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ABSTRACT: This paper discusses the mechanics of shotcrete roof support for flat or moderately arched drift
backs in moderately jointed hard rock environments ranging in geotechnical quality from Q=0.2 to 20. The
mechanism of support in rectangular hard rock tunnels is a combination of stiffness, shotcrete-rock adhesion,
shear and tensile strength and flexural behaviour and toughness of both the shotcrete itself and of the compo-
site shotcrete-rock assembly. Material properties are available from standard testing that quantify each of
these mechanistic components, but the interaction of these components, and therefore the final support beha-
viour, is more challenging to realize. Through field testing and numerical simulation, it is the goal of ongoing
research to quantify the composite capacity of the rock-shotcrete system for design purposes.
Proc. of the 5th Int. Symp on Ground Support in Mining & Underground Construction (Cairns). Villaescusa, E. and Potvin, Y.(eds). Rotterdam: Balkema.
The elastic limit is reached when tensile strength, servative and valid providing the block depth, b, is
T, is first exceeded and rupture occurs on the under- several times greater than the shotcrete thickness, t.
side of the beam, and in plain shotcrete this is ana- The height of the compressive zone in the composite
logous to the ultimate limit. The resisting moment rock-shotcrete beam is limited by the block size.
per meter width of a shotcrete layer with thickness t The resisting moment at first crack can be derived
and rupture modulus (strength) at first crack FLEX, as an analogue to the analysis of tensile steel bars in
can be determined according to Equation 1: reinforced beams adapted from Popov (1978), as
outlined in Equation 3 below. The extent of the
M R = FLEX t 2 / 6 T t 2 / 6 (1) compression zone, a, depends on the ratio of the
However, the increased toughness provided by fiber moduli (), the shotcrete thickness, t, and the block
reinforcement allows stable and progressive failure size, b.
to occur, leading to plastic moment resistance. As a ba+t/2
result, uniform residual compressive and tensile MR FLEX t (b + t 2 a 3) (3)
ba+t
stress distributions develop within the beam.
Holmgren (1993) approximated the ultimate moment
of fiber-reinforced shotcrete based on residual where a = t + 2 t 2 + 2t (b + t 2 ) ,
strength parameters obtained according to ASTM and =Eshotcrete/Erockmass
C1018, as shown in Equation 2:
For fibre-reinforced shotcrete (with sustained resi-
R + R30 / 10 t2
M RP 0.9 10 / 5 FLEX (2) dual tensile capacity) the ultimate limit of the beam
200 6 is governed by the crushing strength (plastic soften-
where R10/5 and R30/10 are residual strength parame- ing of the upper surface of the composite beam) of
ters (ASTM C1018), t is shotcrete thickness, and the rock, C(ROCK), estimated as 50% of the laborato-
FLEX is the rupture modulus at first crack. ry UCS value (as per Diederichs 2000). The final
Derivation of elastic and plastic moment resis- plastic moment resistance of the composite rock-
tance in shotcrete is relevent only in a rockmass with shotcrete beam (Figure 2) is given by Popov (1976)
significant structure and small block size, bounded as:
by intact rock. The liner is thus considered as a su-
permesh holding up discrete blocks between rock- M RP 0.85 RESIDUAL t b + t 2 t RESIDUAL (4)
bolts. This method should be used as an estimate of C ROCK
worst-case conditions.
The resisting moment must be provided by the in-
ter-block friction on the upper side of the composite
2.2 Flexure of a composite rock-shotcrete beam beam, or by the critical moment capacity of the shot-
A key support mechanism of boltless shotcrete is the crete in the case of a simple shotcrete layer.
self-supporting capacity of the composite rock-
shotcrete beam, where the integrity of keyblocks is
maintained by the adherence of the shotcrete layer.
The thickness of the beam can be equated to the av-
erage block depth provided there exist no shallow
oblique structures. The moment caused by the kine-
matically mobile blocks induces tensile forces in the
shotcrete and compressive forces in the rock, as
shown in Figure 1.
For a given wedge or plate load, by comparing 3.2 Modelling of the adhesion interface
with the moment capacity in Eq. 1, the maximum to- Little is known of the true adhesive strength of the
lerated displacement (Eq. 5) and the adhesion sepa- shotcrete liner, and depends heavily on the adhesive
ration (Eq. 6) can be calculated: bond length. Hutchinson & Diederichs (2001)
M = Et 3 / 2 L2 (5) created a simple finite element model in Phase2
(Rocscience) to convert a distributed bond strength
where: = wedge/plate displacement and in MPa to a working bond capacity in MN/m.
L = width of separation annulus The rock and shotcrete are simulated with suita-
ble properties, then a thin zone of elements between
M PL / S (6)
the two units are assigned brittle properties, to simu-
where: P = applied load and late the adhesion interface. The tensile strength was
S = equivalent diameter of wedge base set equal to between 0.5MPa and 1.0MPa, which are
representative values for shotcrete-rock adhesion
. The flexural considerations in Eqs. 5 and 6 above (>7days cure) on a rough dry granite.
add 5% to 10% to the perimeter capacity (compared A distributed load was applied to one end of the
to adhesion alone)this capacity. half-span model, while the other end was fixed;
Proc. of the 5th Int. Symp on Ground Support in Mining & Underground Construction (Cairns). Villaescusa, E. and Potvin, Y.(eds). Rotterdam: Balkema.
translation occurred along a vertical joint. Figure 8 3.3 Numerical simulation of shotcrete field test
illustrates the model and failure geometry.
As discussed above, empirical, analytical, and nu-
As interface elements yielded, tensile stress con-
merical design methods all have a role to play in the
centration moved progressively along the interface.
design of an economical and effective shotcrete sup-
A large number of parametric simulations were car-
port system. Currently, the role of lab and field tests
ried out and although model convergence proved to
is to characterize one or more shotcrete material
be difficult, the line capacity at interface yield
properties or strength parameters. The values are
(MN/m) was approximately equal to the bond tensile
then incorporated into the chosen design methodolo-
strength (MPa) multiplied by 0.03m (+/- 0.005m).
gy. Current research is focusing on this transfer of
This adhesion band width of 30mm is insensitive
knowledge from the lab to field design, with the goal
to variations within reasonable ranges of thicknesses
of correlating field test performance to drift-scale
and shotcrete properties. These results can be used to
performance.
generate stability graphs as shown in Figure 9.
The field test consists of a steel plate being pulled
Moving block through an in-situ shotcrete liner, as outlined in
Stationary block
ODonnell & Tannant (1998). Load is applied to the
plate using a hydraulic ram, and deflection is typical-
ly measured using a single LVDT. For this research
project however, two perpendicular arrays of poten-
tiometers were used to monitor shotcrete deforma-
tion. The test set-up is shown in Figure 10.
Rock
Joint
Interface
Shotcrete
Yielded Interface
Proc. of the 5th Int. Symp on Ground Support in Mining & Underground Construction (Cairns). Villaescusa, E. and Potvin, Y.(eds). Rotterdam: Balkema.
The data from the tests is being used to calibrate An ongoing research program is aimed at combin-
numerical models. Two- and three-dimensional ing numerical simulation with field testing to quanti-
models of the pull-test are being created, and shot- fy the influence of individual mechanisms and para-
crete behaviour is calibrated using the data collected meters in the composite behaviour of the shotcrete-
from the field tests. The next phase of the numerical rock system. This work will also form a mechanistic
simulation will encompass generation of two- and bridge between testing and insitu behaviour.
perhaps three-dimensional models of in-situ shot- In summary, the condition and behaviour of the
crete support systems under simple gravity block rock and the subsequent loading conditions must be
loading. These models will then be used to delineate considered with the shotcrete and shotcrete/rock
how the results of the field tests correlate to drift- beam mechanics to optimize shotcrete support de-
scale performance. sign in non-circular tunnel geometries.
The first phase of the numerical simulation is cur-
rently on-going, and preliminary models have been
successful in simulating the behaviour of the shot- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
crete. The shotcrete can be seen to fail in the manner
described in Section 2.4, with adhesion failure pre- Thanks go to NSERC and INCO Ltd. for their past
ceding flexural failure, followed by ultimate yield of and ongoing support of this research.
the system. Figure 11 shows the behaviour of the
shotcrete in the numerical model.
REFERENCES
Proc. of the 5th Int. Symp on Ground Support in Mining & Underground Construction (Cairns). Villaescusa, E. and Potvin, Y.(eds). Rotterdam: Balkema.