reverse is true.
The emulsion explosives have the oxygen donor consisting of nitrates and perchlorates in an
aqueous solution. The water phase is in the form of the small droplets, in the continuous oil phase,
which constitutes the fuel. The fuel consists of mixtures of waxes and oil. The explosive in this case
is sensitised by gas bubbles in the form of microspheres. Additional strength can be achieved by the
addition of fuels such as aluminium powder.
2.17.8 Explosives for specialized blasting operations
2.17.8.1 Pipe charges - While carrying out blasting which requires minimum damage to the
remaining rock in which development of cracks needs to be reduced, then one way of achieving this
is the use of pipe charges which are explosives having lesser diameter (11 to 19 mm) than the
borehole. The reduced diameter thus provides decoupling between the hole walls and the explosives
and thus the peak pressure of the liberated gases reduces, causing reduced crushing and the
intensity of cracks developed in the rock around the blast hole gets reduced.
Pipe charges in rigid plastic tubes are used which can be screwed together by means of extension
sleeves. The cartridge dimensions range between 25 mm and 50 mm in diameter and 600 and 700
mm in length.
Some examples of pipe charges are K-pipe of Finland, Gurit of Nitro Nobel of Sweden. These types
of explosives are used in the last rows of a blast while carrying out smooth blasting operation.
Comparatively weaker explosives are also used in many situations to blast very weak rocks.
Polystyrene granules have been mixed with ANFO to obtain reduced energy explosives thus the
crushing of rock and intensity and extent of cracking get reduced.

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 SECTION 2
2.17.9 Explosives properties - Each explosive has certain specific characteristics or properties.
Some of the principal properties of explosives are: detonation velocity, strength, density, detonation
pressure, water resistance; sensitivity; safety in handling; storage qualities; sensitiveness and fumes.
2.17.10 Detonation velocity - The detonation velocity is a measure of the speed at which the
detonation wave travels through a column of explosives. Many factors affect the detonation velocity
such as explosive type, diameter, confinement, temperature and priming.
The detonation velocities of commercial explosives range from about 1500 m/s to more than 6700
m/s. Velocity of detonation (VOD) for common explosives falls within the range of 3000 to 5000 m/s.
Every explosive has an ultimate or ideal velocity, steady-state velocity of the explosive.
Depending upon the type of explosive up to a certain diameter the velocity of detonation of an
explosive is influenced by the diameter. In general, the larger the diameter the higher the velocity
until the steady state velocity of the explosive is reached.
Every explosive also has a critical diameter which is the minimum diameter at which the detonation
process, once initiated, will support itself in the column. In diameters smaller than the critical the
detonation of the explosive will not be supported and will be extinguished.
Generally, the greater the confinement of an explosive, the higher is the detonation velocity. This is
particularly true for products such as ANFO and some watergels in small diameter boreholes.
It is essential that adequate priming is ensured so that the explosive may reach its maximum velocity
as quickly as possible. Inadequate priming can result in the failure of the explosive to detonate, a
slow build-up to final velocity, or a low order detonation.
2.17.11 Energy / strength - A large number of tests and various calculations have been made which
refer to energy content to predict the performance of explosives. However, the term strength
traditionally associated with the strength ratings of different dynamite grades, has little correlation
with the effectiveness of an explosive in blasting and has no meaningful relation to modern
commercial products like ANFO, emulsions or water gels.
Explosive energy ratings - The nitro-glycerine or straight dynamites are rated according to
percentage by weight of nitro-glycerine they contain. A 60% straight dynamite contains 60% of nitro-
glycerine, the 30% grace strength contains 30% nitro-glycerine, etc. An erroneous concept is that the
actual blasting power developed by the different grades is in direct proportion to the strength ratings.
Such simple ratios unfortunately do not exist because nitro-glycerine is not the only energy-producing
ingredient in their formulation.
Performance of an explosive - is not determined simply by knowing the total energy released by the
explosive. It depends also upon the rate of energy release and how effectively the energy is utilised
in fragmenting, and moving the material being blasted. Both the explosive properties and the
properties of the material being blasted influence the effectiveness of an explosive.
Under water tests - Some of the current tests or calculations to measure and characterise an
explosive energy are the various underwater tests, the pressure time measuring technique in the
rock, and the theoretical calculation techniques.

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2.17.12 Density
The density of explosives is expressed in g/cm3. Densities of commonly used explosives are:
ANFO free poured 0.80 g/cm3
ANFO charged pneumatically from pressure vessel up to0.95 g/cm3
Watergels and emulsions 0.80 to 1.50 g/cm3
Semigelatine and gelatine 1.0 to 1.60 g/cm3
Cast boosters 1.60 g/cm3
In general commercial water gels, emulsions and nitro-glycerine based explosives commonly used
are in the range of 1.10 to 1.35 g/cm 3. The prime purpose in varying the density of commercial
explosives is to enable the total energy charge in a borehole to meet particular field conditions.
2.17.13 Detonation pressure and explosion pressure - The detonation pressure is the pressure in
the shock zone ahead of the reaction zone. When an explosive detonates, tremendous pressure is
released, practically instantaneously, in a shock wave, which exists for only a fraction of second at
any given place. The sudden pressure thus created will shatter rather than displace objects. The
detonation pressure is a function of the density, the detonation velocity, and the particle velocity of the
explosive. For condensed explosives, the particle velocity is about of the detonation velocity. The
detonation pressure can be approximated as follows:
P = 2.5 .V2 x 10 6 Where P = Detonation pressure (kilo bars), = Density (g/cm3) and
V = Velocity of detonation (m/s).
The detonation pressure is important in that it is related to the stress level in the material to be
blasted which may be an important factor in fragmentation. It is also important in priming for effective
and reliable initiation that the detonation pressure of the primer exceeds the detonation pressure of
the main explosive charge.
The detonation pressure is different from the explosion pressure, which is the pressure after adiabatic
expansion back to the original explosive volume. The explosion pressure is theoretically about 45%
of the detonation pressure.
2.17.14 Water resistance - The ability of an explosive to withstand water penetration is termed as
water resistance. Water resistance is generally expressed as the number of hours a product may be
submerged in static water and still be detonated reliably. Explosives penetrated by water have their
efficiency impaired first and, upon prolonged exposure or in severe water conditions, they may be
desensitised to a point where they will not detonate.
Commercial explosives vary widely in their ability to resist the effect of water penetration. Ammonium
nitrate/fuel oil has no inherent water resistance. If ANFO is poured into water filled drill holes, it will
quickly desensitise. Packaged ANFO products, if used in wet work, depend entirely on their
packaging to resist water penetration. Slurries, emulsions and many nitro-glycerine based products
have good water resistance.
2.17.5 Sensitivity - Sensitivity is the measure of ease of initiation. There are numerous measures of
sensitivity, including cap sensitivity, drop tests, friction test and others. These tests are often carried
out to measure an explosives ease of initiation through accidental means and thereby measure
safety in handling.
Cap sensitivity not only characterises an explosives ease of initiation with a blasting cap, but also is
used to classify products. Either a No. 6 strength or No. 8 strength detonator is used as standard by
the explosive industry.
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Normally the explosive is initiated by the use of a detonator but some explosives need more powerful
initiation. As an example it can be mentioned of ANFO and some slurry explosives which are
normally initiated by using some cap sensitive explosive primers or special primer consisting of an
explosive with a high detonation velocity.
2.17.16 Safety in handling
Safety in handling is very important and one obvious requirement of an explosive is that it can be
transported, stored and used under normal conditions without any risk to people who carrying out
blasting operation. Explosives are subjected to many tests before they are approved for use.
Explosives, regardless of their degree of safety, should never be abused in any way.
2.17.17. Storage qualities - Most explosives are perishable, and both climate and magazine
conditions are factors of great importance in their storage. Very old stock of explosives should not be
used.
2.17.18. Sensitiveness - Sensitiveness of an explosive is a measure of its propagating ability. NG-
based explosives and some slurries are specified in terms of gap sensitivity.
An explosive with high flash-over tendency can cause flash-over between adjacent drill holes if the
holes are closely spaced. Particularly in the case of rock types which have many cracks, and under
moist conditions, there is a risk of flashover.
2.17.19 Fumes - The gases resulting from the detonation of commercial explosives are principally
carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water vapour, all are non-toxic in the ordinary sense. However,
poisonous or toxic gases including carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides also result from detonation.
These toxic gases are called fumes.
The composition of an explosive is said to be balanced when the oxygen contained by the ingredients
combines, with the carbon and hydrogen content to form carbon dioxide and water. If there is
insufficient oxygen (a negative oxygen balance), the tendency to form carbon monoxide is increased.
If there is an excess of oxygen (a positive oxygen balance), oxides of nitrogen are formed.
In open blasting operation fumes cause little concern if they can be quickly dispersed by air
movement, but in underground work the type and amount of explosive, the blast conditions,
ventilation and other factors must be considered.
2.17.20 Initiation systems - Commercial explosives (and blasting agents) are designed to be
relatively stable for safe usage, transport, storage and manufacture. A powerful localised shock or
detonation is required to initiate commercial explosives. There are basically two methods of initiation:
electrical and non-electrical.
2.17.20.1 Electrical initiation systems - An electrical initiation utilises an electrical power source
with an associated circuit to convey the impulse to the electric detonator which in turn fires and
initiates the explosive charge.
2.17.20.2 Detonators - All detonators consist of a metal tube or shell 6.5 to 7.5 mm in diameter
(outer) of varying length. Normally detonator shells are made of aluminium. At the closed end of the
tube an explosive charge of either a single initiating explosive (as mercury fulminate) or a
combination of secondary explosive (base charge) and an initiating explosive charge (top charge) is
placed. The charges are compacted to give the desired strength and also ensure that they do not fall
out while handling. The quantity of charge used must be adequate to reliably initiate the high

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 SECTION 2
explosive. Either No. 6 strength or No. 8 strength detonators are used. No. 6 strength detonator was
originally the strength obtained from 1 g of a mixture containing mercury fulminate and 20%
potassium chlorate. No. 8 strength detonators have explosive mixture equivalent to 2 g of 80% of
mercury fulminate and 20% potassium chlorate. Detonators are classified as plain detonators or
electric detonators. In the electric detonators (Fig. 2), the electrical current to the detonator is
supplied from the power source through the circuit wiring to the detonator by means of two leg-wires
that are internally connected by a small length of high resistance bridge wire. The electrical energy is
converted into heat energy on passing the firing current through bridge wire. The heat energy ignites
the pyrotechnic that surrounds the bridge wire on the match head assembly. The resulting flash or
flame ignites initiating charge or the delay element, these in turn set off base charge. A rubber or
neoprene plug seals the opening and only the leg wires pass through the plug. This prevents
contamination by foreign material or water. Electrical detonators may again be classified as
instantaneous and delay detonators.
2.17.20.3 Instantaneous detonators - Instantaneous detonators fire within a few millisecond (less
than 5 ms) after they receive the current. These are used when all the holes are to be fired
simultaneously.
2.17.20.4 Delay detonators - In delay detonators, a delay element is inserted between the electric
fuse head and the ASA/PETN charge in the detonator (Fig 3). This delay element consists of a
column of slow burning composition. The length and composition determine the amount of delay-time
introduced into the detonator.
2.17.20.5. Basic delay series There are two types.
(1). Half-second interval between successive numbers (also called long delay detonators);
(2). Millisecond interval between successive numbers (also called short delay detonators).
The long delay detonators are used mainly in tunneling and shaft sinking. The short or millisecond
delay detonators are the most commonly used delays.
2.17.20.6 Electric blasting circuits - In order to fire electric detonators, they must be connected
together in a firing circuit and energised by a power source. There are three types of blasting circuits:
series parallel and series/parallel.
2.17.20.7 Safety fuse and plain detonators - Safety fuse has a core consisting of granulated
gunpowder. The continuous core is covered with molten bitumen and in some kinds of fuse an extra
costing of high polymeric material is given to make it highly waterproof.
The most important requirement of safety fuse is that it should have a uniform rate of burning. Fuse
should be test burned periodically so that the blaster can keep a record of its actual burning rate.
Plain or ordinary detonator is the earliest of the modern blasting detonators which provide non-electric
method of initiating explosive charges, when used in conjunction with safety fuse. The detonator
contains two types of charges (sometime three types); the igniting charges and the base charge. The
igniting charge ensures flame pickup from the safety fuse, which in turn detonates the base charge
and thus detonates the explosive charge being primed with the detonator.
2.17.20.8 Detonating cord initiation- As an alternative to electric blasting, detonating cord initiation
has been used for many years. It is mainly used in multihole blasting and when detonated, has the
initiating energy of a detonator at all points. Generally in mining practice, one line of detonating fuse

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is used as a trunkline, from which a number of branches are drawn each of which leads into a hole
containing explosive to be blasted.
The most commonly used detonating cord has an explosive charge of normally 10 g of PETN per
meter run. The diameter of this cord is nominally 4.65 mm and it has a breaking strength in excess of
100 kg.
2.17.20.9. Delay connectors - Millisecond delay surface connectors are used for delaying detonating
cord blasts. To place a delay between two holes, the trunkline between holes is cut and the ends are
joined with a delay connector. Detonating Relays, consist of a long aluminium tube with two mini
delay detonators on either side and having an attenuator in the centre. Openings at either end are
provided to receive and crimp the cut ends of the detonating fuse. At each end of the element is an
opening into which a loop of trunkline can be inserted. A tapered pin is used to lock the trunkline cord
into place. Delays of 25 ms and 50 ms are available.
2.17.21. Non-electric systems (shock tube system). There are three types.
1) Nonel, 2) Raydet and 3) Exel.
2.17.21.1. The Nonel system - Nonel is the common trade name of a series of blast initiation
accessories developed by Nitro Nobel of Sweden, which uses shock tube principle. The system is
based on a plastic tube, the inside of which is coated with a reactive substance that maintains the
propagation of a shock wave at a rate of approximately 2000 m/s. This shock wave has sufficient
energy to initiate the primary explosive or delay element in a detonator. Since the reaction leaves the
tube intact, there is no lateral shock effect and the tube acts merely as a signal conductor.
The Nonel tube is made of flexible plastic with an outside diameter of 3 mm and inside diameter of
1.5 mm. In its standard form it is transparent. The tube is crimped to a delay detonator.
Electrical methods provide a relatively accurate method of initiating a blast circuit that may readily be
tested prior to initiation. Primary disadvantages however are that electrical detonators are more
susceptible to accidental initiation by heat, impact, friction or extraneous current from static, stray
current, lightning or radio waves.
Non-electrical methods, on the other hand are relatively insensitive to premature or accidental
initiation from these cases noise from detonating cord surface lines. The introduction of the shock
tube system has eliminated some of these problems.
2.17.21.2. Blasting accessories
- Power source (exploders, sequential blaster or appropriate mains firing instrument).;
- Blasting circuit testers;
- Non-metallic measuring tapes equipped with lead or non-sparking weights;
- Lowering ropes;
- Non-sparking lowering and retrieving hooks;
- Tamping poles (wooden or non-sparking);
- Blasting knives
- Connecting wire (new not reclaimed);
- Firing cable

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Exploders are machines, which provide the required electrical power to fire a series of electrical
detonators. Usually there are two types of exploders; generator type and condenser discharge type.
The capacity of the exploder must be 1.5 to 2 times the needed capacity.
The blasting galvanometer is used only to check the circuit resistance, whereas a blasting multimeter
can be used to check resistance, ac and dc voltage, stray currents, and current leakage. Only a
meter specifically designed for blasting should be used to check blasting circuits. The output of such
meters is limited to 0.05 amp, which will not initiate an electric blasting cap. Electric blasting caps
should not be used in the presence of stray currents of 0.05 amp or more.
2.17.21.3. Raydet - Non-electric devices made by IDL Chemicals are now available in India. Raydet
like NONEL system consists of a plastic tube carrying a very small quantity of explosive material on
its inner surface. A high strength \no.8 instantaneous or delay detonator is crimped to one end of the
ray tube. When initiated a low order shock wave travels through the tube and reliably initiates the
detonator. It can be initiated by a detonator or detonating cord. A tag indicates the delay number of
Raydet and a tape fastening the tube in a coil indicates the tube length.
2.17.21.4. Exel shock tube - This is the single layer shock tube initiation system developed by ICI
Explosives. Recently ICI had conducted trials with this system and are planning to introduce this
product in a big way in our country.
The tubing is made from readily available polyfin polymer blends. By a dynamic melt flow process,
the surface properties are enhanced, which enable a thin film of explosive dust to adhere to the inner
wall. It has four times the tensile strength and four times the abrasion resistance of regular shock
tube. This is achieved by cold draw/orientation process.
EXEL detonator assemblies have been used in a variety of operations, and have proved to be safe
and reliable under a variety of loading conditions.
2.17.21.5. Exel detonator - These are short delay and long delay series of detonators made with
fixed tube lengths. These detonators look and function similar to electric delay detonators. The
detonator is inserted in the explosive to make a primer which goes down-the-hole. On the surface,
shock tube tails can be connected as per field requirement. The easiest way of making surface
connections is to connect all the tails with a detonating cord trunkline. Detonating relays are inserted
in the surface hookup to provide a combination of surface and down-the-hole delays.
2.17.21.6. Exel trunkline - Exel Trunkline when used with detonating cord on the surface creates an
air blast. Compared to the detonating cord, shock tube detonators are almost noiseless. Surface
hookup with shock tubes would provide scope for great reduction in the air blast. This requirement is
fulfilled by "EXEL" Trunkline delay detonators (TLD). The "EXEL" TLD detonator comprises of a
specified length of tube crimped to a delay detonator which is enclosed in a special plastic block.
Each TLD block can hold and initiate upto 5 "EXEL" tubes.
2.17.21.7. Exel Handidet - It combines a short delay detonator and TLD into one single unit. In this
one end of the tube is crimped to a short delay detonator (200 to 500 ms) and the other end has short
delay detonator (25 to 50 ms) enclosed in a TLD block. During application, the longer delay detonator
goes into the explosive to make a primer and on the surface TLD block is used for making
connections.

2 -21
 SECTION 2
2.17.22. Blasting operations - General - Blasting operations shall be carried out under the
supervision of a responsible authorised agent of the contractor (referred subsequently as agent only),
during specified hours as approved in writing by the engineer or his authorised agent. The agent shall
be conversant with the rules of blasting. In case of blasting with dynamite or any other high explosive,
the position of all the bore holes to be drilled shall be marked in circles with white paint. These shall
be inspected by the contractors agent. Boreholes shall be of a size that the cartridge can easily pass
down. After the drilling operation, the agent shall inspect the holes to ensure that drilling has been
done only at the marked locations and no extra hole has been drilled. The agent shall then prepare
the necessary charge separately for each borehole. The boreholes shall be thoroughly cleaned
before a cartridge is inserted. Only cylindrical wooden tamping rods shall be used for tamping. Metal
rods or rods having pointed ends shall never be used for tamping. One cartridge shall be placed in
the bore hole and gently pressed but not rammed down. Other cartridges shall then be added as
may be required to make up the necessary charge for the borehole. The top most cartridges shall be
connected to the detonator which shall in turn be connected to the safety fuses of required length. All
fuses shall be cut to the length required before being inserted into the holes. Joints in fuses shall be
avoided. Where joints are unavoidable, a semi-circular nitch shall be cut in one piece of fuse about 2
cm deep from the end and the end of other piece inserted into the nitch. The two pieces shall then be
wrapped together with string. All joints exposed to dampness shall be wrapped with rubber tape.
The maximum of eight boreholes shall be loaded and fired at one occasion. The charges shall be fired
successively and not simultaneously. Immediately before firing, warning shall be given and the agent
shall see that all persons have retired to a place of safety. The safety fuses of the charged holes shall
be ignited in the presence of the agent, who shall see that all the fuses are properly ignited.
Careful count shall be kept by the agent and others of each blast as it explodes. In case all the
charged bore holes have exploded, the agent shall inspect the site soon after the blast but in case of
misfire the agent shall inspect the site after half an hour and mark red crosses (X) over the holes
which have not exploded. During this interval of half an hour, nobody shall approach the misfired
holes. No driller shall work near such bore until either of the following operations has been done by
the agent for the misfired boreholes.
a) The contractors agent shall very carefully (when the tamping is of damp clay) extract the tamping
with a wooden scraper and withdraw the fuse, primer and detonator. After this a fresh detonator,
primer and fuse shall be placed in the misfired hole, and fired, or
b) The holes shall be cleaned for 30 cm of tamping and its direction ascertained by placing a stick in
the hole. Another hole shall then be drilled 15 cm away and parallel to it. This hole shall be charged
and fired. The misfired holes shall also explode alongwith the new one.
Before leaving the site of work, the agent of one shift shall inform the other agent relieving him for the
next shift, of any case of misfire and each such location shall be jointly inspected and the action to be
taken in the matter shall be explained to the relieving agent.
The engineer shall also be informed by the agent of all cases of misfires, their causes and steps taken
in that connection.
2.17.23. General precautions - For the safety of persons red flags shall be prominently displayed
around the area where blasting operations are to be carried out. All the workers at site, except those

2 -22
 SECTION 2
who actually ignite the fuse, shall withdraw to a safe distance of at least 200 metres from the blasting
site. Audio warning by blowing whistle shall be given before igniting the fuse.
Blasting work shall be done under careful supervision and trained personnel shall be employed.
Blasting shall not be done within 200 metres of an existing structure, unless specifically permitted by
the engineer in writing.
All procedures and safety precautions for the use of explosives drilling and loading of explosives
before and after short firing and disposal of explosives shall be taken by the contractor as detailed in
IS : 4081, safety code for blasting and related drilling operation (Annexure 2-A.2).
2.17.24. Precautions against misfire - The safety fuse shall be cut in an oblique direction with a
knife. All saw dust shall be cleared from inside of the detonator. This can be done by blowing down
the detonator and tapping the open end. No tools shall be inserted into the detonator for this purpose.
If there is water present or if the bore hole is damp, the junction of the fuse and detonator shall be
made water tight by means of tough grease or any other suitable material.
The detonator shall be inserted into the cartridge so that about one-third of the copper tube is left
exposed outside the explosive. The safety fuse just above the detonator shall be securely tied in
position in the cartridge. Water proof fuse only shall be used in the damp bore hole or when water is
present in the bore hole.
If a misfire has been found to be due to defective fuse, detonator or dynamite, the entire consignment
from which the fuse, detonator or dynamite was taken shall be got inspected by the engineer or his
authorised representative before resuming the blasting or returning the consignment.

2.18. SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONTROLLED BLASTING

2.18.1. The objectives of controlled blasting techniques include
a) Minimization of over break and/or fracturing of rock beyond the designed boundary of excavation
so as to achieve smooth post blast surface
b) Control of fly rock and/or ground vibration within permissible limits and
c) To serve both the above purposes
2.18.2. Techniques for minimising rock damage - The main purpose of controlled blasting is to
minimise fracturing and loosening of the rock mass beyond the predetermined excavation line/profile.
The objective is normally achieved by minimising and judicious use of explosives in the blast holes.
Several controlled blasting techniques such as line drilling, pre-splitting, smooth blasting and cushion
blasting are used to achieve the mentioned objectives.
2.18.3. Line drilling - For many years line drilling was the only technique used for over break control.
In line drilling, a single row of closely spaced, unloaded, small diameter holes is drilled along the
excavation line. This provides a plane of weakness to which the primary blast can break and to some
extent reflects the shock waves created by the blast, reducing the shattering and stressing in the
finished wall. Line drilling is best suited to homogenous formations where bedding planes, joints, and
seams are at a minimum.
Line drilling has very limited application. The only place where it is applicable is in areas where even the
light explosive loads associated with other controlled blasting techniques may cause damage beyond the

2 -23
 SECTION 2
excavation limit, or where line drilling is used between loaded holes to promote shearing and guide the
pre-split line.
2.18.4. Pre-splitting Pre-splitting involves a single row of holes drilled along the excavation line.
Pre-split in the rock forms a discontinuous zone which minimises or eliminates over break from the
subsequent primary blast and produces a smooth, finished rock wall. Pre slitting is also used to
reduce ground vibration in some critical cases.
2.18.5. Smooth blasting - Smooth blasting sometimes referred to as contour blasting or perimeter
blasting. This method is widely accepted for controlling over break in canal, underground headings
and slopes. In smooth blasting the holes are drilled along the excavation limits, lightly loaded with well
distributed charges, and fired last in the blasting round. The holes for smooth blasting should be fired
instantaneously or with minimum delay to achieve a shearing action and smooth walls with minimum
over break.
Smooth blasting and pre-splitting techniques differ mainly from the line drilling principle in that some
or all of the holes are loaded with relatively light, well-distributed charges of explosives. The fact that
the firing of these charges tends to crack or split the rock between the holes permits wider hole
spacing than when line drilling. Consequently drilling costs are reduced and in many cases better
control of over break is obtained.
2.18.6. Cushion blasting - Cushion blasting sometimes referred to as trimming. Like smooth wall
blasting, a single row of holes is drilled along the excavation line, loaded with light, well distributed
charges, and fired after the main excavation is removed. In cushion blasting, the charged holes are
further decoupled by reducing the diameter or using stemming material of crushed stone or sand to
provide crushing effect. This cushions the shock from the finished wall as the holes are detonated
and minimises the stresses and fractures in the finished wall. This technique is rarely used today
because the reduction in decoupling could be achieved by the use of small diameter explosive
cartridges which serves the same purpose. The holes are blasted using the last delay number in the
same blasting round preferably with jumping delay of 50 mts.
The suitable parameters for controlled blasting are established through trial blasts. Usually it needs to
establish the optimum hole spacing and the charge per hole.
2.18.7. Ground vibration - When an explosive charge is detonated inside a blast hole it is instantly
converted into hot gases and the expanding gases exert intense pressure on the blast hole walls. A
high intensity shock wave travels through the rock mass which attenuates sharply with distance.
Simultaneously the rock around the blast hole up to twice the radius of the original hole gets
completely crushed. Expanding gases continue to work on the rock, extending the cracks and moving
the rock outward and upward. A major portion of the explosive energy passes beyond the fractured
zone in the form of elastic ground vibrations. As seismic waves travel through the rock mass, they
generate particle motions which are termed as ground vibrations. The velocity of oscillation of rock
particles is called particle velocity and its maximum value is called peak particle velocity (PPV).
Internationally, peak particle velocity is used to express the intensity of ground vibrations from
blasting. Damage caused by ground vibration is dependent on PPV and the frequency of the ground
motion.

2 -24
 SECTION 2
Even though, the use of explosives has unwanted side effect in the form of vibration, explosives
provide an inexpensive source of energy for rock excavation in mining and civil engineering projects.
Vibrations from blasting are of transient nature but the disturbance may result in permanent damage
to property/structure. Most of vibration associated problems may be expressed as two separate
questions:
1) What level of vibration will be produced by the proposed excavation activities? This will depend on
the method of excavation and the seismic propagation characteristics of the site.
2) What is the acceptable level of vibration in terms of particle velocity or displacement or
acceleration? This will depend on the type of structures at risk.
The answers to both of these questions are sitespecific and need trial blasts for vibration
measurements as part of the site investigation program.
2.18.8. Principle factors affecting vibration - When a blast is fired, the vibration
level is controlled by two principal factors, distance and charge size. Obviously, it is
safer to be far away from a blast than to be near it. Equally obvious is that a large
explosive charge is more dangerous than a small charge.
2.18.9. Safe limits of vibration -Various codes and standards have been prescribed for ground
vibration limits in different countries. Some have so little that urban blasting is prohibited
altogether while others have more than the regularly allowed 50 mm/s maximum peak particle
velocity at high excitation frequencies. The recent trend is to refer to the frequency of the
ground motion. Low frequency waves cause more damage to structures particularly in case of
multi-storied buildings. For low frequency ground vibration, the safe level of vibration from this
curve is 12.5 mm/s.
2.18.10. Vibration control procedures - The most common method of controlling ground vibration is
by minimising the charge weight per delay. Delay blasting permits to divide total charge into smaller
charges, which are detonated in a predetermined sequence at specified intervals. Blasting without
delay or sufficient delay numbers increases ground vibrations due to increase in maximum charge per
delay.
The vibration can be significantly reduced by optimising blast design parameters. It is suggested to
establish optimum burden, hole spacing, powder factor and hookup to control vibration.

2.19. SPECIFICATIONS FOR FLY ROCK CONTROL.

The rock fragments ejected from the blast called fly rock is a serious hazard of blasting operations,
particularly when the blast is conducted in the vicinity of village and structures. The factors which
influence the fly rock distance include:
1) Height of stemming column in the blast holes and type/quality of stemming material.
2) Irregular shape of free face
3) Excessive large burden or blasting without free face
4) Muffling of the blast area and the muffling material type.
5) Scattering and overlapping of delay timings of the delay detonators/relays.
6) Presence of water in blast holes.

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 SECTION 2
The first four parameters can be controlled by properly designing the blasting pattern whereas the last
two parameters are not easily controllable.
Fly rock can be controlled by proper blast design and by muffling/covering. From the experience it is
found that unless blast design is proper, muffling will not be effective. Proper blast design and
accurate implementation of the blast are the two areas of fundamental concern for controlling the fly
rock. The third important parameter is understanding the local geology and adjusting the explosive
charge with regard to the geological features.
The reliable and effective method of controlling fly rock fragments from the mouth of the blast holes
(vertical fly rock on the rear side) is the height of stemming column. It has been observed that the fly
rock, particularly towards the rear side, was effectively controlled by maintaining the height of
stemming column in all holes greater than the burden. The height of stemming column should be 1.2
to 1.5 times the burden.
A good stemming material should retain borehole pressure till the burden rock starts to move. Dry
angular material under the effect of the impulsive gas pressure tends to form a compaction arch which
locks into the wall of a blast hole, thus increases its resistance to ejection. In general, drill cutting is a
better stemming material as compared to sand and should be preferred except in case of watery
holes. In case of watery holes only sand free of clayey materials should be used as stemming
material.
If fly rock is originating from the face and flying far distances, it could be an indication that too little
burden is used or that mud seams or other geological discontinuities are prevalent. Most fly rock
however, is not produced from the face. It is produced from the top.
If fly rock towards the free face side is also to be contained then the blasting should be done using the
technique of buffer blasting along with muffling. Buffer blasting is a technique in which a buffer of
blasted rock of 4 to 6 m thick should be left against the next round of blast.
Muffling or covering of holes including entire area to be blasted is one of the most common methods
to contain the distance of travel of flying fragments particularly when blasting is done within the
danger zone as specified by DGMS.
In mining blasts, the most common practice is covering the blast using wire mesh of 50 mm x 50 mm
to 75 mm x 75 mm. Gunny bags and cartridge empty boxes 4 to 5 numbers are filled with sand or drill
cuttings are placed over the wire mesh. Sometimes the entire area to be blasted is covered by old
belt conveyors over the wire net which was found to be more effective as compared to wire nets
alone. Gunny bags filled with sand, free of pebbles, weighing at least 30 to 40 kg should be placed
over the belt conveyor which is placed over the wire nets at an interval of 2 m between and within the
rows. This method will contain the vertical fly to a great extent.
Flying fragments is excessive when blasting is done in shallow holes and where bench height or hole
depth is less than two times the burden. Therefore for controlling flyrock, the bench height must be
greater than two times the burden and preferably three times the burden. The fly rock is also
excessive in watery holes.

2.20. SPECIFICATIONS FOR ROCK BREAKING WITHOUT EXPLOSIVES

2 -26
 SECTION 2
2.20.1. One of the alternatives to explosives for rock breaking is to use of chemical compounds near
very sensitive structures where blasting is not permitted. These chemical compounds are non-
explosive in nature since they create only cracks in the rock without any violent reaction. These are
basically high expansive cements which when mixed with proper proportion of water and poured in

drill holes generate high lateral pressure, exceeding 300 kg/cm 2 in about 6 to 8 hours which result in
breaking of rock without generating any dust, fume, noise, fly rock and vibrations. However, such
non-explosive chemicals should only be used under the expert supervision to optimise various
parameters. The potential areas where it can be gainfully used include secondary breakage of
boulders, pre-splitting, smooth blasting, controlled breakage, pit slope stabilisation and production of
dimension stone. However, the cost of breakage by non explosive chemicals is anticipated to be 6-8
times more than explosives.
Another alternative is to go for hydraulic splitters and hydraulic hammers. However, mechanical
breakage is costly because the initial capital cost of the equipment.
2.20.2. Measurements and rates - Measurements and Rates shall be as in 2.10.6, 2.10.7 and
Annexure 2-A.7 [Extract of IS: 1200 (Part 1)]

FOUNDATIONS
2.21 General
2.21.1 Pre-construction- After the excavation is done, construction of foundations should be
undertaken. However, certain pre-construction activities should be completed before commencement
of work. These are described below.
Drainage - If the site of the building is such that water would drain towards it, land may be dressed or
drains laid to divert the water away from the site.
Setting out - Generally the site shall be leveled before the layout of foundations is set out. In case of
sloping terrain, care shall be taken to ensure that the dimensions should be set out with Theodolites in
case of important and intricate structures where the length of site exceeds 16 m. In other cases these
should be set out by measurement of sides. In rectangular or square setting out, diagonals shall be
checked to ensure accuracy.
The setting out of wall shall be facilitated by permanent row of pillars, parallel to and
at a suitable distance beyond the periphery to and at a suitable distance beyond the
periphery of the building. The pillars shall be located at junctions of cross walls with
the peripheral line of pillars. The centre lines of the cross walls shall be extended and
permanently connected to the tops of corresponding pillars.
The datum lines parallel to and at a known distance fixed from the centre lines of external walls
should also be permanently set on the rows of pillars to serve as checks on the accuracy of the work
as it proceeds.
The tops of pillars shall be at the same level and preferably at plinth or floor level. The pillars shall be
of sizes not less than one brick wide and shall be embedded sufficiently deep into the ground so that
they are not disturbed.
2.21.2. Protection of excavation - Protection of excavation during construction of shoring, timbering,
dewatering operations, etc, shall be ensured.

2 -27
 SECTION 2
After excavation, the bottom of the trench shall be cleared of loose soil and rubbish and shall be
leveled, where necessary.
Excavations, in clay or other soils, that are likely to be effected by exposure of atmosphere, shall be
concreted as soon they are dug. Alternatively, the bottom of the excavation shall be protected
immediately by 8 cm thick layer of cement concrete not leaner than mix 1:5:10; the foundation
concrete should then be placed on this. Or in order to obtain a dry hard bottom, the last stretch of
excavation of about 10 cm shall be removed just before concreting.
The refilling of excavation shall be done with care so as not to disturb the just constructed foundation.
The backfill should be carried out evenly on both sides of the wall. The fill shall be compacted in
layers not exceeding 20 cm thick, with sprinkling of just enough water necessary for proper
compaction.
2.21.3. Types of foundations
(1). Shallow foundations - These cover such types of foundations in which load transfer is primarily
through shear resistance to the soil and are normally laid to a depth of 3 m.
The various types of shallow foundations are as under
a) Spread or Pad (see IS: 1080-1986),
b) Strip (see IS: 1080-1986),
c) Raft [see IS: 2950(Part 1)-1981], and
d) Ring and Shell (see IS: 11089-1984 and IS: 9456-1980).
(2). Deep foundations - These foundations are generally in the form of piles, caissons, and
diaphragm walls, used separately or in combination to transmit the loads to a deeper load bearing
strata. The transfer of load may be through friction, end bearing or a combination of both.
The various types of deep foundations are as under
a) Pile foundations
1) Driven cast in-situ see IS: 2911 (Part 1/Sec 1)-1979
2) Bored cast in-situ see IS: 2911 (Part 1/Sec 2)-1979
3) Driven precast see IS: 2911 (Part 1/Sec 3)-1979
4) Bored precast see IS: 2911 (Part 1/Sec 4)-1984
5) Timber see IS: 2911 (Part 2)-1980
6) Under-reamed see IS: 2911 (Part 3)-1980
b) Diaphragm walls see IS: 9556-1980
c) Combined foundations Two or more of the above
2.21.4. Foundations for special structures-These include foundations for machines, towers, etc.
Machine foundations are subject to vibrations. Manufacturers instructions, if any, may be followed.
Indian standards cover machinery foundations for reciprocating type [see IS: 2974 (Part 1)-1982];
Impact type [see IS: 2974 (Part 2)-1980], Rotary type [see IS: 2974 (Part 3)-1992 and IS: 2974 (Part
4)-1979]; Impact type (other than Hammer) [see IS: 2974 (Part 5)-1987}.
Tower foundations are covered by IS: 4091-1979 for steel towers and by IS: 11233-1985 for Radar,
Antenna, Microwave and TV towers.
2.21.5. Construction of foundations

2 -28
 SECTION 2
Shallow foundations - In shallow foundations, generally, masonry and/or concrete, plain and
reinforced, are used. The procedure for masonry and concrete foundations shall be the same as
described in masonry and concrete work.
Pile foundations Under-reamed piles, though listed under deep foundations also are used for
foundations up to 3 m depth.
Under-reamed foundations - Under reamed piles are of bored cast in-situ and bored compaction
concrete types having one or more bulbs formed by suitably enlarging the bore hole of the pile stem.
With the provision of bulbs, substantial bearing or anchorage is available.
These piles find application in widely varying situations in different types of soils where foundations
are required to be taken to a certain depth in view of considerations like the need, (1). To avoid the
undesirable effect of seasonal moisture content changes as in expansive soils, (2). To reach firm
strata, (3) To obtain adequate capacity for downward, upward and lateral loads and moments; and (4)
To take the foundations below scour level. Under reamed piles may also be used in situations where
vibrations and noise caused during construction of piles are to be avoided.
The provision of bulbs is of advantage in under reamed piles to resist uplift as they can be used as
anchors; increased bearing surface also becomes available.
2.21.6. Materials
a) Cement The cement used shall conform to the requirements of IS: 269-1989 or IS: 455 1989 or
IS: 8041-1990 or IS: 6909-1990 or IS: 1489 (Parts 1 and 2)-1991 or IS 12269-1987.
b) Steel Reinforcement steel shall conform to IS: 432 (Part 1)-1982 ; or IS: 1786-1985 ; or IS 2062 :
1992. For under reamed bored compaction piles, the reinforcement cage shall be prepared by
welding the hoop bars to withstand the stresses during compaction process.
c) Concrete - Consistency of concrete for cast in-situ piles shall be suitable to the method of
installation of piles.
Concrete shall be so designed or chosen as to have a homogenous mix. Slump of concrete shall
range between 100 mm and 150 mm for concreting in water free unlined bore holes. For concreting
by Tremie, a slump of 150 mm to 200 mm shall be used. In case of Tremie concreting of piles of
smaller diameter and depth up to 10 m, the minimum cement content should be 350 kg/m 3 of
concrete. For piles of larger diameter and/or deeper piles, the minimum cement content should be
400 kg/m3 of concrete. In case the piles are subsequently exposed to water or incase piling is done
under water or drilling mud is used in methods other than Tremie, 10 percent extra cement shall be
used over and above that required for the grade of concrete at specified slump. For making concrete,
aggregate, as described in IS 456: 2000 shall be used. For Tremie concreting, aggregates having
nominal size more than 20 mm should not be used. For bored compaction piles Rapid Hardening
Cement conforming to IS 8041: 1990 shall not be used.
2.21.7. Equipment - Normally the equipment required for manual operations are, a) auger; b) under-
reamer; c) boring guide; and d) accessories.
For piles of deeper and larger size greater than 30 cm and a portable tripod hoist with manually
operated winch is required.
For piles in high ground water table and unstable soil conditions, boring and under-reaming shall be
carried out using suitable equipment. Tremie pipe shall be used for concreting.

2 -29
 SECTION 2
For compact piles, the additional equipment required are drop weight for driving the core assembly
and pipe or solid core.
2.21.8. Construction - a) Bore holes may be made by earth augers. In case of manual boring, an
auger boring guide shall be used to keep the bores vertical or at the desired inclination and in
position. After the bore is made to the required depth, enlarging of the bore shall be carried out by
means of an under-reaming tool. b) Drilling mud may be used for boring and under-reaming in a site
with high water table. Bentonite may be used. c) To avoid irregular shape and widening of bore hole
in very loose strata at top, a casing pipe of suitable length may be temporarily used. d) For better
under-reamed piles, the reinforcement cage should be placed guiding it by a chute or any other
means.
e) In order to achieve proper under-reamed bulb, the depth of bore hole should be checked before
starting under-reaming. It should also b checked during under reaming; any extra soil at the bottom of
bore hole shall be removed by auger before re-inserting the under reaming tool. f) The completion of
the desired under reamed bulb is ascertained by vertical movement of the handle and when no further
soil is cut. g) In multi-under-reamed piles, the boring is first completed to the depth required for the
first (top) bulb only and after completing under reaming bulb, the boring is extended further down to
the second bulb and so on.
h) The piles shall be installed as correctly as possible, both at the correct location and truly vertical (or
at the specified batter). Piles shall not deviate by more than 75 mm or one quarter the stem diameter
whichever is less; for piles of diameter more than 600 mm, the deviation may be 75 mm or 10 percent
of the stem diameter. i) Concreting shall be done as soon as possible after completing the bore. The
bore hole full of drilling mud should be concreted between 12 to 24 h depending on the stability of the
hole. j) The method of concreting should be such that the entire volume of the pile bore is filled up
without formation of voids and/or mixing of soil and drilling fluid in the concrete.
For placing concrete in pile bores, funnel should be used.
In the empty bore holes for under reamed piles a small quantity of concrete is poured to give about a
100-mm layer of concrete at the bottom. Reinforcement is lowered next and positioned correctly. The
concrete is poured to fill the bore hole. Care shall be taken that soil is not scrapped from sides if
rotting is done for compaction. Vibrators shall not be used.
If the subsoil water level is confined to the bucket length portion at the toe, the seepage is low and the
water should be bailed out before commencing concreting.
In case the pile bore is stabilized with drilling mud or by maintaining water head within the bore hole,
the bottom of bore hole shall be carefully cleaned by flushing it with fresh drilling mud and the pile
bore be checked before concreting.
Concreting shall be done by the Tremie method. The Tremie should have a valve at the bottom and
lowered with the valve closed at the start and filled up with concrete. The valve is them opened to
permit concrete which permits the upward displacement of drilling mud. The pouring should be
continuous and the Tremie is gradually lifted up such that the pipe opening remains always in the
concrete. In the final stage the quantity of concrete shall be enough so that on the final withdrawal
some concrete spills on the ground (see Notes 1 to 5).

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 SECTION 2
Notes- 1), All Tremie tubes should be cleaned before and after use.
2). The Tremie pipe should always penetrate well into the concrete with an adequate margin
of safety against withdrawal of the pipe.
3). The Tremie method shall not be changed for a given pile, to prevent the laitance from being
entrapped in the pile.

4). In the case of withdrawal of a pile accidentally or to remove a choke, the Tremie may be

reintroduced in a manner to prevent fragmentation of laitance or scum lying on the top of the concrete
deposited already in the bore.
5). In the exceptional case of interruption of concreting, which can be resumed in one
or two
hours, the Tremie shall not be taken out of concrete. Instead it shall be raised or
lowered slowly, from time to time, to prevent the concrete around the Tremie from
setting. Concreting should be resumed by introducing a little richer mix of concrete
with a slump of about 200-mm for easy displacement of the partly set concrete. If the
concreting cannot be resumed before the final set of concrete, the pile may be
rejected or used with modifications.
k) In inclined piles, concreting should be done through a chute or by Tremie method.
l) A bored compaction pile is one in which the compaction of surrounding ground as well as fresh
concrete in the bore is simultaneously accomplished. In under reamed bore compaction piles, the pile
shall be filled up with concrete, without placing reinforcement. Immediately, the core assembly shall
be driven and extra concrete shall be poured in simultaneously to keep the level of concrete up to
ground level. If a hollow driving pump is used in core assembly, the pipe shall be withdrawn after
filling it with fresh concrete.
m) The top of the concrete pile shall be brought above the cut-off level to permit removal of all laitance
and weak concrete before capping and to ensure good concrete at the cut-off level for proper
embedment into the pile cap.
n) Where cut-off level is less than 1.5 m below working level, concrete shall be cast to minimum of
300 mm above cut-off level, for every excess of 0.3 m over 1.5 m, additional of 50 mm shall be cast
over and above 300 mm.
When Tremie method is employed, it shall be cast to the piling platform level to permit overflow of
concrete for visual inspection or to a minimum of 1 m above cut-off level.
When the cut-off level is below the ground water level, there is a need to maintain a pressure on the
unset concrete equal to or greater than the water-pressure and a length of extra concrete above the
cut-off level may be permitted to provide this.
o) When defective piles are formed, they shall be removed or left in places whichever is convenient,
without affecting the performance of adjacent piles or the cap as a whole.
Any deviation beyond permissible limits from the designed location, alignment or load capacity of any
pile shall be note d and adequate measures to taken well before the concreting of the pile cap and
plinth beam.
The pile should project 50 mm into the cap concrete.
2.22. Precast piles
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2.22.1. Bored precast piles - Bored precast concrete piles are constructed in a casting yard and
subsequently lowered into pre-bored holes and the space grouted.
As far as possible, in-situ extensions shall be avoided.
The casting yard should be well drained.
As far as possible, longitudinal reinforcement shall be in one length. In case joints are needed, they
should be staggered.
The hoops and links for reinforcement shall fit tightly against the longitudinal bars and be bound to
them by welding or by tying with binding wire, the free ends of which should be turned into the interior
of the pile. The longitudinal bars may be held apart by temporary or permanent spreader forks not
more than 1.5 m apart. The reinforcement shall be checked for tightness and position immediately
before concreting.
After casting the piles, they shall be stored as described in section 0.
Bored precast piles shall be constructed by suitable choice of boring and installation techniques
depending on detailed information about the subsoil conditions. The bottom end of the pile shall have
proper arrangements for cleaning and grouting. Piles shall be installed as vertically as possible
according to the drawings, or to the specified batter. The deviation from pacified alignment shall be as
permitted for under-reamed piles in 3.3.
Cement and sand (1:2) grout mixed with water in a high-speed colloidal mixer is fed to the pile with
grout pump of suitable capacity to the central duct through a manifold. Temporary casing used here
shall be removed in stages with the rise of level of grout. The grout should be leveled off at the top.
The strength of the grout shall be at least equal to the strength of the surrounding soil.
Where a pile is to have another length cast on to it before or during placing, the longitudinal
reinforcement should be welded with full penetration butt welding, after the concrete at the top of the
pile should be cut-off to expose not less than 200 mm of the bars. Bars may be lapped if it is not
possible to undertake butt welding with an overlap of 40 times the dia of bar.
2.22.2 Driven precast piles - Driven precast piles transmit the load of the structure by resistance
developed either at the tip or by end bearing or along the shaft by friction or by both. They are cast in
a yard and subsequently driven into the ground with or without jetting. These piles find wide
application for structures, such as, wharves, jetties, etc, or where conditions are unfavorable for use of
cast in-situ piles.
Pile foundations shall be designed in such a way that the load of supports
can be transmitted to the soil without any soil failure and without causing settlement
as may result in structural damage. It shall withstand all loads (vertical, axial, or
otherwise) and moments to be transmitted to the soil.
When working near existing structures care shall be taken to avoid damage to such structures. In
case of deep excavations adjacent to piles, proper shoring or other suitable arrangements be
provided against lateral movement of soil stratum or releasing the confined soil stress. [For guidance,
see IS: 2974 (Part 1)-1982 for effect of vibrations due to reciprocating machines].
The casting yard for all concrete piles shall be so arranged that they can be lifted directly into the
piling area. The yard shall have a well drained surface to prevent excessive or uneven settlement
during manufacturing and curing.

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 SECTION 2
As far as possible longitudinal reinforcement shall be in one length. In case joints are needed they
shall be butt welded and staggered.
The hoops and links reinforcement shall fit rightly against the longitudinal bar and bound to them by
mild steel wire or by welding. The bars may be held apart by spreader forks not more than 1.5 m
apart. The reinforcement shall be checked for tightness and position before concreting.
After casting the piles, it shall be cured and stored.
Any type of hammer provided they penetrate to the prescribed depth or attain the specific resistance
without being damaged may drive the piles. Any change in the rate of penetration, which cannot be
ascribed to normal changes in the nature of the ground, should be noted and cause ascertained if
possible before driving is continued.
The head of the precast pile should be protected with packing of resilient material.
Piles should be installed as accurately as possible in a pile group. The sequence of installation of pile
shall be from centre to the periphery of the group or one side to the other.
For details of manufacture of piles, pile driving, etc, reference may be made to IS 2911 (Part 1/Sec 3)-
1979.
2.22.3 Cast in-situ piles
Cast in-situ driven piles transmit load to the soil by resistance developed by the toe of
the pile or by end bearing or by friction along their surface or by both.
(1) Materials (see in 3.3.1)
(2) Equipment Among the commonly used plants, tools and accessories the suitability depends on
subsoil conditions, manner of operation, etc., and some commonly used equipment are:
a) Dolly A cushion or hardwood or suitable material placed on top of the casing to receive hammer
blows;
b) Drop hammer Hammer (rams or monkey) raised by a winch and allowed to fall under gravity;
c) Single or double acting hammer A hammer operated by steam or compressed air;
d) Kentledge Dead weight used for applying a test load to a pile; and
e) Pile rig A fabricated movable steel frame.
(3) Construction.
a) Concrete The minimum slump should be 100 mm when the concrete in the pile is not
compacted, and shall not in any case be more than 180 mm.
b) Control of alignment Piles shall be installed as accurately as possible according to the
drawings. Permitted deviations shall be as per 3.3.3.
c) Sequence of piling In a pile group, the sequence of installation of piles shall normally be from
centre to the periphery of the group.
No adjacent pile should be driven until the concrete in the pile under construction has set; otherwise
the pile may be damaged. The damage is greater in piles driven in compact soils than in loose soils.
In loose sandy soils compaction will increase as the piles are driven. Therefore the order of installing
such a pile should be so chosen as to avoid creating a compacted block in the ground, which would
prevent further piles being driven.
Similar precautions should be taken in stiff clayey soils and compact sand layers; driving the piles
from centre outwards can do this.

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 SECTION 2
However in very soft soils, the driving of piles should be from outside to centre, so that soil is
prevented from floating out during driving of piles.
The casing may be jetted out by means of water without impairing the bearing capacity of the pile,
stability of the soil and safety of adjoining structure.
The cut off level, formation of laitance, etc shall be dealt with as in 3.3.3.
Defective piles shall be dealt with as in 3.3.3.
2.22.4. Bored piles - The bored cast in-situ piles, of less than 2 500 mm transmit the load to soil by
resistance developed either at the tip by end bearing or along the shaft by friction or by both.
(1) Bored cast in-situ piles may be driven by suitable choice of installation techniques; the manner of
soil stabilization, that is, using of casing and/or use of drilling mud; manner of concreting, etc.
Sufficient information on sub soil conditions is essential to predetermine the details of installation
techniques.
(2) Piles shall be installed as accurately as possible as per drawings. Great care shall be taken in
installing single pile or a group of two piles. Any deviation from designed location, alignment or load
capacity of any pile shall be noted and adequate measures taken well before the concreting of the pile
cap and plinth beam.
(3) A minimum length of 1 m of temporary casing shall be inserted in each bored pile. Additional
length of temporary casing may be used depending on the conditions of strata, ground water level,
etc. Drilling mud of suitable consistency may be used instead of temporary casings to stabilize sides
of holes. For marine locations, the piles may be formed with permanent casing (liner).
(4) In case the bored pile is stabilized by drilling mud or by maintaining water heads in the hole, the
bottom of the hole shall be cleaned carefully before concreting work is taken up. Flushing of holes
before concreting with fresh drilling fluid/mud is preferred.
(5) The specific gravity of the drilling mud shall be consistent. For this periodic samples shall be taken
and tested. Concreting shall not be taken up when the specific gravity is more than 1.2. Concreting
shall be done by Tremie method in all such cases. The slurry should be maintained at 1.5 m above
ground water level if casing is not used.
(6) Concreting may be done by Tremie method or by the use of specially designed underwater placer
to permit deposition of concrete in successive layers without permitting the concrete to fall through
free water.
(7) Convenience of installation may be taken into account while determining the sequence of piling in
a group.
(8) The top of concrete in a pile shall be brought above cut-off level to permit removal of laitance and
weak concrete before capping and to ensure good concrete at the cut-off level for proper embedment
into the pile cap.
(9) In case defective piles are formed, they shall be removed or left in places whichever is convenient
affecting the performance of the adjacent piles or the cap as a whole. Additional piles shall replace
them.
(10) Pneumatic tools shall not be used for chipping until seven days after pile casting. Manual
chipping of pile top may be permitted after 3 days of casting the pile.

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 SECTION 2
(11) After concreting the actual quantity of concrete shall be compared with the average obtained from
actual observations in the case of few piles cast initially. If the quantity is found to be considerably
less, special investigations shall be conducted and appropriate measures taken.
2.22.5. Timber piles - Timber piles find extensive use for compaction of soils and also for supporting
as well as protecting water front structures. The choice of use of timber piles shall be mainly
governed by the site conditions, particularly water table conditions. They are comparatively light for
their strength and are easily handled. However, they will not withstand as hard driving as steel or
concrete piles. Timber has to be selected carefully and treated as durability and performance would
considerably depend upon the quality of the material and freedom from natural defects.
Class of piles - Depending upon the use, piles shall be classified as Class A and Class B.
(1) Class A For railway and highway bridges, trestles, docks and warehouses. The
butt diameter or sides of square shall not be less than 30 cm.
(2) Class B For foundation work other than specified in Class A and temporary
work. Piles used for compaction of ground shall not be less than 100 mm in diameter
or side in case of square piles.
Timber species - The species of timber shall conform to IS 3629: 1986. The length of the individual
pile shall be specified length 30 cm for long and 60 cm for lengths above 12 m. In case of round
piles, the ratio of heartwood diameter to the pile butt diameter shall not be less than 0.8. Both the
ends shall be sawn at right angles to the length of the pile and trimming the knots and limbs shall
make surface.
The timber shall be treated as per IS 401: 1982 on timber preservation.
Control of pile drives - The piles in each bent of a pile shall be selected for uniformity in size to
facilitate placing of bracing members.
The pile tip shall be pointed (unless driving is in wholly soft strata) in the form of truncated cone or a
pyramid having the end 25 cm2 to 40 cm2 in area and the length shall be 1 to 2 times the diameter
or side of a square.
f the driving is to be done in hard material such as stiff clay, gravels, etc, metal shoes of approved
design shall be attached to the tip.
To prevent splitting and reduce brooming, the head of the pile should be hooped with a suitable ring or
wrapped with wires. The heads of piles shall be further protected by the provision of cushion blocks.
If the piles are required to be formed from two or more lengths, the butting surfaces shall be cut
square to ensure contact over the whole cross section of the pile. A thin steel plate placed between
the butting surfaces will reduce the tendency to brooming.
The pieces should also be secured with steel tubes or steel flats. Splices in the middle of the pile
should be avoided. If it is necessary to obtain increase in size and length of pile by building up
sections, the joints should be staggered and the timber members connected by means of bolts or
screws.
Piles shall be installed as accurately as possible according to drawings.
In a pile group, the sequence of installation of piles shall normally be from center to periphery of the
group or from one side to the other. Adjacent piles shall not be damaged when driving a pile; the
danger is greater in compact soils than in loose soils.

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 SECTION 2
Driving piles in loose sand tends to compact the sand, which in turn increases the skin friction for
friction piles. Therefore the order of installing of such a pile group should avoid creating a compact
block of sand pile into which further piles cannot be driven.
Similar precautions have to be taken in case piles have to be driven into stiff clay or compact sand
layers. This may be overcome by driving piles from the centre to the periphery or by beginning at a
selected edge or working across the group. In case of very soft soils, driving may have to proceed
from outside to inside, so that soil is retained from flowing and during operation.
Jetting of cases by means of water shall be carried out if required in such a manner as not to impair
the bearing capacity of piles already in place, the stability of the soil or the safety or any adjacent
buildings.
Defective piles shall either be removed or left in place as is convenient without affecting the
performance of the adjacent piles or the cap as a whole. Additional piles shall be provided to replace
the defective piles.
Any sudden change in the rate of penetration, which cannot be ascribed to the nature of ground, shall
be noted and its cause ascertained, if possible, before driving is continued.
Handling of piles - Care shall be taken to see that the piles are sufficient numbers of points, properly
located to prevent damage due to excessive bending.
Treated piles shall be handled with hemp or manila rope slings or other means of support that will not
damage the surface of the wood. c) Dropping, brushing, breaking of fibres and penetrating the surface
shall be avoided. d) Sharp pointed tools shall not be used for handling or turning them in leads.

Minor abrasions of the surface of treated piles below cut-off level in the portions, which are to be
remaining permanently under water, shall be permitted.

Surface of treated piles below cut-off shall not be disturbed by boring holes or driving nails to support
temporary material or staging.

Load test on piles - Shall be done as prescribed in IS: 2911 (Part 4)-1985.
2.23. Machine foundations
2.23.1. General - Machine foundations are specialized structures, according to type of machines,
namely, rotary, impact, reciprocating, etc. however, a few criteria for construction are listed below.
2.23.2. Criteria for construction
Concrete - The concrete used shall be controlled concrete. The grade of concrete shall be between
M15 to M20 for block foundations and M20 for formed foundations. A slump of 50 mm to 80 mm is
allowable. The concrete used is of plastic consistency without excessive water. The water cement
ratio shall not exceed 0.45, which shall be maintained throughout the concreting of foundation.
Continuous concreting shall be done as far as possible for the entire block, leaving
provisions for grouting.
All areas under and adjacent to the foundation shall be well cleaned prior to pouring
of concrete. The surfaces except the pockets for grout shall be made rough so as to
secure good bond with fresh cement. Cement grout with non-shrinkable additive
shall be used where structurally required.

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 SECTION 2
All elements of foundation shall be provided both at top and bottom by two-way reinforcement.
Reinforcement shall be provided along the surface in case of block foundations. The amount of
reinforcement shall vary between 25 to 50 kg/m 3 of concrete as the case may be. The minimum dia
shall be 12 mm and maximum shall be 20 mm in order to take care of shrinkage. Concrete cover
shall be 75 mm at bottom, 50 mm on sides and 40 mm on top.
The finished surface of the foundation shall be leveled before installing the machine.
The foundation bolts shall be properly anchored.
Construction joints should be avoided. If needed the plane of the joint shall be
horizontal.
The requirements of a construction joint are:
a) Embed dowels of 12 mm to 16 mm dia at 60 mm centers to a depth of at least 30 cm depth; and
b) Before laying fresh concrete, the previously laid surfaces shall be cleaned and roughened and
covered by a rich layer of 1:2 cement grout 20 mm thick, concrete should be placed not later than 2 h
after the grout is laid.
2.24. Miscellaneous - For field testing of soils reference may be made to SP: 36 (Part 2)-1988.
Some information choice and characteristics of foundations is given in Annexure 2-A.4 Information on
improvement of weak soils to carry more loads is given in Annexure 2-A.5.
2.25. Special Structures - Requirements of foundations for special structures shall be as per design
and drawings and any requirements specified. By and large IS: 456-2000 may be followed.
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