Classical Quintessence and the

Cosmological Constant
Michael A. Sherbon

michael.sherbon@case.edu

July 12, 2009

Abstract

From the cosmology of classical quintessence and the Cosmological Circle of ancient
geometry, quintessence is calculated as the primary fundamental physical constant. The
role of the fine-structure constant in quantum electrodynamics is briefly discussed and the
same value for inverse alpha, the inverse fine-structure constant found in previous work, is
confirmed. Then the cosmological constant is calculated, confirming a recent theoretical
prediction related to the fine-structure constant and the cosmological constant.

1 Introduction
Historians of science are finding new meaning in ancient geometry, considered as an
elementary branch of physics. Gerald Holton and Stephen Brush [1]:

Nothing is easier or more erroneous than to underestimate the point of

view of the early Greeks. Not only did the mechanics of the Greeks work
within the limits of their current interest, but in some schools of thought it
was also intellectually a majestic and deeply meaningful construct. Above
all, it presents, as it were, the childhood of science, not to be judged in terms
of the maturer point of view of contemporary knowledge. It may be true
that eventually it outlived its usefulness, but it gave moderns the direction
along which they could develop fruitfully.

Aristotle is credited with the term quinta essentia for Platos fifth element, related to
the dodecahedron [2], and sometimes described as the one in four in alchemy. Plato
described the geometric proportions of the Cosmological Circle in his allegorical study
of the ideal City of Magnesia. As Lawrence Krauss mentions in his book Quintessence,
the fifth element ether was an unimpeded geometric process, according to Aristotle [3]:

1
 Quintessence: (ancient philosophy) quinta essentia, the fifth essence, the
material of the stars, forming heavenly bodies and pervading all things; in
contrast to the four elements (fire, air, water, and earth) in which all other
matter was thought to exist.
The circular geometric process of quintessence was fundamentally concerned with time.
In the natural philosophy of Aristotle and Plato [4] according to Julian Barbour [5]:
... there were two essential aspects in that fused in the discovery of dynam-
ics - quantitative mathematical exactitude and four-dimensionality. Recogni-
tion of the former was Platos contribution, but it was Aristotle who pointed
the way into the enigmatic fourth dimension and made Chronos the worlds
arbiter.
The essence of both Platos geometry and Aristotles time are encoded in the Cosmologi-
cal Circle. The Pythagorean geometry of the 3, 4, 5 right triangle and the squared circle
form the basis of the Cosmological Circle [6]. The heptagon, central to the Cosmological
Circle, and its relation to the cycloid curve connect it to the foundation of calculus and
the least action principle [7]. Later we will show a connection between the heptagon
and dodecahedron. The fifth Platonic solid is a dodecahedron, associated with the fifth
element and the whole universe. The sides of the dodecahedron are pentagons. Eulers
formula for the dodecahedron, V E + F = 20 30 + 12 = 2 with vertices V, edges E,
and faces F. Briefly, 3 + 4 + 5 = 12. The geometry of the Cosmological Circle consists of
3, 4, 5 and 6, 8, 10 right triangles and with each side multiplied by 36; creates the 108,
144, 180 and 216, 288, 360 triangles. Then multiplied by 10 for the second set gives the
large set dimensions for the diameter arranged in lengths 2880 + 2160 + 2880 = 7920.
The small script letter Q is being used to represent quintessence as it is close to the
shape of the archaic Greek letter of qoppa and source for the Latin letter q. While
q or Q is often used for electric charge in modern physics, it is suggested that Q as
quintessence is the source of charge. The modern form of qoppa is curiously shaped like
a lightning bolt. In modern cosmology quintessence is often viewed as a time-varying
vacuum energy [8]. In our view here classical quintessence is seen as a fundamental
constant related to the vacuum energy density, see Eq. (25), and has associated with it
geometric characteristics more in line with Plato and Aristotles cosmology. From Q, ,
and the geometry of the Cosmological Circle many of the fundamental physical constants
can be derived, including the fine-structure constant. The value of Q is first determined
from the harmonic geometry of the Cosmological Circle. In Malcolm Macleods geometry
of angular momentum model [9] Q also has units of momentum (kg m/s)1/2 making it the
primary fundamental physical constant. In ancient metrology fundamental units have a
geometric basis [6]. The dimensional quintessence is given as

' (mP c/2) /2 ' 1.019 (kg m/s) /2 .

1 1
Q (1)
In Planck units, Planck momentum mP c = (~c3 /G)1/2where mP is the Planck mass, ~
is Plancks constant h divided by 2, c is the speed of light constant, and G is Newtons
gravitational constant.

2
2 Quintessence from the Cosmological Circle
' (tan (2/7)) /12 ' 1.019
1
Q (2)
Eq. (2) is an approximate geometric expression for the dimensionless form of quintessence
and tan1 (Q12 ) ' 2/7 ' 51.5o . This is approximately the base angle of the large triangle
in the regular heptagon, which is a good approximation
2 of two Kepler triangles
with
2 2 1
, the golden ratio = (1 + 5)/2 [6]. (1) + ( ) = () and tan ( ) ' 51.8o .
The twelfth power is also found in Eqs. (6, 19-21, 28), the discussion of Eq. (20), and
in our previous harmonic formulations of the fundamental constants [6].
h i
Q 104
1/2 1/4 5
= r + 7 (4) = 1.019 113 431 9 (3)

where r is inner radius of the heptagon r = 1/(2 tan (/7)), with side equal to one. 7
is the radius of the circle circumscribing the regular heptagon in the basic Cosmolog-
ical Circle, 4 + 4 = 7. Q ' (ln 2 )1/2 and 1.442 ' (ln )1 . The basic square
has a perimeter of 4 11 = 44. In the Cosmological Circle the half diagonal of the
square which squares the circle (with as 22/7) that circumscribesthe heptagon is
7.778, 5.52 + 5.52 = 7.7782 , and 7.778/6 ' 1.296.
p Also, 35/27 ' Q ' 1.296 and
2

1.296 ' 1.93/1.15, dodecagon radius, Rd = 2 + 3, divided by heptagon radius,
Rh = 1/(2 sin (/7)). For the inradius of the dodecahedron rD ' 1.1135 ' 49/44. And
rD Q2 ' /e ' 1.15, the approximate radius of the circumscribing circle of the heptagon
with side equal to one, and e is Eulers number. For 104 , a frequent harmonic factor
found in prior analysis based on the Cosmological Circle and Pythagorean harmonics,
1/2
see [6]. And another related approximation, Q = r + (14 3/11) . 6

h
7 i7
Q
= 1 + 1.76 + exp (1.44 442 )
= 1.019 113 431 9, (4)

again 44 is the perimeter of the basic square in the Cosmological Circle, 1.44 1 = 0.44
and 4 0.44 = 1.76. Then we also have Q ' exp (/n 2 ) where n = 1 2.88 144 176,
an interesting harmonic sequence from Cosmological Circle geometry. Several of these
unusual sequences were found in our previous work [6] mostly related to the Pythagorean
triangles and general features of the Cosmological Circle harmonic geometry. 288 = 2
144 and again 444 = 176. Another unusual example: Q = (4+(7+1.377 1441 )3 ) /3 .
1

From the Fibonacci sequence, 377 144 = 233, see Eq. (19) discussion.
h  i1/4

=
Q 4/ 6 + (108 2.521/2 2
)
= 1.019 113 431 9 (5)

where 2.521/2 = 5 7/21, 1.08 + 1.44 = 2.52, and 1.082 + 1.442 = 1.802 with the chord of
the heptagon ' 1.8. 1.083 + 1.443 ' 3 and 1.803 + 2.163 ' 2.523 . Also, 108 2.521/2 '
10(2 ln (360/) 2 /36), and showing further connections related to the dimensionless
harmonic geometry of quintessence. 2520 is half of 5040, the central number for Platos
City of Magnesia and larger radius of the Cosmological Circle. The 2520 harmonic is
related to the sum of the angles in the decagon triangles, (36 + 72 + 144) 10 = 2520 =
7 360. Also, Q ' 6e/ 2 and 6/ ' 1.91, the cube/sphere ratio. And something for

3
future reference in the discussion of Eq. (28), e/7 ' 0.3883, from the regular heptagon
construction on the complex plane with Morleys inversive geometry [7].

Q
= 5/2.7
3
6 + 1/3.62 12
= 1.019 113 431 9, (6)
10.8/4 = 2.7 and 14.4/4 = 3.6, harmonics of the main Pythagorean triangles in the
Cosmological Circle.
Q
= a /4 ek /76
1
= 1.019 113 431 9. (7)
In polar coordinate form, the Square Root Spiral is an Archimedean spiral defined as:
r() = a + (b ) where a = C/2, b = 1/2. The Square Root Spiral constant =
C = 2.157 782 996 659. e is Eulers number, and k = 20/(3(F cos (/12))). The first
Feigenbaum constant F = 4.669 201 609 102, so k ' 7/3.888 ' 1.8 and approximate
length of the heptagon chord. 108/12 = 9 and 91/ ' 3.888 ' 51/ 1.81/ ' 2.7 1.44
[7]. 76 = 3432 and 892 = 7921 ' diameter of the Cosmological Circle. From the
Fibonacci sequence 55 + 89 = 144. 55 + 288 = 343 and 1082 + 3432 ' 3602 . Harry Hahn
and Robert Sachs [10] study the Square Root Spiral (Einsteins Spiral):

Prime Numbers accumulate on defined spiral graphs, which run through

the Square Root Spiral. These spiral graphs can be assigned to different
spiral-systems, in which all spiral-graphs have the same direction of rotation
and the same second difference between the numbers, which lie on these
spiral-graphs. A mathematical analysis shows, that these spiral-graphs are
caused exclusively by quadratic polynomials .... All natural numbers, divisi-
ble by a certain prime factor, also lie on defined spiral graphs on the Square
Root Spiral ( or Spiral of Theodorus, or Wurzelspirale ) .... Fibonacci
number sequences also play a part in the structure of the Square Root Spiral
.... Fibonacci numbers divide the Square Root Spiral into areas and an-
gle sectors with constant proportions. These proportions are linked to the
golden mean (golden section), ....

In his next paper [11] Hahn says:

Riemanns Zeta Function also seems to indicate, that there is a logical

connection between the mentioned number sequences and the distribution
of prime numbers. The distribution of the non-prime numbers and prime
numbers can be described in a graphical way with a Wave Model.

The model has harmonics that can be associated with Poincare dodecahedral space,
which is mentioned near the end of this paper. Curiously, the 5 line of the Square
Root Spiral is approximately 137o from the origin. And related to the Riemann zeta
function, (6) = 6 /945 ' Q. Also, Q ' 4/e(F + 6). The use of Feigenbaums constant
in k of Eq. (7) is interesting for its connection with chaos theory [12] and in accord
with the account of creation from the Orphic tradition of early Greek history. From the
wholeness of Time (the Cosmological Circle) emerge Ether and Chaos, which interact to

4
form the Cosmic Egg of creation. This is usually shown with a great serpent (the Ether)
spiraling around the Egg [13].
Relating quintessence from the Cosmological Circle with the fine-structure constant,

Q = 1 + ( + 9/110)
2
= 1.019 113 431 9, (8)
with the value for found in Eqs. (10, 17-19). 93 = 272 = 729 and 729 619 = 110
from the basic Foundation Stone dimensions of ancient Greek geometry, their template
for the formation of matter and closely related to the Cosmological Circle [6]. Also,
455.5 = 522 = 110. 5.5 is the radius of the circle inscribed in the basic square of the
Cosmological Circle, 9/110 ' 1/2710, 550 + 2160 = 2710. And 7920/8 = 9 110 from
the Cosmological Circle dimensions. Another example of a special sequence, log Q =
((11 11) + 1 11111 )1 . 11 is the side of the basic square in the Cosmological
Circle, so 112 is the area. 11 101 = 1111, 720 619 = 101, and 110 9 = 101 from the
Foundation Stone parameters. Also, 113 220 = 1111 and 729/110 ' a dimensionless
harmonic of h, Plancks constant.

3 Inverse Fine-Structure Constant

The fine-structure constant determines the strength of the electromagnetic interaction,
and was introduced by Arnold Sommerfeld [14].

= e2 /~c = (e/qP )2 , (9)

1 = ~c/e2 in cgs units. ~ = h/2 = h-bar, the reduced Plancks constant,
c = speed
of light constant, e = elementary charge. And qP is the Planck charge ~c.
Arthur I. Miller quotes Max Born in his study of the Pauli-Jung dialogue related to
alpha [15]:

If [the fine structure constant] were bigger than it really is, we should
not be able to distinguish matter from ether [the vacuum, nothingness], and
our task to disentangle the natural laws would be hopelessly difficult. The
fact however that has just its value 1/137 is certainly no chance but itself
a law of nature. It is clear that the explanation of this number must be the
central problem of natural philosophy.

Macleods formula for the inverse fine-structure constant, derived from a Pythagorean
relationship in his geometry of momentum [9], with the value found in Eqs. (3-8) above
for the dimensionless form of quintessence;

42 6 52
1
= 3 2+ = 137.035 999 16, (10)
5 Q 4Q 3

N IST 2002 [16] 1 = 137.035 999 11 (46).

Malcolm Mac Gregor refers to geometric proportions in The Power of Alpha [17]:

5
 The essence of the fine structure constant seems to be its linkage of the
spherical geometry of the electrostatic energy E = e2 /re = mc2 to the
spherical geometry of mechanical energy, ~c/rm = mc2 , which is defined by
the Compton radius of a relativistically spinning sphere. The ratio of these
two geometries is re /rm = e2 /~c = .

This is a geometric origin for the fine-structure constant. Alpha appears in the classical
electron radius, which can be written as [23]

re = 3 /4R , (11)
R is the Rydberg constant. The rest energy of the electron determines the energy
levels of the electron in the hydrogen atom [18],

2 4
   
n 3
En,j = Me 1 2 4 + ... . (12)
2n 2n j + 1/2 4
Julian Schwingers calculation of the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron [18],

e}  
= 1+ . (13)
2mc 2
The magnetic moment of the electron Lande g-factor [19],
 
ge = 2 1 + , (14)
2
and for the theoretical calculation of the g-factor with radiative corrections [19];
   2  3 
gtheor = 2 1 + C1 + C2 + C3 + ... . (15)

C1 = 1/2, from quantum electrodynamics notice the mathematical basis for C2 [19];
 
197 1 3
C2 = + 3 ln 2 (2) + (3)
= 0.328 478 965. (16)
144 2 4
See Gerald Gabrielse [20] for an overview of the revised calculation, which makes the
assumption that renormalization is correct. (s) = 1 + 2s + 3s + ... is the Riemann
zeta function again.
Alpha, the fine-structure constant, is of fundamental importance in quantum electro-
dynamics [20]. Toichiro Kinoshita and Donald R. Yennie [21]:

Finally, we comment on the often-expressed view that the fine structure

constant has no fundamental significance since it is just a particular value
of the running coupling constant describing a more fundamental theory, say
a grand unified theory. In that point of view, is merely the value of one
branch of the running coupling constant at q 2 = 0. Although this may well
be true, it does not diminish the importance of a precise determination of
. This is not only because such a fundamental theory is still far from being

6
 discovered at present but also, even when it becomes finally available, because
certainly remains the most accurately determinable value of the universal
function determining the running coupling constant. This particular value
provides a well-defined anchor point for the running coupling constant, and
hence the entire theoretical structure.

Wolfgang Pauli was well-known for his obsession with the fine-structure constant and
spectra, as the Pauli-Jung letters reveal. In [7] the following equation was formulated
from the work of Peter Stanbury and the Varlaki, Nadai, and Bokor interpretation of
Paulis World Clock,

1
= 4 3 + (1 r2 ) 2 +
= 137.035 999 16, (17)
r is the harmonic of radians = 180 ' 3 4 /. Again, for a discussion of 180 see [7].

1
= (3223 /35) /
1
= 137.035 999 16, (18)
for the geometry of 3/5 and 22/7 see [6] and the discussion of Eq. (3). And yet another
unusual sequence, = 2867.2867 + 286701 . 2880 13 = 2160 + 7777/11 = 2867, from
the discussion of Eq. (8). Then with quintessence,

12
1
= 3 (11/8) + (63 + /6Q )2
= 137.035 999 16, (19)

N IST 2002 [16] 1 = 137.035 999 11 (46).

5 5 = 11, 216/27 = 176/22 = 8, and the factor of 6 and are seen frequently.
1 = 360( + 1/(360 1/( (233 Q2 ) /2 )))2 is suggestive of elementary electric
1

charge as being related to golden ratio vortices of quintessence. Recall 1082 +1442 = 1802
and 2162 + 2882 = 3602 . Then we find some interesting harmonic relationships with the
Pythagorean triangles of the Cosmological Circle: 2332 + 2882 = 137 233 ' 3702 and
137 + 233 = 370, also 600/ ' 370 [6]. From the Fibonacci sequence 89 + 144 = 233.
Arithmetic mean between 137 and 37 is 87 and 872 + 2162 ' 2332 , 1442 + 1802 ' 2332 ,
144 ' 233. The factor of 3, 4, and also appear in the harmonic of the gravitational
constant G = (Q(3 + 4/))12 and G ' ~c3 /4 2 Q4 . With ~ = h/2 and the harmonic
of Plancks constant h = ((eQ2 /70 6 )(13f e))12 where f is the reciprocal Fibonacci

constant f = 3.359 885 666 [6], we can solve for the harmonic of c ' (4 2 Q4 G/~)1/3 ; or
more exactly c = ((1 + (Qe3 (23f + 3))1 )12 . Vayenas, Giannareli, and Souentie [22]
derived a formula for G, Newtons gravitational constant;

G
= (2e2 /15m2p )(/2)12
= 6.674 2 1011 m3 kg 1 s2 , (20)

N IST 2006 [23] G = 6.674 28 (67) 1011 m3 kg 1 s2 .

e is the elementary charge, = 4o the permittivity factor, o is the vacuum permittivity

or electric constant, and mp is the proton mass.

7
4 Proton-Electron Mass Ratio
In The Constants of Nature, John Barrow writes briefly about the electron-proton mass
ratio [24]:

The structure of atoms and molecules is controlled almost completely by

two numbers ... the ratio of the electron and proton masses, , which is
approximately equal to 1/1836 and the fine structure constant , which is
approximately equal to 1/137.

mp /me ' 5/2 27 Q 12 ' 1836.153, (21)

Eq. (21) is Macleods formula for the proton-electron mass ratio from the geometry of
momentum model [9]. A modification of the Lenz equation from our previous paper [7],

mp /me
= 6 5 + ( 3 (/) /2 /10)1
1
= 1836.152 672 9, (22)

N IST 2006 [23] mp /me = 1836.152 672 47 (80).

The dimensionless harmonics of electron mass and proton mass are also related to the
Pythagorean and Cosmological Circle geometry [6].

5 Quintessence Relations
A cosmology force is noted as the Planck force = FP [25],

FP = mP c2 /lP = c4 /G ' 4 2 cQ4 /~, (23)

where mP is the Planck mass, c is the speed of light, and Planck length lP = (~G/c3 )1/2 .
The Einstein field equation,

1 8G
R g R + g = 4 T (24)
2 c
where R is the Ricci curvature tensor, g is the metric tensor, R is the scalar curvature,
is the cosmological constant, and T is the stress-energy tensor. This is the version
of the equation from Misner, Thorne, & Wheelers Gravitation [25].

= c2 /8G ' Q4 /2~c, (25)

is the presumed vacuum energy density from the cosmological constant [26].
If we follow Franck Wilczeks advice about interpreting the E = mc2 equation from
The Lightness of Being [27] by rewriting it and considering it from another perspective
as m = E/c2 , and if ~ ' 4 2 Q 4 G/c 3 , then substituting ~ in Schrodingers basic equation
i~
t =H should say something about gravitys role in quantum theory. Although this is
not quite what Roger Penrose had in mind in his Road to Reality [28], where he addresses

8
the question about gravitys possible role in quantum theory. We would have to include
a consideration of the properties traditionally attributed to quintessence.
The cosmological constant is associated with the apparent accelerated expansion of
the universe. A theoretical prediction for the observed value of the cosmological constant
made by Christian Beck, following an axiomatic approach from statistical mechanics [29],
was independently conjectured by C.G. Bohmer and T. Harko [30];

= (G2 /~4 )(me /)6

= 1.362 84 1052 m2 . (26)
Again, these fundamental constants can be derived from quintessence origin [9]. The
result of Eq. (26 ) also follows from

= lP v
= 1.362 84 1052 m2 , (27)
Planck length lP = (~G/c3 ) /2
1
= 1.616 252 (81) 1035 m [23], and a volume constant
relating Planck length to the cosmological constant;

v = (9/(74S 2))12 = 8.432 10 1018 m3 . (28)

1/ 2 2
The silver constant S = 2 + 2 cos (2/7) = 3.246 979 6 and S ' 2Q ' 1.44 . Again,
with the heptagon angle 2/7. From above, 144 70 = 2 37 = 74. The twelfth power
appears again too, further relating to quintessence and the Cosmological Circle.
With Macleods model [9] and current data, a calculation using the spherical volume
of an ordinary 2-sphere gives approximately 23% dark matter. If we use the volume
of a torus, or surface area of the 3-sphere,
p there is nearly 5% corresponding to visible
matter. From the dark energy fraction 14/27 that is derived from the more complicated
3-manifold topology, Asselmeyer-Maluga and Rose calculate approximately 73% dark
energy that is comparable with the observed estimates. They also obtain
p a value for the
cosmological constant of 1.4 (0.2) 1052 2
m [31]. The reciprocal 27/14 = 1 + 7/18
and 7/18 is approximately the square of the x1 solution for the heptagon construction
[7], perhaps mere numerical coincidence, then again, maybe related to the dodecahedron
and quintessence of the Cosmological Circle. The 3-sphere relationship raises interesting
questions about the actual shape of the universe, is it the multiply connected Poincare
dodecahedral space [32]? Peter Kramer explains how harmonic analysis can help in the
determination of cosmic topology from the cosmic microwave background [33].

6 Conclusion
From the cosmology of Aristotles quintessence and the Cosmological Circle of ancient
geometry, quintessence as the primary fundamental physical constant has been calcu-
lated in several ways, revealing some relatively simple equations. Further relationships
are shown between quintessence and the fine-structure constant, including a calculation
confirming Christian Becks prediction of the value of the cosmological constant.
Acknowledgments
Thanks to Malcolm Macleod, for correspondence, and thanks to Franklin Merrell-Wolff.

9
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