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Action research in language

teacher education
Christine Thorne and
Wang Qiang

In recent years the notion of reflective teaching in teacher education has


come to prominence. It is believed that trainee teachers should be en-
couraged to examine the aims and values of various traditions and
methods, and reflect on their own teaching in the light of the experience
and theoretical knowledge they have accumulated through professional
reading and the teacher education programme. This article focuses on the
implementation and development of a pioneering action research project
in the Sino-British MA in English programme at Beijing Normal University.
The aim of the project is to introduce the notion of action research into
China, to encourage reflective teaching and classroom research among
trainee teachers, and to act as a bridge between the theories studied
during the two-year programme and the practical realities of the class-
room.

Introduction Until recently, English-language teacher education in China was a


neglected area. Even now, English major graduates from tertiary
institutions, who have little or no specific training in language teaching
methodology or educational theory, are often recruited as English
teachers. The underlying assumption remains that anybody who learns
some English can teach the language, regardless of whether or not they
know anything about teaching and learning:
Teacher Training: Most Chinese host institutions take this to mean
language improvement for their teachers. No notion of methodolo-
gical improvement enters into their calculations. If their teachers
know more English, they will teach better. This, for them, is
axiomatic. (Maley 1983)
Even in English programmes in normal universities - i.e. institutions
which specialize in the training of teachers - the course components
specifically related to developing teaching skills are severely limited: a
mere 6 per cent of the total study hours over a four-year period are
given up to foundation courses in teaching methodology and teaching
practice (TP). Recently, however, rapid socio-economic developments in
China have created an urgent need for personnel with practical English
language skills, which in turn has led to a demand for better qualified
English teachers. In order to meet this demand a number of in-service
and postgraduate teacher training programmes have been set up for the
qualification and re-qualification of tertiary-level English teachers. The

254 ELT Journal Volume 50/3 July 1996 Oxford University Press 1996

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MA programme in English at Beijing Normal University (BNU), jointly
sponsored by the Overseas Development Administration (ODA) and
the Chinese State Education Commission, is one such programme. Over
a two year period, students on the course are given systematic and
comprehensive training in the teaching of English as a foreign language,
including a supervised teaching practice which continues throughout the
whole of the second year of study.

Background to Kemmis and McTaggart (1982: 5) define action research as trying out
the project ideas in practice as a means of improvement and as a means of
increasing knowledge about the curriculum, teaching, and learning.
Crookes (1993: 131) dismisses this kind of action research as no more
than what a good teacher might be expected to do as a matter of course.
Whilst this may be true of many teaching situations, it is not the case in
China, nor indeed in many other developing countries. The numerous
difficulties facing Chinese teachers include low social status, poor
financial rewards, overcrowded classes, poor resources, and a rigid,
exam-oriented teaching tradition. These well-documented problems
deter many young people from becoming teachers, and morale in the
profession is generally low. It was against such a background that the
decision was taken in 1992 to introduce an action research module in the
MA programme at BNU on an experimental basis.
The feedback from the first experimental year was encouraging; even
though action research demands a high level of professional commit-
ment from teachers, the trainees responded enthusiastically, and
reported feeling that the classroom research they had undertaken had
benefited them and given them new insights into their teaching. Two
former trainees commented:
By doing the research, we not only improved our classroom
management, but also built up a close contact with our students,
which made it much easier to communicate with them, consequently it
turned out to be easier for us to improve our classroom teaching. Our
attitude towards teaching has changed. At first, teaching was no more
than a painful job for us, but as time went by, we found that teaching
was quite enjoyable. Every time when we saw our students enjoying
our class, we felt very happy. We were discouraged when the class was
not quite successful, but we always tried to do it better. It seems the
job is worth it.
The trainee teachers made a number of suggestions as to how we could
improve the module, and it was out of this feedback that a new, revised
action research project was begun in September 1993.

The action The action research project runs parallel to both the teaching practice
research project (TP) and the ELT Methodology components during the second year of
study. The project is spread over two semesters, during which time all
trainee teachers act as real classroom teachers, teaching English (a
required course, with five contact hours each week) to science and
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humanities undergraduates at the university. The trainee teachers work
in pairs for both the TP and the action research project, taking
responsibility for the teaching of one class of students for the entire year.
The teaching pairs receive regular supervision and a satisfactory
performance on TP is a university requirement for successful completion
of the MA course. The project is divided into two stages: during the first
semester the aim is to familiarize the participants both theoretically and
practically with the action research approach. During the second
semester student teaching pairs undertake their own cycle of research
with their TP class.
The very nature of action research is that it is something voluntarily
conducted by teachers in response to their own particular problems and
concerns in the classroom. For this reason we do not oblige trainees to
undertake a research project. Attendance at the workshops and
seminars organized during the first semester is compulsory, but after
that we leave it up to the individual trainees to decide whether or not
they wish to continue with the project. Whilst some trainees prefer not
to participate any further, most are keen to try out their ideas.

Introducing Since the notion of action research is completely new to the participants,
action research we think it essential to start the trainees towards an understanding of
what action research is and what it is for. We organize workshops,
seminars, and discussions designed to allow them to discover the
meaning of action research for themselves, and to reflect about its nature
and origins. Our hope is that as they develop as teachers during the
supervised practicum, trainees will feel the need, and have the
motivation, to carry out such research for themselves in the relatively
secure environment of the training course.
As the first step in this sensitization process, we initiate a discussion by
giving the trainees a number of statements and some practical questions
about them; we ask them to consider the statements and the questions in
the light of their own experiences and beliefs (see Appendix). The
statements are comments and criticisms about teacher training
programmes collected from classroom teachers and educators. We
have found that students are usually very active in the discussion, and
they have all, to some extent, expressed feelings of frustration and
powerlessness to change anything.
Following this initial discussion we divide students into groups; each
group is assigned a reading task with specific questions on different
aspects of the theories of action research, including, for example: the
division between teachers and researchers; what constitutes teachers
professional knowledge; the notion of teachers-as-researchers; and what
is action research - definition, characteristics, steps, requirements. The
groups then research their questions and familiarize themselves with the
available literature on action research so that they can present a seminar
paper on their topic.
Thus, through discussion and seminars, the student teachers are not only
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familiarized with the concept of action research but, we hope, also begin
to see action research as a real possibility in their own teaching.

Looking at data During the next stage we move into an examination of various data
collection techniques, including case studies, audio and video
techniques, teacher and learner diaries, questionnaires, interviewing,
and classroom observation sheets. We study authentic examples of each
type of data, with two aims: firstly, to show trainees what sort of material
it is possible to collect from their own classrooms, and what that material
can reveal about the teaching and learning processes; secondly, to equip
them with the skills necessary to construct their own data-collecting
instruments.

Video and audio Using video and audio examples of classroom teaching we encourage
data discussion in order to raise awareness of teaching problems particular to
our situation. We have built up a databank of video and audio tapes of
former trainees specifically for this purpose. A typical video viewing
session would usually consist of watching a lesson, or selected parts of a
lesson, following the procedure outlined below (adapted from Nunan
1990):
1 Brainstorming possible aspects of teaching to focus on whilst viewing.
2 Preparation of observation sheets focusing on the various areas which
emerged.
3 Focused viewing, using the observation sheets.
4 Group discussion to compare notes, exchange opinions.
5 Feedback to exchange ideas and suggestions for change or
improvement.
Usually such sessions receive a very positive reaction; the video-taped
episode is an authentic piece of teaching by one of our own trainee
teachers in a familiar teaching context, so the trainees find it easy to
relate to. Chinese students are much more convinced by watching
something their peers have done than they would be by observing a
foreign teacher at work, so this approach helps to open their minds to
alternative teaching methods and techniques. A commonly held view
among teachers in China is that new (Western) techniques are not
appropriate, and will not work in their context. As Sunderland
(1990: 231) comments:
Many modern language teaching activities and techniques go against
the traditional roles of the teacher and students [in China] as the one
who knows and the ones who dont. If the teacher is not always at the
front of the class, if it is said that students can learn from each other as
well as from the teacher, if there is the idea that students can benefit
from using language creatively and not just by memorizing what the
teacher has told them to, if they hear that the teacher cannot always
and should not be expected to always be able to answer students
questions, it can be disconcerting for everyone.
Through discussion of their observation results the trainee teachers
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become sensitized to problems they may never have thought about
before, and begin to establish a critical attitude towards their own
teaching.

Questionnaires We ask the trainee teachers to analyse questionnaires containing data on


English teaching or learning problems. This data has been collected
from the classes taught by our trainee teachers in the previous year so, as
with our video data, we use the experiences of trainees from the year
before to feed into the current years course. Each teaching pair is given
a pack of questionnaires from one class of students for analysis. They are
asked to prepare an oral presentation and a written report on the design
of the questionnaire and on its findings, and the possible implications of
the findings for their own teaching.
Other data we have available for discussion and critical analysis include
samples of learner diaries, interview questions, and observation sheets.
We also encourage trainee teachers to keep a teacher diary, and to invite
their learners to keep a learner diary in preparation for their own cycle
of research.

Planning the The semester concludes with a planning stage for the research which we
research have divided into the following steps (adapted from Kemmis and
McTaggart 1982):
Problem identification session Trainee teacher pairs identify problems
with their own teaching on the basis of reflection, teacher diaries, and
learner diaries. Each pair should ultimately settle on one particular
problem area which would lend itself to action and change. Areas
trainee teachers have identified as problematic include the more
effective management of group work, the teaching of discrete grammar
items, and increasing the amount of oral interaction in class.
Preliminary investigation Each pair designs instruments for data
collection. The trainees then analyse the data collected, and on the
basis of this they should be able to restate the problem and, if necessary,
revise the hypotheses.
Formulation of possible solutions We encourage participants to help
each other in seeking out possible solutions to those problems identified.
Data collection and evaluation Participants have to decide how they will
collect data to assess the effectiveness of the solutions. They are also
required to justify the particular solutions and means of investigation
they have chosen.

Getting into action During the second semester, the focus is on the full-scale implementa-
tion of the research plan. Tutor input at this stage mainly takes the form
of weekly tutorial meetings with trainee teachers to discuss specific
problems and solutions, stages of implementation, data-collecting
instruments, and data analysis. We observe lessons regularly, giving
both face-to-face and written feedback to help with the practical skills of
teaching.
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By the end of the second semester, a research report is required of each
pair, which should include problems identified for the next cycle of
research, as well as possible solutions.

The influence of By its very nature, action research demands a high level of commitment
the project from the teachers who undertake it. After three years implementation
of the action research project with three groups of trainee teachers, we
have noted a number of changes in the students participating in the
project, compared with those who have not taken part.
Increased awareness of the teaching and learning processes Trainee
teachers usually have very strong assumptions about the teaching and
learning process before doing action research. In our experience they
are often unwilling to initiate change, because of the various constraints
particular to the teaching situation in China. These include: negative
washback from the examination system, which places a strong emphasis
on knowledge of the language rather than language skills; limited
contact hours, with compulsory teaching requirements; traditional
learning habits on the part of the learners; and the low status within
university departments of young teachers, etc. All too often, new
teachers opt for a safe way to carry out their teaching, thus
perpetuating the use of the same traditional methods by which they
were taught - usually a teacher-dominant style, with much teacher
explanation of sentence structures and language points. This reluctance
to initiate change has created a situation of stagnation in many university
departments, which are finding themselves increasingly under pressure
to meet the growing practical language needs of students.
By contrast, we find that the trainee teachers who have participated in
action research usually demonstrate a strong desire to actively seek
change. They are also noticeably better equipped to consciously reflect
on the problems of their particular situation, and on the applicability of
the theories they have learned. Learner diaries have been a particularly
useful instrument in this respect; trainee teachers become more aware of
their students needs and difficulties, and are eager to seek solutions to
meet these needs and resolve their problems. As a result, they are more
confident about what to teach, how to teach, and why to teach in such a
way. Through participation in the action research project, trainee
teachers have an opportunity to develop their professional autonomy,
and to initiate a number of useful classroom activities and techniques
which they would otherwise have been unlikely to attempt.
Improvement in classroom research skills Our trainee teachers have the
opportunity to master the basic techniques and skills necessary to
conduct principled classroom research. They learn how to identify
problems and focus on specific areas which are open to action and
change by classroom teachers; how to collect data, and to design their
own data-collecting instruments; and how to analyse and evaluate data
in the light of the current theories and practices of language teaching.
Increased awareness and sensitivity about the classroom situation Tutor

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observation is part of all teacher training programmes. In the action
research project we also expect teachers to observe and help each other.
Initially trainees are usually quite concerned about this: traditionally in
China, only the leaders observe ones teaching, for the purpose of
checking and evaluation. The oriental concept of face leads many
Chinese teachers to be uncomfortable with the notion of observation -
few situations can be more face-threatening for a Chinese teacher than a
classroom observation by peers. However, through action research, most
trainee teachers gradually learn not to fear observation, indeed many
welcome it, and genuinely appreciate comments, criticisms, and
suggestions. Through interviewing, questionnaires, and diary studies,
the relationship between the trainee teachers and their students changes
tremendously; a channel of communication is opened up, and the
dynamics of the teacher-student relationship take on new dimensions
which, in general, do not exist in the traditional classroom. There is a
sense of all being participants in a unified piece of research, and an
awareness that both sides will benefit from it, which in turn further
consolidates their co-operation.
More variety of classroom activities At the beginning of the teaching
practice, most of our student teachers adopt the standard, teacher-
centred, traditional approach to teaching, with little emphasis on
developing the four skills or communicating ideas. Doing action
research usually leads the student teachers to become dissatisfied with
this situation, and gives them a strong desire to change it. They start to
plan and design activities for their classes, and with constant reflection
and modification of their techniques, many of the trainees succeed not
only in motivating their learners, but go on to offer practical help in
improving students ability to use the language. For example, one
teaching pair investigating why their students were so poor in spoken
English discovered that most of the class had had very limited
opportunities to hear or speak the language before coming to university.
In order to build students confidence in oral work, the trainee teachers
decided to set aside a few minutes of class time every lesson for simple
oral activities; they gradually increased the amount of pair and group
work in their class, and designed discussion and role play activities based
on the particular text being studied. By the end of the year the majority
of students in that class reported feeling a great deal more confident in
speaking English.

The future Today English teacher education in China, as in many developing


countries, faces two major challenges: first of all to attract well-qualified
candidates, and secondly to provide them with a curriculum which will
prepare them as autonomous, analytical, and critical teachers capable of
carrying out classroom teaching and research, and of managing their
own professional development. It is the responsibility of the relevant
authorities to address the first of these challenges, and to ensure that the
status and conditions of service for teachers are such as to encourage
good quality recruits to join, and remain within, the profession.

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However, as one of Chinas leading teacher training institutions, it is our
responsibility to set the standard for the development of rigorous,
professionally useful, and pedagogically potent programmes of teacher
education. The action research project is our response to this challenge.
Action research has a long history in the West, but it is something of a
new phenomenon in China; whilst interest is growing in academic circles,
there is a long way to go before action research is fully accepted there as
a legitimate discipline. Despite three years successful implementation of
the action research project at Beijing Normal University, it has as yet to
be given official recognition, and participation in action research
remains a non-credit-bearing part of the programme. Nevertheless, we
have found that most trainees are willing to try action research and that
most are highly evaluated by their students at the end of the year. To
summarize, our trainee teacher-researchers find themselves more aware
of the teaching and learning processes, more capable of improving their
own practice, and more confident in their future professional develop-
ment. Former trainees have earned a good reputation in the workplace,
and new graduates of our programme are much sought after by tertiary
institutions wishing to recruit new teachers.

We do not claim that action research is the answer to all the problems of
teacher education. but our experiences lead us to believe that a
structured training programme for basic classroom research is a useful
and motivating addition to any teacher education course.

Received June 1995

References The authors


Crookes, G. 1993. Action research for second Christine Thorne spent five years working on a
language teachers: going beyond teacher variety of British Council/ODA-sponsored pro-
research. Applied Linguistics 14/2: 130-44. jects in Chinese universities. She left China in
Dzau, Y. F. (ed.). 1990. English in China. Hong 1995, and is now working on the British Councils
Kong: API Press. Project for the Development of Universities in
Dzau, Y. F. 1990. How English is taught in Poland. She is based at Adam Mickiewicz
tertiary educational institutions in Dzau (ed.). University. Poznan, where she is Senior Lecturer
Kemmis, S. and R. McTaggart. 1982. The Action in Applied Linguistics/ELT Methodology. Her
Research Planner. Victoria, Australia: Deakin interests include teacher education, language
University Press. teaching methodology, and classroom research.
Maley, A. 1983. XANADU: a miracle of rare Wang Qiang is an Associate Professor in the
device: the teaching of English in China in Foreign Languages Department, Beijing Normal
Dzau (ed.). University, where she is also Dean. She has an
Nunan, D. 1990. Action research in the language MA in applied linguistics from Ohio University
classroom in J. Richards and D. Nunan (eds.). and an MEd in TESOL from Manchester. Her
Second Language Teacher Education. Cam- interests are language teaching methodology,
bridge: Cambridge University Press. psycholinguistics, and classroom action research.
Sunderland, J. 1990. Doing what the Romans
dont do: advanced teacher training courses in
China in Dzau (ed.).

Action research in teacher education 261

articles welcome
Appendix disillusionment and frustration.
Below is a list of statements made by different c. Educational research is not all that useful in
teachers and educators. Read each one and telling us in a practical way how to behave in
discuss the following questions: the classroom. The theories often do not reflect
1 Does the statement reflect an accurate picture our interests, and they are not specific enough
of the situation that most teachers face? to be applied in individual situations.
2 Have you had any such experiences? d. There is little proof that any one way of
3 How do you feel about it? teaching is better in all settings than another.
4 What do you think needs to be done to change e. Confronted with the new curriculum and many
the situation, or what alternative solutions can different approaches to language teaching,
you think of to the problem? especially when the communicative approach
a. After an initial or in-service qualifying course is is widely advocated, teachers are faced with a
completed, there is a danger that teachers stop dilemma: on the one hand they are eager to
learning or become stale and mechanical in jump on the bandwagon, but on the other hand
their work because of the routine of full-time they have to deal with everyday classroom
teaching. Many teachers work in their class- routine and practical constraints.
rooms in isolation from other teachers and, f. Promotion in the university sector depends
with a heavy teaching load, often do not have more on research and writing than on teaching.
time to sit back and talk things over.
However, teachers find it difficult to fulfil
b. When trainees return to their institutions and
attempt to put into practice some of the ideas research requirements, since most teachers
they feel should be implemented, they may find lack training to carry out any objective and
their way blocked by students, colleagues, and scientific research, and are generally over-
institutional arrangements. The result can be loaded with teaching responsibilities.

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