17

Paper 1

RATE OF HEAT RELEASE IN DIESEL ENGINES

AND ITS CORRELATION WITH FUEL
INJECTION DATA
N. D. Whitehouse* R. Way*

Basic heat release data have been obtained by analysis of cylinder pressure diagrams from a variety of engines,
two-stroke and four-stroke, small (3.4-in bore) to medium size (12-in bore) over ranges of power, speed, and air
supply conditions. The paper gives an account of early attempts to obtain a simple formula for heat release
suitable for performance calculations by computer, using the simple and widely used single-zone model
for conditions in the cylinder. The conclusion is reached that although it is possible to obtain usefulcalculations
in this way, more sophisticated models are necessary for better understanding of conditions in the engine.

INTRODUCTION Suitability for a simple computer program for the closed

THEUSE OF thermodynamic cycle calculations, as a design
and development tool, using the digital computer, is now
familiar and widespread. The value of these calculations is
undoubted, but their accuracy is dependent upon a num-
ber of assumptions of which two of the most significant are
the heat release and heat transfer relationships. I n the
paper by one of the present authors (r)-f.published in 1962
this was made clear. With experience of a particular kind
of engine it was found that assumptions would be made
with acceptable accuracy for many purposes-indeed, at
that time opinion expressed in discussion inclined towards
even simpler and cruder methods. Nevertheless, some
effects were obviously being neglected and the value of
such calculations, if far from the normal ones at which
experience had been gained, was more or less uncertain.
To a practical engineer two obvious weaknesses were
particularly apparent. First, the heat release pattern then
used was not correlated in any obvious way with fuel
injection characteristics; and second, the effect of air
supply on combustion was not allowed for. The work of
Austin and Lyn (2)-(4) has provided some insight into
the first of these, but the second has seemed neglected.
The present paper covers work, on a variety of different
engine types, which was aimed at investigating this
neglected factor of air supply, and in particular at provid-
ing a reasonable, simple calculation of heat release rate.
The M S . of this paper was received at the Institution on 4th November
I969 and accepted for publication on 24th November 1969.
* University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology.
-f. References are given in Appendix 1.1.
cylinder part of the cycle calculation was one of the main
targets. Heat release was part of the original contract,
mainly as an adjunct to the production of an overall
computer program for calculating performance in small
two-stroke opposed piston engines-the major part of
which was calculation of gas exchange, gas flows, and
turbocharger energy balances. This again biased the work
in the direction of aiming at a simple formula for heat
release. However, the results of work on instantaneous heat
transfer, and particularly of further work on heat release
done outside the first contract, have emphasized short-
comings in the commonly accepted single-zone model for
conditions in the engine cylinder, and the development of
two-zone calculations which are thought to represent
physical reality more accurately is mentioned.
As the research has covered a number of engines and
already occupied several years, a semi-historical presenta-
tion has been adopted to give perspective to development
of ideas and of experimental technique.
Notation
act Index in reaction rate equation, R.
D Fuel droplet diameter, ft.
Do Droplet initial diameter, ft.
dx Crank angle step size, degrees.
K Factor in preparation equation*.
KI Factor in preparation equation*.
$ K (or K l ) , the factor in the preparation equation, is not dimension-
less but due t o the form of the equation its units cannot be expressed
simply.

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18
K' Factor in reaction rate equation, in2 "F1'2/lbf s.
Mi Mass of fuel injected, lb*.
Mu Mass of fuel unburnt, lb*.
m Index in preparation equation.
N Engine speed, rev/min.
n Number of fuel droplets.
P Rate of preparation of fuel, lb/degree*.
Po Partial pressure of oxygen, lbf/in2.
R Rate of burning or heat release rate, lb/degree or
Btu/degree*.
T Gas temperature, "R.
X Index in preparation equation.
P Fuel droplet density, lb/ft3.
EXPERIMENTAL ARRANGEMENT
General
The engines listed in Table 1.1 have been used in this
work. These engines have been deliberately chosen for
their variety.
All the normal steady-state instrumentation is fitted so
that heat balances can be obtained. Dynamic measure-
ments have been made of the crank angle position, cylinder
pressure, injector fuel line pressure, and needle lift.
With the exception of the Mirrlees FV2, all engines
were run using an external compressed air supply. This
enabled the boost pressure to be varied independently of
speed and load. Nozzles were used in the exhaust pipes to
simulate the effect of a turbocharger.
Some compression tests were run with the fuel supply to
the instrumented cylinder cut off. The analysis of these
tests provided useful checks on compression ratio, top
dead centre (t.d.c.) position, and the analysis procedure.
It was found that the manufacturer's figure for compression
ratio could not be used. I n each case the compression ratio
was calculated from careful measurement of the combus-
tion chamber, and the values obtained agreed with those
obtained from compression tests. The effect of the com-
pression of the connecting rod was also calculated but
this was found to have a negligible effect.
Cylinder pressure measurement
The estimation of heat release depends primarily on an
accurate measurement of the cylinder pressure diagram.
* M,, Mu,P,and R can be expressed in mass units or heat units, using
the Zower calorac value of the fuel, provided that these units are
used consistently.
Table 1.I.Engines used
Engine ~ Bore 1 Stroke
Dorman, 4LBT . periphery of a steel disc. This method was fairly satis-
Foden,FD6 . factory for obtaining magnetic pulses every two degrees.
stroke
Rolls-Royce, K60 . 3.4 in Opposed piston
two-stroke
Mirrlees-National, FV2 12 in Four-stroke
Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1969-70
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N. D. WHITEHOUSE AND R. WAY
When small steps of crank angle are considered, quite
small changes of pressure can indicate large changes in
heat release rate, therefore high accuracy of the order of
one part in a thousand, based on peak pressure, is required.
Piezo-electric transducers have been used. These have
the advantages of very good frequency response (up to
100 kc), a very wide and linear operating range, the ability
to fit in small spaces, and they are able to record successive
cycles expeditiously. Their main disadvantages are thermal
shock and drift. Thermal shock causes a cyclic distortion
of the transducer diaphragm. This results in an apparent
drop in pressure, mainly towards the end of the expansion
stroke. The effect can be readily identified in three ways :
(1) low pressures during the early part of the gas exchange
process followed by a large apparent increase while the
transducer recovers from thermal shock; (2) apparent
negative values of heat release rate at the end of the
expansion stroke; and (3) a tendency to give low values of
indicated mean effective pressure (i.m.e.p.)
The piezo transducers used in this work were water
cooled to reduce thermal shock. It was further reduced in
all the tests from Series 3 onwards by mounting the trans-
ducer in a pocket set back $ in from the cylinder wall. I n
the FV2 engine, thermal shock was virtually eliminated
by using a thermal shield of perforated metal between the
transducer and the cylinder. Because of its low speed, the
FV2 initially suffered from thermal shock particularly
severely, giving minimum absolute pressures during the
gas exchange period that were apparently negative.
Drift is caused by leakage of charge from the transducer
and lead. This causes some difficulties in calibration, but
during actual running the drift during the period of one
engine cycle is usually negligible. However, due to drift, a
piezo transducer cannot give any direct indication of
absolute values, so a separate pressure datum is required.
During the Foden and Dorman tests (Series 1,2,4, and
5) the pressure datum was obtained by an estimate of the
trapped pressure from the air manifold pressure. On the
K60 and FV2 (Series 3,6, and 7) a measurement was made
from a second piezo transducer. This was mounted in the
cylinder liner in such a position that it was only exposed to
cylinder pressure during the low-pressure part of the
cycle. At t.d.c. this transducer was below the level of the
piston rings and exposed to crankcase pressure in the case
of the Mirrlees, or air-chest pressure in the case of the
Rolls-Royce. In this way a direct comparison was obtained
between cylinder pressure and crankcase pressure or air-
chest pressure.
Crank angle measurement
1 Test
Series
For the Test Series 1, 2, 4, and 5, crank angle was
measured using a magnetic pick-up to sense slots in the
For the remaining work an optical system was used. A
3,7
glass disc was blackened by a photographic process, leaving
6 a set of transparent windows at half-degree intervals.
Pulses were obtained every half degree by shining light
Vol 184 Pt 3J
 RATE OF HEAT RELEASE I N DIESEL ENGINES AND I T S CORRELATION WITH FUEL INJECTION DATA 19

from a quartz iodide bulb through the windows on to a EARLY R E S U L T S

photocell. These pulses were processed electronically to
give square pulses as required by the digitizer.
Measurement of rate of fuel injection
The instrumented cylinder of each engine was fitted with
an injector instrumented for fuel-line pressure and needle
lift. Fuel-line pressure was measured by a strain gauge
transducer, needle lift by a capacitance transducer.
Transient data recording
I n all tests except Test Series 3 and 7, transient measure-
ments were recorded photographically. A trace from each
instrument was set up on an eight-channel oscilloscope and
photographed using a drum camera. Conversion to digital
form was carried out step-by-step using a special projector.
This process cannot be carried out to a very high degree
of accuracy. The best that can be expected is an accuracy
of about three to four parts in a thousand. Reading errors
resulted in large step fluctuations in apparent heat release
rates which caused difficulties in interpretation. Despite
this problem, the method has been used for much of this
work.
A considerable improvement was obtained by the use
of an analogue to digital converter, or digitizer. Using this
equipment, a number corresponding to the signal is
punched out in digital form on paper tape. The operation
The Foden engine
Series 1
The research work covered a range of loads, from 50 to
225 Ibf/in2 b.m.e.p., and a range of air-supply pressures
for each load. All tests were made at 1200 rev/min.
Fig. 1.1 shows one set of heat release diagrams obtained.
The pressure diagrams certainly suffered from thermal
shock, suggesting low frictional mean effective pressures,
as shown by values of about 10 Ibf/in2 on average.
The research work being considered was particularly
concerned with the effect of quantity of fuel injected and
the amount of air supplied. The general performance
results indicated that an increase in air-supply pressure
improved performance. Previous experience on another
type of engine had been similar and had indicated that
some improvement in combustion was needed to explain
the change fully (6).
The simplest hypothesis seemed to be that at any time
the rate of combustion must depend on the amount of fuel
to be burnt and the amount of oxygen available to burn it.
Unfortunately, while this hypothesis is least complicated
by other factors during the tail of the combustion, it is
here that thermal shock has its major effect. None the less,
P.

of the digitizer is controlled by the pulses from the optical i

/
type of degree marker so that a signal is recorded in digital /
form every degree. The digitizer has a range of numbers
from -999 to +999 and is consistent to a single number,
thus making possible an accuracy of better than one in a
thousand.
I n this work, the use of the digitizer for data recording
has been confined to the Rolls-Royce K60 tests, despite its
clear superiority.

Heat release analysis

Cylinder pressure diagrams were analysed for heat release
using a digital computer. Heat release was calculated on a
step-by-step basis, from the measured values of pressure at
the beginning and end of the step. The method is based on
that described by one of the present authors (I). Step
sizes of 2, 3 and 4 crankshaft degrees have been used.
A somewhat simplified model was used for this analysis.
The cylinder was treated as a single zone; values of tem-
perature and gas composition being taken as cylinder
u-
-140 -100 -60 -20 20 60 100
average values. Gases were treated as perfect, but variable DEGREES FROM t d.c.
specific heats were used; dissociation was not taken into -.-.- 189.4 Ib/in2b.m.e.p. ~97.8 lb/in2 b.m.e.p.
25.87 Ib/inz (abs.) 25.50 Ib/inz (abs.)
account. Only four gases were considered : oxygen,
supply. supply.
nitrogen, water vapour, and carbon dioxide. The gas
composition was varied as required for perfect combustion.
.. ... . .. 150.1 lb/in2b.m.e.p. - -
- 48.2 lb/inz b.m.e.p.
25.27 lb/in2 (abs.)
25.07 lb/in2
. (abs.)
. .
Allowance was made for heat transfer to cylinder walls supply. supply.
using the Annand equation (5). The values of the coeffi- Foden Series 1 engine.
cients were chosen to give the proportion of heat to heat Fig. 1.I.Heat release diagrams a t different engine
transfer obtained by heat balance. outputs

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20 N. D. WHITEHOUSE AND R. WAY
150*1

I90

180

I70

I60

I50

140

I30

I20
111

N
._
c
2 110
0
-
I
z
w
0
100
0

0
LL

w 90
oc
3
m
m
n
W

a 80
_I

'
k
70

6C

5c

40

30

2c

10

c" 02 0.4 0.6 0.8

QUANTITY OF UNBURNT FUEL-Btu (mass x LC.V.)

Fig. 1.2. Carpet plot of rates of heat release

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Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1969-70 Vol 184 Pt 3J
 RATE OF HEAT RELEASE IN DIESEL ENGINES AND ITS CORRELATION WITH FUEL INJECTION DATA 21

a carpet diagram, plotting rates of heat release against

unburnt fuel and unburnt oxygen partial pressure, was
produced. Fig. 1.2 reproduces the sort of result obtained.
2 0-
The raw data were plotted, although owing to reading
inaccuracies the individual points are erratic. The points
have been joined by lines representing each test. At each I 8.-
load the tests at different air-supply pressures are shown
by separate lines, e.g. 150.1, 150.2, etc. A number of
estimated points were superimposed to make the diagram I6-
reasonably coherent, but at first no overall pattern L
D
01

emerged, any one load series giving results that did not -
-
mesh with the others. 2 14-
-
w
0
The hypothesis was then made slightly less naive, as 2
1
follows. 2 12-
If combustion is assumed to take place at the surface of 0
a number of droplets, the rate of combustion would be +
w

proportional to the surface area of the droplets. Taking all g: s 1 0 -

droplets to be identical, then i
m -
--
_1
w
M i = np.&rDo2 c3
0.8-
M , = np .$nD2 2
a
c
+
Total area = nnD2 = nn -
6Mii 113
(:y3
6MU 213 6Mi113Mu213
0

06-

=(m)(F)= PDO 04-

Thus area cc M,113Mu113 if p and Do are constant.
Therefore, for a given mass of unburnt fuel in the
b
cylinder, the rate of heat release would be lower if the fuel
is derived from a small initial injection of fuel than if it
were derived from a large initial injection. Fig. 1.2 0
1 &, p
- 2
-30-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
therefore needs to be modified. This was done by multi- tdc oCA
plying the rates plotted, for the low loads, by the factor 150 lb/in2 b.m.e.p. 50 lb/in2 b.m.e.p.
_._ Calculated low air. -Calculated low air.
U Measured low air. o Measured low air.
--- Calculated high air. ----
Calculated high air.
Mi(22R) being the fuel injected for 225 lb/in2 brake mean A Measured high air. x Measured high air.
U b
effective pressure (b.m.e.p.) tests and hf{(b.m.e.p.) being
Foden Series 1 engine.
the appropriate fuel injected for the tests at lower b.m.e.ps.
This change produced the sort of pattern intuitively Fig. 1.3. Cumulative fuel input and heat release
expected.
The combustion or heat release rate was now assumed Fig. 1.3 compares the experimental and calculated
to be of the form patterns at two loads and extreme air-supply conditions.
Rate = K(MJ1/3(Mu)2/3Pom Foden, Dorman and Rolls-Royce K60 engines
Po being the partial pressure of oxygen. Test Series I , 2, and 3
By trial and error, the values of the constants were
I n the period immediately following the work on the
chosen, giving
Foden engine, other research students had obtained
R = 0.006 25(Mi)1~3(Mu)213(I0)13 similar results for the Dorman and K60 engines. These
Lines representing rates of 0.54 and 0.108 Btu/4 CA results were correlated with the same formula as before,
are shown in Fig. 1.2. plotting values of R/Mi113Mu213 against Po on a log-log
K would be considered to be a function of such variables basis in an attempt to obtain values for the constant K
as fuel injection characteristics (apart from fuel injection and m. Fig. 1.4 shows a typical plot. When analysis was
quantity), air movement, and combustion chamber shape carried out in small steps, fluctuations in heat release rate
but was taken to be a constant for this engine. were very noticeable and the resulting scatter tended to
The formula was then used to synthesize a heat release obscure the real trends. To reduce scatter, the points in
pattern for six of the experimental tests, those at each Fig. 1.4 were selected from the carpet plot, similar to Fig.
extreme and two at 150 lbf/in2 b.m.e.p., using approxi- 1.2, choosing only points that appeared to be repre-
mate fuel injection patterns deduced from other work. sentative.
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22 N. D. WHITEHOUSE AND R. WAY

o
I 20 I00

PARTIAL PRESSURE OF OXYGEN-lb/in2

o - 960 constant revlmin.
obs.
200
0.1
O +
I
0.2
I
0.3
I

LOG SCALE,%
I I I I
0.4 0.5 0.6 070.8 1.0
I I

- 1600 constant rev/min. Y

x - 2360 constant rev/min.
Fig. 1.4. Graph of R / ( M l / 3 M : / 3against
) oxygen partial
pressure for Rolls-Royce engine
The values of the constants obtained were:
R.R. K60 K = 0.0047 m = 0.4
Foden K = 0.0049 m = 0.4
The Dorman results were somewhat indeterminate.
The slope of the line (m)was held constant for both
engine results, minor variations between them not being
justifiable on the accuracy of results.
LATER RESULTS
Test Series 4 and 5
Work on the same three engines proceeded in two main
directions : changing fuel injection characteristics by
altering fuel injection rates (pump plunger diameter), and
improving accuracy by means described earlier.
Foden results
Test Series 4
With, it was thought, improved experimental accuracy, it
was considered desirable to plot all the points on a log-log
basis rather than use the previous method of selection.
Scatter was still excessive when analysed on a 2" crank
angle basis but was reduced to reasonable proportions
using a 4" step.
At the same time the basis of the plots was changed,
plotting (R/Mi)P0 against Mu/Mito explore the validity
of the indices ofMf and Mu. In many of the Foden tests
the partial pressure of oxygen varied comparatively little
over the period in which the bulk of the fuel was burnt,
so the slope of the plot did not depend appreciably on the
value of m (the Po index) used.
Fig. 1.5 shows the points for several tests. In each case
the slope corresponds reasonably well with an index for
Mu of 213. However, there did appear to be some variation
Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1969-70
9-mm injection pump.
-x - 13.8 Ib/in2(abs.) boost.
1500 rev/min.
-
- - v - 16.25 lb/in2 (abs.) boost.
1500 revlmin.
-. +- 21.3 lb/in2 (abs.) boost.
1500 revlmin.
. . .o .. .. 16.2 lb/in2(abs.) boost.
1200 revlmin.
8-mm injection pump.
-.-. c] ._.- 15.9 lb/in2 (abs.) boost.
1500 revlmin.
All at 150 b.m.e.p.
Fig. 1.5. Results of Foden Test Series 4
in K at different operating conditions. Fuel-pump plunger
diameter seemed to make little difference.
Dorman results
Test Series 5
The later tests on the Dorman engine were analysed in a
similar way to those on the Foden engine. This analysis,
however, showed considerable periods during which com-
bustion rate remained constant despite great reduction in
the quantity of unburnt fuel, Fig. 1.6. The position, on
the vertical scale, of this horizontal line seems remarkably
constant for the different tests-higher speed and higher
load may be thought to reduce the level slightly but the
effect is not large enough to exceed possible experimental
error.
If we accept surface area as a factor controlling the rate
of preparation of fuel, these results suggest a constant
surface area despite progressive reduction in mass of the
unburnt fuel. A mechanism to produce such an effect is,
of course, available in an engine of this type. At and near
t.d.c., fuel and air are concentrated into the deep bowl in
the piston. The direction of fuel injection and the effect
of swirl may be expected to concentrate fuel in an annulus
against the outer wall of the bowl, with the inner surface
acting as the mixing/combustion zone (Fig. 1.7). This
surface will remain almost constant as combustion pro-
ceeds, until the quantity left is so small it cannot cover the
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 RATE OF HEAT RELEASE I N DIESEL ENGINES AND I T S CORRELATION WITH FUEL INJECTION DATA
Crank angle posrtlons of last horizontal polnt
I I 1 I
02 03 0.4 0.50.6070'8 10
M"
LOG SCALE, -
4 in value of K is caused by a difficulty in the fuel finding
700 revlmin.
74 b.m.e.p.
21.2 lb/in2 (abs.) delivery pressure.
700 revlmin.
123 b.m.e.p.
21.2 lb/in2(abs.) delivery pressure.
700 revlmin.
123 b.m.e.p.
31 lb/in2(abs.) delivery pressure.
1800 rev/min.
50 b.m.e.p.
36.2 lb/in2(abs.) delivery pressure.
1800 revlmin.
175 b.m.e.p.
36.2 lb/inz (abs.) delivery pressure.
Fig. 1.6. Results of Dorman Test Series 5
. . , /
Fig. 1.7. Presumed fuel distribution in Dorman engine
bowl surface, or until it is disrupted by turbulence or
air movement. This latter may be caused by reverse squish
as the piston moves down and air and fuel move out of the
bowl. Some support for this latter supposition may be
found in the results, as the breakaway from the hori-
zontal pattern occurs with a larger proportion of unburnt
fuel at high b.m.e.ps when combustion is more prolonged.
The timing, in degrees crank angle after t.d.c., is given
against the last point on each horizontal line and indicates
that this occurs between 14" and 20" a.t.d.c., the break-
Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1969-70
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23
away being later with larger quantities of unburnt fuel, as
would be expected.
Mirrlees-National results
As with the early Dorman results, a plot of points from a
number of tests is too indeterminate to be of any value, so
individual tests have been treated separately. Fig. 1.8
shows results plotted on the assumption that the 'area'
formula holds, with a line through the points at the slope
corresponding to a partial pressure of oxygen effect to the
power 0.4.These lines indicate a change in the value of K
for each test, with K apparently increasing as load
decreases. To make this concept of any value for calcula-
tion purposes some basis for the value of K needs to be
given. Plotting K against either load or boost pressure
I I I I J gives curves that would suggest that K approaches zero at
either a moderately high load or a moderately high boost-
obviously invalid. If we accept the hypothesis that the fall
unburnt air, it may be that this difficulty is reduced by
excess air. A plot of K against air/fuel ratio is suggested, as
given in Fig. 1.9, and seems to give a reasonable
correlation.
Rolls-Royce K60
Test Series 7
A further series of tests on the Rolls-Royce K60 engine was
devised to extend the range of the previous tests. I n
particular, a larger fuel injection pump was fitted. Cylinder
pressure diagrams were recorded and analysed for three
consecutive cycles to check for variation. The main
differences were variations in i.m.e.p. and total heat
release, particularly at low load, which appeared to result
from a variation in the quantity of fuel injected. For
determination of constants in the heat release formulae, the
fuel injected for each cycle was taken to be equal to that
required to provide the total heat release obtained from
Swirl analysis. On this basis, all three cycles gave much the
direction
same results.
Layer of
fuel vapour
The change in the rate of fuel injection due to the large
pump appeared not to cause any significant change in the
heat release formula. A typical comparison is shown in
Fig. 1.10. I n these tests the digitizer was used for data
recording, thereby reducing the scatter of results. The
data shown in Fig. 1.10 were obtained by analysis on a 4"
crank angle basis, each point representing the average
result from the three consecutive cycles. Other results
obtained in this test series are still being analysed.
HEAT RELEASE CORRELATION AND
SYNTHESIS
General
Both physical and chemical effects are involved in the pro-
cess of heat release. Fuel is injected into the engine in
liquid form; before it can be burnt it must be heated,
and mixed with a sufficient quantity of oxygen for burning.
Vol184 Pt 3J
24 N. D. WHITEHOUSE AND R. WAY

i ....
x,.......
0.041 x _..". . x " ' X
A ....... A

t .........
X

.......
X

.... ._.".....
.........

A x
_,"

A
A

A
/' A -0-

A
b
I I I I I I I I 1 1 1 1 I
40 50 60 7080 100 120 150 200
OXYGEN PARTIAL PRESSURE-lbf/in
-.- o 48 lb/in2 b.m.e.p.
.... x .... .... x .... 108 lb/inz b.m.e.p.
- + -

96 lb/in2 b.m.e.p.
- n -125 lb/inz b.m.e.p. -A -122 lb/inz b.m.e.p.
- - u - - 149 lb/in2b.m.e.p. - - fl - - 146 Ib/in2b.m.e.p.
All at 500 rev/min. All at 400 rev/min.
U b
Fig. 1.8. Effect of load; R/(M>13M:'3)
against oxygen partial pressure

These two physical processes are referred to collectively as
'preparation'. The prepared fuel may then burn at a rate
given by the chemical kinetic equations.
It has been shown by several authors, e.g. Austen and
Lyn (z),that at the high temperatures corresponding to the
main period of combustion, the time taken by the burning
of prepared fuel is negligible compared with the prepara-
tion time. Therefore, for most of the burning period the
heat release rate can be taken as a measure of preparation
rate. The chemical kinetics are important at the beginning
of the burning period when the temperature is too low for
rapid burning. Immediately after the beginning of injec-
tion, the temperature is usually so low that the burning
rate is small, and the heat transferred to the incoming fuel
causes an apparent negative heat release rate. As the
temperature rises, the burning rate increases, accelerating
the temperature rise. The rate of heat release continues to
rise until controlled by lack of prepared fuel. Once this
reservoir of prepared fuel is exhausted, fuel burns at the
rate at which it is prepared. This mechanism of pre-mixed
burning is shown in Fig. 1.11. It will be noted that al-
though no 'delay period' has been referred to as such, the
initial period of low or negative heat release is effectively
identical to the well-known delay period.
All the results shown in this paper have been calculated
on the basis of a single-zone model. Although reasonable

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 RATE OF HEAT RELEASE IN DIESEL ENGINES AND ITS CORRELATION WITH FUEL INJECTION DATA 25

where (I). Heat release is obtained by first calculating the

preparation rate and then the burning rate resulting from
this, using a concept of chemical reaction rate which is
essential to provide for a delay period and a pre-mixed
period described by Austen and Lyn (2). Formulae for
these are given, with appropriate constants derived from
the experimental work, in the next two sections.

0.0021- Fuel preparation

t I
20
__ . i---.L-.-
30 40
-
As fuel preparation can be deduced from the analysis only
for the later part when preparation and burning are
-
indistinguishable, any empirical correlation obtained is
TRAPPED AIR/FUEL RATIO assumed to hold throughout. This can be checked by
x 400 rev/min. o 500 rev/min. applying the synthesis program and comparing with heat
release patterns obtained empirically.
Fig. 1.9. Plot of k against air/fuel ratio The basic equation suggested is P = Kmil-xm,xPom,
where x, m are empirical constants and K is a factor for
which a value must be found to suit each particular case.
P is the preparation rate per degree crank angle. This
equation is a generalized form of the equation derived
earlier.
Spalding (7) has shown that for single droplets burning
under natural diffusion conditions, the rate is proportional
to the diameter of the droplet rather than to its surface
area. This model results in a value of x = 113 in the above
equation rather than 2/3 used earlier. For many of the
O'O't tests, either value seems equally valid, provided the value
of m is adjusted to suit. Typical values are: x = 2/3,
I I I 1 I I I l l 1 I I 1 m = 0.4; x = 1/3, m = 0.55. However, for the Foden
10 20 50 100 200 results (Fig. 1.5), where partial pressure of oxygen did not
PARTIAL PRESSURE OF OXYCEN,P-Ibf/in* vary significantly, the index x = 213 appeared to give the
x 10-mmpump. o 7-mmpump. better correlation, and is used for all cases where it seems
2500 revlmin; 125 b.m.e.p. reasonably appropriate.
Fig. 1.10. Comparison of results from K60 engine
The heat release pattern found in the Dorman engine
using t w o different injection pumps may also be correlated by the equation above by using a
very small value for x. The value of the expression
Rise due to (P/Mi)P00.4is then approximately constant, the effect
temperature /Drop due to exhaustion of prepared fuel observed.
increase - - - For practical use in synthesis programs we therefore
suggest that the formula P = Kmi113mu213Poo.4 be used,
except for engines similar to the Dorman. As a first
approximation K could have a value of 0.0047, but the
experimental values vary with conditions. This has been
found both for the Foden engine and the Mirrlees-National
engine. At present, a correlation for K against airlfuel ratio
Fig. 1.11. Representation of premixed burning has been given for the Mirrlees (Fig. 1.9), but is relatively
unexplored.
The Dorman engine type could use the formula
results are obtained on this basis, the model has serious
P = Kmio~99muo~01Poo~4, where K is 0.004, until a time
limitations and work is in hand to extend the method to a
of 14" a.t.d.c.; after this time the formula P = Klm,Poo.4
two-zone model. In a diesel cylinder there are considerable
may be used. Kl is obtained so that the two formulae agree
differences in the values of temperature and oxygen con-
at 14" a.t.d.c., i.e. Kl = K(Mi/M,)0'99at 14" a.t.d.c.
centration between the burning zone and the unused air, so
it is unrealistic to apply cylinder average values to both.
The main purpose of this work is to produce methods of Chemical reaction rate
calculation of engine cycles. The synthesis program used It is not possible at this stage to use exact chemical
is in most respects the inverse of the analysis calculation, equations in this work. Diesel fuel is not a pure substance,
and is basically similar to many others published else- the actual compounds present in the prepared fuel are
Proc lnstn M e c h Engrs 1969-70 Vol 184 P t 3J
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26 N. D. WHITEHOUSE AND R. WAY
unknown, and the only temperature available is the
cylinder average temperature. The equation used is
therefore highly empirical. The degree of approximation
may be justified, however, as the period during which
chemical kinetics is important is very short. In addition,
the total quantity of fuel burnt during this period is
known, as it must equal the total quantity of fuel prepared.
An equation
R = -- (P-R) dx
Nt d T
K s
based on the Arrhenius equation is suggested. The
expression where act is a constant, comes directly
from the Arrhenius equation. J (P-R) dx is equal to the
quantity of fuel in the cylinder that has been prepared but
not yet burnt. P J d T is obtained from ( P o / T ) d Twhere
, This causes fuel and cool air to fall towards the outside
PolT is proportional to the oxygen density and 2/T is
proportional to the velocity of gas molecules. The constant
K must be divided by N , the revlmin, to make it a
constant in terms of crank angle rather than time. The
calculation is performed on a step-by-step basis. For each
step, the value of R is calculated using the value of
2 (P- R)dx up to the beginning of the step.
I n principle the values of the constants K and act
should be dependent only on the fuel and not at all on the
engine. However, in practice, as cylinder average values are
used for temperature, the constants must take account of
the ratio between local temperature and cylinder average
temperature, which differs from one engine to another.
For simplicity the value of act has been kept constant at
2 . 7 ~ 1 0while
~ the value of K was varied to obtain
reasonable values for the effective delay time. Once a value
of K was determined for an engine it could be used for
correlation over a wide range of conditions. Similar values
of K were appropriate to the high-swirl engines. How-
ever, the quiescent chamber engine required very much
higher values of K to predict combustion. Typical values
are Mirrlees K = 6.0 x lolo, Rolls-Royce K60 = 6.5 x
lo8, Foden = 3 . 2 lo8,~ and Dorman = 3 . 2 ~lo8. The
difference, a factor of about 100, appears enormous, but
such is the sensitivity of the term e-2.7 l o l l T to tempera-
ture changes that it is equivalent to a change in temperature
of the order of 450 degF. Thus it is a correct result if, for
the same cylinder average temperature, the temperature in
the neighbourhood of burning fuel is 450 degF higher in
the case of the Mirrlees than that of the K60. It is shown
later that on the basis of the two-zone models postulated,
the local temperature can be expected to be higher than
average in the Mirrlees but lower than average in the K60.
A difference of 450 degF is therefore quite possible.
TWO-ZONE MODEL
It has been mentioned previously that further understand-
ing of heat release must take into account variations of
temperature and gas composition within the cylinder. The
first stage of this would be to use a two-zone model.
The mechanism forming the two zones differs according to
the type of combustion chamber.
Proc lnstn Mech Engrs 1969-70
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I n the quiescent-type engine, the momentum of the
fuel jet entrains air so that a steadily expanding volume of
fuel-air mixture forms round each fuel spray. Due to the
high drag of liquid droplets, the initial momentum is
quickly transferred to the air, so for calculation purposes
the whole volume may be treated as an air jet. This
mechanism of fuel-air mixing was described by Knight (8).
Using this model, it is clear that in the burning zone,
temperatures are very much higher and oxygen concen-
trations lower than cylinder average values. Development
of a two-zone model computer program for the quiescent-
type engine is in progress but results are not yet available
from it.
In the high-swirl-type engine it is believed that the two
zones are formed by the action of the centrifugal field.
while hot combustion products rise towards the centre of
the cylinder. I n this case, therefore, the burning occurs in
the cooler region, and the oxygen concentration approxi-
mates to that of fresh air rather than to cylinder average
values.
CONCLUSION
For certain types of engines operating under normal
conditions, formulae for the prediction of reasonably
accurate heat release rates for cycle calculations are given
for use with a simple calculation based on a single-zone
model. Further advancement is dependent on evaluation
of the variations of temperature and gas composition within
the cylinder caused by such factors as air movement and
fuel injection characteristics. As a next step a two-zone
model is suggested.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank the University of Manchester
Institute of Science and Technology for the use of their
facilities, and the Ministry of Defence and the Science
Research Council for supporting the research. They are
also most indebted to Mr P. Brandham, Mr M. Falcus,
Mr P. Higgins, Mr D. Ingham, Mr C . Knight, Mr J.
Owen, Mrs P. Saengbangpla, and Mr A. Wilson, research
students, who carried out the bulk of the experimental
work and the analysis. They also acknowledge gratefully
the assistance of colleagues in the university with experi-
mental work, computation, and other essentials.
APPENDIX 1.1
REFERENCES
(I) WHITEHOUSE, N. D., STOTTER, A., GOUDIE, G. 0. and PREN-
TICE, B. W. Methods of predicting some aspects of per-
formance of a diesel engine using a digital computer, Proc.
Instn mech. Engrs 1962.
(2) AUSTEN, A. E. W. and LYN, W-T. Relation between fuel
injection and heat release in a direct injection engine and the
nature of the combustion process, Proc. Auto. Div. Znstn
mech. Engrs 1960-61.
(3) AUSTEN, A. E. W. and LYN,W-T. The appIication of heat
release analysis to engine combustion study, C.I.M.A.C.
Conf.,Copenhagen 1962.
Vol184 Pt 3J
 RATE OF HEAT RELEASE I N DIESEL ENGINES AND I T S CORRELATION WITH FUEL INJECTION DATA 27

(4) LYN,W-T. The study of burning rate and nature of com- C.I.M.A.C. Seventh Int. Con$ on Combustion Engines,
bustion in diesel engines, Ninth Int. symp. on Combustion, London 1965 (April).
New York 1962. (7) SPALDING,D. B. Some fundamentals of combustion 1955
(5) ANNAND, W. J. D. Heat transfer in the cylinders of recipro- (Butterworths, London).
cating internal combustion engines, Proc. Instn mech. Engrs (8) KNIGHT,B. E. Similarity considerations in assessing diesel
1963 177 (No. 36). engine fuel spray requirements, Symp. Diesel Engines-
( 6 ) WHITEHOUSE, N. D. and RUSSELL,D. The continued Breathing and Combustion, Proc. Instn mech. Engrs 1965-66
development of a medium speed established range of engines, 180 (Pt 3N), 10.

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