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 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
OF BULB ONIONS
Amer Essa A.H.1 and Gamea G.R. 1
ABSTRACT
A bulb onion is mainly considered among the most important
vegetable crop in Egypt. The total planted area is about 110657 feddans,
which produce over 1149279 tones yearly (Agricultural Statistics, 2002).
Bulb onions are potentially usable for many industries; however, there is no
readily available information about their physical and mechanical properties
that related to handling and processing. Therefore, this investigation aimed
to provide database about the dimensional and mechanical properties of
bulb onions. Experiments were carried out using bulb onion variety Giza 20,
which considered the most growing varieties in Lower Egypt. Two hundreds
onions of bulb were examined in an attempt to more deeply understand the
conditions, under which those onions may most appropriately be grown,
harvested, stored, processed, shipped and marketed. Some physical
properties of Giza 20 are measured and given. These properties include,
mass, diameters, volume, surface area, firmness (solidity), puncture
resistance, initial energy and bruising area. The overall mean mass was
111g, equatorial diameter was 64 mm, polar diameter was 56 mm, volume
was 115 cm3, surface area was 119 cm2, firmness (56 N at the polar and 55
N at the equatorial), puncture resistance (26 N at the polar and 20 N at the
equatorial), initial energy was 0.979 J and contact area was 6.62 cm2 in the
first time and 5.53 cm2 in the second time. The mature onions examined,
83% of the onions were oblate and 17% were prolate. Puncture resistance,
firmness, contact area and impact are indications of mechanical strength of
the onions to withstand mechanical harvesting and post harvest handling.
Some of the bulb onions were stored in a room at an ambient air
temperature of 24oC, without any control of relative humidity and CO2. Mean
puncture resistance and firmness were found to be decreased with storage
time.
All characteristics are provided in fitted equations as correlated to the
branch dimensions, associated with their R2 values and standard error of
estimate (SEE).
Keyword: Physical properties, Mechanical properties, Storage, Bulb onions.

INTRODUCTION
In Egypt, onions are grown for different purposes, as fresh shoots for green salad, as
bulbs for uncooking, cooking and pickling consumptions, and use in food processing.
Therefore, many varieties have been developed for most of these purposes. Bulbs for
uncooking consumption are frequently sweet, mild flavoured and large; with single centre
suitable for making onion rings. A special type for pickling is the small. On the other hand
bulbs for pickling, cooking consumption and use in food processing could be the small,
medium, large and damaged grades respectively, from a crop of the same cultivate.
In 1963 Egypt was exported about 190 million tones of onions, mainly to the northern
Europe countries. Bulb onions are the second most important crops in Egypt. They come
after cotton in value as an export crop. In 1986, exportation of Egyptian onions was down
to 21 million tones (FAO, 1991).
One of the major problems in mechanical harvesting of onion and other crops that
grow below the ground surface is the separation of soil clods from the crop. It is important
to
__________________________________________________________ 1
Lecturer. of Agric. Eng. Dept., Faculty of Agric. Minufiya Uni. Shibin El-Kom.

separate the clods from the crop in the field to avoid damage of the latter by hard and
sharp edged clods during handling and transportation. In addition, large quantities of clods

1
 increase the cost of transportation. Separation effectiveness of up to 97% was reached in
the laboratory by the difference in the rebound trajectories of onions and clods, after
impact with a rotating steel roller, from a drop height of 250 mm (Feller et al., 1984).
During harvesting and post harvesting handling, agricultural products such as bulb
onions are very frequently subjected to mechanical loads. Mechanical loads above the
allowable level can cause onion damage consisting of surface lesions or internal bruising.
The latter kind of damage can result in considerable quality losses and decay during
storage (Herold et al., 1998).
Demand for onions continues to increase as consumers learn to appreciate their mild
taste. Since they lack natural disease inhibitors they have a short shelf life unless extreme
care is taken to preserve them at every stage of production. Traditionally, their window of
supply has been limited to a few weeks during the harvest season. Consequently, they
have not been widely accepted by restaurant chains, which need a consistent quality and
supply. Among other things shelf life is influenced by mechanical damage. It is suggested
that understanding the physical and mechanical properties of onions would contribute to
their being handled more gently with a consequential extension of shelf life.
Some grains, fruits and vegetables of spherical in shape with variation along one or
both axes. In general, to specify the shape of a food material it is necessary to identify
three basic dimensions, namely, length, width and thickness. A body can be defined by
one or two significant dimensions only in a few special cases where the body
approximates to a regular geometrical shape such as a sphere, cylinder, prolate spheroid
or oblate spheroid, for which analytical surface area formulae are available (Mohsenin,
(1986) and Igathinathane, 1998).
The purpose of this paper is to report some measurements on onion which was
subjected to external quality of onions. Previous studies of the physical and mechanical
properties of onions have generally been on whole vegetables include work by several
researchers Nieuwhof et al. (1973), Fennell (1978), Timmermans et al., (1996), Maw et al.,
(1996) and many others. Nieuwhof et al., (1973) described some measuring of onion bulb
such as weight, specific gravity, sugar content, and dry matter content. The external
quality of an onion can be characterised by global colour, size, shape, mechanical defects,
bareness and the presence of weathering (dark spots).
The objective of this study was to measure and evaluate the physical and mechanical
properties of Giza 20 type bulb onions. Non-destructive firmness and puncture resistance
methods have been proposed during storage. The relationships between some properties
of Giza 20 type bulb onions were also investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Physical and mechanical properties of mature Giza 20 type onions, from the onion
growing region of Minufiya Governorate, were measured and evaluated during this study
in 2002. The onions were harvested at maturity with cutting the vegetative top growth
approximately 50 mm above the onion bulb crown and cutting off the unwanted roots 30
mm from the base of the onion bulb. Moisture content of the bulb onions was 86.5% (w.b.).
Two hundreds bulb onions were immediately selected after harvest. 175 onion bulbs of
different sizes were randomly selected. The same sample of 175 bulb onions was used for
the non-destructive tests and 25 onions for impact test. However, for each destructive test
a different random sample of 175 bulb onions from the same field and harvest was
employed.
The measured physical and mechanical properties were associated with bulb onions,
rather than the tops or roots of those bulbs. The puncture and firmness tests are empirical
and influenced by the measurement technique; however, they provide relative values.
Another 250 bulb onions were stored for the five months period to evaluate the effect
of storage time on puncture resistance and firmness. All the onions from this set were
stored in a room at an ambient air of temperature 240C, without any control of relative
humidity and CO2.

1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1.1. MASS.

2
 In order to determine the mean mass of onions, each onion was weighted using an
electronic balance with an accuracy of 0.01 g.
1.2. Diameters.
A polar diameter and an equatorial diameter were measured for each onion using
a calliper electronic gauge. Polar diameter is the distance between the onion crown and
the point of root attachment to the onion. Equatorial diameter is the maximum width of the
onion in a plane perpendicular to the poles.
1.3. Shape index.
Onions are considered to be either oblate or prolate. Oblate onions have an
equatorial diameter greater than the polar diameter and are flattened at the poles. Prolate
onions on the other hand have a larger polar than equatorial diameter.
Shape index was defined as the ratio of the equatorial diameter to the polar diameter.
A spherically shaped onion having a shape factor of one. Oblate onions have a shape
factor >1 and <1 for the prolate shape.
1.4. Actual onion volume and real density.
The actual onion volume was measured as an irregularly shaped solids using 1-
liter capacity graduated beaker. The graduated beaker was filled with water to a defined
level, in order to preset the original volume V1, then the onion was completely submerged
in the beaker using glass rod. The water level was raised to indicate the volume V2. The
actual onion volume was calculated based on the difference between the two measured
volumes of water (V2 V1) for each onion.
Real density of the onion was calculated using the following equation:
m m
= =
V V2 V1 , g/cm3
Where: the real density of the individual onion, g/cm3; m, mass of the individual
onion, g; and V, actual volume of the individual onion, cm3.
1.5. Surface area.
Surface area was defined as the total area over the outside of the onion after
removed the roots and tops. The surface area was measured by wrapping aluminium foil
around the onion and then cutting the foil into small pieces. These pieces were then
passed through an area meter to find the area of the foil which represented the surface
area of the onion. The area meter was measured only the apparent area of foil submitted
and was not affected by creases in the foil, according to the Maw et al., (1996).

2. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
2.1. Non-destructive Firmness.
Non-destructive Effegi firmness measurements were employed to measure
firmness, or degree of softness or crispness, is used world wide as a test of ripeness and
maturity of many vegetables and fruits. The maximum measuring load (125 N), solution (1
N), maximum onion size (with serial devices) 80 mm and penetrating depth (50 mm)
using a stainless steel plunger chisel ended and coefficients of variation depending on
water core, dimensions, water loss, nitrogen level and onion size, can affect firmness
readings. This test is very reliable and performs easily and non-destructively.
Rugged Construction:
High impact plastic case, aluminium dial, precision steel spring, brass mechanism
chassis, impact resistant plastic crystal, stainless steel plunger.
Specifications:
Peak Firmness Hold button automatically freezes the highest reading until released by
push button that returns the pointer to zero. Dual graduations; reads in kg. Accuracy; 2
graduations through 2500 grams; 1 graduation over 2500 grams, (Referred to as Effegi,
Alfonsine, Italy).

2.2. Puncture Resistance.

Puncture resistance was measured with the same apparatus after made some
modifications using a stainless steel probe cone (90), diameter of 6 mm and penetrating

3
 depth of 50 mm. The coefficients of variation are dependent on the angle of cone,
firmness, structure, maturity and shape of onion. Puncture implies the partial or complete
destruction of onions by mechanical means.
2.3. Impact Energy.
The impact was achieved for sub-sample as the results of the free fall of onion on
a heavy steel surface. This procedure was carried out on bulb onions. The height of onion
drop was 90 cm. On other hands, initial energy required for bruising onions was
calculated using the following equation.
IE = M G Z
Where: IE, initial energy, J (N.m); M, mass of onion, kg; G, acceleration gravity, m/s2;
and Z, dropping height, m
2.4. Bruising or contact area.
25 onion bulbs of different sizes were randomly selected in this test. Each onion
was impacted at least two times, the contact area was generally ellipsoidal, and so that
after impact the contact area could be measured using plane meter.
Statistical Analysis
Data were analyzed and presented using program from the statistical package
(STATISTICA, 1995) in order to assess the correlation coefficients, means, standard
errors, the linear regressions and coefficients of multiple correlations. The physical and
mechanical properties are presented in fitted equations as correlated to the branch
dimensions, associated with their R2 values and standard error of estimate (SEE).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results represent only the Giza 20 of onion according to the samples of onions
measured. A discussion is given of the possible relevance of each property.
1. Physical properties of onions
1.1. Mass.
Mass of the overall sample and mass of the different sizes of onion are
summarized and listed in Table (1).The overall mean was 110.96 g, but the maximum
observed was 200.84 g. Due to the sample size distribution, there was a high standard
deviation of 34.98. The distribution of mass within the sample is graphically displayed in
Figure (1, a).
Concerning onion mass relationships with other studied traits are shown in Table (3).
It was noticed that some features can be detected from these illustrated correlations.
Firstly, the onion mass had a positive and significant correlation's with volume of onions
(0.99), polar diameter of onions (0.76), equatorial diameter of onions (0.91), surface area
(0.89) and impact energy (0.99). These results mean that increasing onions mass was
associated with increasing in these traits. Secondly a negative coefficient was observed
between onion mass and real density of onions (-0.64). These results were in agreement
with those reported by Maw et al., (1996). Thirdly from these coefficient data among onion
mass and other traits studied a weak and non significant correlation's were found between
onion mass from one side and each of firmness at the polar and equatorial (0.16 and 0.25)
and puncture at the polar and equatorial (0.11 and 0.16) respectively. From other side,
these results indicated that onion mass can be utilised to predict some other traits without
destructive the onion such as volume, surface area and dimensions of onions.
The stepwise multiple regression analysis was used to obtain the best statistical
model for onion mass prediction (Figure 2). The analysis indicated that onion mass is
depending on polar diameter and equatorial diameter with coefficients of determination
(98.86%). The multiple regression equation for the best fit was:-

m = 0.467 PE2 (R2= 0.988, SEE= 12.421) (1)

Where, P = polar diameter (mm)

E = equatorial diameter (mm)
In conclusions, onion mass as a direct and simple observation can be practised to
predict onion volume, surface area, dimensions and impact energy. This prediction can be
utilised in dividing the onions into several classes of quality.
2.2. Diameters.

4
 Overall diameter and diameter of the different grades of onions are summarized and
tabulated in Table (1). The overall mean equatorial diameter was 63.57 mm and the mean
polar diameter was 56.36 mm. The standard deviation for the equatorial diameter was
larger at 8.36 compared with 7.51 for the polar diameter. The greatest diameter was found
to be an equatorial diameter; measuring 81 mm. Distributions of these diameters within the
sample are graphically shown in Figure (1, c and d). For small onions, the equatorial
diameter was varied from one onion to another, so it executed the polar diameter in a
proportional manner, but this was not apparent for onions of other grades.
Onion diameter is an important factor during grading since many grading mechanisms
select on the basis of onions that will pass through a certain grid size. Consequently,
onions are graded by their largest diameter. These results agreement with Maw et al.,
(1996).
The diameter of onions at the polar and the equatorial is positive, highly significantly
correlated with surface area (0.61 and 0.78) and impact energy (0.78 and 0.94)
respectively. While the diameter of onions at the polar and the equatorial to real density,
was negative, highly significantly correlated (-0.62 and -0.51) respectively.
2.3. Shape Index.
For the duration of the experimental work on onions of Giza 20 type onions examined,
83% of the onions were oblate spheroid which is formed when an ellipse rotates about its
minor axis and 17% were prolate spheroid which is formed when an ellipse rotates about
its major axis as listed in Table (1). Observations of onions growth indicate that the polar
diameter is established first of all, with the equatorial diameter increasing towards maturity.
The mean shape index was 106.55 for small onions, 120.74 for medium onions, 119.63 for
large onions, and 113.86 for overall onions. A distribution of shape index within the sample
is graphically shown in Figure (1, e).
Table (1). Descriptive statistics for physical properties of bulb onions.
Equatorial Polar Mass Volume Shape Surface
Diameter Diameter (M, g) (V,cm3) index area
(E, mm) (P,mm) (SI,%) (SA,cm2)
Overall (N= 175) 17% prolate and 83% oblate
Maximum 81.0 75.84 200.84 195.0 161.58 172.9
Minimum 39.20 39.30 38.6 35.0 76.67 57.0
Mean 63.57 56.36 110.96 114.58 113.86 119
Variance 69.91 56.42 1223.5 1975.4 252.09 1344.7
S.D. 8.36 7.51 34.98 44.45 15.87 36.67
Small < 100g (N= 70) 29.4% prolate and 70.6% oblate
Maximum 59.62 57.81 72.0 70.0 141.34 98.10
Minimum 39.20 39.30 38.6 35.0 76.67 60.10
Mean 48.61 50.65 57.42 52.6 106.55 78.27
Variance 39.47 30.18 119.91 164.64 351.17 228.52
S.D. 5.89 5.04 10.44 12.44 17.20 14.90
Medium 100g 150g (N= 80) 8.2% prolate and 91.8% oblate
Maximum 69.40 61.84 114.20 135.0 161.58 159.0
Minimum 54.23 42.95 100.0 85.0 100.0 141.5
Mean 64.09 54.14 108.7 110.91 120.74 150.25
Variance 14.14 33.31 23.44 258.26 299.72 76.56
S.D. 3.12 5.37 4.66 14.09 15.35 12.37
Large 150g 200g (N= 25) 10% prolate and 90% oblate
Maximum 81.0 75.84 200.84 195.0 153.19 172.9
Minimum 68.54 50.42 152.26 160.0 90.37 160.9
Mean 74.73 63.37 168.88 179.20 119.63 166.34
Variance 15.52 51.87 219.27 137.90 322.25 30.05
S.D. 3.73 6.56 13.60 10.83 16.39 6.21

5
 33
10
30
9
27
8
24
Frequency

Frequency
7
21
6
18
5
15
12 4

9 3

6 2

3 1

0 0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220

(a) (b)
Mass (g) Volume (cm3)

45
36
42
39 33
36 30
33 27
Frequency

Frequency
30 24
27
21
24
21 18
18 15
15 12
12
9
9
6
6
3 3
0 0
<= 40 (40;45] (45;50] (50;55] (55;60] (60;65] (65;70] (70;75] > 75 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90

(c) (d)
Polar diameter (mm) Equatorial diameter (mm)

36
36
33
33
30
30
27
27
Frequency

Frequency

24
24
21 21

18 18

15 15

12 12

9 9
6 6
3 3
0 0
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 <= .7 (.7;.8] (.8;.9] (.9;1.] (1;1.1] (1.1;1.2] (1.2;1.3] > 1.3

(e) (f)
Shape index (%) Real density (g/cm3)

36
39
33 36
30 33
27 30
Frequency

Frequency

24 27

21 24
21
18
18
15
15
12
12
9
9
6 6
3 3
0 0
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85

(g) (h)
Firmness at the polar (N) Firmness at the equatorial (N)
33
45
30 42
27 39
36
24
33
Frequency

Frequency

21 30
27
18
24
15 21
12 18
15
9 12
6 9
6
3
3
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 <= 5 (5;10] (10;15] (15;20] (20;25] (25;30] (30;35] (35;40] > 40

(I) (k)
Puncture at the polar (N) Puncture at the equatorial (N)

Fig. 1: Distribution of physical and mechanical properties within the

sample of bulb onions.

6
2.4. Volume.
Volume was determined by submerging the onion in water and measured the
displaced volumes (V2 and V1). Since the period of submerging was limited (2 sec.),
absorption of water by the onion was neglected. The overall mean volume of individual
onions was determined to be 114.58 cm3 as shown in Table (1). However, as a result of
the sample size distribution, there was a large standard deviation of 44.45. A distribution of
volume within the sample is graphically shown in Figure (1, b).
Concerning volume trait; found that it had positive and significant correlations with
polar diameter (0.77), equatorial diameter (0.90), surface area (0.90) and initial energy
(0.99). Negative correlation between volume and real density was observed (-0.62). This
exact result was due to the fact that increasing volume lead to decrease real density.
A regression analysis was executed to predict the volume (V, cm3). The stepwise
multiple regression analysis was used to obtain the best statistical model for the predicting
volume. Regression analysis indicated that volume is depending on polar diameter and
equatorial diameter of onions as revealed in equation (2) and Figure (3), with coefficients
of determination (98.10%). Single parametric evaluation of the experimental data showed
that onion properties, in terms of volume of onions can be expressed by the best fit
equation:-
V= 0.498 PE2 (R2= 0.982, SEE= 17.121) (2)
2.5. Surface area.
The mean surface area of the overall sample of onions was 119 cm2 with a large
variation between a minimum of 57 cm2 and a maximum of 172.9 cm2 as revealed in
Table (1). Surface area is also examined in relation to shape, and the oblate onions had
larger surface areas than the prolate onions.
Surface area is highly correlated positively with potential energy (0.89). While it was
negatively with real density (-0.68) as shown in Table (3).
The stepwise multiple regression analysis was used to obtain the best statistical
model for predicting the onion surface area. Multiple regression analysis indicated that
onion surface area is depending on polar diameter and equatorial diameter with
coefficients of determination (92.41%).
To assess the most important parameters affecting surface area of onion (SA, cm2),
the polar diameter (P), and equatorial diameter (E) were employed to examine their
relationships with the onion surface area. Multiple regression analysis revealed a highly
significant linear relationship between these parameters. The multiple regression equation
for the best fit was:-
SA= 0.549 PE2 (R2= 0.927, SEE= 34.257) (3)

220

200

180
160
Volume (cm)
Mass (g)

140
120

100
80

60 40

20 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500

PE (cm) PE (cm)
Fig. 2: The relationship between mass of Fig. 3: The relationship between volume of
2
onions and PE . onions and PE2.

2. Mechanical properties of onions.

2.1. Real Density.
The real density for the overall sample and then for onions of different grades are
given in Table (2). The overall mean density was found to be 0.973 g/cm3, with a standard
deviation of 0.112 g/cm3. The smaller (< 100g) onions were more significantly than either
medium (100 to 150g) or large (150 to 200g) onions. The distribution of density for the
sample is shown in Figure (1, f). The onions with real density less than one tended to be

7
 onions of a large volume and an oblate shape. Onions of a real density greater than one
were of either shape, but tended to be from the small grade.
A regression analysis was used to predict the real density ( , g/cm3). The stepwise
multiple regression analysis was employed to obtain the best statistical model for
predicting the real density. These models indicate that real density is depending on polar
diameter and equatorial diameter of onions as shown in equation (4) with coefficients of
determination (83.70%).
To determine the most important dominant parameters affecting real density of onion
( ), the polar diameter (P), and equatorial diameter (E) were used to examine their
relationships with the onion real density. Multiple regression analysis revealed a highly
significant relationship between these parameters. The multiple regression equation for
the best fit was:-
= 0.004 PE2 (R2= 0. 839, SEE= 0.395) (4)
2.2. Firmness.
Firmness in onions can be considered as an indicator of immaturity or over maturity.
Excessive firmness indicates an immature onion in which the mesocarp is tightly bound to
the stone. Onion firmness does not consistently relate to full flavour development but is
still used by consumers when buying it. The firmness (N) at the polar and equatorial of
whole onions is summarized and listed in Table (2) and distribution is presented in
Figures (1, h and g). The force required to penetrate the onion at the polar direction is
greater than that at the equatorial direction. The overall mean firmness of individual
onions was (55.59 and 54.55 N) at the polar and equatorial region, respectively but the
maximum observed was (86.33 and 76.52 N).
The stepwise multiple regression analysis was used to obtain the best statistical
model for predicting the onion firmness. Multiple regression analysis indicated that onion
firmness is depending on polar diameter and equatorial diameter with coefficients of
determination for firmness at the polar and equatorial (89.40% and 90.91%) respectively.
Multiple regression equations for the best fit were:-
FP= 0.215 PE2 (R2= 0.894, SEE= 18.402) (5)
2
FE= 0.213 PE (R2= 0.911, SEE= 16.609) (6)
2.3. Puncture Resistance.
The puncture resistance (PR, N) at the polar and equatorial of whole onions is listed
in Table (2) and distribution is presented in Figures (1, k and I). The force required to
penetrate the first onion ring was always the highest. The puncture force then gradually
increased with further penetration as the probe crossed through the other side of the
onion. The force required to penetrate at the polar direction is greater than that at the
equatorial direction of onions. The overall mean puncture resistance of individual onions
was (25.51 and 19.59 N) at the polar and equatorial region, respectively but the maximum
observed was (65.73 and 40.22 N). The relationship between puncture resistance and
firmness at the polar of onions as shown in Figure (4) was directly proportional.
The stepwise multiple regression analysis was used to obtain the best statistical
model for predicting the puncture resistance of onions. Regression analysis indicated that
puncture resistance of onions is depending on polar diameter and equatorial diameter
with coefficients of determination for puncture at the polar and equatorial (77.30% and
78.71%) respectively. Multiple regression equations obtained were:
PRP= 0.096 PE2 (R2= 0.775, SEE= 12.937) (7)
2
PRE= 0.074 PE (R2= 0.788, SEE=9.516) (8)
2.4. Initial energy and Contact or bruising area.
The contact area and initial energy relationships are shown in Table (4) and Figure
(6). The line is the best fit produced by a computer statistical package, which was in
agreement with the form of the relationship between contact area and initial energy
predicted by the elastic model. Contact area plays an important role in impact theory and
it is a visible and easily measured parameter in practical situations. Elasticity theory
suggests that the contact area of the impact is related to the initial energy and modulus of
elasticity. In these experiments, when contact area was plotted against the initial energy
(Fig. 6), the regression analysis showed a highly significant linear relationship between
these parameters (R2=0.88). Thus elasticity theory appears to give a reasonable
indication of the variation of contact area with initial energy during onion impact over the
range of energies tested. This phenomenon is considered as an important parameter in

8
 practice since bruise surface area is used for all grading purposes. This information
should enable farmers and packers to optimize the condition of the onions for minimal
bruising during mechanical handling operations. These results were recommended by
Bajema et al., (1995).

Table (2). Descriptive statistics for mechanical properties of bulb onions.

Real density Puncture Resistance (PR,N) Firmness (F,N)
( ,g/cm3)
Polar (P) Equatorial (E) Polar (P) Equatorial
(E)
Overall (N= 175) 17% prolate and 83% oblate
Maximum 1.300 65.727 40.221 86.328 76.518
Minimum 0.708 9.81 7.848 29.43 26.978
Mean 0.973 25.513 19.599 55.59 54.553
Variance 0.012 87.798 41.061 95.242 89.692
S.D. 0.112 9.370 6.408 9.759 9.471
Small < 100g (N= 70) 29.4% prolate and 70.6% oblate
Maximum 1.286 38.259 34.335 66.217 70.632
Minimum 0.978 9.81 7.848 33.354 26.978
Mean 1.091 22.05 19.218 51.012 47.378
Variance 0.011 65.74 59.11 78.04 155.83
S.D. 0.097 7.37 7.04 7.86 11.40
Medium 100g 150g (N= 80) 8.2% prolate and 91.8% oblate
Maximum 1.30 52.974 40.221 65.727 76.518
Minimum 0.813 12.753 14.225 29.43 30.411
Mean 1.002 32.284 24.569 53.375 56.92
Variance 0.027 131.92 53.212 122.037 161.56
S.D. 0.149 10.49 6.558 10.136 11.39
Large 150g 200g (N= 25) 10% prolate and 90% oblate
Maximum 0.992 35.316 23.544 70.632 76.518
Minimum 0.833 10.791 9.81 33.354 41.693
Mean 0.922 21.671 16.744 57.70 59.952
Variance 0.003 58.521 19.254 103.42 83.943
S.D. 0.049 7.191 4.163 8.91 8.07

Initial energy was found to be directly proportional to contact area at first and second
times (0.79 and 0.78), respectively. While it was found to be inversely proportional to real
density (-0.65) as shown in Table (3). This exact result was due to the fact that increasing
real density was associated with decreasing contact area. This would make improvements
in handling during harvest and marketing very beneficial.

FP=49.344+0.245 PRP R= 0.98

Initial energy predicted (N.m)

95 2.0
Firmness at the polar (N)

1.8
85

1.6
75
1.4
65
1.2

55 1.0

45 0.8

0.6
35
0.4
25
5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 0.2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Puncture at the polar (N)
Initial energy measured (N.m)

Fig. 4: The relationship between puncture Fig. 5: The relationship between initial
resistance and firmness of onions. energy measured and predicted.
A regression analysis was used to predict the initial energy (IE, N.m). The stepwise
multiple regression analysis was used to obtain the best statistical model for predicting

9
 the initial energy. Multiple regression analysis indicated that initial energy is depending
on polar diameter and equatorial diameter of onions as shown in equation (9) with
coefficients of determination (98.80%).
IE = 0.004 PE2 (R2= 0.989, SEE= 0.109) (9)
The stepwise regression analysis was also employed to examine the relationships
between the contact area (CA, cm2) and the polar and equatorial diameters. Multiple
regression analysis revealed a highly significant relationship between these parameters. It
also showed that, the contact area at two times was strongly dependent upon mass of
onion, polar, and equatorial diameters as shown in equations (10 and 11) with coefficients
of determination (87.80% and 88.8%).
CA1 = 0.016M+0.026PE2 (R2=0.888, SEE=2.778) (10)
2
CA2 = 0.438M+0.006PE (R2= 0.897, SEE=2.141) (11)

Table (3). Simple correlation coefficients among several measures of the bulb onions.
Items M V P E FP FE SA IE PRP PRE
M 1.0

V 0.99* 1.0

P 0.76* 0.77* 1.0

E 0.91* 0.90* 0.71* 1.0

FP 0.16 0.14 0.19 0.18 1.0

FE 0.25 0.27 0.02 0.28 0.35 1.0

SA 0.89* 0.90* 0.61* 0.78* 0.19 0.32 1.0

IE 0.99* 0.99* 0.78* 0.94* ---- ---- 0.89* 1.0

-0.64* -0.71* -0.62* -0.51* -0.04 -0.18 -0.68* - 1.0
0.65*

PRP 0.11 0.07 0.06 0.22 0.20 0.28 -0.01 ---- 0.23 1.0

PRE 0.16 0.12 0.12 0.08 0.39 0.07 0.20 ---- -0.08 0.40 1.0

20
Bruising or contact area, CA (cm)

16

12

CA1
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 CA2

Initial energy, IE (N.m)

Fig. 6: The relationship between initial energy and bruising or contact area.

Actual initial energy was plotted against the initial energy calculated from the
regression equation (Fig. 5). Relationships indicated that the ability to accurately predict

10
 initial energy for individual onions with either measured parameters is limited due to the
lack of strong relationships.

3. Effect of storage periods.

The effect of storage time on puncture resistance and firmness is presented in Table
(5) and Figure (7). In general, puncture resistance and firmness were found to be
decreased with increasing of storage time. However, the most significant reduction in
puncture resistance and firmness occurred between the third and fifth months of storage.
These results were recommended by Maw et al., (1996).
The onion skin has a pivotal role in the physical and mechanical processes in store
as it is the main barrier to water loss and to CO2 exchange. Most authors have
emphasised that a relative humidity in store around 65-70% is desirable to maintain the
skin fairly flexible and elastic. At lower relative humidity the skin becomes very brittle and
easily cracked (Currah and Proctor, 1990). Studies on the physical properties of onions
skins in relation to water vapour permeability are needed to understand this important
aspect of storage behaviour.

Table (4). Descriptive statistics for initial energy and contact area of bulb onions.
Initial Energy Contact area (CA, cm2)
(IE, N.m)
First time Second time
Maximum 1.773 18.100 15.001
Minimum 0.341 1.880 2.480
Mean 0.979 6.623 5.529
Variance 0.095 20.428 10.938
S.D. 0.309 4.519 3.307

Table (5). Effect of storage time on the mean puncture resistance and firmness of bulb onions.
Storage periods Mean Puncture resistance (N) Mean Firmness (N)
(month)
Polar (P) Equatorial (E) Polar(P) Equatorial (E)
1st month 33.2 25.1 54.9 56.2
nd
2 month 32.3 24.2 53.8 55.5
3rd month 31.8 23.5 53.5 53.8
th
4 month 27.9 21.6 52.4 52.3
th
5 month 27.5 21.2 51.5 51.9

11
 PRP PRE FE FP

34 57

32 56
P uncture re sista nce (N)

30 55

Firm ne ss (N)
28 54

26 53

24 52

22 51

20 50
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
Storage time (months)

Fig.(7). Effect of storage time on the puncture resistance (N)

and firmness (N) of bulb onions.

CONCLUSIONS
The obtained results of this research work can be summarized and concluded by the
following points:-

(1) The measured mean mass, surface area and volume of onions were 111 g, 119 cm2 and
115 cm3, respectively.
(2) Onion mass as a direct and simple observation can be practised to predict onion volume,
surface area, dimensions and impact energy. This prediction can be utilised in dividing
the onions into several classes of quality.
(3) Onion diameter is an important factor during grading since many grading mechanisms
operate on the basis of onions that will pass through a certain grid size. Consequently,
onions are graded by their largest diameter (grading on volume basis). Observations of
onion growth indicated that the polar diameter is firstly established, with the equatorial
diameter increasing toward maturity. The overall mean equatorial diameter was (64 mm)
and the mean polar diameter was (56 mm). The standard deviation of (8.4 mm) for the
equatorial diameter was larger than (7.5 mm) for the polar diameter.
(4) Surface area is also examined in relation to shape, and the oblate onions had larger
surface areas than the prolate onions.
(5) From the examination of the mature onions examined, 83% of onions were oblate and
17% were prolate.
(6) The onions with real density less than one tended to be onions of a large volume and an
oblate shape. Onions of a real density greater than one were of other shape, but tended
to be from the small grade.
(7) The force required to penetrate at the polar direction is greater than equatorial direction of
onions.
(8) The firmness of bulb onions is very important for trading. The harvest date of onions is
fixed by help of the measure of the onion bulb, regarding the shipment date to different
countries or duration of storage. This test is very reliable and performed easily and non-
destructively.
(9) Bruising or contact area plays an important role in impact theory and it is a visible and
easily measured parameter in practical situations.

12
 (10) It was found that impact energy could be used as a measure of bruising or contact
area. While the contact area could be used as an indication of bruising, further work
would be required to establish its relationship to bruise surface area due to its more
important, for handling and grading purposes.
(11) From laboratory tests, puncture resistance and firmness were found to be strongly
affected the onion storage losses. Based on this aspect, a procedure was developed to
evaluate the damage risk caused by handling techniques.
(12) In general, puncture resistance and firmness decreased with storage time increase.
However, the most significant reduction of puncture resistance and firmness occurred
between the third and fifth months of storage.

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