International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering

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Stabilization of soft kaolin clay with silica fume

and lime

Ali Jamal Alrubaye, Muzamir Hasan & Mohammed Y. Fattah

To cite this article: Ali Jamal Alrubaye, Muzamir Hasan & Mohammed Y. Fattah (2017)
Stabilization of soft kaolin clay with silica fume and lime, International Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, 11:1, 90-96, DOI: 10.1080/19386362.2016.1187884

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Published online: 31 May 2016.

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 Stabilization of soft kaolin clay with silica fume
and lime
Ali Jamal Alrubaye*1, Muzamir Hasan1 and Mohammed Y. Fattah2
Studies on chemically stabilised soils have shown that the effectiveness of treatment is largely dependent
on the soils natural environment. This type of soil can be categorised as problematic due to its weak
properties. At the preliminary stage, soft clay soil does not meet the requirements necessary for construction
purposes because the entire load from the top of the building will be transferred to the underlying soil. This
research considers the soil stabilisation of a soft clay soil (Kaolin S300) stabilised with various percentages
of lime and 4% silica fume. The percentages of lime vary at 3, 5, 7 and 9%, while the percentage of silica
fume is fixed at 4%. The main objective in this research is to improve the undrained shear strength of
soft clay soil mixed with various percentages of lime (L) and 4% silica fume (SF). The properties of the
soils were compared for kaolin only and for different percentages of lime mixed with 4% silica fume. The
results showed that the optimum percentages of lime and silica fume with respect to the maximum shear
strength occurred at 5 and 6%, respectively. The soilLSF mix increased the shear strength and angle of
internal friction compared to soillime and soilSF mixes because the pozzolanic reaction between lime
and SF was more effective with soil particles. The optimum percentage for enhancing the shear strength
and the angle of friction was 74% LSF.
Keywords: Stabilisation, Soft clay, Silica fume, Lime, Shear strength, Permeability

Introduction
Soils with a high concentration of clay are problematic. Before
any structure is erected on this form of soil, careful design
analysis must be performed to evaluate the low strength and
high compressibility characteristics of the soil. Kaolinite is
characterised as a clay mineral with chemical composition
Al2Si2O5(OH)4. This mineral comprises individual particles
that cannot be divided and is a layered mineral of silicate. This
layered silicate mineral has one tetrahedral sheet linked through
oxygen atoms to one octahedral sheet of alumina. Kaolinite-
rich rocks include china clay or kaolin. These rocks have a low
shrinkswell capacity and cation-exchange capacity. Kaolinite
is a white mineral formed through the chemical weathering of
aluminium silicate minerals, such as feldspar (Budhu 2008).
Soil improvement is typically used to address soil problems
as an alternative to implementing structural solutions, such as
building retaining walls or buttresses, thickening road pave-
ments or increasing the extent of foundations. In the case of clay
soils, chemical improvement is usually most effective because
it can be used to change the nature of the material. Chemical
1
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Earth Resources (FKASA), University
Malaysia Pahang (UMP), Kuantan, Malaysia
2
Building and Construction Engineering Department, University of
Technology, Baghdad, Iraq
means can be used to strengthen the soil and to eliminate its
sensitivity to water and the resulting stress history. Methods
involving chemical stabilisation are performed to improve soil
strength, mitigate total and differential settlement and reduce
construction time and costs and to improve other issues that
may influence certain projects on soft ground. This research
focuses on these defects by performing laboratory tests on kao-
lin soft clay, kaolin mixed with lime, kaolin mixed with silica
fume and kaolin mixed with limesilica fume (Harichane et al.
2012; Chong and Kassim 2015).
Kaolin soft soil is chosen as a sample in this research due
to its poor properties. Varying sedimentary processes under
different conditions cause variations in the engineering prop-
erties of these soils. In all cases, kaolin soft soils have high
compressibility, relatively low strength and low permeability,
and they are often compacted; therefore, they exhibit low con-
struction quality.
Soil settlement is a major issue when dealing with struc-
tures such as roads, housing and embankment constructions
on soft soil. Structures may settle excessively due to the high
compressibility and low shear strength caused by the poor char-
acteristics of soft soil. A certain amount of settlement cannot be
avoided for structures built on soft soil. This phenomenon can

*Corresponding author, email ali_jmal88@yahoo.com

2016 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

Received 7 April 2016; accepted 5 May 2016
90 DOI 10.1080/19386362.2016.1187884 International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering 2017VOL 11 NO 1
 Hasan et al. Stabilization of soft kaolin clay with silica fume and lime

cause issues to develop in real situations, resulting in unnec- Table 1 Chemical analysis results for kaolin soft clay
essary and inconvenient concerns that must be subsequently Parameter Result (%) Parameter Result
resolved.
SiO2 66.11 BaO 0.04%
Many problems can exist in soils composed of primarily soft Al2O3 19.25 SO3 0.03%
clay. These problems cause cracking and breakup of pavement, K 2O 2.85 Rb2O 0.01%
railways, highways, building foundations and other assorted MgO 1.23 ZnO 49ppm
structures. Therefore, to render the engineering properties of Fe2O3 0.73 Y2O3 34ppm
clayey soils suitable for construction, treatment can be per- TiO2 0.61 CuO 29ppm
P2O5 0.41 NiO 24ppm
formed using additive materials, such as lime (L), cement, fly
ZrO2 0.09 Nb2O5 22ppm
ash, rice husk ash and bitumen or silica fume (SF). Problems CaO 0.08 Ga2O3 16ppm
associated with soft soil include a low bearing capacity, an
excessive amount of projected settling and a poor overall sta-
bility of structures constructed on such soils. Soft, saturated,
The primary aim of this research is to study soil stabilisation
fine-grained soils are distinguished by their low undrained
using silica fume and to determine the optimum percentage of
shear strength and high compressibility (Al-Saoudi et al. 2011;
materials used in the mixture. More specifically, the purpose of
Amiralian et al. 2012; Fattah et al. 2015a, 2015b).
this study is to evaluate the suitability of silica fume as a stabi-
Silica fume waste material can be successfully used to
lisation material to decrease the formation of desiccation cracks
reduce the risk of the formation of desiccation cracks in com-
in compacted clayey liners and cover systems. Laboratory tests
pacted clay liner and cover systems. Thus, soil stabilisation
were conducted on natural clayey soil and clayey soilsilica
has long been employed as a cost-effective, environmentally
fume mixtures that were compacted at the optimum moisture
friendly and efficient soil treatment method that can be adapted
content (OMC). Previous studies showed that the addition of
to satisfy the requirements of specific engineering purposes
silica fume decreases the formation of surface desiccation
for certain projects (Castro-Fresno et al. 2011; Harichane
cracks on compacted samples.
et al. 2011a, 2011b).
The research conducted by El-Aziz et al. (2004) investigated
the effect of the addition of both silica fume and lime on the Materials and experimental program
clayey soils engineering properties. In the course of a series of
laboratory experiments for varieties of samples, the following Materials
percentages were used: for silica fume 5, 10 and 15% and for Kaolin clay, which is frequently utilised in the production
lime 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11%. The results showed that the soils of ceramics, toothpaste, fodder, paper and dye, was used as
engineering properties underwent improvement through the untreated soil. As it loses moisture very gradually and is easily
addition of lime in the 59% range combined with 10% silica managed, kaolin clay has a wide range of uses. Kaolin clay
fume. When the soil is subjected to a LSF blend of 1115%, the is comprised of repeated layers of elemental silicagibbsite
plasticity index showed a decrease from 4019%. Internal fric- sheets, with each layer measuring approximately 7.2 in thick-
tion angle on shear strength parameters was enhanced from 5.80 ness. The layers are bound together by hydrogen bonds and
to 24.75 at LSF 5 and 10%, while soil cohesion also increased secondary valence forces (Murthy 2002). The kaolin group,
from 55.52 to 157.54 kN/m2. The compressibility index (cc), on which is a hydrous alumina silicate, has the general chemical
the other hand, became lower from 0.025 to 0.007. In summary, make-up formula Al2(Si2O5)(OH)4. Information on the chemical
these results demonstrated that blending silica fume and lime composition of the kaolin clay utilised for this investigation is
together enhances the engineering properties of clayey soils. available in Table 1. Note that the lime used in this investigation
In 2015, the effect of adding silica fume, lime and limesil- was a laboratory-grade hydrated lime. In addition, in the field
ica fume as stabilisers was reviewed and considered for their of civil engineering, silica fume has been adopted as a binder
effects on the soft clay soil (Fattah et al. 2015a, 2015b). This material in cement or other materials for the application of
study utilised a dandified, grey-coloured silica fume (SF), soil stabilisation (Jafer et al. 2013). Silica fume is primarily
which is as pozzolanic material with high amorphous silicon comprised of amorphous silicon dioxide, which can be written
dioxide content and has very fine spherical particles. Lime has as SiO2. Silica fume is composed of a large quantity of very
a reaction to soft clay and this produces decreased plasticity, as fine and amorphous particles with a surface area on the order
well as increased workability and strength. Three percentage of 20,000m2/kg as measured by nitrogen absorption, with the
values for each substance were used during the experiment: particles being very small, i.e., approximately 1/100 of the size
lime 2, 4 and 6% and SF 2.5, 5 and 10% with optimum SF per- of an average cement particle.
centage mixed with the lime percentages. After adding the lime
or SF, several tests were then conducted towards investigating
soil behaviour. As the lime and SF percentage increases, the Methods
grain size distribution curves significantly shift to the coarser
side and the soil becomes more granular. The unconfined com-
Kaolin lime+silica fume mixture preparation
pression test showed the optimum LSF percentage value was The materials utilised in this study were kaolin grade S300,
at 4% lime and 5% SF. It was also observed that, beyond the lime and silica fume, as shown in Fig. 1. The amounts of silica
point in which the strength gain may be marginal, there exists fume and lime were derived from the dry weight of the kaolin
optimum lime content. In certain cases, it was also observed soil itself. In total, there were five specimens in this study,
that the strength gain may be too slow so as to be able to meet with the kaolin sample acting as a control. The other four soil
the requirements. samples were based on the mixture shown in Fig. 2. These

 International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering2017VOL 11 NO 1 91

Hasan et al. Stabilization of soft kaolin clay with silica fume and lime
(a) Kaolin
1 Materials utilised in this study
2 Material mixture preparation
samples were dried in an oven at 105C before mixing. After
24h, kaolin soil, lime and silica fume were mixed under dry
conditions using a soil mixer to prepare mixtures of kaolin, 4%
silica fume and different percentages of lime (3, 5, 7 and 9%).
Compaction test
A standard compaction test was conducted to study the impact
of varying combinations of lime on the behaviour of soft clay
(kaolin soil). Details on the standard compaction test proce-
dure are available in the ASTM D1557-02 standard. These tests
were conducted to establish the maximum dry density (MDD)
and the OMC of the soils. The samples were compacted in a
105-mm-diameter mould utilising the standard Proctor effort.
The dry unit weight and moisture content of each sample were
determined from the achieved unit weight at the optimum mois-
ture point. This weight was ascertained by the intersection of
slopes derived from the wet-side and dry-side soil of the com-
paction curve for a minimum of five compaction tests.
92 International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering2017VOL 11 NO 1
(b) Lime (c) Silica fume
Kaolinlime+silica fume specimen preparation
for unconsolidated undrained soil
To obtain the initial dry weight, the soil samples were dried
in an oven. Thereafter, the samples were uniformly mixed
with an appropriate amount of water to achieve the OMC, as
determined through the standard compaction test. The test was
initiated less than 1h after the addition of water to minimise
any data inaccuracies attributable to moisture content loss in
the samples.
After uniform mixing, the specimens were prepared and
compacted to a pre-determined density in a cylindrical steel
mould with a height of 76mm and a diameter of 38mm. The
prepared bulk sample is 76mm in height and 38mm in diam-
eter. Thus, the height-to-diameter ratio should be 2:1. The
accurate height, Lo, diameter, Do, and mass are determined to
calculate the soil bulk density. The sample was carefully placed
inside the rubber membrane. Porous disks were placed at the
top and bottom of the soil sample and then sealed with an
 Hasan et al. Stabilization of soft kaolin clay with silica fume and lime

1.68 Kaolin
3% Lime

(g/cm)
1.63
1.58 5% Lime
1.53 7% Lime
9% Lime

d
1.48

Dry density,
1.43
1.38
1.33
1.28
1.23
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
Water content,w (%)

4Variation of the dry density with moisture content for soils

stabilised with different percentages of lime mixed with 4%
SF
3 Specimen for unconsolidated undrained (UU) triaxial testing
21.5

O-ring. The assembly enables the specimen to stand inside the 21

Optimum moisture
content, w (%)
cell chamber. A steel hammer was used to compact the spec- 20.5
imens in three layers with five free fall blows for each layer. 20
Fig. 3 displays the specimen preparation after compaction.
19.5

Unconsolidated undrained triaxial test
The most common type of triaxial test, the unconsolidated
undrained (UU) triaxial test, is used to determine the increase
in shear strength for soft kaolin clay mixed with lime and silica
fume compared to pure kaolin. In the UU test, a specified all-
round (confining) pressure was applied to the specimen and the
principal stress difference is immediately applied, preventing
drainage at any stage of the test. It is important to determine
the shear strength for a particular soil to obtain solutions to
possible problems involving soil mass stability, which, in turn,
determines the structural load that can be applied on the soil.
BS 1377:1990 part 7 details the instructions for performing
the triaxial test.
Permeability test
To determine the permeability of fine-grained soils, the falling
head permeability test, which is a common laboratory approach,
was used. The falling head test is appropriate for use on fine-
grained soils with k values ranging from 105 to 108cm/s. This
testing approach can be utilised to examine an undisturbed sam-
ple. ASTM D5084 describes the methodology for performing
the falling head permeability test.
The permeability of clay samples with lime+silica fume
was calculated from falling head permeability tests performed
under laboratory conditions. The falling head permeability
tests were performed according to the ASTM D5084 standard.
Composted clay samples with lime at ratios of 3, 5, 7 and 9%
and 4% silica fume were subjected to the permeability tests.
Results and discussion
Effect of mixtures on compaction effort
The relationship between the dry density and the moisture
content of kaolin and kaolin mixed with various percentages
of lime and 4% silica fume is shown in Fig. 4. Based on the
results, it can be observed that the compactive effort decreased
19
18.5
0 3 6 9 12
Lime %
5Effect of different percentages of lime combined with 4%
silica fume on the optimum moisture content
due to a reduction in the orientation, particularly the parallel
orientation with respect to the clay particles. There exist var-
ious values of the MDD, and it is clear that a stabiliser, such
as lime and silica fume, has the ability to reduce the MDD
from 1.63 to 1.486g/cm3. The replacement of soil with the
lime and silica fume composite particles leads to a decrease
in the MDD because the soil becomes lighter than its natural
condition. As discussed by Sharma et al. (2012), the composite
particles tend to coat the soil, which produces large particles
with additional voids, thus automatically reducing the density.
The stabilising agent fills the voids of the modified clayey soil
samples (Yarba et al. 2007).
In contrast, Fig. 4 shows an increase in the OMC because the
surface area decreases when many lime and silica fume parti-
cles coat and bind the clay soils by flocculation and agglomer-
ation. This process requires more water, as the additional free
lime requires more water for the pozzolanic reactions to occur.
An increase in the amount of lime from 5 to 7% may lead to
more water absorption by lime. Yarba et al. (2007) noted that
an increase in OMC occurs due to a change in the particle size
distribution and surface areas of silica fume-stabilised clayey
soil samples. Moreover, the addition of silica fume can decrease
the free silt clay fraction, consequently forming a coarser mate-
rial with a large surface area. This process requires more water,
implying that more water is required to compact the mixtures,
as stated by Harichane et al. (2011a).
There is a slight decrease in the OMC, primarily due to
the replacement of soil by silica fume, which has a lower spe-
cific gravity (approximately 2.2) (Harichane et al. 2011b). The
results indicate that the treatment with lime and silica fume

 International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering2017VOL 11 NO 1 93

Hasan et al. Stabilization of soft kaolin clay with silica fume and lime

1.65
180

Maximum dry density

1.62

Shear strength, Cu (kPa)

1.59 170

(g/cm)
1.56
1.53 160
1.5
150
1.47
1.44
140
0 3 6 9 12
Lime % 130
0 2 4 6 8 10
6Effect of different percentages of lime combined with 4% Lime content, (%)
silica fume on the maximum dry density
8Relationship between the undrained shear strength and
lime content
5
Hydraulic conductivity, k 10-12

4.5 of a greater amount of lime and silica fume, with additional

fine particles from the combination of these particles, which
fill the voids of the composite samples and the chemical
(m/sec)

4
reaction between the stabilising agent (lime and silica fume)
and the fine-grained soil material. The void ratio decreases
3.5 when a greater amount of stabilising agent is added to the
clayey soil. The subsequent increase in the permeability of
3 natural fine-grained soil samples is attributed to the changes
0 3 6 9 in soil sample structure due to particle rearrangements and
Lime content % the initiation of cracks (Viklander and Eigenbrod 2000).

7Effect of different percentages of lime and 4% silica fume

on the hydraulic conductivity of soil
produces a general decrease in the MDD, whereas for the OMC,
the results show that the stabilisers slightly increase this value.
Figs. 5 and 6 present the effects of various percentages of lime
with 4% silica fume on the OMC and the MDD, respectively.
Effect of mixtures on the permeability coefficient
The permeability coefficient of kaolin obtained from the falling
head permeability test was approximately 4.821012m/s for a
MDD of 1.63g/cm3. According to Head (1994), the value meas-
ured for kaolin reflects the impermeable behaviour of kaolin
and indirectly indicates its poor drainage characteristics, which
generally correspond to intact clay. Meanwhile, Fig. 7 shows
the effects of various percentages of lime and 4% silica fume
on hydraulic conductivity.
Based on the figure, the permeability values steadily
decrease for lime contents up to 5%, which is the optimum
amount of lime. A low value represents the lowest per-
meability value reached in the stabilised fine-grained soil
samples containing 5% lime. The value of the hydraulic con-
ductivity is 3.141012m/s. Subsequently, with the increase
in lime from 7 to 9%, the permeability starts to increase. The
excessive amount of lime affects the permeability values. In
addition, these values seem to be less affected by lime con-
tent for all samples. The decrease in the permeability of the
stabilised fine-grained soil samples is a result of the addition
Effect of lime and silica fume admixture added to
kaolin in the UU test
Figure 8 presents the effect of LSF on shear strength, and
Table 2 shows the relationship between the undrained angle of
internal friction and the LSF mix content.
Figure 8 shows that the soilLSF mix increases the shear
strength and the angle of friction in comparison to the soillime
and soilSF mix. This result is due to the pozzolanic reaction
between the lime and SF, which is more effective with soil par-
ticles. The optimum percent for the shear strength and friction
angle is 74% LSF. In contrast, a reduction in shear strength
and angle of friction occurs at 94% LSF, due to the reduction
in one compound of the pozzolanic reaction (silicon).
Based on Fig. 8, it can be observed that the shear strength
increases with lime content, and the optimum percent is
5% L. This increase is due to the pozzolanic reactions (the
released silica and alumina react with the calcium from the
lime to form cement) within the limesoil mixtures, which
result in strength gain over time. At 7% L, there is a decrease
in shear strength due to the reduction in one compound of the
Table 2Shear strength parameters for soil stabilised with
lime+4% silica fume
L+SF% mix 0% 3+4% 5+4% 7+4% 9+4%
Friction 22.7 19.8 24.8 24.9 23.6
angle ()
Cohesion c 17.01 44.28 17.37 28.38 38.46
(kPa)

94 International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering2017VOL 11 NO 1

 Hasan et al. Stabilization of soft kaolin clay with silica fume and lime

Table 3Maximum deviator stress and axial strain values at different materials and different percentages of mixing for the
stabilisation kaolin soft clay

Materials Percentages mixing Average max. deviator stress, qu (kPa) Average axial strain (%)
Kaolin 100 271.46 17.4
Lime 3 279.08 17.86
5 302.75 19.1
7 301.41 17.7
9 321.34 18.2
Silica fume 2 299.32 17.9
4 300.69 16.2
6 320.08 16.5
8 305.04 15.2
Optimum silica fume with lime 3+4 303.42 15.13
5+4 290.91 15.54
7+4 357.61 13.82
9+4 341.89 16.1
3+6 288.29 17.63
5+6 305.98 16.11
7+6 311.59 18.17
9+6 320.64 16.80

9 Results of UU test on untreated sample

 International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering2017VOL 11 NO 1 95

Hasan et al. Stabilization of soft kaolin clay with silica fume and lime
pozzolanic reaction (alumina in the soil). The improvement
in the cohesion and angle of internal friction values may be
due to the pozzolanic activity and self-cementitious charac-
teristics of the combination of the limesoil mix.
Stressstrain behaviour
The shear strength of kaolin soft clay, stabilised with different
percentages of material, such as lime and silica fume mixtures,
was measured by carrying out the UU test. Two different mate-
rials were used, namely lime and silica fume samples with
kaolin soft clay. Various percentages of lime (3, 5, 7 and 9%)
and silica fume (2, 4, 6 and 8%) and optimum silica fume mix
with kaolin, were considered. Tests on the percentages of every
one of the materials additives were conducted to obtain the
average values of shear strength. Thus, a number of samples
was prepared and tested.
The values of the maximum deviator stress, qu and axial
strain for all the samples measured using the UU tests are tabu-
lated in Table 3. The stressstrain responses of lime percentage
(3, 5, 7 and 9%) and silica fume percentage (2, 4, 6 and 8%) are
illustrated in Table 3. Figure 9 presents the stress-strain rela-
tionship and Mohr circles obtained for sample before treatment.
Conclusions
In this research, a series of experiments was performed on soft
clayey soil mixed with different percentages of lime and silica
fume stabilisers to investigate the strength and permeability
characteristics of soils stabilised with a limesilica fume mix.
The following conclusions can be drawn:
(1)From the compaction test, the dry density of kaolin was
found to be 1.63g/cm, and the OMC was identified as
18.50%. The addition of lime causes the maximum dry
unit weight to decrease while causing the OMC to increase.
The maximum dry unit weights for 3, 5, 7 and 9% are
1.535, 1.46, 1.480 and 1.486g/cm, respectively. For the
OMC, the values for 3, 5, 7 and 9% are 19.50, 21.30, 19
and 19.20, respectively. The decrease in maximum dry
unit weight occurs because the composite particles of the
stabilising agents tend to coat the soil, thereby produc-
ing large particles with additional voids corresponding to
a reduced density. For the OMC, an increasing trend is
observed because the free lime requires more water for
the pozzolanic reactions to occur.
(2)Regarding the falling head permeability test, the data
obtained show satisfactory results. The hydraulic conduc-
tivity for kaolin is only 4.811012m/s. The values for
soil stabilised with 3, 5, 7 and 9% lime are 4.351012,
3.141012, 4.031012 and 4.281012m/s, respec- subgrade layers by using lime-micro silica fume mixture, Euphrates Journal
tively. The degree of permeability in the treated samples
is reduced by the reaction of lime and silica fume over
time; subsequently, the samples will increase in strength
and become stabilised due to changes in the soil structure.
For a lime content of 5%, the hydraulic conductivity is
very low, 3.141012m/s. At this stage, the soil becomes
less permeable compared to the other samples. Hence, a
lime content of 5% is optimal. At 7 and 9%, the hydraulic
conductivity begins to increase slightly due to changes in
the soil sample structure caused by particle rearrangements
and the initiation of cracks.
96 International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering2017VOL 11 NO 1
(3)The optimum percentages of lime and silica fume cor-
responding to maximum shear strength are 5 and 6%,
respectively. The soilLSF mix exhibited a greater
shear strength and angle of internal friction compared to
the soillime and soilSF mixes because the pozzolanic
reaction between lime and SF was more effective with
soil particles. The optimum percentages with respect to
the shear strength and the angle of friction were 96%
and 74% LSF, respectively.
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