BASICS OF MEASUREMENTS

HARI SHANKAR MALLIK

CENTRAL DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, T.U.
 No amount of experiments can ever
prove me right; a single experiment
may at anytime prove me wrong.
Albert Einstein

It doesn't matter how beautiful your

theory is, it doesn't matter how smart
you are. If it doesn't agree with
experiment, it's wrong.
Richard P. Feynman
 MOTIVATION

Physics is an experimental science.

It is impossible to do an experimental measurement with perfect

accuracy even it is assumed that the experimenters are
careful and honest.
Measurement 7.94 cm
The last digit is an estimate
Thus, the precision of measurement is limited by the
instrument
 Least Count = 0.1 cm

If you measure, Length = 7.9 cm then

If you measure, Length = 7.94 cm then uncertainty
uncertainty
may be 0.01 may
cm be 0.1 cm (L.C.)
i.e. Length
i.e. Length= =7.94
7.9 0.01
0.1 cm
cm (1/10 of L.C.)
WILL BE BACK
 For this : you should know

Significant Figures
Rounding off Numbers
Mathematical operations with Significant Figures
Precision & Accuracy
Uncertainty
 Significant Figures

(Reliable figures obtained by measurement)

A significant figure is any one of the

digits
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
and
0 is a significant figure except when it is used to fix
the decimal point or to fill the places of unknown
 Rules by Measurement
# of

Examples: S.No.
(unit)
Significant
Figures
a) 6152 4
Allifnon
If zero numbers
decimal
no point,
decimal point b) 5400* 2
are
zero significant
Anyafter
zerothe nonzero c)
Any zero between 5230. 4
digitsaresignificant
thats before d) 986.7 4
non zero numbers
Butandzero before
after the
all of the e) 5002 4
are significant
nonzero
nonzero digits f) 54.00 4
digitsareinsignificant
isinsignificant g) 052320 4
h) 0.005230 4
i) 54.0 102 3
j) 4.050 4
*Zeroes may or may not be significant for numbers like
5400
(where it is not clear whether two, three, or four
significant figures are indicated).

To avoid this ambiguity, such numbers should be expressed in

scientific notation.
2 significant fig.
5.4 103
3 significant fig.
5.40 103
4 significant fig.
5.400103
 REMEMBER:
Physical or Mathematical constants
, c (speed of light), h (Planck's constant) etc.

Conversion Factors
1 inch = 2.54 cm, 1 kg = 1000 g, 1 cal = 4.182 J etc.

Coefficients of Formula

C = 2 r ,

, c, h,.. has high

Numbers and conversion factors have an infinite
precision
number ofsosignificant figures.
must take the value asTherefore they will not
precise as must
limit the number precisely
of significant figures
measured in the calculation.
value.
More explanations:

Having infinite significant figures:

Counts Conversion Factors

120 Students 1 foot = 12 inches

10 Apples 1 meter = 100 cm
36 Cars
 More explanations:

= 3.1415926535897932384626433832795

Radius of circle, r = 0.5 cm (measured value)

Circumference of a circle : C = 2 r

The value of should be chosen as at least

3.14 OR 3.142
 r = 0.05 cm (measured value)

Since, A = r2

The value of should be chosen as at least

3.142 OR 3.1416

=
Let us try:
Find the circumference of a circle with uncertainty.
Radius of circle, r = (3.0 0.2) cm (measured value)

Since, circumference of the circle : C = 2r

Thus, C = 2 3.142 3.0

= 18.852 From Calculator

It is not a final
answer.
 Rounding off Numbers

The process of cutting off superfluous digit and retaining as

many desired is called rounding off.

It is often necessary to round-off numbers

in order to keep
the results of calculations significant.
Rules by examples:
Following numbers are rounded off to
four significant figures:
12.4321 = 12.43
12.4361 = 12.44
1.2999 = 1.300
358769 = 358800 = 3.588105
12.375 = 12.38
12.365 = 12.36
162.35102 = 162.4102
162.45102 = 162.4102
162.451102 = 162.5102 : !!!!
 TEST:
Rounded off to two significant figures:

34000= 3.4 104

34500 =
= 2.3 10-3
0.00234 0.0023
=
1976 = = 2.0 103
2000
0.2 =0.20
Mathematical operations with Significant Figures
By examples: Addition and subtraction:

12.345 12.345
+2.6 - 2.6
------------ ------------
14.945 Discard 9.745 Discard
Round off Round off
= 14.9 = 9.7
Report Report

Number of least decimal place should be reported

 Multiplication and Division:

12.34
1.2 15.876
______
------------ 2.5
14.808 Discard = 6.3504 Discard
Round off Round off
= 15 = 6.4
Report Report

Number of least significant figure should be reported

Few more examples:
6.6 2 sig. fig.
123. 4 sig. fig. NEVER round off
4 intermediate results
814.448.1 10 2 sig. fig.
--------- 2

- Keep extra 2 or 3 digits

5 sig. fig.
temporarily when
calculating
123.45 2 decimal places
+89 zero decimal place
----------
212.45212zero decimal place
2 decimal places
More about Scientific Notation

9
4
(3.0 10 ) (3.0 10 ) =5
9 10
9
But 9.0 10
9
5 4
(6.0 10 ) (2.0 10 ) = 12 10
10
But 1.2 10
 6
2.0 10
2
4 = 2.0 10
1.0 10

4
1.0 10
-2
6
= 0.5 10
2.0 10 -3
But = 5.0 10
 5 3
(1.400 10 ) + (3.200 10 )
3 3
= (140.0 10 ) + (3.200 10 )

3
=143.2 10
But
5
= 1.432 10
 Accuracy & Precision

Accuracy:
Precision:
To a mathematician, 41.6 cm or 41.60 cm are the same.
A measure
A measure
of how close
of how
anexactly
experimental
the result
result
is determined.
is to the true value.
It is also
Thea higher
measuretheofaccuracy
how reproducible
the lower the result
error. is.
BUT

To a physicist, 41.6 cm or 41.60 cm are NOT the same.

(Because 41.60 cm is more precise than 41.6 cm)

 The Darts Analogy:

This player is precise This player is both

but certainly not accurate accurate AND precise
 i.e.

Precision is high Precision is low

But But
Accuracy is low. accuracy is high.

But a good measurement must be precise and accurate

i.e. close to the true value and be reproducible

Is there any difference ?

0
0.0
0.00
 Which are correct?

0 0.2 0.0 0.2

0 0.1 0.0 0.1
01 0.00 0.05
 UNCERTAINTY
The terms Uncertainty and Error are used interchangeably

An error is not a mistake

Mistakes (human error) made in the
calculations
or in reading the instrument
are not considered in error analysis
It is assumed that the experimenters are
CAREFUL, CORRECT and HONEST
 PHYSICAL QUANTITY

Every physical quantity has :

A value or size

Uncertainty (or Error)

Units

Without these three things, no physical quantity is complete.

When quoting measured result, follow the simple rules :

e.g. L = 1.23 0.01 m

Always include Units !
Always quote main !
(but if the quantity is
value to the same
dimensionless,
number of decimal Never quote explain!)
places uncertainty to more
as the uncertainty than 1 or 2
significant figures
(this would make no
sense)
 For example:

T= (0.937 0.005) F is quoted

correctly,

while

T= (0.937 0.05) F should be

quoted as

T= (0.94 0.05) F
Two types of errors effect our results:

Systematic errors:
these influence the
accuracy
Random errors:
these influence precision
 Systematic errors
Difficult produce
Typically to detectconstantand throughout
cannot be a
analyzed
set of readings
Proper
These statistically
calibration
errors andbe,
might i.e.general,
adjustment
in Increased
of due
the to
Examples:
statistics
equipment
built-in can NEVER
will
errors inhelp
the reduce
to Systematic
reduce
instrument the
either in
Which
The metal leads
ruler to
will a clustering
contract at low of the
Error
measured !
systematic
design or errors
calibration
values around i.e.
a value Controlled
displaced
temperatures
through andoftherefore
skill experimenter over estimate the
from the
true length. "true" value of the quantity
Forget to adjust zero error of the instrument
 Random errors
Due to
Typically
Limitations cannot betool
of measuring
Unpredictable, controlled
non-deterministic
Examples:
Observer readingcan reduce random errors!
Increased
Irregularstatistics
Unbiased equal
Randomchanges probability
in the
processes heatsystem
within of increasing
loss rate from a solar
collector due to changes in the wind.
or decreasing measured
Timings with a stopwatch. Sometimes you may
value
stop the watch too soon, sometimes too late.
 Reporting Uncertainty

Experimental data and results always shown as

xx
x b exs t
If x = 1.43 106 s & x = 2 104 s,
The answer should be as
x = (1.43 0.02) 106 s

Don't write like this!

x = (1.43 10 2 10 ) s
6 4

xx
Rule for Stating Uncertainties
Experimental uncertainties should almost
always be
rounded to one significant figure
For example : 1.63 0.01
Excepti g
on!
Rounding the uncertainty to two figures
if it starts with a 1
For example : 18.8
 You must explain how you estimated each uncertainty.

Without a brief explanation of how the uncertainty was

estimated, the assertion is almost useless.

For example:
The reactor temperature was (35 2) C.
The uncertainty. . .

.........is
.is given
.isthe bythe
estimatedthebased
standard
.represents manufacturers
95% onofthe
deviation 10 limits for
confidence
specifications
thermometer
measurements
10 measurements for the
scale.
made thermometer.
over
made the the
over 30 minutes
30 of
the experiment.
minutes of the experiment.
Returning to the main problem
Between 60 and 70 mm
Estimate next digit, 4
Measurement: 64 mm

Between 64 and 65
mm

Estimate next digit, 2

Measurement: 64.2
mm

Between 64.2 and

64.3mm
ABOUT LEAST COUNT OF THE INSTRUMENT
Generally taken to be the least count or some fraction
(1/2, 1/5, 1/10) of the least count.

If the scale divisions are closer together, you

Which
If the to
space between
choose, the the scale
least countdivisions
or half is large,
the least
may only be able to estimate to the nearest
you may
No
count, hard
or be comfortable
and else.
something fastIt in estimating
rules
depends on to 1/5 or 1/10
: you.
guided by
1/2 of the least count.
of the least count.
common sense.

if the scale divisions are very close you may

only be able to estimate to the least count.
 Least Count = 0.1 cm

If you measure, Length = 7.9 cm then

If you measure, Length = 7.94 cm then uncertainty
uncertainty
may be 0.01 may
cm be 0.1 cm (L.C.)
i.e. Length
i.e. Length= =7.94
7.9 0.01
0.1 cm
cm (1/10 of L.C.)
 Reading from digital devices

Output of digital volt meter: 8.41 V

8.41 0.01V

Or see the manual of the device

 FRACTIONAL UNCERTAINTY

called relative uncertainty

where, x called absolute uncertainty

is dimensionless (no unit)

 Error propagations (summary)
X and Y
i) Let Z = X Y, are errors in quantities
X and Y, respectively.
Then maximum possible error in Z is Z = X + Y

ii) Let Z = X Y or Z = X /Y
Then maximum value of relative error in Z is Z / Z = (X / X) + (Y / Y)

iii) Let Z = Xm
Then maximum value of relative error in Z is Z / Z = m (X / X)

iv) Z = (XmYn / Wp)

Then maximum value of relative error in Z is

Z / Z = m(X / X)+ n(Y / Y) + p (W / W)

Let us try: (Cont.)
Find the circumference of a circle with uncertainty.
Radius of circle, r = (3.0 0.2) cm
(measured value)
Since, circumference of the
circle
C = 2r
Thus, C = 2 3.142 3.0

= 18.852 From
Calculator
C = C(r/r) = 1.2568 cm From
Calculator
C = (18.9 1.3) cm
 Examples: 1.
The length of a rod measured with a meter scale of
least count
0.1 cm is 13.6 cm.
The length is recorded as 13.6 cm 0.1 cm.
The length of a second rod measured with the same
scale is
Solution:
5.2 cm 0.1 cm. Find sum and difference of two
The sum of two lengths = (13.6 0.1 ) + (5.2 0.1)
lengths.
= (18.8 0.2 ) cm

The difference of two lengths = (13.6 0.1 ) - (5.2 0.1)

= (8.4 0.2 ) cm
2. Determination of resistivity of a wire by P.O. Box.

R = 2.06 0.01
d = 0.57 0.01 mm = (0.57 0.01 ) 10-3m
l = 105.6 0.1 cm = (105.6 0.1) 10-2 m

Solution:

=
= 4.977 10-7
m
Now max. permissible error in

= 0.20350 10-7 m
= (5.0 0.2) 10-7
 Graphs

Picture is worth a thousand words

A graph is a pictorial way
Each graph should be on a separate page
to show how two physical quantities are
and cover almost entire area.
related.
Never force a line to go through the origin.
NEVER!!

Not all graphs will start at zero

 How to Plot a Graph?
Preferably
Make
Writeaproperly
suitable choice
a millimeter
chosen ofscales
scales
graph for
paperfor the
should
the
Usually the dependent variable is plotted on
twobe
twotaken
axes
axes tokeeping
obtain
on the greater
top accuracy
of
in mind in the
the that
graph the
the vertical axis and the independent variable
Also decide whether
paper
resulting graph shouldresult
or not the origin
practically
is plotted on the horizontal axis
is to appear on theorgraph
cover almost the entire portion of the
at some suitable place
graph paper
(e.g.: In x-axis, 5 smallest division
= 25 cm;
 Draw free hand smooth curve
Draw
Care an arrow
should headtoalong
be taken ensure
After
passing plotting
through theeach
maximum
that each
the axis and
straight write
line the
passes
A proper title should be given to the gra
number
point of points. Do not
immediately
through the maximum number of
symbol used for the
simply
encircle
points connect
them
and the the points
such aspoints
remaining :
corresponding variable along
are almost evenly
or distributed on
with its unit
both sides of the line
 Y
Never connect like this

Current (mA)

O X
Voltage (V)
 Graph between voltage & current
But connect like
Y

Current (mA)

In x-axis, 5 smallest division = 1V

In y-axis, 10 smallest division = 1 mA

O X
Voltage (V)
BEST-FIT LINES (BY INSPECTION)
The line should be drawn so that
there are roughly the same
number of points above and too
below. steep
too
high too
corre
too
Anomalous points should be low
ct
shallow
rechecked. If this is not possible
they should be ignored when Anomalous point
drawing the best-fit line.
 Scaling Problem

AWFU POOR GOO

L D
More than 70% of the graph paper should be
covered by data
Even a crude estimate of an error
is always better than no estimate
at all !
Hoping you enjoy
THANK YOU