Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 474490

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Sustainable energy development in Nigeria: Wind, hydropower, geothermal MARK

and nuclear (Vol. 1)

Ayoola T. Brimmoa,b, , Ahmed Sodiqb,c, Samuel Sofelaa,b, Isa Kolob,d
a
Masdar Institute of Science and Technology, Masdar City, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
b
Nigeria Future Energy Group (NiFEG), Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
c
College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha, Qatar
d
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, University of Sheeld, Sheeld, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: In Nigeria, lack of adequate power supply has been recurrently cited as a hindrance to economic growth. This
Nigeria article provides an in-depth review on the wind, hydropower, geothermal and nuclear energy options in Nigeria,
Sustainability for a sustainable development of its power sector. The potential, current developmental stages, and prospects of
Wind each of the aforementioned energy conversion techniques, in the Nigerian context, are presented. The study
Hydropower
reveals that although available data for each considered renewable energy option suggest renewable energy
Geothermal
holds some potential, these data are not sucient to make denitive global assessments of the country's
Nuclear
prospects in this sector. Ground measured wind data are sparse and not consistent with satellite data.
Hydropower resource databases have not been updated in a very long time. Geothermal records are only
available for locations where oil explorations were previously performed. While these data might be useful for
some local assessments, using them for global quantitative estimations would be misleading. A countrywide
resource mapping across all technologies is required for a reliable outlook of sustainable energy development in
Nigeria.

1. Introduction current population of circa 180 million, electrical power capacity of

The global response to climate change has been an augmentation of
renewables share in power production facilities with estimated 13%
and 25% share recently reported in the United States and Germany
respectively [1]. In developed countries, a sustainable energy mix has
driven renewable energy considerations. However, in developing
countries, the push for sustainable energy is mostly bolstered by the
need to combat energy shortage in order to encourage development in
the rural areas. Nigeria, Africa's richest economy and most populous
nation, is a developing country with an economy largely supported by
its huge oil production capacity. Ironically, the country has a meager
electrical power density of about 33 W per person [1] which is
considered one of the lowest in Africa. The huge gap between the
country's energy demand and current production capacity suggests that
a huge market is available in its power industry. Based on the country's
about 5000 MW [2,3] and a conventional gas power plant capital cost
of USD 1/W [4], it is estimated that the country would require about
USD 150 billion and USD 600 billion in capital to attain the power
density in South Africa and USA respectively. Nigeria with an expected
2015 gross revenue of about USD 18 billion [5] cannot aord to invest
such a lump sum in its power sector.
Undoubtedly, Nigeria requires private investors to build its energy
sector. However, low transmission capacity and frequency instabilities
in the grid network demands decentralized energy solutions to the
country's energy issues. The sustainable energy options readily t this
criterion with an added advantage of reduced pollution. On the other
hand, Nigeria's technical and economic potential for sustainable energy
has not been met with substantial development in its renewable energy
portfolio.
Besides hydropower, the country does not have any large renewable

Abbreviations: CENER, Centro Nacional De Energias Renovable; CERT, Center for Energy Research and Training; DPR, Detailed Project Report; DU, Depleted Uranium; EWP,
Endurance Wind Power; FiT, Feed in Tari; HEU, Highly Enriched Uranium; IITA, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture; IAEA, International Atomic Energy Agency; LCOE,
Levelized Cost of Energy; LEU, Lowly Enriched Uranium; MNSR, Miniature Neutron Source Reactor; NAA, Neutron Activation Analysis; NAEC, Nigeria Atomic Energy Commission;
NASA, National Agency for Space Administration Surface Meteorology; NCCE, National Commission for College of Education; NERC, Nigerian Electricity Regulatory Commission;
NIMET, Nigerian Metrological Agency; NOAA, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; NRCRI, National Root Crops Research Institute; O & M, Operation and Maintenance;
SHESTCO, Sheda Science and Technology Complex; SHP, Small Scale Hydropower

Corresponding author at: Masdar Institute of Science and Technology, Masdar City, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.162
Received 26 September 2015; Received in revised form 14 August 2016; Accepted 12 November 2016
1364-0321/ 2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
A.T. Brimmo et al.
based power plant contributing to its national grid and despite the huge
energy market prospects, challenges such as lack of an eective
bureaucracy, resource assessment data, awareness, enabling policies
and skilled manpower have heightened investment risk and hence,
discouraged potential investors. From an academic perspective, little
can be done about the country's ineective bureaucracy, but the rst
step in solving the other mentioned issues is to develop an under-
standing of the country's sustainable energy status with an overview of
its local industry. Establishing the potential of each sustainable energy
option via a compilation of resource data is the rst point of call. A
critical look into this data can then be used to suggest adequate policy
and training measures.
This article is the rst of two volumes which aims to provide a
comprehensive overview of Nigeria's sustainable development. The
present paper covers the wind, hydropower, geothermal and nuclear
energy options in Nigeria. For each energy option, we construct our
review by compiling the energy resource available in the country from
data available in existing literature and then conduct a survey to
establish the current local developmental status. Prospects of each
technology are then deduced in tandem with favorable policy recom-
mendations.
2. Wind
Wind power is generally considered as one of the most economically
feasible renewable energy sources based on its Levelized Cost of Energy
(LCOE) [1]. This has undoubtedly been an attraction to huge invest-
ments globally. In 2014, approximately 32% (USD 99.5 billion) of the
USD 310 billion total investments recorded in the clean tech industry
were centered on the wind sector taking the total installed capacity to
369,900 GW [6]. Notably, the low cost of wind power is tied to the
frequent availability of wind resource, at relatively high speeds, in the
location of installation. In 2009, the European Wind Energy
Association revealed that the cost of wind generated power could rise
from about 0.05 in coastal areas, to 0.1 in low wind areas [7]. This is
a huge margin and the basis for which spatial and temporal wind
resource assessment is typically the rst step in implementing wind
power generation [8].
In Nigeria, a reasonable amount of work has been carried out on the
characterization of wind speed and pattern in order to identify the best
locations for wind energy conversion. Studies on the country's wind
resource assessment can be classied into: regional and countrywide
investigations ( > 10 locations). Most of the data used in these studies
were sourced from the Nigerian Metrological Agency (NIMET) [9],
while other sources include the NIMET owned Agro-meteorological
and Statistics Department of National Root Crops Research Institute
(NRCRI), International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) [10]
and public universities. The following sections summarize these
studies. The regional investigations are segmented according to the
geopolitical zones in Nigeria while the nationwide investigations are
classied according to the measurement time and period adapted.
2.1. Regional studies
2.1.1. South-West
The wind speed prole in Abeokuta (7.108N, 3.20E) and Ijebu
(6.50N, 3.56E), both located in Ogun state, have been assessed by
Ajayi et al. [11] and Amoo [12]. Ajayi et al.s [11] evaluation was based
on NIMET's measurements over a period of 24 years (19872010), at a
height of 10 m. According to their report, the averaged wind speed in
Abeokuta and Ijebu Ode are 2.5 m/s and 3.4 m/s respectively while,
the maximum wind speeds are 5.2 m/s and 6.9 m/s respectively. Using
this data, Ajayi et al. [11] estimated the capacity factor of a wind
turbine with cut in speed of 3.5 m/s, hub height of 80 m, and rated
output speed of 11.5 m/s to be 1.6% and 9.55% in Abeokuta and Ijebu
Ode respectively. The sepcic cost of wind energy in those locations
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 474490
using the turbine with that specication was estimated to be 0.47
/kW h in Abeokuta and 0.08 /kW h in Ijebu Ode. Similarly, based on
the NIMET data for a 20 year period (19902010), measured at a
height of 10 m, Amoo [12] reported the average wind speeds in
Abeokuta and Ijebu Ode as 2.54 m/s and 3.44 m/s respectively as well
as the maximum wind speeds in Abeokuta and Ijebu Ode to be about
4.5 m/s and 7 m/s respectively.
In Akure (7.17N, 5.18E), Okeniyi et al. [13] performed a wind
assessment based on data collected by NIMET, at a height of 10 m, over
an 11 year period (19992009). Their report suggested that Akure's
mean wind speed and power density are 2.7 m/s and 18.51 W/m2
respectively. In addition, their outcomes also indicated that the rainy
season is windier (2.76 m/s average wind speed) than the dry season
(2.63 m/s average wind speed). Using the wind prole exponent
equation and a correlation suggested by Justus et al. [14] to estimate
the roughness factor, Okeniyi et al. [13] calculated the wind speed as a
function of height. Results showed that at a hub height of 80 m, wind
speeds could climb up to 5.5 m/s and the capacity factor of the wind
turbine adapted could reach 7.51%. To buttress Okeniyi et al.'s
ndings, Ajayi et al.s [11] assessment based on NIMET's measure-
ments at a height of 10 m over a period of 24 years (19872010)
reported an average wind speed of 2.2 m/s and a mean power density
between 3.6 and 37.2 W/m2 in Akure. Their analysis also suggested a
capacity factor of a wind turbine operating at a hub height of 80 m to be
7.09% and a specic energy cost of 0.11 /kW h.
Furthermore, Ajayi et al. [11] assessed the potential of wind power
in three locations within Lagos State: Lagos Island (6.26N, 3.25E),
Ikeja (6.45N, 3.40E), and Marina (6.26N, 3.25E), based on
NIMET's measurements over a period of 24 years (1987 2010), at
a height of 10 m. According to their report, the averaged wind speed in
Lagos Island, Marina and Ikeja are 5.1 m/s, 3.8 m/s and 4.6 m/s
respectively while, the maximum wind speeds in those locations are
8.6 m/s, 6.0 m/s and 6.9 m/s respectively. The specic cost of wind
energy in those locations using a turbine with a 80 m hub height was
estimated to be 0.02 /kW h in Lagos Island, 0.02 /kW h in Ikeja and
0.08 /kWh in Marina. Capcity factors in those locations were reported
as 42.26%, 8.76% and 30.67% respectively. However, it is important to
note that based on our evaluation of NIMET's reported stations, the
organization does not have any data stations located in Marina and
Lagos Island.
Wind speed was also assessed in Ibadan (7.43N, 3.90E), located
130 km northeast of Lagos, by Fadare [15]. This analysis was based on
data measured by the IITA, at a height of 10 m over a period of 10 years
(19952004). Annual average and maximum wind speeds of 2.748 m/s
and 3.841 m/s respectively were reported. Their data was used to
estimate the wind power density of Ibadan to be about 12.555 W/m2 -
positioning Ibadan as a low wind speed region.
2.1.2. South East
In the South Eastern geo-political zone of Nigeria, wind resource
mapping have been carried out in Umidike (5.48N, 7.547E) [16,17],
Nsukka (6.80N, 7.39E) [18], Enugu (6.47N, 7.56E) [17,19], Owerri
(5.48N, 7.03E) [20,21], and Onitsha (6.10N, 6.47E) [21].
In Umudike, Oriaku et al. [16] deduced from the 10-year (1994
2003) data collected by NRCRI, at a height of 10 m, that the region has
a mean wind speed of 2.31 m/s, with a 98% chance of obtaining a
2.0 m/s hourly wind speed. Their study also suggested that the region's
highest and lowest extractable wind resources, at that hub height, are
11.3 kW (in August) and 6.5 kW (in November) respectively. This
analysis was corroborated by Asiegbu and Iwuoha's [17] report which
utilized the 10 year data from the same source (NRCRI) and suggested
an average regional wind speed of 2 m/s, at a height of 10 m.
Asiegbu and Iwuoha went on to suggest that in Umudike, an
economically viable height for wind energy conversion is about 67 m.
This suggestion was based on an estimation of the height where wind
speeds would reach 5.26 m/s, using the wind prole power law and an
A.T. Brimmo et al.
Hellman coecient (more commonly known as the roughness coe-
cient) of 0.3. However, the adapted value of the roughness coecient
was deduced qualitatively -based on the region's dense distribution of
trees and suburbs. This is inconclusive as there are more reliable
methods of quantifying this exponent [22,23] which varies with land-
scape features, time of the day, temperature, height and wind direction
[24]. Moreover, a wind speed of 5.6 m/s is not economically viable as
most large scale wind turbines attain the rated output at speeds above
10 m/s [25].
Odo et al.'s prediction [18] estimated the annual average wind
speed at a 10 m height in Nsukka to be slightly higher than that of
Umudike (3.2 m/s). This prediction was made by applying the Weibull
distribution function and some statistical analyses on wind data
collected over only a year period. Odo et al.s analysis recorded a
coecient of determination and root mean square error (obtained from
the comparison of measured and predicted wind speed probability
density distributions) of 0.912 and 0.076 respectively. From the
Weibull distribution shape and scale factors, it was concluded that
the wind speed in Nsukka is in conformity with the Weibull function
but cannot be adequately modeled with the conventional Raleigh
distribution and hence, the extension of similar prediction studies to
other sites where development of wind power facilities has been
proposed was recommended.
Close-by, in Enugu state, Odo et al. [19] carried out a similar
analysis and reported an average wind speed of 2.5 m/s based on data
collected over a 13 year period (19952007), at a height of 10 m. On
the other hand, based on a 37 year period measurements (19712007)
obtained from NIMET, Oyedepo et al. [21] reported higher wind speed
values in Enugu average and maximum wind speeds of 5.42 m/s and
6.48 m/s respectively, at a height of 10 m. Modeling wind turbines with
this data, Oyedepo et al. suggested that wind turbines with a cut-in
speed of 2.5 m/s, hub height of 60 m, and rated output speed of 12 m/s
will best suite electricity generation in Enugu. But, as a wind turbine
with this conguration would operate at a capacity factor of about
27.5% with the wind speed indicated in this report, wind energy
conversion is generally not ecient in this region.
Anyanwu and Iwuagwu [20] assessed wind speeds in Owerri based
on data collected within a 4 year period (between 1988 and 1992), at an
elevation of 10 m. The utilized data was collected by the Federal
University of Technology, Owerri. Their report suggests that the
average wind speed in Owerri is 2.81 0.8 m/s resulting in a mean
power density of 12.91 0.26 W/m2. On the other hand, based on data
collected over 24 years (19772002), Oyedepo et al. [21] reported
higher average wind speed and power density of 3.36 m/s and
23.23 W/m2 respectively in Owerri. As both data were collected from
the same location, this discrepancy could only be as a result of the
dierence in data collection period and duration. Although the
discrepancy in average wind speed is minimal, deductions from the
study with the larger span of data should ideally be more valid.
Travelling farther east, Oyedepo et al. [21] analyzed wind speed
data from the NIMET station in Onitsha and reported average and
maximum wind speeds of 3.59 m/s and 3.90 m/s respectively. The
utilized data was collected over a period of 24 years (19782003). The
authors went on to use this data to model the performance of a 0.36-
kW wind turbine for pumping water in the region. The average monthly
water produced by a roto-dynamic pump powered by wind in Onitsha
is estimated as 2730 m3 an amount that can serve about 1820
inhabitants.
2.1.3. South-South
In Uyo (5.02N, 7.56E), Udounwa et al. [26], analyzed wind speed
measured at a height of 39 m above sea level for a period of one year
(Jan-Dec 2009). These measurements were carried out at the NIMET
metrological station located in Uyo. At this height, the average
maximum and minimum wind speeds reported are 8.81 m/s,
13.58 m/s and 5.23 m/s respectively. Based on this, the article suggests
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 474490
annual theoretical wind energy of 2.16108 kWh in Uyo. Using data
measured at an elevation of 10 m (by NIMET), for a period of 21 years
(19862007), Ohunakin [27] reported the average wind speed, max-
imum wind speed and average power density in Uyo as 3.17 m/s,
3.67 m/s and 19.91 W/m2 respectively. As NIMET has only one station
in Uyo [9], it is likely that both Udounwa et al. and Ohunakin's data
were recorded at the same station.
Azi et al. [24] carried out a similar wind resource assessment in
Benin (6.32N, 5.62E) but carried out their own measurements using
the Davis Instrument's Vantage Pro2 wireless weather station. Wind
speed data was collected over a 3 months period (AugOct 2011) at a
sampling rate of 5 min. Comparing their measurements with NIMET's
(12 year period) and the National Agency for Space Administration
Surface Meteorology and Solar Energy (NASA SSE) satellite observa-
tions (21 year period), the NIMET data showed a deviation from the
other two data sets. The average wind speed measured by the authors
(at NCCE), NIMET and NASA SSE in the month of August were 1.78
0.1 4 m/s, 5.36 0.19 m/s and 2.17 m/s respectively. Similarly, in
September and October, the measured wind speed at the three
locations were 1.76 0.08 m/s, 4.34 0.18 m/s, 2.39 m/s and 1.29
0.05 m/s, 3.69 0.17, 1.9 m/s respectively. The authors suggest that
the NIMET measurements recorded at a signicantly lower frequency
could have led to the observed overestimation when compared to data
taken at higher time resolution (NCCE and NASA SSE). However, it
must be mentioned that several years data is required to properly
analyze the wind speed characteristics in any location. Also, the NIMET
and NASA data presented in their study contained records with a large
standard deviation. In the neighboring city of Benin, Warri (5.59N,
5.82E), Okoro et al. [28] presented data recorded by NIMET over a 4
year period (20002003). Their reports suggested that the average
annual wind speed in Warri at a height of 10 m is 2.58 m/s.
2.1.4. North-West
In the North-Western part of the country, Ohunakin [29] also
evaluated the wind distribution in four locations: Gusau (12.10N,
6.42E), Katsina (13.01N, 7.41E), Kaduna (10.58N, 7.53E), and
Kano (12.05N, 8.53E). This study was also based on data collected by
NIMET, over a period of 36 years (19712007), at a height of 10 m.
According to Ohunakin's reports, the annual average wind speeds at
Gusau, Katsina, Kaduna and Kano are 6.0931 m/s, 7.4461 m/s,
5.2739 m/s and 7.7669 m/s respectively. The respective maximum
wind speeds and power densities at these locations were reported as
7.39 m/s (179.485 W/m2), 9.84 m/s (339.854 W/m2), 6.803 m/s
(109.333 W/m2) and 9.15 m/s (368.917 W/m2) respectively. The
reported wind speeds and power densities showed large variations in
magnitude between seasons (rainy season and dry season) in Gusau
and Kaduna with the dry seasons having a better potential for wind
energy conversion while only a minimal variation was recorded in
Katsina and Kano. Based on the locations respective annual average
wind power densities, the author concluded that Katsina and Kano will
allow wind turbines to produce energy all year long, Gusau is only
suitable for wind power with very tall wind turbines while Kaduna can
only be considered marginal for wind power development.
Aidan et al. [30] also presented annual averaged 10 m height wind
speed and power density in Gusau, Kaduna and Kano to be 4.69 m/s
(35.6 W/m2), 4.337 m/s (27.7 W/m2) and, 7.15 m/s (126.5 W/m2)
respectively. Their analysis was based on data measured by NIMET,
at a height of 3 m, over a 10 year period (19781987). In converting
the measured data to wind speeds at dierent elevations, the authors
adapted a roughness factor of 0.3 in Gusau and 0.4 in Kaduna and
Kano, based on the height of buildings in the region. Considering that
the roughness factor has been shown to vary with several other factors
other than building height [22], the use of these values could be the
reason behind the discrepancy of their wind speeds with those reported
by Ohunakin for Gusau and Kaduna [29].
In Sokoto (12.92N, 5.21E), Okoro et al. [28] presented data
A.T. Brimmo et al.
recorded by NIMET over a 4 year period (20002003). Their reports
suggested that the average annual wind speed in Sokoto at a height of
10 m, is 4.69 m/s.
2.1.5. North-East
In 2011, Ohunakin focused his investigation [31] on wind resource
assessment in North-East region, covering ve stations located in
Bauchi (10.17N, 9.49E), Nguru (12.85N, 10.47E), Maiduguri
(11.53N, 13.805E), Yola (9.22N 12.48E) and Potiskum (11.42N,
11.02E). This study was based on data measured by NIMET, at 10 m
height, for a period of 36 years (19712007). Ohunakin's ndings
indicated that at the measured height, the average wind speeds in
Bauchi, Nguru, Maiduguri, Yola and Potiskum are 4.83 m/s, 4.12 m/s,
5.31 m/s, 4.16 m/s and 4.80 m/s respectively. The maximum recorded
wind speeds at these locations were reported to be 7.04 m/s, 5.04 m/s,
6.1 m/s, 5.0 m/s and 5.68 m/s respectively. Using these data, the
power density range for Bauchi was estimated as 61.33299.88 W/
m2, while that at Nguru, Maiduguri, Yola and Potiskum were estimated
as 40.77143.31 W/m2, 63.80173.70 W/m2, 44.03127.73 W/m2
and 53.82150.84 W/m2 respectively. The wind prole power law
(with a roughness coecient of 0.3) was then used to estimate the
respective ranges of wind speeds, at a height of 50 m Bauchi (6.41
11.4 m/s), Nguru (5.168.51 m/s), Maiduguri (7.279.89 m/s), Yola
(5.738.10 m/s) and Potiskum (6.359.21 m/s).
In addition, the wind data in Ohunakin's study suggested that
Maiduguri's wind speed is above 4 m/s all year long, while Bauchi has
approximately 80% and 100% periods of wind availability above 4 m/s
in the dry and rainy seasons respectively, and Nguru, Potiskum and
Yola have 50%, 75%, and 50% periods of wind availability above 4 m/s
in the both the dry and rainy seasons respectively. The annual average
wind speed value reported for Maiduguri closely matches that reported
by Aidan et al. [30] (4.35 m/s). As Aidan et al.s [30] values were based
on data transformed from the measured height of 3 m to a height of
10 m, using a roughness factor of 0.3, this suggests 0.3 as an adequate
value of roughness factor for Maiduguri. However, same roughness
factor was used by Aidan et al. [30] in Yola but resulted in an annual
averaged wind speed of 2.307 m/s which is less than half the values
reported by Ohunaki [31]. This suggests that 0.3 can be considered as
an erroneous roughness factor value for Yola. In perspective, it is
possible that this discrepancy is a result of a dierence in measurement
location within Yola adapted by the two groups. Such magnitude of
variations within the same proximity has also been reported in Lagos
State (6.5833N, 3.7500E) [11].
Ohunakin [29], in a separate publication, also reported the average
wind speeds in Bauchi and Potiskum which matched his earlier reports
4.83 m/s and 4.80 m/s respectively. Fagbenle et al. [32] also
corroborated the wind speed values in Potiskum and reported a wind
speed range of 4.356.33 m/s in Maiduguri based on data collected
over a period of 21 years (19872007) by NIMET (10 m elevation).
2.1.6. North- Central
The potential of wind energy in Jos (9.87N, 8.90E) has been
evaluated by Ohunakin et al. [33], Ajayi et al. [34]. Both studies
adapted NIMET data measured by a cup anemometer at a height of
10 m. However, while Ohunakin et al.s [33] analysis was based on data
measured over a period of 37 years (19712007), Ajayi et al. [34] based
their analysis on data measured over a 21 year period (19872010).
Ohunakin et al. [33] reported the annual average wind speed and
power density of 8.6 m/s and 458 W/m2 respectively, rating Jos wind
speeds as a Class 7. Using this data, they estimated the capacity factor
of a wind turbine installed in Jos, with a hub height of 50 m and rated
output speed of 15 m/s to be 38.3%. Ajayi et al.s [34] estimate of the
annual average wind speed in Jos was reported as a range between
6.7 m/s and 11.8 m/s. Their study also analyzed the operation of wind
turbines in Jos with a good capacity factor suggesting an annual
average capacity factor of 54.4% for a turbine with a hub height of 80 m
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 474490
and output wind speed of 12 m/s.
Using data measured at the NIMET station located in the capital
city Abuja (9.0N, 7.27E), over a 4 year period (20002003), Okoro
et al. [23] suggested that the average annual wind speed in Abuja, at a
height of 10 m, is 1.89 m/s. However, Adaramola et al. [35] suggested
putting this area's average annual wind speed at 3.613 m/s based on
measurements captured over a 23 year period (19832005).
Aidan et al. [30] also reported the average wind speed and power
density in Jos, Bida (9.1N, 6.01E) and Minna (9.62N, 6.46E), at a
height of 10 m, to be 6.861 m/s (102.9 W/m2), 1.772 m/s (2 W/m2)
and 3.55 m/s (8.5 W/m2) respectively. These values were estimated
from data measured by NIMET within a 10 year period (19781987),
at a height of 30 m. It must be noted that in converting the measured
wind speed to a height of 10 m, the authors adapted a roughness
factor of 0.30.4 with no empirical justication. Adaramola et al. [35],
based on a more recent NIMET data (1972007), reported higher
wind speed values in this region. They reported the average annual
wind speeds at Bida, Ilorin, Lokoja, Makurdi and Minna as 2.75 m/s,
4.39 m/s, 3.16 m/s, 4.57 m/s and 4.29 m/s respectively.
2.2. Nationwide studies
Ojosu and Salawu [36] were one of the earliest groups to report the
wind speed distribution across Nigeria. Their report was based on
NIMET's measurements collected over a period of 15 years (1968
1983), at 12 dierent locations. Nigeria was segmented into 4 wind
regimes with the southern regions falling into the 13 m/s regimes
while the northern regions were classied 3 to > 4 m/s regimes. As
wind speeds have been shown to vary signicantly even within the
same state [11], this analysis might have adapted an insucient
number of measurement locations to suggest a nationwide classica-
tion.
In 1992, wind speed data was collected from 30 NIMET stations
spread across the country by Adekoya and Adewale [37]. According to
their report, the measurement height and period varied across the
stations. The authors assumed a roughness coecient of 0.25 to
convert the measured wind speeds to a height of 10 m. Their analysis
suggested that the location with the highest and lowest annual average
wind speeds are 4.1 m/s in Sokoto and 1.5 m/s in Warri respectively.
Based on these values, it was suggested that application of wind energy
in Nigeria is virtually inexistent as the wind speeds are comparatively
low in comparison to other African countries [37]. However, their
reported wind speeds are relatively lower than those indicated in other
studies. As the roughness coecient has been shown to vary with
location [23], this discrepancy could be attributed to the constant
roughness coecient assumed.
Fagbeni and Karayiannis [38] also analyzed wind data in 18
locations, collected in a period of 10 years (19791988) by NIMET.
According to their report, the data capture heights across the sites were
not standardized Lagos data was collected at a 15 m height, 6 of the
sites had data captured at a height of 5 m, while the rest were collected
at a 10 m height. At two of the stations, wind data were also collected at
higher elevations of 610 m, 1220 m and 2440 m. Their report sug-
gested an increment in wind speed with latitude, peaking at about
4.4 m/s in Kano, Sokoto and Jos. The lowest wind speed of 1.3 m/s was
recorded at Bida. The trend of wind speed increment with latitude was
corroborated by many other researchers [36,37,3942]. Measured
surface wind speeds were reported to be almost half of upper wind
speeds (at 2440 m). From their analysis, Fagbeni and Karayiannis [38]
concluded that the potential sites for wind farm in the country include:
Adamawa and Bamenda highlands; Biu plateau and the Mandara
mountain areas; at lands of Sokoto, Kebbi and Niger States; at
plains north of Oyo and Kwara States; coastal and oshore sites of the
southern Atlantic areas.
In 2010, Fadare [39] used articial neural networks to predict wind
speed countrywide. He reported the annual average wind speed across
A.T. Brimmo et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 474490

Fig. 1. Isovents (in m/s) across Nigeria, based on measurements from NIMET's 44 stations (10 m height) over a 40 year period (19682007). Reproduced from Ref [41].

28 NIMET stations in Nigeria based on measurements collected over a Table 1

period of 20 years (19832003). The outcomes suggested that the Average Wind Speed across the Nigeria Geo-Political Zones.
regions with the maximum and minimum wind speeds in the country
Regions Current Review, CENCR (2 Years), 3Tier Global, 80 m
are Jos and Ondo with 9.47 m/s and 1.77 m/s respectively. The results 10 m (m/s) 10 m (m/s)[49,51] (10 years)* (m/s)
from their network architecture demonstrated an acceptable correla- [49,52]
tion with the measurements mean percentage error of 8.9 placing
the annual average wind speed of Jos and Ondo state at 13.1 m/s and SW 3.50 3.74 4.20
SE 3.16 3.11 4.34
0.8 m/s respectively. These wind speed values are higher than pre- SS 3.00 2.96 3.92
viously reported values. According to Adaramola and Oyewole [42], the NW 5.88 3.44 4.28
reason behind this is increasing deforestations in the country. NE 4.34 3.95 4.18
The report with the most comprehensive wind speed data available NC 4.00 3.09 4.38
in the literature is that of Ajayi [41]. The study analyzed wind speed *
Note that wind speed values are presented at a height of 80 m.
data across all NIMET's forty four wind stations measured over a
period of 40 years (19682007). The resulting isovent from their
investigation as depicted in Fig. 1 indicates that Nigerian wind falls
southern region, the highest potential for wind energy harvest usually
under the poor to moderate regimes [41]. At a height of 10 m, the
falls between February and July (wet season) [11,15] while in the
annual average wind speed ranges from 3 m/s in the south to about
North, the windier season varies with location [31,32]. In general,
7.5 m/s in northwestern Nigeria.
asides Jos and some selected locations in the northwestern part of the
Overall, these studies have assessed the wind resource available in
country, the wind resource was reported to be marginal and only
multiple locations spread across Nigeria. Table 1 shows a summary of
suitable for standalone electrical and mechanical applications like
the annual average wind speeds in the geo-political zones based on a
battery charging, street lightening and water pumping [15,21,31,42].
weighted average of all the data collected in this review. It can be
Although it is reported that the oshore areas across the coast of Lagos,
deduced from these investigations that based on the international
Ondo, Delta, Rivers, Bayelsa and Akwa Ibom state have an excellent
system for wind speed classication [43], the wind regime in Nigeria
wind potential for harvesting strong wind energy, no data was
goes from Low in the south, to Medium in the North, peaking at the
presented to substantiate these claims [4446]. According to the
northwestern part of the country. A particular location which doesnt
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) GIS data
follow this trend is the highlands of Jos where the wind speeds are
for oshore wind speeds [4749], collected over 3 years (20062008),
highest in the country. The high wind speeds in Jos can be attributed to
the maximum annual averaged oshore wind speed across the coast of
the regions with relatively high elevation of about 1200 m. In the

478
A.T. Brimmo et al.
Nigeria is about 7 m/s at the coast of Akwa Ibom (10 m height). As the
roughness coecient across the sea bed is about 0.1 [50], this wind
speed extrapolated to a typical turbine's hub height is marginal.
Most of the data used in the studies reviewed were obtained from
NIMET where it is claimed that the measurements are carried out
synoptically at a very low frequency a couple readings a day- using a
cup-generator anemometer [24,33]. This claim is refuted by Fagbeni
and Karayiannis [38] who presented hourly wind speed data from the
same source. However, as NIMET currently has 43 stations spread
across the country, it is possible that the frequency of measurements
vary with location.
In comparison to satellite and high frequency ground measure-
ments, it was suggested that NIMET's data overestimates the annual
averaged wind speeds [24]. Although this claim was based on a study
isolated to a specic location and data collected over a short period of
time, according to Centro Nacional De Energias Renovables (CENER)
calculated wind map (10 m height) [49,51], and the 3TIER's Global
Wind Dataset (80 m height) [49,52] (see Table 1), NIMET's wind speed
measurements are generally greater than those available from satellites
and wind forecast models. This thus calls for a validation of NIMET's
wind speed measurements with new independent measurement sta-
tions.
Most measurements were recorded at dierent heights then con-
verted into a corresponding wind speed at a common height of 10 m,
using the wind prole power law [23]. However, the use of qualitative
means in estimating the roughness coecient did not do any good in
ensuring that a standard conversion was adapted. While some authors
bogusly selected a roughness coecient value, others based their
selection on the level of infrastructures in the region. To avert these
inconsistencies, relatively new state-of-the-art remote sensing techni-
ques, such as LIDARs (Light detection and Ranging) [53] and SODARs
(Sound Detection and Ranging) [53], can be used for measurements as
their instruments can collect readings at heights not typical of
metrological masts.
A remarkable nding was the possibility of a large variation in wind
speed in locations within a very close proximity [11]. This implies that
adapting the reported mean wind speeds as a statewide average might
be misleading. As such, the use of contour maps to display the
distribution of nationwide wind speed can be misrepresentative.
Rather, a nodal representation of the wind speeds at the exact locations
at which they are measured is recommended. Fig. 2 shows a graphical
summary of the wind speed regime at the locations covered in this
review. The wind speed values were obtained by taking weighted
averages (over measurement duration) of the wind speeds available
in literature. Based on this result (Fig. 2), it can be said that the wind
speed in a nationwide scale is not ideal for large-scale wind power
generation; as the rated output speeds of most wind turbines fall within
the range of 1015 m/s. However, some localized regions like Jos and
the northwest geopolitical zone oer a moderate potential capacity
factor of about 50% at a 67 m hub height [53]. But, even in some areas
within this region, the capacity factor of a turbine with that hub could
be as low as 5% [53]. In this part of Nigeria, the average cost of wind
energy (LCOE) can fall within $0.01/ kW h$0.3/ kW h while the
specic power cost fall within $1000/kW$2700/kW [33,35,5458]
depending on the location and the size of the wind facility. These costs
also heavily depend on the type of wind turbine utilized hence, it is very
important that the right specications are used in the various locations
[55]. As a rule of thumb, for a reasonable capacity factor, the rated
output speed of the turbine should be close to the hub height's average
annual wind speed in that location.
In rural areas with low wind speeds, a lot of discussions have been
built around the use of small scale turbines for pumping water, o grid
generation and other applications [5962]. Small wind turbines like
the Endurance Wind Power (EWP) Model G-3120 with a hub height of
37 m and a rated wind speed of 8 m/s have been shown to reach a
capacity factor of about 36% in the south-south regions [63]. Similarly,
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 474490
it was shown that using wind turbine with the right specication, the
cost of wind energy for pumping water could go as low as $0.09/kWh
and $0.07/ kWh in the south-south [64] and south-west geopolitical
zones [65] respectively. Although this is a fair price for such low wind
speeds, Paul et al. [64] noted the high sensitivity of the LCOE to the
wind turbine's capacity factor.
No report was found on the wind speeds for locations in Taraba
(8.0000N, 10.5000E), Nassarawa (8.5333N, 8.3000E), Jigawa
(12.0000N, 9.7500E), Gombe (10.2500N, 11.1667E), Ebonyi
(6.2500N, 8.0833E), Ekiti (7.6667N, 5.2500E) and Bayelsa
(4.7500N, 6.0833E). This indicates that synoptic stations are not
available in those locations or data from those stations are not readily
accessible. While it is important to keep the current measurement
stations up to date [66], increasing the number of measurement
stations would provide a clearer picture of the nationwide prospect.
This is also a requirement to improve the accuracy of ground
measurements for calibrating satellite data.
The only large scale Nigerian wind farm encountered in this
review is a 10 MW facility currently under construction in Katsina
State [67]. Putting this location with a 10 hub height wind speed
of 6.044 m/s into perspective, the capacity factor of 275 kW wind
turbines is expected to fall between 5 15%. Using IRENA's data for
the cost of wind power facilities in developed countries [68], the
LCOE of the power plant is estimated as $0.20 per kWh. Hence, it is
anticipated that in the case of Katsina, the LCOE may be as high as
$0.30 per kW h. This is about twice the average electrical energy cost
from the national grid and only about 20% lower than the cost of
using a diesel generator. This facility might pose a better alternative
for the Nigerian o-grid manufacturers who solely rely on diesel
generators. Regardless, it is still questionable if this is intuitively their
best option.
Other than the technological aspect, the development of wind
facilities in these regions is faced with several other limiting factors
i.e. social and economic factors [46,69,70]. Due to their typical large
initial investment cost, the most important and successful instruments
in promoting the expansion of renewable technologies are mostly
policy, nance, and awareness driven.
A lot of suggestions have been made for wind power enabling
strategies in Nigeria [40,41] but we believe that the immediate policy
focus should be put on validating NIMET's data with new measurement
facilities and supporting research on high yield low wind speed
turbines. An eort has to be put in place to tackle these two issues
before a foundation for wind energy in Nigeria can be built. The
validation of data is paramount in ensuring future mathematical
models developed for satellite images predict wind speed proles with
minimum error. Such models would be very important tools for
predicting wind speed variations with climate and the impact on wind
facilities business models in the region.
3. Hydropower
Around the world, hydropower represents the highest density of
energy resources; ranking rst in terms of installed generation capacity
from renewables [71]. From a topological and hydrological stance,
Nigeria, at the least, is moderately endowed with hydropower resources
[72]. Currently, hydropower constitutes about 40% of the country's
total installed electricity capacity with 1,938,000 kW from large hydro-
power plants, and about 30,000 kW from small hydropower [73].
However, based on assessments of the potential of the dierent sites
across the Nigerian river basins for small and large scale hydropower
[7275], the current installed capacity of hydropower facilities only
represents 14% of the country's potential. Table 2 and Table 3 show a
summary of the country's potential for small and large scale hydro-
power respectively.
Traditionally, Nigeria's policy for hydropower has been inclined
towards the development of large scale hydro power plants. The sizes of
A.T. Brimmo et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 474490

Fig. 2. : Wind speed (m/s) regime in 40 locations across Nigeria. Wind speeds were obtained by weighing measurements available in literature across the measurement duration.

Table 2 commissioning of the Kainji hydropower station), Nigeria's SHP

Potential of Small Scale Hydropower (SHP) in Nigeria [72]. industry is still underutilized [77]. The few small scale hydropower
plants currently operating in Nigeria were built simply because they
State River Basin No of Potential Capacity
oered the most economical and reliable electricity source for the
Sites (MW)
intended end use. These facilities include Ankwill I & II (3000 kW,
Kaduna Niger 19 59.2 Plateau), Kurra (8000 kW, Plateau), Jekko I & II (8000 kW, Plateau),
Kwara Niger 12 38.8 Bakalore (3000 kW, Sokoto) and, Tiga (6000 kW, Kano) [72,76].
Kano Hadejia- 28 46.2
Nigeria's potential for hydropower is greatest in the southern and
Jam'are
Borno Chad 28 20.8 Plateau areas of the country where rainfall is perennial and the
Bauchi Upper Benue 20 42.6 topology favors necessary hydraulic heads [73]. In the northern areas,
Gongola (now Adamawa Upper Benue 38 162.7 rainfall is eeting; hence reservoirs would be required for hydropower
and Taraba)
developments. In this region, it was shown, based on data collected
Plateau Lower Benue 32 110.4
Benue Lower Benue 19 69.2
over 10 years, that these reservoirs contribute to the power generation
Cross River Cross River 18 28.1 of dams all year long, with the highest contribution recorded in the dry
Katsina Sokoto Rima 11 8 season [78]. Some southern SHPs have also been reported to have a
Sokoto Sokoto Rima 22 30.6 large variation between their rainy and dry season power capacity [79].
Niger Niger 30 117.6
These power plants would also require some storage facilities to
Total 277 734.2
moderate the eect of this variation on the power production capacity
of their hydro power plants.
the power plants in the 16 year plan put underway, in the 80's, to raise Large scale hydropower's hard limiting constraints of huge invest-
the country's installed capacity of hydropower plants by about ment cost, negative environmental and socio cultural impacts, long
13,500 MW, is an attestation to this [76]. However, the development construction duration, extra high voltage tie-line requirement etc.
of majority of the viable large scale hydro power plants such as make the small scale hydropower (SHP) scheme (less than 30 MW)
Zungeru, Makurdi, Lokoja, Onitsha, and Mambilla continue to face an attractive endeavor. From an economical point of view, the
deferment at a risk of higher escalating trends in their capital costs technology becomes more attractive when dams already existing for
[72]. other uses are converted to SHPs with reduced nancial burden [80].
Currently, only the Kainji, Shiroro and Jebba large scale hydro- This advantage comes at a cost as the average immediate cost of
power facilities are operational [73]. Despite the early adaptation of producing electricity reduces as the size of the hydro power plant
Small-Scale Hydro Power (SHP) in Nigeria (1923, 45 years before the increases in compliance with economies of scale. But, this cost does

480
A.T. Brimmo et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 474490

Table 3 deduced as:

Potential of Large Scale Hydropower in Nigeria [73].
SpecificCost = 7081(Size)0.122 (1)
Location River Potential Capacity (MW)
The installation capital cost, as adapted in this report, includes the
Donka Niger 225 cost of the electromechanical equipment, civil works (construction of
Zungeru II Kaduna 450 dam, tunnels, canal and powerhouse), electrical connection, infra-
Zungeru I Kaduna 500
structure & logistic and other miscellaneous installation costs.
Zurubu Kaduna 20
Gwaram Janaare 30 Although the appropriate electromechanical components of SHP
Izom Gurar 10 projects in developing countries have been shown to be strongly
Gudi Mada 40 dependent on site-specic constraints and opportunities [87], with
Kafanchan Konhum 5 the availability of the water head and volume ow rate, an idea of
Kurra II Sanga 25
suitable electromechanical devices can be obtained based on the
Kurra I Sanga 15
Richa II Daffo 25 classication available in the references [73,88]. Furthermore, a strong
Richa I Mosari 35 correlation proposed by Ogayar and Vidal [89] can be used to estimate
Mistakuku Kurra 20 the cost of the electro mechanical equipment required.
Korubo Gongola 35
Projected Operation and Maintenance (O & M) costs, as presented
Kiri Gongola 40
Yola Benue 360 in Fig. 5 are estimated using a correlation deduced from O & M records
Karamti Kam 115 collected by IRENA and GIZ [87] for small hydropower projects in
Beli Taraba 240 developing countries (see Fig. 5).
Garin Dali Taraba 135 Potential revenue and breakeven years are estimated based on an
Sarkin Danko Suntai 45
electricity price of 0.13USD per kWh (about NGN25/kWh), which is
Gembu Dongu 130
Kasimbila Katsina Ala 30 the average 2015 rate approved by the Nigerian Electricity Regulatory
Katsina Alaa Katsina Ala 260 Commission (NERC) for private distribution companies [90].
Makurdi Benue 1060 Furthermore, 20% losses in electricity production and transmission
Lokoja Niger 1950
are taken into account. Losses of up to 40% due to seasonal variation
Onitsha Niger 1050
Ifon Osse 30
in water levels are also considered. In total, based on our estimates,
Ikom Cross 730 about USD 1Billion investments is required to develop the 98 SHP
Afokpo Cross 180 sites, with a total capacity of 415 MW. Cumulative annual revenue
Atan Cross 180 across the sites falls at USD 380 Million. Considering that the average
Gurara Durara 300
breakeven point of the analyzed sites is about 7 years, for a
Mambilla Danga 3960
Total 12230 technology with an expected lifetime of between 20 and 40 years,
investments in small hydro power in Nigeria hold a lot of promise.
This is in line with previous techno-economic studies, although
not take into account the price for immense ooding of agricultural limited to a few sites, that portray SHP systems are very promising
lands, submersion of cities under water, endemic water-borne diseases, for rural electrication and other applications like mechanically
and serious alterations of ecosystem, typical of colossal failures of powering agricultural devices [72,91].
large-scale hydropower plants [81] a price predicted to be inestim- Furthermore, the conjunctive sustainable use of water resources for
able. hydropower, water supply and irrigation has been shown to yield
Nigeria's internal water bodies are divided into 11 river basins returns on capital higher than those of single applications [92].
spread across the country (see Fig. 3). An overview of the past and However, as the country's database for SHP resources are incomplete
present status of these river basins can be found in reference [82]. The and obsolete, this analysis is merely speculative. Consequently, a
networks of rivers are in such a way that one or two rivers ow through comprehensive data collection across the country's SHP potential sites
most of the Nigerian states. These river basins are potential sites for is highly recommended. This eort should be focused on gathering
SHP schemes. In addition to being relatively cost eective, the small information paramount for the planning, design and operation of water
nature of these projects minimizes the risk involved, presenting a more resources development projects such as: rainfall depth, rainfall dura-
attractive avenue for foreign investors, currently held back by the fear tion, river stream systems (ow rates and variations), topological
of instability in the region, to get into the Nigerian Power Generation details, site geological suitability, demographics of surrounding com-
market. More so, as the country's transmission network still does not munities, current water body use, power supply status in surrounding
cover most regions, such small-scale systems oer a feasible energy communities, project feasibility and requirements for hydro system
package for rural use in Nigeria. implementation [93]. This data can be adapted in assessing the energy
Fig. 3 presents a compilation of the potential of the Nigerian SHP potential at the respective sites [93]. The hydropower potential from an
sites available in the literature [72,76,8486]. It must be noted that updated site survey along with favorable policy measures [94] would
this list is not exhaustive as site information of about 181 more encourage the participation of the private sector in hydropower
potential sites are not available in the public domain. Using the generation which could result in energy generation gures exceeding
estimated technical potential of each site, a techno-economic analysis 29,800 GW h/yr [77,85,9597].
was performed to portray each site's economic viability. The prospects of computer programs to optimize the hydropower
From the data presented in Table 4, it can be seen that a Detailed turbine and auxiliary maintenance schedules, hence ensuring good
Project Report (DPR) has already been put up for a number of the sites. hydropower plants performance, have been demonstrated by Lawal
This is indicative of the initiation of developmental works. For those [98]. Similarly, Ajao et al. [99] reported how their developed computa-
sites, the estimated installation capital costs, as presented in Table 4, tional interface can ensure that hydropower stations power features
are based on the respective DPR documents. For the sites still at the are reliably gathered with precision, in a short period of time. The
pre-feasibility stage, the projected installation capital costs were neural network approach [100], Sequential Stream ow Routing [93]
estimated using a correlation of SHP capital cost as a function of and Stochastic Linear Programming (SLP) [101] have also been used to
power plant's rated capacity, developed from the capital cost of 19 SHP model the power generation potentials from Nigerian reservoir char-
projects in Africa [84,87] (see Fig. 4). This relation between installation acteristics. These are useful tactics for optimizing reservoir manage-
capital cost (USD/kW) and the plant size in African countries was ment processes.

481
A.T. Brimmo et al.
Fig. 3. : Nigeria's river basins. Reproduced from reference [83].
The potential of Rivers Moshi, Awun, Oyi, Oshin and Oro, located in
the Lower Niger River Basin, for marine hydro-kinetics energy
conversion schemes a class of zero head SHP have also been
previously reported by Ladokun et al. [102]. This hydropower scheme
utilizes only the water's kinetic energy, unlike the conventional hydro-
power schemes which require water head and volume. It was shown to
have a theoretical potential of generating a total of 826 MW across
Lower Niger River Basin. Furthermore, among the considered rivers,
River Moshi was reported to have the greatest average daily discharge
of 22.78 m3/s, while the least was 3.35 m3/s at River Oshin [102].
Previous studies have demonstrated that climate based data can be
used to forecast reservoir water inow [103,104]. Similar statistical
analyses have been used to project that rainfall and temperature
variations due to climate change would not have a signicant eect
on the hydropower resources in Kainji [105,106] and Shiroro [107]. In
the past decades, the recorded decrease in water ow to the Kainji Dam
was attributed to the development of new infrastructures at the upper
part of the Niger River [106,108] and the release of water from the
Kainji reservoir into Jebba reservoir [109]. This calls for the optimiza-
tion of the country's reservoir management processes in order to
guarantee sustained power generation under speculated weather con-
ditions. Adequate management is also required to cover up water
supply during periods of low precipitation and high water demands
[110] and minimize the environmental impact of the reservoir during
high outow periods [111,112].
Further reports have suggested that due to insucient water
storage at reservoirs, resulting from problems of low inow into the
Kainji and Jebba hydropower dams, power below their name plate
values are generated [113]. Similarly, a 2012 report suggested that the
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 474490
operation of hydropower dams in the country is not based on any
scientic analysis, hence, ooding due to the overlling of the down-
stream reservoirs have occurred in the past, leading to the loss of lives
and properties worth millions of dollars [111,112,114,115]. In order to
mitigate the ooding problems, recommendations were made for
Nigeria, Niger and Mali to jointly construct a release policy [111].
Furthermore, the structural control levee designed by Sule et al. [112],
the multipurpose approach adapted at the Kashinbila Dam [116,117],
the SSR analysis utilized by Sule et al. [93], the Articial Neural
Networks (ANN) as demonstrated by Abdulkadir [110] and the
conjunctive hydro resource usage suggested by Maroof et al. [92] can
all be looked into for additional ooding control measures. In periods
of low inow, the inter-basin water transfer where tail water released
from one or more reservoirs is directed to the low inow reservoir, as
described by Emoabino et al. [113], can be considered to improve the
hydropower facility's power generation capability.
In addition to the unavailability of data for a thorough techno-
economic analysis, dearth of enabling policies and technical challenges,
Al Amin [118] also cited the vulnerability of the Northern Nigerian river
basins to terrorism as a challenge facing the country's development of
SHP. To counter these, the following recommendations can be explored:
(1) the prohibition of activities around dams and reservoirs; (2)
streamlining the activities of the agencies responsible for water security
(at all levels of government), to avoid overlap and duplication, in order to
achieve more eective information sharing and proper coordination of
activities; and (3) establishment of policies that ensure funding is
dedicated to hydropower resource protection in Nigeria [118].
Assessing the recommended enabling hydropower policies for
Nigeria and taking actions to update the data which represent
A.T. Brimmo et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 474490

Table 4
Techno-economic assessment of SHP potentials in Nigeria.

S/N Site Location Development Stage Size (kW) Capital Cost O & M (USD/ Annual Revenue Break Even
(USD) yr) (USD) (yrs)

1 Kiri Adamawa DPR 12,600 28,198,106 335,117 6,287,443 4

2 Weya Dam Bauchi Completed 150 576,372 15,967 62,873 9
3 Amoke/Ugbok Po/ Benue DPR 1225 3,643,159 67,576 576,284 6
Ochekwu
4 Obudu Cross River Feasibility 30 140,284 5,285 10,483 13
5 Efieghim Cross River DPR 200 741,992 19,456 85,664 9
6 Agbokim Falls Cross River Prefeasibility 2000 5,602,720 94,635 956,565 6
7 Ania-Essam Stream Cross River DPR 1379 4,042,761 73,309 651,581 6
8 Ajasor Mission Cross River DPR 550 1,803,810 38,987 250,137 7
9 Agbokim Waterfall Cross River Pilot Project 1167 3,490,389 65,348 547,852 6
10 Akparabong Farm Cross River DPR 289 1,024,054 25,034 126,689 8
11 Bendege Afi River Cross River DPR 2555 6,945,790 111,962 1,230,727 6
12 Benedege Afi Stream Cross River DPR 2458 6,714,483 109,034 1,182,847 6
13 Danare Stream Cross River DPR 322 1,125,640 26,957 142,023 8
14 Bumaji Stream Cross River DPR 473 1,578,653 35,124 213,265 7
15 Butaton/ Okwango Cross River DPR 692 2,206,053 45,638 317,990 7
16 Buanchor/Katabang Cross River DPR 692 2,206,053 45,638 317,990 7
17 Bunia Cross River DPR 371 1,277,460 29,763 165,410 8
18 Lokpoi/Lebang Cross River DPR 1366 4,009,284 72,834 645,223 6
19 Busi II* Cross River Pilot Project 1053 3,189,527 60,898 492,471 6
20 Kundeve- Mata Str Cross River DPR 903 2,786,879 54,795 419,734 7
21 Bebi Stream Cross River DPR 225 821,493 21,069 96,972 8
22 New Ekuri Cross River DPR 465 1,555,165 34,715 209,470 7
23 Owom Cross River DPR 789 2,476,561 49,961 364,869 7
24 Neghe Cross River DPR 1308 3,857,933 70,674 616,592 6
25 Aking Osomba Cross River DPR 834 2,600,572 51,908 386,662 7
26 Osomba-Ikpan Cross River DPR 1142 3,425,073 64,390 535,758 6
27 Kwa Falls * Cross River Pilot Project 5130 12,810,841 180,756 2,515,572 5
28 Obudu Dam Cross River Prefeasibility 776 2,440,019 49,383 358,483 7
29 Obudu Ranch Plateau Cross River Prefeasibility 1000 3,048,559 58,782 466,818 7
30 Ibede Delta 1150 3,446,572 64,706 539,734 6
31 Echiku Ebonyi 970 2,968,111 57,564 452,268 7
32 Okhuanwan River Edo Feasibility 600 1,946,755 41,384 273,976 7
33 Iguoriakhi Village Edo Prefeasibility 100 403,733 12,085 40,475 10
34 Ikpoba River Edo Feasibility 3120 8,278,703 128,448 1,511,424 5
35 Ebvoro II Edo DPR 40 180,594 6440 14,584 12
36 Ugonoba Edo Prefeasibility 485 1,616,182 35,776 219,350 7
37 Ele Dam Ekiti Prefeasibiltiy 300 1,059,271 25,705 131,975 8
38 Ero Dam Ekiti DPR 870 2,697,693 53,419 403,853 7
39 Ezioba-Mgbowo Dam Enugu Completed 30 140,284 5285 10,483 13
40 Dadinkowa Gombe Prefeasibility 34,000 67,411,359 662,778 17,207,622 4
41 Balanga Gombe 690 2,200,919 45,555 317,109 7
42 Dindima Gongola DPR 16,000 34,778,587 394,887 8,014,713 4
43 Urashi Imo 200 741,992 19,456 85,664 9
44 Kangimi Dam Kaduna Prefeasibility 1470 4,275,621 76,593 696,039 6
45 Birmin Gwari Kaduna Prefeasibility 84 346,427 10,721 33,430 10
46 ABU Dam Kaduna Prefeasibility 68 288,693 9295 26,577 11
47 Fatika Dam Kaduna Prefeasibility 29 137,817 5212 10,241 13
48 Yola Buraku Kaduna Prefeasibility 6475 15,716,763 212,111 3,191,149 5
49 Itisi Dam Kaduna Prefeasibility 4480 11,374,091 164,691 2,189,997 5
50 Matari Dam Kaduna Prefeasibility 35 159,204 5835 12,377 13
51 Zaria Dam Kaduna Prefeasibility 74 308,102 9,781 28,851 11
52 Pambegua Dam Kaduna Prefeasibility 116 458,186 13,342 47,364 10
53 Gimbawa Dam Kaduna Prefeasibility 403 1,371,131 31,457 180,097 8
54 New Galma Dam Kaduna Prefeasibility 2730 7,362,841 117,189 1,317,699 6
55 Karami Dam Kaduna Prefeasibility 3780 9,797,886 146,548 1,840,220 5
56 Lukarbu Dam Kaduna Prefeasibility 84 346,427 10,721 33,430 10
57 Gurara Dam Kaduna Prefeasibility 1575 4,542,625 80,311 747,509 6
58 Fada Kagona Kaduna Prefeasibility 246 889,889 22,429 106,868 8
59 Sabon Sarke Kaduna Prefeasibility 15 74,989 3,237 4,489 17
60 Magana Dam Kaduna Prefeasibility 7350 17,566,890 231,410 3,631,750 5
61 Madakiya Kaduna Prefeasibility 3780 9,797,886 146,548 1,840,220 5
62 Manchok Fall Kaduna Prefeasibility 115 456,444 13,303 47,141 10
63 Kogi Dara Kaduna Prefeasibility 14,490 31,879,583 368,890 7,247,054 4
64 Kafanchan Kaduna 8000 18,923,767 245,282 3,959,518 5
65 Challawa Girge Dam Kano Prefeasibility 7000 16,830,254 223,782 3,455,418 5
66 Tiga Dam Kano Prefeasibility 7000 16,830,254 223,782 3,455,418 5
67 Kabomo River Katsina DPR 370 1,273,432 29,689 164,783 8
68 Jibia Katsina Prefeasibility 31,300 62,687,727 626,154 15,825,126 4
69 Fajina Katsina Prefeasibility 30,000 60,395,844 608,170 15,159,830 4
70 M/Fashi Katsina Prefeasibility 23,004 47,836,340 506,759 11,584,144 4
71 Mairuwa Katsina Prefeasibility 16,880 36,452,524 409,682 8,462,446 4
72 Sabke Katsina Prefeasibility 18,750 39,975,114 440,346 9,414,654 4
(continued on next page)

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Table 4 (continued)

S/N Site Location Development Stage Size (kW) Capital Cost O & M (USD/ Annual Revenue Break Even
(USD) yr) (USD) (yrs)

73 NCAM (Ilorin) Kwara Prefeasibility 111 442,474 12,983 45,358 10

74 Asa Dam Kwara 1100 3,314,648 62,759 515,401 6
75 Tede Nasarawa 8000 18,923,767 245,282 3,959,518 5
76 Doma Dam Nassarawa DPR 450 1,512,221 33,962 202,558 7
77 Gurara Dam Niger Construction Ongoing 30,000 60,395,844 608,170 15,159,830 4
78 Oke Odan Ogun Prefeasibility 250 902,580 22,679 108,721 8
79 OOPL Ogun DPR 17 85,198 3577 5358 16
80 Oyan Dam Ogun Refurbishment 9000 20,985,509 265,954 4,464,446 5
81 Ikere Girge Dam Ogun Refurbishment 5000 12,525,361 177,597 2,450,403 5
82 Owena Ondo Prefeasibility 1300 3,838,282 70,392 612,888 6
83 Eti Oni Osun Prefeasibility 278 990,754 24,395 121,722 8
84 Erin Ijesah Fall Osun DPR 765 2,409,624 48,901 353,183 7
85 Okinni Dam Osun DPR 1900 5,355,996 91,358 907,282 6
86 Iddoo Osun Prefeasibility 243 880,035 22,235 105,434 8
87 Ikeji Ile- Ijesha Osun DPR 79 328,255 10,278 31,244 11
88 Sepeteri Dam Oyo Prefeasibility 194 722,411 19,053 82,913 9
89 Omi River Oyo Prefeasibility 625 2,017,796 42,561 285,939 7
90 Richa Plateau Prefeasibility 35,000 69,149,069 676,110 17,719,890 4
91 Kurra Plateau Prefeasibility 25,000 51,461,912 536,571 12,603,429 4
92 Ta boss community Plateau Prefeasibility 100 403,733 12,085 40,475 10
93 Bakalori Dam Sokoto Refurbishment 3400 8,927,566 136,260 1,650,780 5
94 Monkin Taraba Prefeasibility 900 2,779,198 54,677 418,363 7
95 Tuaga Dam Taraba Construction Ongoing 400 1,363,651 31,323 178,917 8

collection of these data and subsequent development of the SHP sites

Fig. 4. Installation capital history of 10 SHP projects spread across Africa.
Nigeria's potential for hydropower top the list [70,119] would enable
the country to invite bids for the development of its hydropower
resources. The involvement of all levels of the government was high-
lighted in several studies [120,121]. It is acknowledged that the
Fig. 5. O & M cost history of 11 SHP plants in developing countries.
would be easier to achieve if dealt with at the state level rather than the
federal level.
Assurance of community involvement in the development of hydro-
power facilities is another crucial policy focus as it reduces the impact
of uncertainties and stress caused by uprooting and resettlement [117].
Development of standards to dene quality requirements of SHP
projects would also be necessary to facilitate a competitive bidding of
SHP projects and quality facilities [120]. To encourage the bidders,
incentives like tax freedom, exclusions from importation duties, soft
loans etc. should be oered by the government. Legal reforms which
include the land use act, environmental impact assessment decree and
investment law of the federation that can help promote hydropower
development in Nigeria and make the energy policy robust, can be
found in the reference [122].
4. Geothermal
Geothermal energy is derived from heat generated by Earth's
formation, and subsequent radioactive decay of the earth's minerals
[123]. This heat is driven from the core to surrounding rocks which
superheats ground water, pressurizing it to the surface. Economical use
of geothermal energy was previously restricted to regions with surface
features suggesting the presence of a shallow local heat source, such as
hot springs and volcanoes. However, recent technological advancement
has dramatically expanded the applicability of this technology [124].
Putting electricity generation into this perspective, the minimum tem-
perature suitable is about 135 C [125]. As the cost of geothermal energy
is mostly associated with the drilling cost, the economic feasibility of
geothermal energy, to a large extent, depends on the depth at which this
temperature can be attained. This is in turn dependent on the region's
geological structure and ambient temperature.
The geology of Nigeria is predominantly characterized by an
undierentiated basement complex with cretaceous sediments around
the major river basins, river alluvium and deltaic sediments across the
coastal and Chad Basin areas, sandstones scattered in the North and
Southern Regions and basalt deposits in the North-Eastern Nigeria
(Biu 10.61N, 12.20E) [126,127] (See Fig. 6).
The utilization of geothermal energy depends on parameters such
as demand for heat or electricity within a specic locale, distance of the
resource from the end consumer, resource temperature, and chemistry

484
A.T. Brimmo et al.
Fig. 6. Geological map of Nigeria. Reproduce from ref [126].
of the geothermal uid [128]. In Nigeria, geothermal energy has not
been actively explored for electrical power generation. The known
geothermal exploration sites in Nigeria are the Ikogosi Warm Springs
of Ondo State and the Wikki Warm Springs of Bauchi State [129,130].
In terms of geothermal energy resource assessment, very limited
dedicated studies were found. Spectral analysis of aeromagnetic data
have been widely used to estimate the Curie Point Depth [131133]
the depth at which the formation's temperature reaches a critical value
and its permanent magnetism property changes to induced magnetism
[134] which is useful for estimating geothermal thermal gradients
[129,135,136]. Also, geothermal data can be derived from temperature
measurements during pumping tests for boreholes [130]. An applicable
source of rock subsurface temperature, although limited to the
country's sedimentary basins, is however available from the oil and
gas industry [130].
Oil exploration in the country has been restricted to the Niger Delta
region, which falls between latitude 4N 6.5N and longitude 5E -
8E. Consequently, most of the thermal distribution data available in
the literature are within this region. The region is subdivided lithos-
tratigraphically into an upper sandy Benin formation, an intervening
unit of alternating sandstone and shale named the Agbada formation,
and a lower shaly Akata formation [137]. One of the earliest reports on
geothermal gradient in Niger Delta was published in 1976 by
Nwachukwu [138]. In his investigation, measurements from 1000
oil-well logs in that region were modeled to portray real formation
values, using the Lachenbruch-Brewer's equation. Raw and corrected
temperature data suggested that the center region of Niger Delta has
the lowest temperature gradient of 1.271.82 C/100 m, which in-
creases to about 5.46 C/100 m in the Cretaceous rocks in the north. In
1978, these values were corroborated by Avbovbo [139] who reported
thermal gradients in the Niger Delta to be about 2.25.46 C/100 m.
Avbovbo's [139] investigation suggested that the lowest temperature
gradients occur at the nose of the Niger Delta and maximum
temperature gradients occur in the Anambra Basin. Fairly high
geothermal gradients of 3.34.7 C/100 m were also reported in the
o-shore parts of Niger Delta by Avbovbo [139].
Uko et al. [140], based on data from closely spaced wells in the
Northern section of the Niger-Delta basin, reported the isothermal
gradient for the Benin Formation (between latitude 6N6.5 N and
longitude 5E7E) to be about 1.4562.220 C/100 m, with an
average of 1.875 C/100 m, and that of the paralic shaly Agbada
Formation segment, to be about 1.6743.403 C/100 m, with an
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 474490
average of 2.548 C/100 m. Akpabio et al. [141] used continuous
temperature data from 260 wells in the Niger Delta region to put the
geothermal gradient at about 0.84.6 C/100 m. Their report sug-
gested a continuous but non-linear relationship between geothermal
gradients and depth: from less than 1.0 C/100 m in the continental
sands, through 2.5 C/100 m in the marine paralic section, to 5.0 C/
100 m in the continuous shaly section. The highest geothermal
gradients of 3.5 4.6 C/100 m were also recorded northwards while
intermediate values of 2.0 2.5 C/100 m were reported for seaward
areas.
More recently, based on data collected from 18 oil wells (latitude
5.4N 6.0N; longitude 5.4E 6.4E) in the Niger Delta region,
Anomoharan [142] estimated the geothermal gradient of the region to
be about 2.543.11 C/100 m. Moving a bit eastward, Emujakporue
and Ekine [143], based on bottom hole temperatures collected from 16
oil wells, estimated geothermal gradients of the Eastern part of the
Niger Delta sedimentary basin (Latitude 4N7N; Longitude
6E8E) as about 1.353.37 C/100 m. Odumodu and Mode [144]
corroborated this range of geothermal gradient in their study which
was based on temperature data sourced from 71 oil wells. Farther
southeast, geothermal gradients in Calabar ank basin located between
the Longitude 4.30E5.22E and Latitude 7.30N8.15N, were
reported by Odumodu [145] to be about 34.5 C/100 m with a
northeasterly increment.
Akpabio et al. [146] reported the geothermal gradient across the
Niger Delta, based on more comprehensive well log data - from
continuous temperature logs in 260 oil wells. Their report suggested
a geothermal gradient of about 0.82 C/100 m at the central portion,
increasing northward and seaward to up to 2.95 C/100 m and
2.62 C/100 m respectively. Maximum geothermal gradients of about
3.54.6 C/100 m were observed northward. This investigation pre-
sents result with a higher degree of condence as it utilized continuous
temperature logs, rather than bottom-hole logs, collected from wells
that had been closed for years to ensure formation returned to thermal
equilibrium.
Another recent and extensive geothermal investigation in the Niger
Delta is that of Adedapo et al. [147]. In their study, measured
subsurface temperature of 600 oil wells was used to estimate geother-
mal gradients. Minimum and maximum geothermal gradients of
1.20 C/100 m and 7.56 C/100 m at the central part and north eastern
parts of Niger Delta sedimentary respectively. The calculations, which
were based on corrections with the American Association of Petroleum
A.T. Brimmo et al.
Geologists (AAPG) correction factor, borehole temperature correction
factor with La Max's correction factor and Zeta Utilities borehole
correction factor, also suggested a mean geothermal gradient of
3.92 C/100 m across the Niger Delta Basin.
Some geothermal records also exist northward in the Anambra
Basin. Based on data collected from over sixteen oil wells located
within latitude 6N to 7.3N and longitude 6.3E to 7.45E, Onuoha
and Ekine [148] reported a geothermal gradient range of about 2.5
4.9 C/100 m. Higher geothermal gradients and heat ow in areas of
low hydraulic head distribution were highlighted in this study. The
highest calculated geothermal gradients were found to be at locations
in the southwestern part of the basin north of Onitsha (6.17N, 6.78E)
and Asaba (6.20N, 6.73E). This is consistent with geothermal
gradients reported by Onwuemesi [135] 23.5 C/100 m -estimated
from the Curie temperature, Curie temperature depth and ground
surface temperature measurements, assuming a linear thermal gradi-
ent in the formation.
In the northern sediments, most of the thermal gradient logs
available were obtained from the bore-hole industry. Based on the
thermal data collected during pumping tests by Askira [149], Olatunji
[150], Haruna [151], and Moumouni [152], Kurowska and Schoeneich
[130] reported the temperature gradients of about 1.15.9 C/100 m
and 0.97.6 C/100 m in the Chad and Sokoto Basins (the portion of
the Iullemmeden Basin in north-western Nigeria) respectively. Even
higher temperature gradients of about 10 C/100 m were reported for
the other part of Ilullemmeden Basin in Niger Republic.
The data available for Bida Basin, although taken at shallow water
wells, suggest a geothermal gradient of about 22.5 C/100 m [130].
Nwankwo and Ekine [153], based on bottom hole temperatures
collected from 21 oil wells, estimated the geothermal gradient in the
Chad Basin as a range between 3 C/100 m and 4.4 C/100 m with an
average of 3.4 C/100 m. Their reported isotherms suggested an
increment in the geothermal gradient from the northeast and south-
west axes towards the north central region of the Chad Basin. Nwakwo
et al. [154], corroborated this geothermal gradient range in their report
with wire line logs from 14 oil wells in the Chad basin. On the other
hand, Obande et al. [126] used the fundamental conduction heat
transfer equation [155] and a formation thermal conductivity of 2.5 W/
mC to estimate the geothermal gradients as 6.8 C/100 m at the Wikki
Warm Springs from Curie point temperature measurements.
Overall, from thermal measurements carried out in the Niger Delta,
Anambra and Chad basins, the geothermal gradient in Nigeria falls
within 0.82 7.6 C/100 m, peaking at the north eastern part of the
Niger Delta and Sokoto basins, with a nationwide average falling
between 2 3 C/100 m. This suggests that depths in the order of 5
7 km are required to attain adequate temperatures for electrical power
generation (approx. 135 C) in most parts of the country. As this is not
an economically feasible depth to drill for power production [125],
exploration of geothermal energy within the country should focus on
areas with higher geothermal gradients.
There is not much available data on the geothermal gradient of the
country's basement rocks because those areas have no petroleum
potential so they were not subjected to drilling exploration and
subsurface temperature measurements [130]. Also, the geothermal
potential for a large portion of the north central region of the country
has not been assessed. As advances in aeromagnetic spectral analysis
have been proven useful for geothermal exploration [136], this should
be considered for geothermal resource mapping in these regions,
especially in the northern Cretaceous sediments.
5. Nuclear
The initiation of Nigeria's nuclear program was marked by the
establishment of the Nigerian Uranium Mining Company (NUMCO) in
the late 1970s. According to Ejiogu [156] and Emmanuel [157], the
country's interest in nuclear energy was originally military-focused.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 474490
This view was corroborated by Okolo [158] who argued that the
country's nuclear ambition was driven by the fear of South Africa,
energy worries, and a desire to be counted among world powers. A
couple of years down the line, Nigeria's vision for nuclear energy
became focused on power generation. This led to the incorporation of
the Nigeria Atomic Energy Commission (NAEC) [159] and three
nuclear research and training centers: Center for Energy Research
and Development (CERD) in Obafemi Awolowo University, Ife [160],
Center for Energy Research and Training (CERT) in Ahmadu Bello
Univerisity, Zaria [161] and the Nuclear Technological Center at the
Sheda Science and Technology Complex (SHESTCO), Abuja [162]. A
good overview of the Nigeria's Nuclear energy sector since then can be
found in the references [156,163165].
Although Nigeria currently does not have a nuclear power facility,
the country is ranked amongst those that have this technology under
consideration [166,167]. The country's interest in Nuclear power
generation is bolstered by its growing need for long term energy
security. This interest has been followed up with an agreement with
Iran for technology sharing in 2008 [168]. In 2009, Nigeria substan-
tiated it's seriousness in Nuclear energy by disclosing a nuclear road
map which included plans to generate 1000 MW of electricity by 2020
and 4000 MW by 2030 [169171], using nuclear technology. By 2011,
the country began nalizing a draft intergovernmental agreement to
cooperate on the design, construction, operation and decommissioning
of an initial nuclear power plant with Russia's Rosatom [166]. At the
time, some researchers suggested that the nuclear power plans were on
schedule; hence believed that by 2020, the nuclear technology could
start contributing to the country's energy mix [172,173].
The Fukushima disaster which occurred in March 2011 was
reported not to have stymied progress in Nigeria's nuclear plans
[174]. However, the 2020 target now seems impractical to meet.
Since 2011, the country's nuclear activity can be summarized as: (1)
a passive signication of interest in the technology in its National
Energy Policy [175] which states that Nigeria will pursue the
introduction of nuclear power into the generation of electricity, in
the long term; and (2) discussions with Rosatom to build four power
plants, with the rst of them speculated to be ready by 2025 [176]. The
proposed locations for these facilities are Geregu (7. 34N, 6.42E), Itu
(5.1667N, 7.9833E), Agbaje (7.1667N, 5.0833E) and Lau (9.13N,
11.16E)) [165]. Regardless of this progress, experts have warned that
the future prospects of nuclear energy in Nigeria is threatened by the
ineciency and size of the national grid, the current low generation
capacity, poor transportation infrastructures, security, corruption, lack
of nance and lack of manpower [163,165,168,177].
Back in the early 90's, Nigerian students were occasionally sent for
training in reactor physics and technology at the Karlsruhe Institute for
Nuclear Research in West Germany [178]. Today, the country has an
operational reactor for training and research: A 30 kW Miniature
Neutron Source Reactor MNSR) at CERT, Zaria. A 25 MW multi-
purpose research Nuclear reactor (NIRR-7) to be stationed in Sheda,
Abuja is also under the design stages [165]. The MNSR (also known as
the Nigerian Research Reactor 1 (NIRR-1) was donated to Nigeria by
the International Atomic Energy Agency, IAEA, in 1994 but only began
operations in 2004 [179]. Detailed descriptions of the reactor and the
irradiation facility can be found in [180,181]. As the reactor was
specically designed for the Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA), it has
been frequently utilized for that purpose [180,182,183].
Other works outside NAA applications includes that of Ahmed et al.
[184]. In this study, the authors carried out measurements to verify the
theoretical predictions of the reactor's power and ux parameters
which result from variations in core temperatures and demonstrated a
strong dependence of the reactor power on coolant temperature in
agreement with the design of the NIRR-1. A Monte Carlo model of the
Highly Enriched Uranium (HEU) core of the NIRR-1 was also
developed and used to calculate the reactor's core physics parameters
[185]. As only very few reactors still operate with HEU, Jonah et al.
A.T. Brimmo et al.
[186] attempted converting the NIRR-1 from HEU to LEU, using two
variants of Lowly Enriched Uranium (LEU). Their outcomes armed
the feasibility of such conversions. The PARET/ANL code version 7.3
was then used to accurately model the reactivity insertion transients
with the aim of performing safety analysis for the proposed LEU core
[187]. This summarizes the extent of work that has been performed on
the MSNR in the past decade.
Safety wise, the Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection Act
(NSRP, Act) 1995 [188,189] is the legislative framework for Nuclear
Safety in Nigeria. In 2007, an additional protocol came into eect
which required Nigeria, through the NNRA, to embark on a Survey of
Depleted Uranium (DU) used as shielding in various locations in
Nigeria based on the IAEA reporting requirements [190]. The survey
outcomes suggested that the total depleted Uranium across Nigeria is
about 4 t, most of which are found in the country's Industrial
Radiography facilities [190].
6. Discussions
Generally, Nigeria's potential in the considered sustainable energy
options is not denitive due to the low quality of data available. Wind
speed measurements from NIMET show some discrepancy with
satellite data and since no validation has been carried out for
NIMET's data, its accuracy cannot be concluded upon yet. Also, the
data available for the country's geothermal and hydropower resources
are outdated and incomplete. NIMET and other governmental agencies
have led the way in the provision of necessary data to size energy
utilities across Nigeria. However, these agencies need to complete,
validate and then enable commercial access to these data. To this eect,
they have to expand their reach and establish supporting central
laboratories where data accrued can be validated with independent
measurements and then standardized. Universities also have a role to
play in providing data stations for a higher resolution of the nation's
metrological data.
In Nigeria, the renewable energy pathway is expected to consider-
ably increase capital costs for power facilities but nancial analyses
have shown that these costs even out with time as little or no costs of
fuel is required. In some quarters, it is erroneously believed that all
renewable energy options are more expensive than conventional energy
options. What such argument lacks is a detailed LCOE estimation of
these energy options in regions where the resource are sucient. While
conventional energy options use processed fuels which come at a cost
and are region-specic, renewable energy options are fueled by nature
at no cost.
Other major challenges of renewable energy proliferations, espe-
cially in Nigeria, are the lack of grid capacity and presence of frequency
uctuations within the grid networks which undermines direct feeding
of decentralized renewables based power for immediate consumption.
As such, decentralized renewable energy options in the country require
storage which further increases the installation costs and makes the
energy option less protable. Developments in the United Arab
Emirates, which experiences a similar intensity of solar irradiation as
Nigeria, have proven that with the availability of a good grid network
which nullies the need for an energy storage facility, the solar energy
option can cost lower than conventional energy options [191].
Upgrades of existing power plants are also a recommended step to
sustain improvement in the country's energy production capacity.
Kainji dam, one of the foremost Nigerian hydropower plants, may
not survive for another decade if adequate repairs are not made in the
dam's embankment to prevent ooding [112]. Other dams (e.g. Jebba),
particularly in Northern Nigeria, have been reported to be facing
similar challenges [112]. Prevention of dams collapses through
diversication of its reservoirs could serve to elongate the dams' lives
and boost economic development in the communities located around
the dams.
Reforms will not be totally eective if the inecacy of the end-user
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 474490
is not constrained. Like every other energy generation option, renew-
able energy requires energy eciency for eective and even-usage
among the end-users. For example, the wattages of the incandescent
light bulbs predominantly used Nigerian homes are high energy-
consuming; the illumination of a 60 W incandescent bulb is equivalent
to that of a 10 W LED bulb. The penetration of such information to the
Nigeria public would not only aid end-users to help reduce energy cost
but would also aord other grid users the opportunity to enjoy constant
electricity supply. To ensure this, it was suggested that energy eciency
awareness be propagated in the country via policy reforms and the
setup of dedicated agencies [70].
In addition to technical and social endeavors, policy implementa-
tion has also proven to be an important instrument for advancing
sustainable technologies. For instance, since 2001 when the Feed in
Tari (FiT) incentive was introduced in Germany, the country's solar
installation has risen from 176 MW to about 30,00 MW [192]. Today,
solar energy accounts for 35.2 TWh, or about 6.9% of Germany's
annual energy production [193]. Similar enabling policies, designed to
suit the Nigerian environment, can lead the way forward for the
country's sustainable development. In Nigeria, some energy policies
have been implemented to favor renewables but, according to Ajayi and
Ajayi [122], there are many policy issues that need addressing in order
to accelerate the growth of renewable energy in Nigeria. Some of the
current impediments to the implementation of these policies include:
1. Weak government motivation: the Renewable Energy Master
Plan jointly developed by the Energy Commission of Nigeria (ECN)
and United Nations Development Programs (UNDP) highlighted the
need for the government to release sucient resources and setup
implementation committees to oversee the establishment of renew-
able energy project across Nigeria [122].
2. Poorly designed customs regulations: Although a legislation
which ensures minimal taxes are paid on imported renewable energy
conversion systems, such laws do not exist for the raw materials
required to produce such systems. As local production of these
systems is key in ensuring minimal LCOE, manufacturers have to be
supported to favorably compete with imported systems. This would
encourage investments in local production rather than importation
of already produced systems.
3. Multiple taxation: It has been reported that multiple taxations
may be a hindrance to business development in Nigeria [122]. The
complexity and increased nancial implication involved in paying
taxes to the federal, state and local government could discourage
potential investors. A simple alternative to this is the harmonization
of the dierent taxes.
4. Lack of economic incentives: Generally, investors require an
enabling environment to assure success of their business.
Concessions such as tax holidays, low interests or interest free loans,
appropriate feed-in taris are some of the incentives missing in
Nigeria's legislation [194].
Improperly designed policies can be economically inecient, as is
widely regarded to have been the case under the Public Utility
Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 (PURPA) [195], and seems to be the
case of the Nigerian energy policy. These have to be addressed in
parallel with the current gap in the country's resource assessment,
technical development and social responsibility for a sustainable
future.
7. Conclusion
Nigeria's progress and prospects in the sustainable development of
its wind, hydropower, geothermal and nuclear energy options were
reviewed. Data available for these energy options are mostly incom-
plete and outdated. This challenge can foreshadow practical invest-
ments in the country's energy sector. There were discrepancies
A.T. Brimmo et al.
observed between the measured and satellite based wind speed data.
This substantiate calls for the need of validating available ground
measurements in order to train the mathematical models which these
satellite wind data are based upon. Available SHP data suggests that
some locations in the country pose some potential for both large and
small-scale electrical power production, while no location in the
country has been found to be suitable for large-scale wind or
geothermal power generation. The only nuclear facility reported to be
operational in the country is a 30 kW reactor but plans to generate up
to 4,000 MW of nuclear-based electricity by 2020 were encountered.
Hence the need for nationwide resource assessments of all these energy
options tops the list of our recommended policy focus. Only after this
would the country be able to eect the appropriate enabling factors to
attract investments.
Acknowledgement
We would like to appreciate the support of the NordOest
Consultants, Qantab LTD, and Soraytec Middle East. Their contribu-
tion in ensuring that this knowledge was gathered and used to educate
Nigerian Universities students is acknowledged. The advice and
contribution of Dr. Matteo Chiesa and Dr. Mouhamadou Aziz Diop in
ensuring that this article meets all technical requirements is also highly
appreciated.
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