3.0 Cell Division 17

3-Cell Division
Cell Division
3.1 : The concept of cell
division
3.2 : The cell cycle
3.3 : Mitosis
3.4 : Meiosis
3.1 THE CONCEPTS OF CELL DIVISION
Cell Division
division
3.3 : Mitosis
3.4 : Meiosis
OBJECTIVES (3.1)
At the end of this topic, students should be able
to :
Explain cell division

State the importance of cell division in living
organisms
Cell Division
related to the Cell Theory : Rudolph Virchow ; 1855
Omnis cellula e cellula

Every cell is from a cell
All new cells are derived from pre-existing cell

through cell division
The new cell is called daughter cell

pre-existing cell refer to the parent
(mother) cell
Cell Division
Parent cell
Daughter
cells
It is a formation of two or more daughter cells from a single

mother cell
The new cell is called daughter cell
Pre-existing cell refer to the parent (mother) cell
Cells duplicate their genetic material (DNA) before they
divide, to ensure that each daughter cell receives an exact
copy of the genetic material (DNA)
Chromosomes contain DNA molecule in the form of helix
Each duplicated
chromosome, has two sister
chromatids, which separate
during cell division
Before chromosomes divide,

its DNA strands separate
and replicated to form
identical strands
Therefore cell division

results in genetically
identical daughter cells
Concept Of Cell Division

Basic characteristics:
Cell division increase the

number of cells
Cell division is the means

whereby parents pass on
genetic material to the
daughter cells
11
Cell division involves the distribution of identical

genetic material
A cells genetic information, packaged as DNA is

called genome.
Before the cell can divide,DNA must be copied
Parent cell
Before the cell can
divide,DNA must be copied
and then the two

copies separated so
that each daughter
cell ends up with a
complete genome.
Daughter
cells
The nucleus divides (karyokinesis) first followed
by division of cytoplasm (cytokinesis)
Every eukaryotic species has a

specific number of chromosomes
in each cell nucleus.
Organism No. of No. of

chromosome in chromosome in
somatic cell gamete cell
Human 46 23
Fruit fly 8 4
Cat 38 19
Human Chromosome
Cell Division
2 types of cell
division
Mitosis Meiosis
- Occurs in - Occurs in
somatic cells reproductive
cell 18
Diploid(2n) number of Haploid(n) number of
chromosomes chromosome
Contains two chromosomes of Contains one chromosome of

each kind, found in somatic each kind,found in gamete
cells cells
Importance Of Cell Division

Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
Growth and Development
Tissue renewal
Immunity system
21
1. Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
Reproduction
An amoeba, a single-celled
eukaryote, is dividing into two cells.
Each new cell will be an individual
organism .
Sexual Reproduction
In Meiosis
2. Growth and Development
Sand dollar embryo shortly after fertilized egg divided,

forming two cells
3. Tissue renewal
These dividing bone marrow cells (arrow) will give rise

to new blood cells
4. Immunity system
Importance Of Cell Division
It enables a
Multicellular organism Unicellular and multicellular
organisms
-to produce new cell -As basis of reproduction
-for growth and development
-to replace worn out or
damaged cells
-to renew tissues
Terminologies
Chromosomes of eukaryotic cells are
composed of DNA & histone protein.
DNA
histone
protein
nucleosome
DNA
Nucleosomes
Coiled nucleosomes
Extended chromatin
Condensed chromatin
Chromosome 30
1. Chromatin
Refer to the complex of chromatin
DNA and proteins that

makes up an eukaryotic
chromosome
Very long and thin :
cannot be seen under light
microscope
When eukaryotic cell is not chromosome
dividing (interphase)
2.Chromosome
Chromo = color
Soma = body
Must be stained with a dye to be seen with
the light microscope.
3.Chromosome
When chromatin becomes
highly coiled and folded
Can be seen during cell

division
The duplicated chromosome

has two sister chromatids :
- both are genetically
identical
4.Homologous Chromosome
non-sister chromatid
Pair of chromosome which
has :
(i) same length
(ii) same position of
R r
centromere
(iii) posess genes for
Loci
the same character
at corresponding
homologous loci.
chromosome
5.Centromere
The region which two
sister chromatids attach
to each other
The position of
centromere varies
among different
chromosome
6.Kinetochore
A protein that is located
at centromere
Is a structure to which
microtubule of spindle
fiber is attached
microtubule
7.Aster
A radial array of short
microtubule
Extend from each
centrosome
Star shaped structure
Function to help
organize the spindle
fiber
DIPLOID VS HAPLOID
Diploid number of Haploid number of
chromosomes (2n) chromosomes (n)
Contains two sets of Contains one set of
chromosome. chromosome.
One set from paternal In gamete cell
and one set from maternal eg : sperm & ovum

In all somatic cells
+
SISTER CHROMATID Vs
NON SISTER CHROMATID
Sister Chromatid Non-sister Chromatid
Replicated chromosome Genetically non-identical
Genetically identical One from maternal (mother)
One from paternal (father)
39
Non-sister chromatids
Cell Division
division
3.3 : Mitosis
3.4 : Meiosis
OBJECTIVES (3.2)
At the end of this topic, students should be

able to :
Explain the stages in cell cycle

3.2 THE CELL CYCLE
Cell Cycle
The sequence of
events in the life of an
individual diploid cell
Start during the

formation of a cell
Until the cell

undergoes its own
division to form
daughter cells
3.2 THE CELL CYCLE
Cell Cycle
The length of stages vary among species and type of cell.
The Interphase The Mitotic Phase

G1 phase Mitosis
S phase involve the nuclear
G2 phase division (karyokinesis)
Cytokinesis
involve the cytoplasmic
division
3.2 THE CELL CYCLE
Cell Cycle

G1 phase Mitosis ;
Cytokinesis ;
involve the cytoplasm divisi
3.2 THE CELL CYCLE
The G1 phase
3.2 THE CELL CYCLE
Interphase
The G1 phase ; First growth/gap phase
The longest phase (10 hours)
Synthesis of organelles; number of organelles increase

increase in cytoplasmic mass
Cell metabolic rate is high
Synthesis of protein, carbohydrate, lipid and RNA

3.2 THE CELL CYCLE
The S phase
3.2 THE CELL CYCLE
Interphase
The S phase : DNA synthesis
DNA replication occurs
Chromosome duplicates into sister chromatids;

attached together at centromere
3.2 THE CELL CYCLE
Interphase
The G2 phase : Second growth / gap phase
Mitochondria divide, energy stores increases
Further synthesis of organelles

- increase in organelles/mitochondria/Golgi body/endoplasmic
reticulum
Duplication of centriole & formation of microtubule
Further increase in nucleus size
Chromosome start to condense

3.2 THE CELL CYCLE
The G2 phase
Chromosomal Behavior In Interphase
The G1 phase The S phase The G2 phase

Cell Division
division
3.3 : Mitosis
3.4 : Meiosis
OBJECTIVES (3.3)
Describe the 4 stages of mitosis
Explain the behaviour of chromosomes at each
stage
Describe briefly about cytokinesis
Compare the cell division in animal & plant cell
State the significance of mitosis
Cell Cycle

G1 phase Mitosis ;
Cytokinesis ;
involve the cytoplasm
division
MITOSIS Definition
A cell nucleus divides
(karyokinesis)
to produce two daughter cells
each daughter cell contains the
identical number of chromosomes
to the parent cell which is diploid.
Occur in somatic cells
Process of mitosis will be followed
by cytokinesis
3.3 MITOSIS
MITOSIS
Two main phases in Mitotic Phase:
Mitosis; (Karyokinesis) Cytokinesis;

- The division of nucleus - The division of
- Four stages of Mitosis : cytoplasm
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
1-Prophase
3.3 MITOSIS
1.Chromatin/chromosome densely
coiled & folded ; become shorten
& thicken (condense)
2. Each chromosome exist as a

pair of sister chromatids
(identical chromatid) attached
together at centromere
3.The centrioles migrate to

opposite poles of the cell
4. From each centriole,microtubule
extend and form a star-shaped
structure called an aster
5. Aster form the spindle fibre

and spindle fibres span the cell
from pole to pole
6. The nucleolus dissappear and

nuclear envelope disintegrate
3- Metaphase
Metaphase
1. Centrosomes are at plate
opposite poles of the cell
2. Spindle fibers pull the

chromosomes until they
are all aligned along the
equatorial / metaphase
plate
62
3 - Anaphase
1. Centromeres divide
2. Sister chromatids separate

and migrate to the opposite
poles as kinetochore
microtubule shorten
3. The energy for this process

is provided by mitochondria
4.At the end of this phase, each pole

contains a complete set of Sister
chromosome
chromatid
4 - Telophase
Nucleolus
1. Chromosome reappear
distributed/reach to the
opposite pole of the cell
2. Nuclear envelope reforms

and nucleolus reappear
3. The chromatids uncoil

and lengthen, thus
becoming invisible again.
4. The spindle fibers Nuclear
disintegrate envelope
reform
Cell Cycle

G1 phase Mitosis ;
G2 phase division
(karyokinesis)
Cytokinesis ;
involve the cytoplasm
division
Cytokinesis in Animal and Plant
3.3 MITOSIS
Cytokinesis in Animal
Occur by a process known as
cleavage
Involve the formation of

cleavage furrow
cell membrane invaginate

forming furrow that will join up
and splits the cell into two
3.3 MITOSIS
Cytokinesis in Plant
Involved formation
of cell plate.
Because plant cell

has cell wall
During telophase, cell wall polymer synthesized at the
Golgi body, packaged into vesicles and transported
along microtubule to the middle of the cell producing
a cell plate.
3.3 MITOSIS
Cell
Membrane
The vesicles fused with each other & formed middle

lamella .
Vesicle membrane form cell membrane.
3.3 MITOSIS
The place where vesicle not fuse formed

plasmodesmata.
3.3 MITOSIS
Cellulose, pectin & other components deposited

between the 2 membranes to form primary cell wall.
3.3 MITOSIS
The cell plate enlarges until its surrounding

membrane fuses with the plasma membrane
along the perimeter of the cell.
Two daughter cells result, each with its own
plasma membrane. A new cell wall arising from
the contents of the cell plate has formed
between the daughter cells.
Mitosis in a generalized animal cell.
Mitosis in a generalized animal cell.
DIFFERENCES OF MITOSIS IN PLANT &
ANIMAL CELL
PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL
No aster is formed Aster is formed
No centriole present Centriole present
Cell plate is formed during Cleavage furrow is

cytokinesis formed during cytokinesis
Occur in root tip/shoot Occur in cells / tissues
apex/cambium/ meristem throughout the body
except the reproductive
cell
Cytokinesis begins from the Cytokinesis begins from
center outwards the outer inwards
Significance of Mitosis
1. Genetic stability
Mitosis produce two nuclei which have the same number of chromosomes as
the parent cell.
Daughter cells are genetically identical to the parent cell and no
variation in genetic information can be introduced during mitosis.
Thus maintain the genetic content
2. Growth & Development
- to increase cell numbers in tissues and organ.

3. Cell replacement
Replacement of cells and tissues involves mitosis.
4. Regeneration
Some animal are able to regenerate
whole parts of the body, such as
planaria and arms in star fish.
Production of the new cells involve
mitosis.
- to repair worn out / damaged cells
5. Asexual reproduction for unicellular

organism
Mitosis is the basis of asexual
reproduction
- to facilitate asexual reproduction
eg : binary fission
The amount of DNA present
per cell during cell division
Amount
of DNA
4n
46
2n
23 23
Time
Mitosis
Cell cycle
Cell Division
division
3.3 : Mitosis
3.4 : Meiosis
OBJECTIVES (3.4)
Define chromatid, synapsis, bivalent, tetrad, chiasma

crossing over and centromere
Explain the position & changes of the chromosome at
each stage of Meiosis
Explain & compare the processes in Meiosis I and II
State the significance of Meiosis
Compare Meiosis & Mitosis
MEIOSIS Definition
A process : A cell nucleus divides.
To produce FOUR daughter cells
Each daughter cell contains half number
of chromosomes of parent cell (haploid)
Involving a reduction number of
chromosomes from diploid (2n) to
haploid (n)
Meiosis occurs during :
1. The formation of gamete (sperm & ovum) in
animals during gametogenesis
2. The production of megaspore and microspore
in plant
3. The production haploid multicellular organism
in most Fungi and some protista
TERMINOLOGIES
1.Homologus Chromosome
non-sister chromatid
Pair of chromosome that are
identical in:
(i) length
(ii) position of centromere
R r (iii) posess genes for
the same character
at corresponding
Loci loci.
Chromosomes is inherited from
homologous paternal and maternal gamete nuclei
chromosome
2. Synapsis
A process where
homologous
chromosomes are
attached tightly (pairing)
together
91
3.Bivalent
A pair of homologous
chromosomes which undergo
synapsis
A Bivalent
(A pair of Homologous
Chromosomes)
92
4.Tetrad
4 chromatids of a pair of homologous chromosomes
which undergo synapsis
93
5.Crossing Over
The exchange of genetic material
between non-sister chromatids
The segments at the chiasma break off

and recombine
Lead to :
- genetic variation
- genetic recombinant ( new
94
combination of chromosome)
6.Chiasma
The regions / point at which crossing over occur

95
between non-sister chromatid
The Meiotic Division
(1)Interphase
- Same as in Mitosis
(2) Meiosis I
- Genetic recombination
- Separation of homologous chromosome
(3) Interkinesis
- No further DNA replication
(4) Meiosis II
- Separation of sister chromatids
97
98
Meiosis
MEIOSIS I MEIOSIS II
PROPHASE I PROPHASE II
- Leptotene METAPHASE II
- Zygotene
- Pachytene ANAPHASE II
- Diplotene
- Diakinesis TELOPHASE II
METAPHASE I
ANAPHASE I
TELOPHASE I 99
Meiosis I
Diploid parent cell (2n)
TWO haploid daughter

Meiosis I cells (n)
100
Meiosis
- Zygotene
- Diplotene
METAPHASE I
ANAPHASE I
TELOPHASE I 101
Prophase I
1. Nucleolus disappear and nuclear envelope disintegrate
2. Each pair of centriole move to opposite pole
3. Formation of spindle fibre
4. Chromatin condensed highly coiled and folded
5. Chromosome become visible can be seen under microscope
6. Homologous chromosome undergo synapsis forming tetrad
7. Crossing over may occur between non-sister chromatid

102
3.4 MEIOSIS
Prophase I
The longest phase (90% of meiosis)
This phase can be divided into

5 stages;
a) Leptotene
b) Zygotene
c) Pachytene (crossing
-over)
d) Diplotene
e) Diakinesis
103
Prophase I
a) Leptotene
- The earliest stage of Prophase I
- Chromosomes start to condense
and become visible
- Nucleolus has disappeared and
spindle starts to form.
Chromosome first
become visible
104
Prophase I
b) Zygotene
- Pairing of homologous
chromosome form in a
process known as synapsis
105
Synapsis begin
Prophase I
c) Pachytene
Chromosomes more thicken &
can be seen clearly
Each chromosome has 2
chromatids
Each pair of homologous
chromosome= tetrad
Crossing over occur at chiasma
Crossing over
Sister chromatid
Prophase I
d) Diplotene
- Homologous chromosome
separate from each other
except at chiasma.
Chiasma
Bivalent / tetrad
107
Prophase I
e) Diakinesis
The homologous pair of which Spindle fiber
is held together by chiasma
Bivalent move to equator
Spindle complete formed
Nuclear envelope starts to disintegrate
108
Meiosis
- Zygotene
- Diplotene
METAPHASE I
ANAPHASE I
TELOPHASE I 109
Metaphase I
1.The homologous chromosome
aligned along the
equatorial/metaphase plate
2.The mechanism involves is

Independent Assortment of
chromosome
3. Attached by their centromeres.
110
Anaphase I
1.Spindle fiber shorten
2.Homologous chromosomes
separate
3.Each chromosomes pulled to

opposite poles lead by
centromere
4.This separate the chromosomes

into two haploid sets, one set at
each pole.
111
Anaphase I
112
Telophase I
CELL A 1.Homologous
chromosome arrived at
opposite poles
2.Reduce the chromosome

number (2n to n)
3.But one chromosome are

still composed of two
chromatids.
CELL B 113
TELOPHASE I
CELL A 4.Spindle fibers usually
disintegrate
5.Chromosomes uncoil,
lengthens and becomes fine.
6.Cytokinesis occur
7. Each cell contain haploid

number of chromosome
CELL B 114
Interkinesis
A period of time between two nuclear

divisions of a cell.
No further DNA replication occur.

115
Meiosis
- Zygotene
- Diplotene
METAPHASE I
ANAPHASE I
TELOPHASE I 116
Prophase II
1.The nucleolus disappears and
nuclear envelope disintegrates
CELL A
2.The chromatids become shorten and
thicken.
3.Centrioles, if present move to

opposite poles of the cells and the
end of Prophase II and new spindle
fibers formed CELL B
117
Metaphase II
CELL A CELL B
1. Sister chromatids/chromosome align

at the equatorial / metaphase plate. 118
Anaphase II
1.The spindle fibers

shorten
2.The centromere divides
3.Sister chromatids
separate
4. Each chromatid is
pulled to opposite poles.
CELL A CELL B119

TELOPHASE II
CELL A CELL B
CELL A1 CELL A2 CELL B1 CELL B2

120
Telophase II
1.Chromosomes arrived at opposite poles
2.The chromosomes decondense - uncoiled and lengthen
3.The spindle fibres disintegrate.
4.Nucleolus reappears and nuclear envelope reforms
5. Cytokinesis occur - Four haploid daughter cellls are formed 121

122
Cell Division 09/10 123
124
Significance of Meiosis
(1) Halving the chromosome number in sexual reproduction

- Produce haploid gametes
- After fertilisation : Produce diploid zygote
: Number of chromosome
remain the same as the 125
parent - diploid
Significance of Meiosis
(2) Increase genetic variation

(i) By crossing over which occur during Prophase I
- Crossing over also lead to genetic recombinant
(ii) By independent assortment which occur during
126
Metaphase I
Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis
No MITOSIS MEIOSIS
1. Occurs in somatic cell. Occurs in reproductive cells
(animal all somatic cells : (animal - ovaries in females and
liver & muscle cell testes in males)
(plant root tip, shoot apex, (plant anther & ovary / ovule)
cambium/ meristem)
2. Maintain chromosome Reduces the chromosome number

number (2n) as the parent by half (n)
cell
127
No. MITOSIS MEIOSIS

3. No synapsis occur to form Synapsis occurs during Prophase
tetrad / bivalent. I forming tetrad / bivalent
4. No chiasma occurs so Chiasma occurs.

there is no crossing over. Genetic variability is a result
from the crossing over which
occur at chiasma during
Prophase I
128
No. MITOSIS MEIOSIS

5. Daughter cells are The content of genetic in
genetically identical to daughter cell is not identical as
parent cell the parental cell.
6. Produce two diploid Produce four haploid daughter
daughter cells cells
7. Cytokinesis occurs once. Cytokinesis occurs twice.
8. The daughter cell can The daughter cell can undergo

undergo mitosis. mitosis but not meiosis.
129
MITOSIS PRODUCES 2 MEIOSIS PRODUCES 4

IDENTICAL DAUGHTER NON-IDENTICAL DAUGHTER
CELLS CELLS
131
Cell MITOSIS MEIOSIS I
Division
Prophase No synapsis occur Synapsis occur between
between chromosome homologous chromosome
during Prophase I
No crossing over occur Crossing over occur during
between chromosome Prophase I between non-sister
chromatids
Metaphase Chromosome align at Homologous chromosome

equatorial plate / align at equatorial plate during
metaphase plate Metaphase I
Anaphase Sister chromatids Homologous chromosome

separate and move to separate and move to
opposite poles opposite poles in Anaphase I
Telophase Two daughter cells Two daughter cells produced

produced are diploid are haploid 132
The amount of DNA present
per cell during cell division
Amount
of DNA
M1
4n
92
M2
2n
46 46
23
n
Time
Meiosis I Meiosis II

3.0 Cell Division 17

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3.0 Cell Division 17

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3-Cell Division

Explain cell division

Omnis cellula e cellula

All new cells are derived from pre-existing cell

The new cell is called daughter cell

It is a formation of two or more daughter cells from a single

Before chromosomes divide,

Therefore cell division

Concept Of Cell Division

Cell division increase the

Cell division is the means

Cell division involves the distribution of identical

A cells genetic information, packaged as DNA is

and then the two

Every eukaryotic species has a

Organism No. of No. of

Contains two chromosomes of Contains one chromosome of

Importance Of Cell Division

Growth and Development

Sand dollar embryo shortly after fertilized egg divided,

These dividing bone marrow cells (arrow) will give rise

DNA and proteins that

Can be seen during cell

The duplicated chromosome

and one set from maternal eg : sperm & ovum

One from paternal (father)

At the end of this topic, students should be

Explain the stages in cell cycle

Start during the

Until the cell

The Interphase The Mitotic Phase

The Interphase The Mitotic Phase

The longest phase (10 hours)

Synthesis of organelles; number of organelles increase

Cell metabolic rate is high

Synthesis of protein, carbohydrate, lipid and RNA

DNA replication occurs

Chromosome duplicates into sister chromatids;

Mitochondria divide, energy stores increases

Further synthesis of organelles

Further increase in nucleus size

Chromosome start to condense

The G1 phase The S phase The G2 phase

The Interphase The Mitotic Phase

Mitosis; (Karyokinesis) Cytokinesis;

2. Each chromosome exist as a

3.The centrioles migrate to

5. Aster form the spindle fibre

6. The nucleolus dissappear and

2. Spindle fibers pull the

2. Sister chromatids separate

3. The energy for this process

4.At the end of this phase, each pole

2. Nuclear envelope reforms

3. The chromatids uncoil

The Interphase The Mitotic Phase

Involve the formation of

cell membrane invaginate

Because plant cell

The vesicles fused with each other & formed middle

The place where vesicle not fuse formed

Cellulose, pectin & other components deposited

The cell plate enlarges until its surrounding

Cell plate is formed during Cleavage furrow is