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Globalisation

Globalisation

Globalisation results from flow of ideas, commodities, capital and people.

Nelson Mandela on Solidarity

Freedom is indivisible the chains on any one of my people were the chains on all
of them, the chains on all of my people were the chains on me.

Globalisation is a form of neoimperialism

Migration is urban to urban and rural to urban

A globalising world seeks greater independence and not higher walls

Globalisation led to advent of printing in India which led to nationalism.

Malthusian Theory on Population

Population growth will always be more than economic growth

Famines, epidemics, plagues are inevitable and maintain balance of population and
resources.
 Against

1.Economic growth surpassed population growth in developed countries.

2.Plagues, epidemics, famines controlled.

Agricultural productivity increased.

Health sector improved.

Growth in S&T

3.Economic inequality

Poverty, deaths, unemployment are because of unequal distribution of wealth.

Marxian socialists opposed Malthusian view.

With rapid urbanisation (an offshoot of globalisation) migration to urban cities

will highlight inequality which could transform into a national movement

against it.

Effects

1.Politically

Cooperative federalism is limited in India.

Globalisation causes investments internationally but only affluent states get

benefits.
 This is because less developed states could not attract investors.

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Devolving powers from centre to states is a much needed reform for ostracised
states..

Social Security

Urbanisation is not a panacea for concerns about public safety.

Largest cities continue to be safest due to infrastructure and amenities ( Survey

on aspirations and anxieties of an ordinary Indian by Centre for

Advanced Study of India at University of Pennsylvania on behalf of Lok Foundation)

Effects of Urbanisation, Prosperous India

Ambedkar loathed villages.

Gandhi believed in village life instead of industrial urban life.

Rural story

In rural areas caste system was rigid

Dalits were subordinate and meant for menial works like scavenging etc

Shudras became landowners

 Land acquisition can benefit dalits who are mostly agricultural labourers.

Industralisation, skill development will benefit them.

Landowning powerful castes whether SCs etc arose from land reforms after
independence.

The same process of harassing dalits, poor started.

Reforms in process

Urbanisation trickles to rural areas

Modern liberal values enter, dalits fight for their rights

Shackles of caste syem is being broken slowly

Global village

Homogenous culture

Sharing of culturesWestern to Indian and vice versa

Glocalisation

Hybridisation adopting local and integrating with global trends.

Mc Donald's doesnot sell beef products in India inspite of its high demand abroad.
Moreover, it goes vegetarian during Navaratri festival.
 Reassertion of local values

Food habits

Yoga day (23rd June) declared, Ramdev baba teaching Yoga abroad, Indian ayurveda
medicines globally.

ISKON temple American adopting spirituality of Indian society.

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Impact of globalisation

1.Local cultural values eroded

Tamashas, folk dances not preferred as TV has taken their place.

Generation gap dismissing elders as old fashioned

2.Employment of many in peril

Traditional Weavers vs Powerlooms

Outsourcing

3.Threat to traditional knowledge systems

MNCs tried to patent Indian Tulsi, Basmati rice, Haldi etc

Theaters have receded with multiplexes, cinema halls.

4.Financial instability

FIIs fluctuate with global outlook create losses in seconds.

5.Degrading culture

Objectification of women

Drugs, alcohol and materialistic shift in lifestyle.

Positive of Globalisation

Cultural homogeneity more options in clothes, food and others like Burger, Jeans

Intermixing like KurtaJeans etc

Cultural heterogeneity

Technology

Free trade and prosperity

Better services world class more options to consumers

Against
 Traditions diluted westernisation

Neocolonialism of America by goods Mc Donaldisation WTO counters these undue

gains and benefits developing countries

Economic losses like farmers at loss, mechanised jobs, competition in markets

rich gets richer

State withdraw from welfare activities and leave it for private firms, MNCs
Health, education may deteriorate

New concept

Indian soft power globalisation like Yoga

Mc Donalds serving veg in navratra

Indian diaspora IT BPO medical tourism people dependent on India

Regionalism

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Regionalism

Author: shaurya suman

Subjective over consciousness of the place or a region specific to a culture which

manifests in discrimination of migrants to the concerned region.
 Regional inequality like poverty, unemployment regionally deprived these
feelings are not given wind as government keeps on providing facilities,

schemes for development.

MP Bezabaruah commitee in 2014 reported inclusion of people from NE in Delhi

Police on Nido Tania's death. why not include in the whole of

India?

Sons of the soilPolitical dimension for vote banks.

A double edged sword preservation of culture may harass outsiders who are
Indians which disturbs social harmony

Economic inequality is the root cause migrants take jobs of local people as
skills are not adequate in locals vindictive attitude develops.

Telangana created linguistic division increased Indian unity in diversity but

may backfire if people are not comfortable with other linguistic groups.

Globalisation, migration masking regionalism universal education syllabus like

for All India entrances etc

Maharashtra vs Biharis development of Bihar will decrease migration however

heterogenous population is more conducive for all round

development.

Cultural inequality tackled by linguistic organisation of states

Economic inequality tackled by state poverty eradication, governments masking

regionalism.

Realisation by people that the reason for backwardness of region lies in them.
 SECULAR INDIA

Exposure to cultural diversity allows us to deconstruct misconceptions and

stereotypes and break down barriers.

In Chennai floods, muslims rescued hindus and vice versa Hindus cleaned mosques
while Muslims cleaned temples a Hindu couple

named their son Yunus after her mother was rescued from water in labour.

"Orwellian" is an adjective describing a situation, idea, or societal condition

that George Orwell identified as being destructive to the welfare of a free

and open society.

There has been an increased consciousness of religion and its embodiment as an

identity.

The economy which is a network of material relations, can always be revived, but
the society which is a

network of human relations based on trust cannot be repaired easily once damaged.

T.M. Scanlons now classic essay, The Difficulty of Tolerance, offers materials
for an attractive affirmative answer:

Tolerance is valuable for its own sake because of the attitude it allows us to
bear towards our fellow citizens, an

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attitude of fraternity and solidarity that is deeper than the intractable

disagreements that divide us. Tolerance

makes it possible to view all our fellow citizens as equally entitled to

participate in defining and determining the shape

of society.

AMU a minority institution?

Lilly Kurian vs Sr Lewina and others (1978),

the protection of the minorities is an article of faith in the Constitution of

India,

The legal battle over the AMUs minority character dates back to October 20, 1967,
when the Supreme Court in S. Azeez Basha and another

versus Union of India, deviating from the broad spirit in which it had decided
other cases on educational rights of minorities, erroneously concluded

on narrow and technical grounds that the AMU was established by the Central
legislature and not by Muslims. This led to a wave of angry

campaigns by Muslims across the country. After a prolonged struggle, in 1981,

Parliament passed an amendment to the 1920 act to restore the

AMUs minority status. The word establish in the title of the act was deleted,
and Section 2(l) and Subsection 5(2)(c) were added, clarifying that

the university was an educational institution of their choice established by the

Muslims of India and which was subsequently incorporated as the

AMU.

Establish refers to construction by the central government but AMU was only
incorporated in the Indian system as a university by the 1920 act. It has

been there for protecting educational rights of minorities the muslims per se.

50 million dollars by World Bank to fund education of minorities Nai Manzil

Scheme will get a boost Muslim youth have lowest labour outcomes

earn less wages less chances of employment in formal sector mostly unemployed

Kashmiri Pandits rehabilitation

 Recently BJP government proposed rehabilitation of Kashmir Pandits. It was in
their election manifesto.

19851990 mass exodus due to religious polarisation. Land reforms too made them a
minority in majority Muslim

areas.

Government support through cash assistance of Rs 6600 per month with free ration
depending on nonrelief category

which include pensioner and employed and relief who are dependent.

Satellite towns/camps constructed for them

Problems

1.Separate enclaves

Will lead to creation of Israel like conditions.

Concentration of Kashmiri Pandits will make them vulnerable to attacks

Increased Army presence as in Israel on its borders.

2.Unwilling population

People would be apprehensive to rehabilitate in wartorn Kashmir

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3.State government

It is the responsibility of state government to maintain law and order

After rehabilitation competence of police force without central government

presence is doubtful.

Way ahead

1.Assimilation in Kashmir

Very tough as religious polarisation, separatists gaining wind will prevent their
assimilation

But it is worth creating brotherhood among them.

Educating Kashmiris may bring sanity in future generations to respect minorities.

2.Solving border disputes with Pakistan

It will curb infiltration of terrorists which disturb law and order.

INDIAN SECULARISM

Other side

#India is a nationstate where Hindu fundamentalists resort to nonconstitutional

measures and follow social

mobilization based on cultural values. According to Max Weber, a nationstate uses

violence and power to

establish uniform society, although India acts differently. (though 1984 riots
show how non state actors played in
 connivance with state)

#Hindu and Muslim fundamentalists prefer using social disturbances like riots etc
to establish a nationstate. The

same measures were followed by colonial power (Divide & Rule) where secularism was
a populist measure but social

elements were allowed to work independently creating tensions.

# Muslim secularism

Muslims in minority talk about secularism but in majority prefer having an islamic
state. They reason that Indian

majority never stressed on a Hindustate and secularism is feasible in Hindu

nationalism despite being oppressive.

#Hindu nationalism

It stresses on cultural and social values rather than pure majority state. It is
tolerant and prefer to use "nationalism as

an antonym of communalism".

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Communal violence

Communal violence bill, 2005

1.Declaration of an area as communally disturbed

Three conditions must be fulfilled in total

 a.Act which led to clash in groups and damage to property or human life.

b.Act which creates enemity among castes, groups etc

c.Act which will lead to tensions in future.

Only if all these are fulfilled then state declares it as a communal disturbance.
A rape case with intention of

harassing a community still does not come in this jurisdiction.

2.Rehabilitation

20% of rehabilitation to victims immediately and rest later. There is no time and
dispensal authority specified.

3.Public servants conduct

They can be awarded punishment upto 1 year if found guilty. But they can hold
office. Only, when state government

gives consent on misconduct the court can convict a public servant.

4.Ambiguous role

Moreover state and district collector both can form unified command to direct
forces. Dual role creates ambiguity.

5.Armed forces

How can state direct armed forces if it is a union list subject?

It gives centre power to deal with such cases

 Law and order is a state subject but artcle 51 (c), 253, 355 of constitution
allows state to form bodies for better

management of law and order. NHRC is formed under parliament act.

6.Witness protection

Physical protection is not mentioned but witness anonymity will be maintained.

MINORITIES

Sachar Committee Muslims38% in urban and 28% in rural below poverty level.

2015 Report of The US Commission for International Religious Freedom put India in
tier 11 countries where atrocities

against minorities have increased or three consecutive years.

Tier I countries are of particular concern where tier II are in watch list. India
is in tier II since 2009

Though US is no angel country it also has racial, religious discrimination but

India needs to mull.

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Reasons

Low educational achievements

Poor education facilities (Girl's neglected)

Low skills and unemployment or selfemployment

Schemes by government

1.Economic initiative

NMDFC National Minorities development and Finance Corporation

Concessional loans to minorities artisans, craftsmen etc

Himayat

2.Educational support

Maulana Azad Education Foundation to provide scholarships to girls

Padho Pardesh for overseas studies with no interest on education loans

Nai Udaan to help girls in preliminary exams of UPS, SSC, SPSCs

3.Women empowerment schemes

Nai Roshini to develop leadership qualities in minority girls (201213)

Response to terror, radicalism

Avijit Roy, Bangladeshi blogger killed by Islamic extremists

 Religious texts

It depends on individuals to interpret the meaning of religious texts

People depending on ethnic, national, religious, social prejudices decide their

action

Left groups hold poverty, unemployment, inequality in opportunities as reason for

extremism, islamic

fundamentalism

This view is incomplete.

1.Laden belonged to affluent family.

Jihadi John, the ISIS killer is a computer graduate.

Many others from Europe who want to join ISIS are well educated.

Hence Islam's role in supporting these groups cannot be overlooked and is open to
criticism

It is time everyone criticize religious fundamentalism whether it is of Islamic or

Hindutva groups.

2.Religious nationalism

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 Godse statue by Hindu Mahasabha

Violence becomes a ritual when one places nationalism uncritically, blindly on

pedestals Rabindranath

Tagore

He was apprehensive about using Hinduism to consolidate support for nationalism as

it would alienate other groups.

(Which sadly happpened)

My View

Gandhi was trying to consolidate fractious Hindu society in one group who can put
up a nonviolent struggle against

British.

That is why he crusaded against untouchability.

Even though he supported caste system, he was opposed to discrimination based on

caste system.

However, Muslims never came on board and became apprehensive about majoritarian
Hinduism after

independence.

This led to dissents and violence perpetrated by Hindu &Islamic fringe groups.
But, naive people hold Gandhi

responsible.

"Green corridor for heart transplant"

All traffic lights green for an ambulance carrying a transplant organ in

Bengaluru, Chennai.
 People too clear roads in solidarity

Race, caste, creed etc take a backseat when organ donation and compatibility
depends on your genes.

People donate organs to save life irrespective of the recipient's religion, caste,
creed etc.

Intolerance in India?

Statements by actors like ShahRukh, Aamir

Award wapsi by eminent writers

Harassing artists in the name of cow protection Divine Bovine in Jaipur Artist
Festival

France in February 2004, no religious symbols to be used in public scarves,

crosses, turbans banned

American secularism state is completely separated from religion nonintervention

as compared to policy of intervention by India.

No concessions to any religion Sikhs in India allowed driving without helmets

No religious festivals at government schools

I beg to differ as schools are the basic level platform for a cosmopolitan
culture. If students celebrate festivals of various religions together then it will

foster harmony. In the very beginning they would practically come to understand
about each other culture and religion. This will eliminate doubts and
 prejudices which they are poised to develop with time from localised groups.

Sachar Committee Report

A myth that Muslims prefer to send their children to Madarsas.

4 per cent of Muslim children are in Madarsas, where as 66 per cent attend
government schools and 30 per cent private schools.

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25% of Muslim children never went to schools or were dropouts after enrollment.

CENSUS 2011

14.23% Muslims in India only 6.27% Muslims employed in 17.3 Lakhs strong police
forces of India.

Muslims in Bengal are more deprived in terms of education, health with 7% lower
literacy rate than the average.

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 Casteism

Author: shaurya suman

Decades old practice of untouchability has created a sense of oppression and

submission among the majority of Dalits. However with the advent of

education, they have broken these shackles and demand equal rights as citizens of
India. The constitution of India guarantees them their lost human

rights in the form of Fundamental rights enshrined in Articles 1332. Still, many
dalits live in fear as their livelihood depends on the upper castes who

are the elites of villages. The state does not have enough jobs and majority of
Dalits are unskilled. This further make their chances of employment in

modern knowledge based economies dim. Laws have been formulated for their social
equality but economic security has not been guaranteed which

indirectly prevents their social upliftment. The affirmative system of reservation

no doubt has helped alot of Dalits but the majority has not benefited.

Moreover, reservations are enjoyed by kins of those who have taken it already
because they had a good primary and secondary education missing

with the common Dalit masses in rural areas.

RS has further created tensions and divisions among people and their is a growing
consciousness of castes among young population. Hence there is

a need of multipronged approach in dealing with the menace of caste based

discrimination.

The change in mindsets and behavior of Indian population will have massive
effects. This change will come gradually and must start from schools in

rural areas. When teachers and students do not discriminate against dalit students
a real equality will emerge. Gandhi said that India lives in villages

and equality must be adopted by people there primarily.

The law should also influence the ideas and thoughts of the individual. Prevention
of Atrocities against SC/ST act 1989 tries to do that.

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In 1917 in his critique of nationalism Tagore writes,

We never dream of blaming our social inadequacy as the origin of our

present helplessness, for we have accepted as the creed of our

nationalism that this social system has been perfected for all time to
come by our ancestors..This is the reason why we think that our one

task is to build a political miracle of freedom upon the quicks and of

social slavery.When we talk of Western Nationality we forget that

the nations there do not have that physical repulsion, one for the
other, that we have between different castes.And can we ever hope

that these moral barriers against our race amalgamation will not stand
in the way of our political unity?

Tagore's Crisis in Civilisation:

I see the crumbling ruins of a proud civilisation strewn like a

vast heap of futility. And yet I shall

not lose faith in Man.

A day will come when unvanquished Man will win back his lost human
heritage.

Manual Scavenging

According to the Andhra Pradeshbased Safai Karamchari Andolan, an organisation

working with manual scavengers, there are 13 lakh persons

from Dalit communities who continue to be employed in this job in this country and
who work in the 96 lakh private and community dry latrines

managed by municipalities.

Minimal wages of Rs 3040 every day

Bhangis in Gujarat, Pakhis in Andhra Pradesh and Sikkaliars in Tamil Nadu live in
separate settlements, are not allowed entry in public places like

temples etc

1993 Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines Act not
implemented effectively

The Census of 2011 found 794,000 cases of manual scavenging, of which 63,713 were
in Maharashtra.

The majority of manual scavengers are women and there could be more than a million
of them since the Indian Railways spreads human

excrement across the length and breadth of India.

The history of India is the history of a struggle between the entitled and the
disentitled. The ABVP, claiming to represent the Hindu society, is

the entitled. The Dalits are the disentitled. The fourtier arrangement in Hindu
society did not include Dalits. If anyone defied the fourtier arrangement

or its rules, punishment was swift: exclusion and expulsion.

Workplace complaints high with both SC and ST panels as shown by a RTI filed at
NCSC/ST/BC

Casteism and Politics

It is not a rule that caste system always plays an important role in elections.
The constitution of India guarantees free and fair elections.

First of all, universal suffrage means that every man has the right to vote a
candidate or a party of own choice. People from reserved seats are

selected by electors belonging to various castes residing in that region.

Moreover, a candidate can only win with support of the population which has

diversity. Many political parties raise candidates of particular castes and

competition is there. Also, sitting MPs and MLAs loose at times in fresh

elections which would have been victorious always if a community favored voting to
him/her.
 Reservation

The 201415 Economic Survey showed that the wages of rural India were increasing at
3.6 per cent only (when the inflation rate was above 5

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per cent), against 20 per cent in 2011

These jobs are precarious and badly paid. In the private sector, the average daily
earnings of the workers was Rs 249 in 201112, according to the

Labour Bureau, and those of the employees at large, Rs 388. By contrast, in the
public sector, the figures were respectively almost three times

more at Rs 679 and Rs 945

There were 19.5 million jobs in the public sector in 199293 when Indias
population was 839 million. While there are 1.2 billion Indians now,

the number of jobs in the public sector has shrunk to 17.6 million. In states that
have aggressively implemented the liberalisation policy, government

jobs have almost disappeared. For instance, the governments share in employment
in Gujarat is only 1.18 per cent whereas it is 16 per cent in

Kerala.

INTERCASTE Marriages

Lata Singh vs State of UPSC said, "Intercaste marriages are in national interest
as they will help in abolishing caste system.

Punishment for Honour crimes is needed alongwith rehabilitation of affected

couple.
 Special people

Kolkata Police took an initiative to recruit transgender people in their

workforce, a college in a small town in West Bengal got the worlds first

transgender principal, a locality in Kolkata celebrated Durga Puja with

transgender persons as committee members.

I fear that I will have to think twice before holding my partners hand in public.
I feel that the government is telling us that we can work, we can have

fun, we can teach but we cannot love.

DISABLED (Differently abled)

Stop treating them as "BECHARA"

CEnsus 2011 data

20.5 Lakhs increase in disabled population of 1.87 crores in 2001 to 20.07 crores
in 2011

2.21% of population.

Opinion that disabled will not perform equal to physically normal people.

Skills are never checked IAS 2014 topper disabled but much able than many.

parents, society treat them differently, include them as normal people but have
facilities which create level playing field acknowledge these

differences

Raahgiri Day

Organised by Department of empowerment of persons with disabilities.

India signatory to Biwaki Millenium Framework for Action

Barrier free and rightsbased society for disabled in

Asia and Pacific.

Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan

 Accessible India initiative

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Schemes

1.IEDSS Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage

Four years of education after elementary education for 8 years under Persons
with disabilities act, 1995

Government provides full financial assistance.

2.Scholarship scheme Prematric and Postmatric

National escholarship portal in 201516 to be ready

50% for girls

Books, library free

3.Deendayal Disabled Rehabilitation Scheme (DDRS)

Grantinaid to NGOs

UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities an international human

rights treaty to protect the rights and dignity of persons

with disabilities.

2007, India became a signatory to amend national laws on disability with a new
one

Disability has been restricted to 40% of disability violates UNCRPD

 Disabilities act 1995

The act calls for the government to take the necessary steps to ensure the
prevention of disabilities. In accordance with this agenda, the government

must screen all the children at least once a year to determine risk factors that
lead to disability and attempt to protect the child from such

factors. It is also necessary for the state to take measure to reduce risks to
prenatal and post natal mothers and child.

According to chapter V, children with disabilities should be provided free

education by the appropriate government. The government must take steps

to integrate children with disabilities into regular schools, but also make space
for special schools that cater expressly to the needs of these

children. In addition to the basic education schools, government are also required
to make nonformal education programmes for children with

disabilities that help attain literacy, rejoin school, impart vocational training,
and provide them with free books and educational material. Teachers

need to be specially trained to educate and see to the needs of children with
disabilities. The government must also set up schemes that provide

children with disabilities grant and scholarships and also provide funds for
making buildings disabled friendly. Educational institutions are also

required to provide visually challenged students with aids who will write for
them.

The government is also responsible for making the general environment

nondiscriminatory towards PWD by adapting and adding to railways,

buses, road signals pavement slopes, warning signals, building ramps, Braille
signs and auditory signals, etc. The act also provides for non

discrimination of PWD in employment that can be taken up by them, in government

and nongovernment offices. Institutions that aid people with

disabilities are required to be registered by the government and the government is

also required to set up a number of institutions to cater to the

needs of people with severe disabilities.

Rights of Persons with Disabilities Bill, 2014

Earlier acts warrant guardianship necessary for disabled people.

Demands are being made by disabled persons, civil society and Ministry of Social
Justice and Empowerment to replace full guardianship by limited
 guardianship.

Full guardianship is against fundamental rights of people to take decisions

themselves.

UN convention on disability also specifies limited guardianship with independent

decision making by disabled people.

Section 13 of this act is liable to be amended giving way for limited

guardianship.

isabilities related to movement, hearing and sight are the most common, according
to the Census

Issues

1.Ostracised from society Due to a disabled member in family, a girl's marriage

is delayed.

2.Neglected by parents as they are embarrassed

3.Forced sterlisation, abortions, rapes, sexual abuse of disabled girls

4.Government apathy as they are not a considerable or joint population for vote
banks.

5.Education, health aspects neglected. Those in jobs, schools are harassed or

discriminated by peers.

6.Undereporting of cases. India has lowest cases globally.

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Way ahead

1.Education, health

2.Social awareness disabled have equal rights and similar to us.

Strong have responsibility not to hurt weak and support them.

3.Skill development

4.Rules in offices support by peers

 ELDERLY

Maintenance of Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens act, 2007

SANKALP, an egovernance initaitive for pensioners

Longitudnal Aging Study of India to follow the health and socioeconomic condition
of 60,000 Indians over the age of 45 years for 25 years An

aging population needs an economy to have robust health, pension, insurance

systems. It can alter disease burden, economies and trade and

human migration. 1st phase spans till 2020.

National Old Age Pension Scheme (IGNOAPS) challenge is regarding the amount and
the target population. The centre provides a meagre

amount (200). The states contribute according to their capacity. This makes
elderly in one state disadvantaged and dependent on states economic

performance

Issues

1.Urbanisation

less spacing in houses

Costly living so nuclear families

Modern life does not want extra responsibility.

2.Changing social values

Skills imparted by elderly no longer important material success has gained over
ethical skills

Hence in urban areas such skills are imparted in schools, colleges and demand for
values is low.

Social security is not given importance.

3.Dual employment

Men and women employed

 No care for elderly at home

New trend of grandparents for taking care of children in urban areas is emerging.

4.Economic

Doesnot contribute to income rather dependent on children.

No self employment automatically influence in family decreases.

Linking pensions to inflation Revision of dearness allowance 7th Pay commission

may do that

SOLUTIONS

1.Old age homes

Prevalent in west

acceptance in Indian society is needed.

Government can incentivise private participation is needed.

National Policy for Older Persons by government

2.

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WOMEN/Child

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India has recorded remarkable development in all fields since independence.

However, this could not be translated into improved gender indicators

especially related to Sex Ratio and CSR.

The barometer to the progress of nation is its treatment of women.

Swami Vivekanand

Recent case of Richa Mishra where she was ordered by SC to be appointed as DSP
state denied such appointment on the basis of her crossing the

agelimit of 25 years economic empowerment is real women empowerment

Kudgili woman dsp resigned after repeated inefficiency in work due to corruption
and political interference.

Statistics

NSSO data doesnot capture full working potential especially of women

'Time use surveys' by ILO

Individual is interviewed about the time spent on various activities over a given
time period.

You judge a society according to the way women are treated.

Study says that more women executives leads to more profits.

Ambedkar

Rights are protected not by law but by social and moral conscience of the society.

Why are men not happy when women assume positions of responsibility?
 Justice Verma committee

"Rape and sexual assaults are not crimes of passion but an expression of power"

UNODC place India at 82 among 121 countries on 2012 data.

Social Progress Index places India at 101th due to poor performance in health
water sanitation and safety

India at 120 among 131 countries in women labour participation, according to the
International Labour Organisation, trailing Brazil, China and

South Asian neighbours

UN organises conference on women 4 conferences in Mexico, Copenhagen, Nairobi and

Beijing in 1995

Recent Beijing plus 20 review Beijing declaration and platform for action for
women empowerment

Sexual abuses are more commonly done by close relatives and people in authority.

Raunak Jahan pointed out change in policies from women in development to women and
development.

Male and female both responsible

Internalisation of values is needed.

Women are emotional and men are rational

Prevention of domestic Violence Act, 2005

The definition of domestic violence should include physical, economic, sexual and
verbal and emotional abuse

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This law is a very significant step because it recognises ... The right of women
to live in a shared household... women can get a protection order

against any further violence... Women can get monetary relief to meet their
expenses including medical costs.

Often women who face violence or are abused are seen as victims. But women
struggle in several different ways to survive these situations.

Therefore, it is more accurate to refer to them as survivors rather than as

victims.

What is needed is not mere increase in number of women in jobs but increased
welcome of women

MC Kinsey report: The Power of Parity

companies show increased profits with balance between number of men and women in
office.

Mending gender gap could add 60 % to Indian GDP by 2025 by increasing women
participation rate to 41% from present rate of 31%.

However, the idea is only to create awareness if marginal benefits then should
women not work? Definitely not the larger picture is of human

rights, female autonomy, gender equality

CHRI or Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative Report

6.1% in police force

Bias in job

No common cadre for women and men but women relegated only to cases related to
women.

Rather than women police stations which segregate women there should be women
police officials in every police station.

CAPITAL CONUNDRUM

Mew Delhi continues to shock,as NCRB data shows the

 1813

city tops in terms of number of reported rapes last

year proportionate to its female population 1441

WH* # Na OF RAPES PERI LAKH WOMEN (2014):6J

IN2013:33707 IN2014: 36 735

607

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45 3

VMH HHH MBH BHBB HHHI

A BCMGAUJKU

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HLM DELHI

. H

UP 1 2

Maharashtra 2123 Bihar 1742

Put LA Delhi 7674

Gujarat na 2945

IWIA:2292 Karnataka 223.6 A P 225.1

. .
 Kerala 5853 + Tamil Nadu 280.9

SOURCL NCRB 20)4

Pink collared jobs for women women believed to have soft skills

Women nurses, women gynaecologists vs male

Short service in army for women, women cannot fly jets

now they can

NCRB data shows Delhi as the rape capital of India.

Only 28% rape trials led to conviction

The crime against women during the year 2013 has increased by 26.7% over the
year 2012 and by 51.9% over the year 2009.

Dowry related cases form 17% of violences against women and are on rise.

UN Broadband Commission found 73% of women facing violence online.

Male voter turnout in Lok Sabha elections has grown only slightly, from 60.87 per
cent of registered voters in 1971 to 67 per cent in 2014.

Female voter turnout grew by more than twice as much in the same period, from
49.11 per cent to 65.54 per cent.

In the general elections of 2014, womens turnout shot up from 55.82 to 65.63 per
cent a jump of nearly 20 per cent

Reservation apart, parties give far fewer tickets to women. The reason given is
its difficult for them to win.

But ,in 2014, women were 7.9 per cent of total candidates, but 11.6 per cent of
elected MPs.

Parties must give them more tickets and voters should vote only for those parties
that give a fair share of tickets to women.
 In 21 of 30 Indian States, female voter turnout exceeded male turnout in their
most recent assembly elections, an analysis of Election Commission

(EC) data shows.

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In the remaining nine Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka,
Kerala, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra the gap

between male and female turnouts has narrowed to its sharpest point.

Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra are the States with the largest remaining
difference between male and female turnout

In Gujarat, the ECI identified specific communities like the Kathi Darbar
community in Amreli district which did not believe women should play a

part in the democratic process and targeted awareness programmes at them to raise
female turnout.

Child Marriage

Census 2001 1.5 mn girls below 15 years age already married.

NFHS 200506: 46% of girls below 18 are married

Tribal Hamlets in Andhra Pradesh Palamaner and Peddapanjani (Chitoor district,

Western Mandals of A.P) follow this practice with a large number

of mothers below 15 years of age more common during Maha Sihivratri festival

ROPES or Rural Organisation for Poverty Eradication Services has reported of

mothers between 1215 years of age at high risk of malnutrition and

high risk deliveries

Moreover, mandals oppose any interference in the name of tradition thus the need
is dual approach of creating awareness as well as using law.

Issues
 1.Political vote banks

Political persons patronise khap panchayats which allow child marriage overlooking
its harms.

Administration due to political pressure finds difficulty in stopping child

marriages.

2.Poor implementation of laws

Child Marraige restraint act, 1929 (supported by British india,hindumuslim women

but was a dud)

Prohibition of child marraige act,2006 (UNICEF male21 years and Female18 years for
child marriage,Supported by this act)

3.Ubiquitous causes

Low dowry in child marriage, lessening burden from a family with more girl child,
relief from protecting girls from sexual predators

Cultural traditional practices supported by orthodox village headmen support child

marriage.

It leads to sexual abuse, slavery, poor health of the child.

4.Shift from utilitarian aims

Stressing on health related aspects of early marriage on a girl and her child.

A change in mindset is needed

Women as citizens of equal importance with men need to be projected.

Conservative people need to be made aware of girl's right to decide her future on
education, marriage etc.

Women harassment

Violation of Article 14,15, 19(1)g, 21 (genderequality and right to work with men
with dignity)

It is certainty of punishment and not severity which deters crime.

 1.Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal of Harassment of women at workplace act,
2013

Provide a safe workplace environment for women.

Includes all places with >10 employees whether it is public, private institutions,
hospitals etc

Criticism: Does not include agricultural women and women in armed forces.

Internal complaints committee to be constituted at these places which submits

report to district officer

Under Section 134 companies act, 2013 companies must declare formation of ICC in
(AGM) Annual General Meetings

Half of members to be women (A senior women employee, an NGO women member etc)

It has rights of a civil court

Criticism: No legal background of members create problems

Institutions liable to be fined Rs 50,000 if noncompliant

Regular inspections of workplaces.

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Complaint against women for false cases

Criticism: This is an under reported crime in India. It may deter women from
complaining

Men are not provided safeguards. Act is not gender neutral

Criminal law Amendment bill, 2013 brought Section 354 of IPC in force with sexual
harassment under it. (After Delhi gangrape, 2012)

Section 154, 161 of Criminal PC Cases to be heard by women police officers only

2.Vishakha guidelines
 Vishakha (Women Rights Group) &others vs State of Rajasthan

Rules laid by Supreme Court

Defined sexual harassment under which the above statute was passed in 2013

India's Daughter documentary on 16th December gang rape

Was it ethical to disseminate views of a convict?

Whether banning the reporting of such views the right response?

Effects of that video

1.Change in mindset of people

People can introspect on their thoughts about women in the society.

Men will understand gender equality in society and giving women equal opportunity.

2.Public in action mode

Public can create awareness about women as a mother, sister, daughter and most
important as a human being

Countering patriarchal dominance, chutzpah as shown by lawyers in that video.

Effects of banning that video

1.A wrong message to people

India is a patriarchal society where freedom is domain of only one class and not
all

Will never create a sense of guilt in offenders as they would see the manner we
prefer keeping rapes a private affair and

apprehensive about its disclosure to public in fear of shame rather than fight
for justice.

2.International reputation

It was banned to prevent global outrage and save India's socalled pride.

Though it ended in more people watching it. Still, alot of people who not have
access to internet were unaffected.

It could have sent a message of 'learning from India' by acknowledging those

processions outside Parliament against the gangrape
 globally.

Khap Panchayats

In Haryana, known for notorious decisions took a watershed decision to ban female
foeticide in the state.

Celebrities like Aamir Khan work for social issues then effect is massive,
poignant.

People in Haryana fear of no brides for their sons.

Beti Bachao Andolan launched from Haryana.

When would be parents they want a son

When they have a girl child change comes as daughters are more emotionally
attached to parents and care for them.

Old age security

When they understand that daughters can hold responsibility for the family and are
nevertheless than sons, change would come

Girl education is very important.

Even educated people practise sex determination, female foeticide.

Change in mindset is needed

A child irrespective of gender would provide happiness of being parents.

Death for accused who practise female foeticides

Talk practically

Right to life for women

Society should arise, work against

Problems of Women in India

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 1.Social problems

Girls below boys a mindset

Women are considered weak, protected always which gives them a feeling of
subordinates in society. Moreover they grow suspicious about the

social norms.

Female foeticide, sex determination etc Child sex ratio (06 years) declined from
947 in 1991 to 927 in 2001 to 918 in 2011 as per census.

Girl as second mother.

Early marriage Health deteriorates, unhealthy mother>Unhealthy child>IMR

increases, MMR increases.

Education not given Female literacy rate51% as compared to 75% of males. Female
youth literacy rate (1524 years)65% as compared to 81%

of males.

Increased dropouts, child labour

Dowry system, caste system, families apprehensive of rapes as girls are vulnerable

Khap Panchayats erroneous decisons in Haryana (worst child sex ratio below 850)

Dalit, Adivasi and Muslim girls drop out of school in large numbers. This is a
combined outcome of poverty, social discrimination and the lack

of good quality school facilities for these communities

Insensitive Judicial decisions raped victim of cuddaldore Tamil NAdu has=d

tomarry the rapist after 7 years Tribal girl raped in Chattisgarg also

asked the same and denied justice

2.Economic problems

Women entrepreneurs are less

Sexual discrimination at workplace, interviews etc.

 Occupational Segregation of women i.e they are concentrated to only certain
section sectors of economy.

Poor credit facility for women

Household works not paid even more work done than men. it has been found that
women work more than men in hours but their works are not

valued. It is not an individual perspective but a stereotype in Indian society.

Women are considered inferior to men and this notion manifests in every

aspect of life.

NSS 68th round survey 201112, Bihar's rural women work participation rate 5.5

Economic empowerment absent household works not paid

Property rights absent none of women in Bihar have lands in their name.

Strangely with economic boom in India women moved from paid to unpaid jobs as
family income increased.

3.Political problems

Political inertia to bring reservation in Parliament for women

PRIs not helpful enough as male dominates in home. Women only carry position but
official work is done by men.

PRIs not consulted for planning as per Article 280. Planning is also not done in
consultation with them. This does not give them real power

inspite of official position.

Women representation in legislative bodies poor. Below average of Asian and global
countries. (Pakistan has better representation). 16th LKS Has

largest number of women MPs 62.

Poor enforcement of laws

Arbitrary decisions like Rajasthan government's compulsory education till V class

for SC/ST and class VIII for general.

Government initiatives

Their objective is equal opportunities for women but it is not sufficient.

Patriarchy needs to be tackled effectively, Making independent choices is
 important.

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SC in recent judgment directed Chattisgarh government to make a Lady police

officer DSP after government rejected her application on excuse of

being over age. SC reiterated that 10 years relaxation in age must be allotted for
empowerment of women

1.Fifth 5 year plan

Shift in approach towards women

2.National Commission for Women setup in 1990

3.73rd&74th Amendment

4.National Policy for Empowerment of Women, 2001

Environment of equality

Equal access to participation in decision making, education, health benefits

Strengthening legal systems

Changing societal attitude and community practices.

5.National Mission for Empowerment of Women, 2010

Mission Poorna Shakti

Microcredit to women

Gender budgeting

Right to education

Empowerment of women from marginalised communities.

 6.State programmes

Sukanya Samridhi Yojana by Mo Finance

Rs 1,000 to be deposited at birth by parents followed by any amount in multiple

thereafter

9.2% interest rate

Maximum limit for deposits is Rs 1,50,000

En cash at 21 years

Haryana Kanya Kosh

Punjab 100% scholarsips for education of SC girls

7.Other schemes in conjunction with women empowerment

MNREGA, RSBY, JSSY

Sarva Siksha Abhiyan etc

8.Education initiatives

Early child care education centres (ECCE)

Girls with their younger siblings go to school having an ECCE centre.

Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya for SC/ST girls

Mahila Samakhya (Education for Women's equality) under National Policy on

Education ,1986

National Programme on Education for Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL),2003 for

SC/ST girls.

Beti Bachao Beti Padhao scheme

Launched by central government from Panipat, Haryana on Jan 22, 2015

A corpus of 100 crores allotted from budget, 100 crores from "Care and Protection
of Girl childA multi sectoral approach" from 12th five year plan

which is to be increased subsequently. CSR funds to be given.

Objectives

1.To prohibit sexdetermination

 Recently government urged google to limit sex determination sites, data based on
it from Indian servers.

Flipkart, Amazon having books on sexdetermination too removed it.

2.To improve CSR through compulsory registration of pregnancy

Health workers will monitor them in future

They can visit to PHCs for advice, medical checkups

3.To ensure participation of girl in health, education programmes by providing

monetary and nonmonetary initiatives to family

4.To create a nurturing and safe environment

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Way Ahead

1.Implementation

Many programs but less results

Corruption to be checked.

Women should be made active participants in decision making at all levels of

formulation, discussion and implementation of policies. (Women

and development)

2.Education

Education which is liberal modern and gender sensitive of girl child is very
important

Will make her responsible, independent, earn a name in society, fight for her
rights, enjoy programmes for them etc.

Education to men

Families need to be taught (Behaviour Change Communication) both men and women
need change in attitude.
 Moral overhauling of patriarchal society will benefit

3.Social reforms

Awareness in society that all genders are equally competent

Society to check for violation of laws, educate neighbours etc

Mandatory share of women in hereditary assets. This gives women a sense of

selfrespect, greater control of their lives and courage to face odds in

the society.

4.Inclusion of NGOS, civil society groups. professionals like doctors, engineers

etc in campaigns.

Mohalla committeees for checking domestic violence against women.

Back to joint family where domestic violence by husbands was censored.

5.Developing an economic meter to assess contributions of housewives in family.

6.Gender Sensitisation of law enforcement agencies like Police, judiciary is

needed.

7. Amending of laws related to dowry act, 1961 like Section 498A of IPC where
complaints are noncompoundable.

DIGITAL GENDER ATLAS

Launched by MHRD with help of UNICEF on March, 2015

Will give information about girl's (disabled) education, enrollment, passing

percentage etc in various geographical locations in the country

It will serve as a guide for states and the centre to formulate policies.

Census 2011, District Level Health Survey, Unified District Information System for
Education data was used

Marital rape

Most prevalent in India majority of women above 15 are married in India.

NFHS data shows that 8.5% of women faced sexual violence in their lifetime. About
93% said they have been sexually abused by their husbands.
 Section 498A specifies only mental and physical abuse by husbands. Sexual abuse
should also be included.

India sacrament traditional

Illiteracy

Personal matter

Rt to privacy liberty dignity violated

GuardianshipMother or Father?

SC judgment in which a women was declared sole guardian of her child with no
requirement of details of father

Under Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, a child's guardian for person and
property is first father and then mother

SC ruled out decision in favor of single mothers

Effects

1.Women empowerment

In a patriarchal society a child is known by father's name.

But single mothers, divorced mothers had problems in getting children enrolled in
schools, scholarships etc

Making mother as a primary guardian does not affect nurturing of child as mothers
are equally capable in modern world.

Lets use mothers name for middle name of your child. Even a same effort will work
wonders.

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2.Relief to special cases

Rape cases with birth of child

Prostitutes children will benefit

 Women Empowerment

Dimapur Jail(Nagaland where mob killed a rapist) incident did not make its streets
safer for women but the air dangerous for everyone

Problems in India over women empowerment schemes

Less funds allocated

Poor implementation (Domestic Violence Act didnot take off Renamed as SAAHAS,
allocated 50 crores last year)

Verma committee report,2012 formed report submitted 2013 under CJI Justice Verma,
(Currently shelved)

Rape should not be assessed according to relationships between the victim and
culprit. For example, marital rapes should be charged as a crime.

Obligation of state to provide women quicker trial and justice against criminal
cases of sexual harassment and enhancing punishment of the

accused.

Death penalty should not be awarded in rape cases.

Trafficking for prostitution is punishable. Slavery and other evils are not under
Antitrafficking act.

Electoral reforms should be done and candidates, MPs, MLAs disqualified with
framing of charges in sexual offences.

Soldiers in AFSPA regulated areas indulging in sexual crimes should not be waited
for prior central sanction before prosecution. The same applies

for civil servants.

http://www.prsindia.org/parliamenttrack/reportsummaries/justicevermacommitteereport
summary2628/
 UNODC (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime):

India is placed at 85th among 121 countries for rapes and 39th for unreported
rapes.

1.Reported and Unreported

Sexual violence within relations is more common than perpetrated by strangers.

Indian law does not accept marital rape as an offence.

2.Women's autonomy

Women have less freedom out of wedlock in India.

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Purdah system a burden of upper caste hindus, Burkha etc in muslims along with
conservative beliefs mar women's autonomy.

Husbands and sons are the real decisionmakers.

Even in a matrilineal society like Manipur etc women have land succession rights
but decisions are made by males within the family.

Global Gender Gap Index, 2014

India ranks 114 out of 142 countries

 Focusses on:

Economic participation and opportunity

Education

Political empowerment

Health and survival

Gender Inequality Index

Reproductive health, women's empowerment and their participation in labour market

India127

Sri Lanka 75

Nepal 98

Bhutan102

Bangladesh 115

India adopted Gender Responsive Budgeting in 2005

Planning, programming and budgeting for gender equality and women rights
 Gender Budget Statement, 200506

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Over the 8 years allocations have remained constant.

UN Committee on Elimination of Discrimination against Women

Need to increase investments for Ministry of Women and child development.

CEDAW (UN Convention on Elimination of All forms of discrimination against women)

Lack of allocation of funds to National commission for women and state commissions

Karta Judgement Heralds modernity in laws of succession by overturning Mitakshara

Laws A bigger call for UCC

Delhi HC announced inclusion of women (even married daughters who are not included
in Joint family) as Kartas in Hindu Undivided Family thus

upholding the amendment in Hindu Succession Act 1956 which introduced Section 6
making women as equal coparcenors with men in property.

Big business houses can pass the baton to their daughters if required.

2005 SC judgment made women as coparceners in ancestral property

174th Report of the Law Commission of India had argued that when women are equal
in all respects of modernday life, there is no reason why

they should be deprived of the right and privilege of managing HUF as their karta.

Indian women as fighter pilots in IAF opening of women to all combat roles in
armed forces a new era in reckoning.

Sterlisation in India
 Kerala with voluntary family planning due to literacy, women empowerment, social
welfare, PDS etc

Issues

1.good thought gone bad

Under RSBY 7000 hysterectomies were forcibly done to reap profits.

2.Gender bias

Women are forced to go sterlisation. 99% of sterlisation programmes in India have

women as participants.

Tubectomy is a complex procedure than Vasectomy where patients walk out of OTs.

Forced sterlisation campaign by Sanjay Gandhi during emergency in 197577 led to

approximately 1,700 deaths. Since then, it became a trend that

male sterlisation is risky and female sterlisation should be promoted and not
erode the votebank.

3.Poor quality of OT,drugs, doctors

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Trained paramedics give anaesthesia and PHC doctors with less experience perform
surgeries. PPP is a total failure in RSBY as private players donot go to

villages for less profits.

 4.Target based rather than voluntary family planning

Indian population has started showing slowing of birth rate. population control in
haste is not needed. Emergency time forced male sterlisation like steps are not

needed.

Legalising Prostitution

According to the 2001 census, over 12 million children in India aged

between 5 and 14 work in various occupations including hazardous

ones. In October 2006, the government amended the Child Labour

Prevention Act, banning children under 14 years of age from

working as domestic servants or as workers in dhabas, restaurants,

tea shops etc. It made employing these children a punishable

offence. Anyone found violating the ban must be penalised with a

punishment ranging from a jail term of three months to two years

and/or fine of Rs 10,000 to Rs 20,000. The central government

had asked state governments to develop plans to rescue and

rehabilitate children who are working as domestic servants. To date,

 only three state governments, namely Maharashtra, Karnataka and

Tamil Nadu have published these plans. Even today more than a year

after this law was passed 74 per cent of child domestic workers are

under the age of 16.

One of the most important problem is identifying cause of sex work whether it is
due to coercion or out of choice.

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EFFECTS

1.Sexwork which is done out of helplessness will become a legal choice.

Forced trafficking, slavery will increase.

2.Pimps and traffickers, gangsters will get an upper hand.

3.Patriarchal society

Identification and licensing will make their life miserable. they can be
harassed more frequently by Police. Anonymity will be

revealed. Moreover society looks at sex workers with contempt.

 4.Children of sexworkers

They will be affected the most and can be forced into sex slavery, trafficking.

POSITIVE

1.Better identification

Sexworkers can be licensed and their concerns can be heard by the government.
Welfare measures, rehabilitation, protection from traffickers will be possible.

2. Better regulation

Govt. can regulate sex trade effectively. Buyers can be punished. Violence with
sex workers can be checked. STD related awareness can be propagated.

Usha Cooperative Society in Kolkata.

An innovative financial measure to provide finance to marginalised women.

Sex workers are given loans, financial help. It has helped them teach their
children and meet other needs.

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TelanganaAdilabad district by ITBP (Integrated Tribal Development Agency)

Iron tablets to adivasi children especially girls in lemon juice

 Honey in food relished by tribals

Women on TV

Recent TV serials and advertisements present women and men in traditionally

followed norms. Women as witches and other superstitious practices,

gods and goddesses in varying forms have created uproar at times.

BCCC or Broadcasting Content Complaints Council setup by IBF or Indian

Broadcasting Federation regulates entertainment content.

13 members from statutory bodies such as NC for Women, NC for minorities apart
from broadcasters.

Code evolved from All India Radio zero tolerance for broadcasters disregarding
advisories and has power to impose fine.

Freedom of speech and expression does not mean undermining of public morality
(article 19(2)). A little restraint is warranted.

TVs have a wide reach and children are influenced a lot. A wrong image of women
portrayed in these serials may misled some.

With growing reach there is a need of precautionary advice for viewers and
broadccasters.

CHILD LABOUR

Child labour amendment bill, 2015

Clauses

Child allowed to work/ help/support their family after school

They can work in family profession if not hazardous hazardous activities reduced
from 83 to 3

One can exploit children easily violation of RTE 21A, DPSP Article 45
 In view of poor state of the country, nonidentification of child
labour/trafficking, improper or nonrehabilitation of children

Issue

Government is giving excuses rather then countering child labour with strict
regulations and proper rehabilitation

Tremendous manpower in India but identification, checking child labour has been
the domain of NGOs.

Above bill will prevent children from studying, growing as nonhazardous works too
take toll on child's health.

Families would pull out children from schools and send them to factories Girls
will suffer more.

For exA carpenter, cobbler, manual scavenger's child will follow their
professions.Salt worker's at Kuchh will rope in their child in

scorching heat to produce more salt.

What will be the outcome of that education which does not guarantee child
development in all fields?

Maternity/Paternity Leave

The Labour Ministry, on the recommendation of the Ministry of Women and Child
Development, will amend the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961, to

increase maternity leave in the private sector from 12 to 26 weeks.

A child needs care of both the parents, mother and father.

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 1997 Central Civil Services Rule, Paternity leave for 15 days with less than 2
surviving children in government servants

Gender equality in care of children is missing

Facebook gave paternity leave benefits to men Sweden allows it Germany, ICeland
too

Men does not avail only 10% in Sweden may be stigma

Sex ratio

SOME GOOD AND (Females per thousand males)

SOME BAD NEWS

(NFHS-3) 200S-06 (NFHS-fc) 2015-16

Women literacy 62.5|

(percentage terms) 74.70

Men 79.10 H

(percentage terms) 86.901 ^

^^^^^^^^^^

Institutional deliveries 47.66

(percentage terms) 80.46

Marriages before age 18 (females) 36.27

(percentage terms) 23.10

Marriages before age 21 (males) 29.80

(percentage terms) 23.10

The data are for 11 states

 Source: National Family Health Survey-u

Women and Maternity

Indian women weigh less at the end of pregnancy than subsaharan African women as
shown by NFHS in 201314

High neonatal mortality rate, low birth weight of infants

Indira Gandhi Mattritva Sahyog Yojana, a pilot initiative of MWCD in 53 districts

to be expanded. It is a conditional cash transfer of maternity

entitlements, recently asked by Supreme Court to further its implementation.

Issues

Cash transfer of Rs 6,000 which requires women with registered pregnancies, taking
iron and folic acid tablets, breast feeding etc as conditions

But women in India face alot of hurdles familial discrimination household works
in pregnancy etc which can cause defaults in meeting conditions

There is false belief that universal maternity entitlements cause increased

fertility as in reports of Janni Suraksha Yojana but such incidence

remained even before laying out of JSY

Rs 1400 of JSY and Rs 6,000 are not enough to raise more children school, health
costs are way beyond these limits

Women need milk, vegetables, eggs etc to feed themselves during pregnancy in an
adverse environment with busy spouse and inconsiderate in

laws these entitlements can only come to their and baby's rescue improve maternal
health

Such conditional transfers can only succeed if government assures health services
completely like in Latin America but that is not the case in India

Women and PCPNDT Act

Minister of Women and Child Development for legalising sex determination

For

Identification of female foetus and tracking them till delivery

Incentivising parents to take care of girls

 Against

Abortion and still birth would not be distinguishable

Unregisterd clinicstotal registered clinics increased to 50,000 in India since

1990s carry out secret sex determination

Doctors at fault

Maharashtra enacted antisex determination law after women movements in 1988

Parliament in 1994

Women police officers have predictably lamented the lack of basic facilities like
toilets, changing rooms and restrooms in police stations. They have

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mentioned the lack of respect from male colleagues as a strong demotivator. Being
assigned only specific duties has limited their horizons and

hindered their professional growth. But the police station culture is yet to
appreciate this need for growth and is comfortable in assigning them soft

postings and routine tasks like reception desks, wireless or computer duties

Temple and religious institutions entry movements

Recent case of Sabrimala, Shani Singapur, Haji Ali Dargah where women demanded
entry in the main shrine.

Issues

Article 25(1) provides freedom to practice and propagate religion Such barriers
interfere with proper exercise of this Fundamental right

However, this right is enforceable only against state Travancore Devasom Board
runs Sabrimala and it is an autonomous institution funded by

temple donations hence tough to be declared as state by Supreme Court.

But SC can decide in cases where two private individuals are in tussle where
one of them is not able to exercise Article 25(1) It can direct the
 temple which is a private body accordingly.

Essential Practice clause

SC through its decisions have made clear that a religions essential principles
cannot be amended by court or state in the name of freedom or liberty

it may cease to exist as a religion but state intervention is allowed if such a

practice is not essential is established in the court.

Article 26(b) allows religious institutions to manage their own affairs hence a
tussle between Article 19(1), Article 14 arises and court's jurisdiction

is needed.

But Article 25(2) allows state intervention in religious practices if it is for

the purpose of "social welfare or reform of the throwing open of Hindu

religious institutions of a public character to all cases and sections of Hindus"

Customs and rules

Kerala Hindu Places of Public Worship (Authorisation of Entry) Rules 1965 permits
or prohibits women from accessing places of worship where

"customs" and "usage" requires it.

SC can quash this nonentry law as personal laws are exempt from application of
constitution but not mere customs.

Gender equality has caught wind now and the demand for UCC may get fueled along
with it.

Devadasis system banned by Karnataka Devadasis Prohibition Act 1982 and

Maharashtra Devadasis Abolition Act, 2006 Section 372 of IPC

prohibits selling minors for purpose of prostitution and Immoral Traffic

Prevention Act, 1956 make prostitution an offence in the vicinity of public places

*Beriya and Nat communities involved in Devadasi system Dalit girls in Uttangi
Mala Durga Temple in Devanagri district, Karnataka

TRAFFICKING

Adoption

Section 2 of 2015 act mandates that adoption regulations be framed by the

authority notified by the centre it strengthens adoption laws in the
 country

In line with UN convention on the Rights of Child 1989

But country has menace of trafficking in the name of adoption

201415 approx 4000 incountry adoptions and 370 intercountry ones information
received on PIL filed by an NGO related to child rights, Advait

Foundation

Bonded Labour

Financial support of rehabilitation raised to Rs 2 lakhs from 20,000

Collector will have to sign slips every month for proper dispensal of Rs 1.25
lakhs to rescued bonded child, adult or women

It comes under Bonded Labour Abolition Act 1986

Crossborder trafficking

A nonissue for Indian and foreign counterparts NGOs too focused on internal
trafficking

Women, children, adults from Bangladesh trafficked across borders through Cooch
Behar, 24 Parganas, Murshidabad etc

BSF, Indian intelligence not aware police too unaware of laws

Victims are not properly rehabilitated not sent back to home but treated as
criminal according to Idnian laws

Section 370 and Section 370A included in IPC after amendmnet of Criminal Law in
2013 does not include forced labour

Immoral Traffic Prevention Act 1956 too not includes forced labour which is the
most commonest result of human trafficking

Indian laws does not target traffickers strictly Section 366B of IPC mandates
punishment for trafficking girls below 21 years of age but police staff

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not aware of this and not implemented

 Need to increase croosborder security forces cooperation seal and regulate porous
borders NGOs_BSf should work in ccordination by settingup

shelter across borders for victims caught while being trafficked.

NSSO 201112 reports

Women in jobs increasing consistently but ratio in comparison to men declining

from 29% in 200405 to 23% in 201112

Traditional reasons daughterly guilt to take care of parents

Male members earning enough

insensitic=ve companies and working environmnet

Lack of creche facilities in offices

AVTAR with Working Mother Media, a global gender parity organisation ranking
companies best for women in India.

Q.Juveniles in India commit crimes with impunity. Critically analyse and suggest
measures to curb juvenile delinquency.

A heinous offence is defined as one for which the minimum punishment under the
Indian Penal Code is seven years

Sali Bali case SC reiterated 18 years as minimum age of juvenile

Justice Verma Committee also put 18 years as age of juvenile

According to NCRB, juveniles apprehended for alleged crimes in 2014 stood at

48,230 about 5,000 more than those apprehended

in 2013. .

The number of rape cases registered against juveniles was approximately 2,000 and
theft ranked highest at 6,705.

States which saw the highest number of juveniles accused of and apprehended for
rape in 2014 were Madhya Pradesh (343),

Maharashtra (208), Uttar Pradesh (176) and Rajasthan (149). Delhi stood at 120.

Registered cases of murder by juveniles was highest for Maharasthra at 121

followed by Madhya Pradesh at (94)
 The first special legislation for juveniles in India was enacted in 1850 with the
Apprentice Act, requiring children aged 10 to 18 convicted in court to be

given vocational training as part of their rehabilitation.

The law relating to young people went through a number of changes until the
Juvenile Justice Act, 1986, defined juveniles as under 16 for boys and

under 18 for girls. .

In 2000, India raised its definition of a male juvenile to 18 from 16 under the
Juvenile Justice Act. Doing so was part of the nations obligations under

the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, which it signed in 1992.

Other signatories, including the U.S. and the U.K., also fixed the upper age for
minors at 18. But, unlike India, criminal law in both countries provides

room for minors to be tried as adults

Activists have also criticized Indias juvenile laws for being too lenient. The
maximum punishment under the law, even for offenses such as rape and

murder, is three years confinement in a reformatory. In comparison, the maximum

punishment for minors in the U.K. and the U.S. is life

imprisonment. Until 2005, minors could also be sentenced to death in the U.S.

According to Penal Reform International, a Londonbased nongovernmental

organization seeking changes to the prison system worldwide, research

from the U.S.has suggested that transferring children to adult courts results in
high rates of pretrial detention, harsher sentences, placement of

children in adult facilities and overall increased rates of reoffending.

Philippines, offenders up to the age of 21 are given more lenient custodial

sentences.

Germany, those over 18 but under 21 can be transferred from adult to youth courts.
In India, offenders can remain in youth reformatories after they

have reached adulthood.

 At the other end of the scale, the minimum age of criminal responsibility in
India, the age at which children may be held criminally responsible for

alleged crimes, is seven. This is one of the youngest worldwide. In, Pakistan is
13

Those younger than this must still be held responsible for their actions, but in a
nonpunitive, welfare and education oriented manner, according to a

Unicef report in 2005.

That report said South Asia has the lowest regional average minimum age of
criminal responsibility in the world, at seven years old. In the Americas

and the Caribbean11

Western Europe it is 13

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Unicef has called for the minimum age to be 13 worldwide.

Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection) Act, 2000

Section 7A

Any child at the time of committing crime if was below 18 years then he/she is
liable to be sent for Juvenile Justice Board.

Group counselling, remand homes etc follow the verdict.

Issues:

1.Late verdicts

Cases brought to notice have passed considerable amount of time in which juvenile
has already crossed 18 years. This results from the

institutional short comings of Indian justice system rather than a flaw of law.
 2.Making all pay for few

People contested that juveniles commit heinous crimes like rape, murder etc their
age must be decreased from 18 to 16 years. However, records

show a different pattern.

According to National Crime Records Bureau, only 1.2% of total are juvenile crimes
, 58% are involved in rape,murder with >65% related to thefts

and property related. A child needs to be brought to JJB irrespective of the

gravity of offence.

But from 20032013 crimes by juvenile increased by more than 100%

3.Degree of crime committed

Suppose a juvenile who steals a pen and a juvenile of same age involving in rapes,
murders are given same punishment. Isn't it injustice?

Moreover how to compensate victims and relatives aggrieving of their loss? Will
they be satisfied with petty verdicts of punishment to juveniles?

Way ahead

1.Case to case basis

Classification of cases is needed rather than putting everyone in the same frame.

JJ act, 2014 does the same by making 1618 years children indulging in heinous
crimes treated differently.

2.Maturity analysis

Psychologists should be roped in to check the maturity of juveniles. They should

check whether he was aware of the crimes being committed and

punishment related to it.

Some people want courts to check the maturity rather than JJBs etc.

Moreover, applicability of such tests is an issue in states like Bihar, Jharkhand

where psychiatrists are few in number.

3.Age should be amended or not (Juveniles upper limit was 16 till 2000 and was
changed to 18 afterwards. (in consensus with UN)
 Juveniles belong to a tender age group. They are mostly not aware of the crimes
being committed. Moreover, majority of them belong to lower

classes who have never had or passed more than elementary education.

Lack of proper education, poor guidance of parents as they too are daily wage
earners, domestic helpers or in menial jobs prevent their proper

development as compared to economically strong classes.

4.Punishment to reform juvenile or worsen in future

US report says that children sent to jail had worse outcomes than those who
avoided terms.

JHs, remand homes etc contain children for some time before they are properly
mature to mix in the society. It tries to inculcate qualities needed

to become responsible citizens in future.

Harsh punishments can deter the crime but the future of teenager is lost. He is
liable to become a more hard criminal in future as the society had

only rejected him years before due to a crime committed in an immature age.

However, Indian jails, remand homes are in poor conditions where child may not get
proper attention. But, solution lies in filling these

loopholes rather than making tough laws.

Provide them safe education. health facilities and then check their activities.

5.Adult abetter

Juveniles commit crimes in supervision of adults. For example in Dec 16 gangrape

case adults were involved along with the juvenile

There is a need to bring these adult abetters to book first.

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JJ Act 2014
 Defines juveniles as children

Child's name not to be disclosed in public by media, authorities and secrecy in

investigation must be followed.

Important provisions in the Act (Passed by LKS, RJS):

o The bill clearly defines and classifies offences as petty, serious and
heinous, and defines differentiated processes for each category.

Keeping in view the increasing number of serious offences being committed

by persons in the age group of 1618 years and recognizing

the rights of the victims as being equally important as the rights of

juveniles, special provisions are proposed to tackle heinous

offences committed by individuals in this age group.

o It establishes a statutory status for the Child Adoption Resources

Authority (CARA).

o It also proposes several rehabilitation and social integration measures

for institutional and noninstitutional children. It provides for

sponsorship and foster care as completely new measures.

Mandatory registration of all institutions engaged in providing child

care is required according to the Bill.

New offences including illegal adoption, corporal punishment in child

care institutions, the use of children by militant groups, and

offences against disabled children are also incorporated in the proposed

legislation.

The proposed new law gives the Juvenile Justice Board the power to
assess whether the perpetrator of a heinous crime aged between

16 and 18, had acted as a child or as an adult. The board will be

assisted in this process by psychologists and social experts.

o The Bill strikes a fine balance between the demands of the stakeholders
asking for continued protection of rights of juveniles and the

popular demand of citizens in the light of increasing incidence of

heinous crimes by young boys.
 Other

Any one who sells a child below 18 years of age products like tobacco will face
rigorous imprisonment up to 7 years and a fine up to Rs 1,00,000

It highlights the two main bodies that will deal with these children, to be set up
in each district:

Juvenile Justice Boards (JJBs) and Child Welfare Committees (CWCs) proper
guidelines with time bound results have been mentioned.

The three types of offences defined by the Bill are:

(i) a heinous offence is an offence that attracts a minimum penalty of seven years
imprisonment under any existing law,

(ii) a serious offence is one that gets imprisonment between three to seven years
and,

(iii) a petty offence is penalized with up to three years imprisonment.

Issues

The provision of trying a juvenile committing a serious or heinous offence as an

adult based on date of apprehension could violate the

Article 14 (right to equality) and Article 21 (requiring that laws and procedures
are fair and reasonable). The provision also counters the spirit of

Article 20(1) by according a higher penalty for the same offence, if the person is
apprehended after 21 years of age.

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Modern India
 SourceURL:
http://feedly.com/i/subscription/feed/http://indianexpress.com/section/opinion/feed
/

Indian soldiers were cannon fodders for British.

RAMA DEVI

Disciple of Gandhiji

CDM 1931 Organised public meetings in Odisha

Broke salt law in march 1930 (along with Dandi March) in west coast of India,
Inchudi on Balasore coast and Kujanga in cuttack.

Campaigner,organiser,speaker of ordinary women and men rights, for women

education,emancipation and empowerment.

Worked hard to root out communalism and untouchability

Organized a pad yatra to support Bhoodan Movement (led by Acharya Vinobha

Bhave)

WOMEN IN WAR

17th century Rani Belawadi Mallammma of Belawadi in Belgaum district fought

against British & Marathas

Rani Chennamma of Kitoor in Karnataka against British

Rani Velu Nachiyar, queen of Shivganga in 18th century against British

Dalit women Jahlkari Bai a look alike of Rani of Jhansi helped her escape

Udadevi, dalit woman from Awadh Sikhandarbagh bust dedicated to her

Rani Shiromani Chuar, queen of Chuars or tribal farmers

 Indian Women Freedom Fighters

Women shouldered critical responsibilities in Indias struggle for freedom. They

held public meetings, organized picketing of shops selling

foreign alcohol and articles, sold Khadi and actively participated in National
Movements. They bravely faced the baton of the police and went behind

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the iron bars. Hundreds and thousands of Indian women dedicated their lives for
obtaining freedom of their motherland. Women have a special place

of pride and honour in the Indian Society. .

Mahatma Gandhi squarely summed up the strength of womanhood in his tribute to the
gender:

To call woman the weaker sex is a libel it is mans injustice to women. If by

strength is meant moral power then woman is immeasurably mans

superior. Has she not greater intuition, is she not more self sacrificing, has she
not greater power of endurance, has she not greater courage?

Without her man would not be. If nonviolence is the law of our being, the future
is woman. I have nursed this thought now for years.

The list of great women whose names have gone down in history for their dedication
and undying devotion to the service of India is a long one. Here

are just few of them whose patriotism will be in the hearts of the million of
Indians forever.

1.Kittur Rani Chennamma (17781829)

Kitturu Rani Chennamma was the queen of the princely state of Kittur in Karnataka.
In 1824, 33 years before the 1857 war of independence, she
 led an armed rebellion against the British in response to the Doctrine of lapse.
The resistance ended in her martyrdom and she is remembered today

as one of the earliest Indian rulers to have fought for independence. Along with
Abbakka Rani, Keladi Chennamma and Onake Obavva she

is much venerated in Karnataka as an icon of bravery and womens pride.

2.Rani of Jhansi(18281858).

Rani Laxmibai, popularly known as Rani of Jhansi was born on November 19, 1835
at Poona in a wealthy high class Brahmin family. She got married

to Raja Gangadhar Rao, the maharaja of Jhansi, in 1842. In 1851, she gave birth to
a child who unfortunately died just four months after his birth.

Being highly affected by this tragic incident Raja adopted Damodar Rao as his son.
She was not allowed to adopt a successor by the British, and

Jhansi was annexed. Considered by the British as the best and bravest military
leader of rebels this sparkling epitome of courage died a hero's death

in the battlefield.

3.Rani Avanti Bai (18311858)

Rani Avantibai was born on 16/08/1831.When Vikramaditya Singh, the ruler of

Ramgarh State died leaving behind his wife Avantibai and no heir to

the throne, the British put the state under court administration. Avantibai vowed
to win back her land from the British. She raised an army of four

thousand men and led it herself against the British in 1857. A fierce battle
ensured and Avantibai fought most valiantly but could not hold out for long

against the superior strength of the British army. When her defeat become imminent
she killed herself with her own sword and English army couldnt

defeat her in her life. Later Rani Avantibias sacrifice became a example to the
Lodhian kingdom and became history of the fight for freedom on 20

031858. She was a great freedom fighter.

4.Begum Hazrath Mahal (1879)

Begum Hazrat Mahal was the wife of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh,
Hazrat Mahal was known as the Begum of Avadh (Oudh).

She was stunning beautiful, and used her courage and leadership qualities to rebel
against the British East India Company during the First Indian War

of Independence.

After her husband had been sent away in exile to Calcutta, she with the
cooperation of a zealous hand of supporters like Sarafaddaulah, Bal Krishna,

Raja Jai Lal and Mammon Khan worked incessantly to revive the fortunes of Avadh.
She seized control of Lucknow in association with the

revolutionary forces and set up her son, Prince Birjis Qadir, as the ruler of
Avadh, Hazrat Mahal worked in association with Nana Saheb but later

escaped from Lucknow and joined the Maulavi of Faizabad in the attack on
Sahajahanpur. She rejected with the contempt the promises of allowance

and status held out to her by the British against whom her hatred was unrelenting.
In the end after bearing misfortune and misery throughout the

period of resistance, she found asylum in Nepal where she died in 1879.

5.Sarojinidevi Naidu(18791949)

Sarojini Naidu (Chattapadhya) was born on February 13, 1879 in Hyderabad. Her
major contribution was also in the field of poetry. She got

recognition as the when her collection of poems was published in 1905 under the
title Golden Threshold.

.In 1916, she met Mahatma Gandhi, and she totally directed her energy to the fight
for freedom. She would roam around the country like a general of

the army and pour enthusiasm among the hearts of Indians. She was responsible for
awakening the women of India. She traveled from state to state,

city after city and asked for the rights of the women. She reestablished
selfesteem within the women of India.

In 1925, she chaired the summit of Congress in Kanpur. In 1928, she came to the
USA with the message of the nonviolence movement from

Gandhiji. When in 1930, Gandhiji was arrested for a protest, she took the helms of
his movement. In 1931, she participated in the Round Table

Summit, along with Gandhiji and Pundit Malaviyaji. In 1942, she was arrested
during the Quit India protest and stayed in jail. After independence
 she became the Governor of Uttar Pradesh. She was the first woman governor. On
March 2, 1949, she took her last breath.Her name will always

be in the golden history of India as an inspiring poet and a brave freedom

fighter.

6.Preeti Lata Waddadar (191132)

Preetilata was born on 5 May 1911 in the Dholaghat village of Chittagong. As a

student, Preetilata joined the Deepali Sangha, a Dhaka based

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womens revolutionary organization. As a member of the Revolutionary party

Preetilata formed a student front of the revolutionary party with a

couple of her classmates. Her group raised money to support the Chittagong based
revolutionaries and organized a readers forum to promote

patriotic spirit among the college students. On the direction of the party high
command Preetilata bought explosive implements from underground

factories in Kolkata and took the explosives to Chittagong. Preetilata was a

member of Jugantara secret revolutionary organization.

The death of comrade Ardhendu Dastidar in the Jalalabad hill war on 22 April 1930
spurred her commitment to revolutionary causes.She demanded

that girls should be given equal opportunity in armed revolutionary activities.

She was nominated to lead the attack on the European Club in

Chittagong on 23 september 1932. Preetilata was a born rebel and was determined
not to surrender to the British colonists so the valiant rebel took

out the cyanide pill and swallowed it.

7.Matangini Hazra (18691942)

Was an Indian revolutionary who participated in the Indian independence movement

until she was shot dead by the British Indian police in front of

the Tamluk Police Station (of erstwhile Midnapore District) on September 29, 1942.
She was affectionately known as Gandhi buri, Bangla for old

lady Gandhi.

Matangini Hazra, who was 73 years at the time, led a procession of six thousand
supporters, mostly women volunteers, with the purpose of taking

over the Tamluk police station. When the procession reached the outskirts of the
town, they were ordered to disband under Section 144 of the Indian

Penal Code by the Crown police.

The Biplabi newspaper of the parallel Tamluk National Government commented:

Matangini led one procession from the north of the criminal court building even
after the firing commenced, she continued to advance

with the tricolour flag, leaving all the volunteers behind. The police shot her
three times. She continued marching despite wounds to the

forehead and both hands.

As she was repeatedly shot, she kept chanting Vande Mataram, translating as hail
to the Motherland. She died with the flag of the Indian National

Congress held high and still flying.

8.Kasturba Gandhi (April 11, 1869 22 February 1944)

Kasturba Gandhi of Porbandar,affectionately called Ba, was the wife of Mohandas

Gandhi. She was a leader of Womens Satyagraha for which she

was imprisoned. She helped her husband in the cause of Indigo workers in
Champaran, Bihar and the No Tax Campaign in Kaira, Gujarat. She was

arrested twice for picketing liquor and foreign cloth shops, and in 1939 for
participating in the Rajkot Satyagraha.

Kasturba was deeply religious. Like her husband, she renounced all caste
distinctions and lived in ashrams. From 1904 to 1914, she was active in the

Phoenix Settlement near Durban. During the 1913 protest against working conditions
for Indians in South Africa, Kasturba was arrested and

sentenced to three months in a hard labor prison. In 1915, when Gandhi returned to
India to support indigo planters, Kasturba accompanied him. She

taught hygiene, discipline, reading and writing to women and children.

Kasturba suffered from chronic bronchitis. Stress from the Quit India Movements
arrests and ashram life caused her to fall ill. After contracting

pneumonia, she died from a severe heart attack on February 22, 1944.

9.Kalpana Datta (19131995)

Kalpana Joshi (Datta) a revolutionary, was born at Sripur of Chittagong district

on 27 July 1913. Greatly influenced by the examples set by the

revolutionaries Kshatriya Basu and Kanailal Datta, she joined the Chhatri Sangha.

The Chittagong Armory Raid took place on 18 April 1930 and Kalpana hurried back to
Chittagong and came in contact with Surya Sen in

May 1931. Kalpana was entrusted with the safe carrying of heavy explosive
materials from Calcutta. She also secretly prepared guncotton and

planned to plant a dynamite fuse under the court building and inside the jail to
free the revolutionary leaders, who were being tried in a special

Tribunal.

In Chittagong she organised the Kisans and womens fronts of the party. In 1946
she contested, though unsuccessfully, in the elections to the

Bengal Legislative Assembly. After 1947 she migrated to India and resigned from
active politics.Kalpana Datta breathed her last at New Delhi on 8

February 1995.

10.Lakshmi Sahgal (Swaminathan) (1914)

Lakshmi Sahgal (or Sahgal) ne Swaminathan, also known as Captain Lakshmi (born
October 24, 1914 in Madras, Madras Presidency, British

India) is an activist of the Indian independence movement, an exofficer of the

Indian National Army, and the Minister of Womens affairs in the
 Azad Hind Government.

Lakshmi Sahgal later became involved in politics in independent India, serving as

a member of parliament in the Upper House and later running for

President as a left wing candidate.

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Lakshmi received an MBBS degree from Madras Medical College in 1938. In 1940,she
left for Singapore where she established a clinic for the

poor, mostly migrant labour, from India. In 1943,Lakshmi joined the Rani of Jhansi
Regiment ,raised by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose. She was given

the rank of a Colonel. The unit had the strength of a Brigade. In a regular army,
this womens army unit was the first of its kind in Asia. The army

fought on the side of the Axis powers against the British.She became the Minister
in charge of Womens Organization in Arzi Hukumate Azad Hind

(Provisional Government of Free India), led by Subhas Chandra Bose.

11.Beena Das (Bhowmick) (19111986)

Beena Das from Orissa is wellknown in the history of Indian freedom fighting for
daring attack on English Governor and University Chancellor

Stanley Jackson, who was a symbol of a long and oppressive English colonial rule
in India. The incident took place during the 1932 convocation of

Calcutta University. She was given 9 years of imprisonment with labor Although she
was unsuccessful, her act inspired many a young mind of those

days.

After her release in 1939, she joined the Jugantar revolutionary club. She was
again imprisoned in 1942 for three years while she was the

Secretary of Calcutta Congress Committee. A true revolutionary spirit, her

activities did not end with the Indian Independence in 1947. She aided
 Sheikh Mujibur Rahaman during his declaration of revolution in East Pakistan (now
Bangladesh) against a brutal and oppressive West

Pakistan administration. This incident eventually precipitated into the fullscale

Bangladesh war. Again in 1975 Mrs. Bhowmick spoke out

against the Declaration of Emergency and suppression of personal rights by the

then Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. She personally witnessed

and strongly protested against the police brutality on the refugees in

Marichjh(n)api. A good writer, she penned two books, the autobiography

Shrinkhal Jhankar and Pitredhan.

In a characteristic show of idealistic strength, she didnt accept the Freedom

Fighters Pension offered by the Government of India.

12.Kanaklatha Baruah (19241942)

An Assam girl Kanaklata Barua was a freedom fighter and martyr. On 20 September
1942, Under the leadership of the revolutionary Jyoti Prasad

Agarwala, in the district of Darrang, a resolution was adopted unanimously to

hoist the national flag at the court and police station, seen as

symbols of the British Empire. Fearless Kanaklata Brua marched ahead and had to
face the bullets of the strong police force. She had laid down

her life for the freedom of the country.

13.Nellie Sengupta (Gray)(18861973)

Nellie Sengupta was among the English Women who came to India to dedicate her life
for its people. Though an outsider she proved herself as a

true Indian patriot.

While studying in England, she met Jatindra Mohan Sengupta an Indian patriot and
got married. After her marriage, she associated sincerely with

her husbands work to letterate India from the bondage of British imperialism.She
was the inspiring power behind all his activities in the political field.

During the noncooperation movement she was arrested while selling khadi in
Chittagong (now in Bangladesh). She helped her husband when

he was involved in the strike of the Bengal Assam Railway men as well as steamer
service workers in support of the tea plantation laborers who were

stranded in Chandpur and were brutally tortured by the British police.

Nellie was elected Congress President in 1933. It was a recognition for her
valuable contribution to the cause of Indias independence. Later Nellie

was elected alderman of Calcutta (Kolkata) Corporation.After the partition of

India, she stayed in her husbands paternal house. She devoted herself

to social welfare work. She was elected unopposed to the East Pakistan(now
Bangladesh) Legislative Assembly from Chittagong.

14.Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya (3 April 1903 29 October 1988)

Kamaladevi was born in a Saraswat family on 3 April 1903. But above everything,
she is remembered for her phenomenal role in reviving the

traditional handicrafts of India during the post independence era.As chief of the
Board of Handicrafts, she started the pension system for

craftsmen.

Kamaladevi fought against social evils that restricted the development of women.
She was an active member of the youth wing of INC (Indian

National Congress). During partition, Kamaladevi set up cooperative societies and

selfemployment schemes to help refugees. She was a

tradeunionist, a revolutionary, a reformer, a great patron of arts, an

accomplished writer, an orator, and a freedom fighter.

She became an early supporter of the nations swadeshi mission and also
participated in the nationwide noncooperation movement

launched by Gandhiji in 1923. Thereafter, Kamaladevi joined the Seva Dal

established to work for social upliftment of the downtrodden.

In her missionary zeal she championed the causes of women empowerment, education,
handicraft, theater along with her contribution to

the field of arts, crafts and writings. In her pursuit and commitment she turned
down many offers such as being nominated to the posts of the
 Vice President of India, Governor of Orissa or Tamilnadu, Ambassador in Cairo or
Moscow.

As a befitting tribute to a cultural icon of India one can conclude with the words
of former President of India, R. Venkataraman, quoted , Flower buds

seemed to blossom at her touchwhether they be flower buds of human beings or

institutions. People became more human and more sensitive to the

deeper impulses of society when they came into contact with her.

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15.Indira Gandhi (November19,1917October 31,1984)

Indira Priyadarshini was born Nov. 19, 1917 in Allahabad in northern India.

The most remarkable of women in modern Indias was Indira Gandhi who from her
early years was active in the national liberation struggle. During

the 1930 movement, she formed the Vanar Sena. A childrens brigade to help
freedom fighters.

She became a member of the Indian National Congress in 1938. Her public activity
entered a new phase with Indias Independence in 1947. She

took over the responsibility of running the Prime Ministers House. She worked
first as member of the Congress Working Committee in 1955 and later

as member of the Central Parliamentary Board in 1958. In 1959, she was elected
President of the Indian National Congress. She oriented

Congress thinking and action towards basic issues confronting Indian society and
enthused the younger generation the task of nationbuilding.

In the eventful years of her leadership as Prime Minister, Indian society

underwent profound changes. She was unremitting in her endeavor for the

unity and solidarity of the nation. A staunch defender of the secular ideals of
the Constitution, she worked tirelessly for the social and economic
 advancement of the minorities. She had a vision of a modern selfreliant and
dynamic economy.

She fought boldly and vigorously against communalism, obscurantism, and religious
fundamentalism of all types. She laid down her life in

defense of the ideals on which the unity and integrity of the Republic are
founded. She became the indomitable symbol of Indias selfrespect and

selfconfidence.

Sarala Debi

One of the gurus (inspirers) of anti Britsh armed movement in India (Bangla). She
played a great role in forming the network of Anushilan Samitis in

all major towns in united Bangla between 19001910. She worked hand in hand with
the other inspirers of the movement: Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Sri

Aurobindo Ghose, Sister Nibedita, Peter Kropotkin and Kakuzo Okakura.

Durga bhabhi SHE appeared like a meteor on the firmament of freedom struggle in
India and wielded tremendous influence on revolutionaries such

as Bhagat Singh, Ashfaqullah and Chandrashekhar Azad. Her name was Durgavati Devi

Annie Besant

A great woman, patriot and a true fighter, Annie Besant, was born in London on
October 1, 1847. She was a prominent Theosophist, social

reformer, political leader, women's rights activist, writer and orator. She fought
for the rights of Indian and was the first woman president of Indian

National Congress.

Annie Besant fought for women's rights, secularism, birth control, Fabian
socialism and workers' rights. She became a member of Theosophical

Society of India after her arrival in India in 1893.

She toured the entire country of India to get first hand information about India
and middleclass Indians who were affected more by British rule and its
 system of education. Her longtime interest in education resulted in the founding
of the Central Hindu College at Benares (1898).

She also became involved in Indian freedom movement. In 1916, she founded Home
Rule League which advocated self rule by Indians. She

became the President of Indian National Congress in 1917. She started a newspaper,
"New India", criticized British rule and was jailed for

sedition.

Sucheta Kriplani,

a great freedom fighter, was born in June 1908 in Ambala. After her studies she
started her career as a lecturer in Banaras Hindu University. Sucheta

was greatly inspired by the works of Mahatma Gandhi and in 1946 she joined the
Kasturba Gandhi Memorial Trust as Organizing Secretary. She was

actively involved in Quit India Movement and the partition riots. In 1946, she
went with Gandhi to Noakhali and there she became the real mother

of the victims of atrocities. She also got elected to the Constituent Assembly and
sang the national song in the Independence session of Constituent

Assembly on August 15, 1947.

Even after independence she had not stopped working for the weaker sections of the
society and was greatly involved in the upliftment of Indians. In

1952 and 1957, she was elected as the member of Lok Sabha and had also served as
the Minister of State. She was the first woman who was

appointed as the Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh in 1963.

Bhikaji Cama, also known as Madam Cama, was an outstanding lady of great courage,
fearlessness, integrity, perseverance and passion for

freedom. Madam Bhikhaji Cama was a pioneer amongst those who martyred their lives
for Indias freedom and was considered the mother of Indian

Revolution. Cama was born on September 24, 1861 in a rich Parsi family at Bombay.
Being a nationalist and a social worker Cama worked for

the victims of plague in 1896, Bombay Presidency. In 1902 she left for London and
there too she worked for promoting India freedom struggle. For

some time, she worked as private secretary to Dadabhai Navaroji, a great Indian
leader.
 Bhikaji Cama has always been actively involved in fighting for gender equality She
was exiled by the Britishers from her motherland. In 1905,Cama

along with her friends designed the Indias first tricolor flag with green,
saffron and red stripes bearing the immortal words Bande Matram. On

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August 22, 1907, she raised the flag for India's Independence at the International
Socialist Conference in Stuttgart, Germany. There are many cities

in India that have streets and places being named after Bhikaiji Cama. On 26th
January 1962, the Indian Posts and Telegraphs Department issued a

stamp to acknowledge her work and give her honor. The Indian Coast Guard consists
of a ship that has been named after her.

ARUNA ASAF ALI

Aruna Asaf Ali was a legendary heroine of India's freedom struggle and is widely
remembered for hoisting the Congress flag at Bombay during

the Quit India Movement. Aruna Asaf Ali was born at Kalka (Haryana) in an orthodox
Hindu Bengali family. She worked in the worst of slums to offer

aid to the poor and the exploited. Aruna Asaf Ali took active interest in Congress
programmes and joined the civil disobedience movement of 1930.

During Salt Satyagraha she was arrested and was sent to Lahore jail to serve a
oneyear prison term. She was held for participating in the 1932

movement and was put in Tihar Jail. In Tihar Jail she went on a hunger strike
against the treatment meted out to political prisoners. She is known as

the `Grand Old Lady` of the Independence Movement.

In 1955 she became a Vice President of the All India Trade Union Congress. In 1958
she left the Communist Party of India and was elected Delhi's

first Mayor. She was awarded the Lenin Prize for peace in 1975 and the Jawahar Lal
Nehru award for International understanding for 1991. She was

awarded India's highest civilian award, the Bharat Ratna, and was honoured with a
stamp issued by the Indian Postal Service in 1998.

KAMLA NEHRU

Kamala Nehru wife of one of the most notable political figures in India Jawaharlal
Nehru ,took part in Non Cooperation Movement of 1921. She

convinced a large number of women in Allahabad to join hands with her in picketing
shops in the city that were selling foreign cloth and liquor.

VIJAYALAXMI PANDIT

The sister of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, she was the first woman to become the
President of the United Nations General Assembly in 1979.

She was the first woman to hold a prestigious position in the cabinet. In the year
1937, she was elected to the provincial legislature of the United

Provinces and she became the minister of the local self governing body. She held
this position for two consecutive years. Later, in the year 1946, she

was reelected for this position. In the post independence period, she made an
entry into the diplomatic services and served as the ambassador of

India to various countries like Soviet Union, Ireland, United States and Mexico.
From 1962 to 1964, she served as the governor of Maharashtra.

Padmaja Naidu

Sarojinis daughter Miss Padmaja Naidu devoted herself to the cause of Nation like
her mother. At the age of 21, she entered the National scene and

became the joint founder of the Indian National Congress of Hyderabad. She spread
the message of Khadi and inspired people to boycott foreign

goods. She was jailed for taking part in the Quit India movement in 1942. After
Independence, she became the Governor of West Bengal. During

her public life spanning over half a century, she was associated with the Red
Cross.

Parbati Giri
 Parbati Giri, nicknamed as the Mother Teresa of Western Orissa, was a prominent
female freedom fighter and activist for tribal rights from

Orissa, India . Giri was born in Samlaipadar village near Bijepur of the present
Bargarh district and undivided Sambalpur district in 19 January 1926.

Due to her antiBritish government activities, she was imprisoned for two
years.Parbati Giri was just 16 when she was in the forefront of agitation

following Mahatma Gandhis Quit India call. She continued to serve the nation
socially after independence. In 1955 she joined an American project

to improve the health and hygiene of the people of Sambalpur district. She started
an ashram for women and orphans called the Kasturba Gandhi

Matruniketan at Nrusinghanath, and another home for the destitute called Dr.
Santra Bal Niketan at Birasingh Gar under Jujomura block in Sambalpur

District. She worked in jail improvement and leprosy eradication. The Department
of Social Welfare of the government of India awarded her a

prize in 1984.

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INDIAN PRESS

The first newspaper in India was the Hickeys Gazette or Bengal Gazette
started on January 29, 1780 by an Irishman, James Augustus

Hickey. This weekly political and commercial paper declared itself as open to
all parties but influenced by none and its content included criticism of

the British East India Company. James Silk Buckingham, the Editor of the Calcutta
Journal established in 1818, was a social reformer and close

associate of Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Samachar Darpan in Bengali founded in 1818 was
the first regional language newspaper. The Times of India

was born on November 3, 1838 as The Bombay Times and Journal of Commerce. Its
Editor, Robert Knight used to upbraid British officials for

their nastiness towards Indians and for doing precious little to eradicate Indias
poverty. The Amrita Bazar Patrika was founded on February 20, 1868

as a Bengali weekly by Sisir Ghosh and Moti Lal Ghosh. It became instantly popular
because of its campaign against injustice and inequality. It
 overnight turned into an English weekly from March 21, 1878 in order to escape the
provisions of the oppressive Vernacular Press Act. The Hindu

was founded in Madras in 1878 by the Triplicane Six a group of law students and
teachers Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak founded the Kesari in

1881 Dadabhai Naoroji established the Voice of India in 1883 Bande Mataram was
published in 1906 by Bipan Chandra Pal and edited by

Aurobindo Ghose Gopal Krishna Gokhale founded the Hitavada in1911 Tribune was
started by Dayal Singh Majithia in 1881. Motilal Nehru

started The Independent in 1919 and Mahatma Gandhi, the Indian Opinion in 1904 in
South Africa and Navjeevan and Young India in 1919 in

India as well as the Harijan in 1932.

These trailblazers became the conscience keepers of the country and through their
relentless campaigns gave voice to the struggle for

independence.

Moderates were the brain of the congress and the nation and extremists were the
heart the former were the law and the latter impulse.

Khilafat activists were criticised for accepting nonviolence more as a matter of

convenience to take advantage of Gandhis charismatic appeal

than as an article of faith

Macaulays Minute upon Indian Education:

I have never found one among them (learned men) who could deny that a single
shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native

literature of India and Arabia

Gandhi

but I want you to realize Bhagat Singhs error. The way they pursued was wrong
and futile. I wish to tell these young men with all the authority with

which a father can speak to his children that the way of violence can only lead to
perdition.
 Shaheed Bhagat Singh

"bombs and pistols do not make revolution. The sword of revolution is sharpened on
the whetting stone of ideas.

Ancient India

Map

Use your knowledge to make the answer as unique as possible and find out the
connections and causality.

OCP culture dated 15002000 B.C is the name given to a post harappan culture where
the specific type of Ochre coloured pottery was found. These potteries

were made of middle grained underfired clay and had a wash of ochre (easily rubbed
off) with colour varying from orange to red.

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Artefacts

Potteries constituted of jars, bowls, flasks etc. OCP culture was associated with
copper hoards at some places like Saipai where a copper harpoon was found

while excavation. At around 85 sites in U.P, Haryana, Bihar etc copper hoards like
axes, antennae swords, rings, celts etc were found accidentally while plowing,

making roads or digging canals. Terracota figures like bangles, beads were also
found.

Socioeconomic
 These sites were situated along the river banks where mud was easily available.
Mounds were small sized, low in height. There was 58 kms distance between

settlements. It all suggests temporary nature of settlements. Lal Quila had houses
made of wattle and daub with fired mud plaster and impressions of bamboo and

reed. People here cultivated kesari, barley, rice etc.

OCP culture was a degenerated form of late harappan culture when urban was
replaced by a rural economy.

Caste system left imprints on genes:

NEOLITHICCHALCOLITHIC South India

Early farming period in South India did not arise from huntergathering communities
and were located on the banks of Krishna, Kaveri and

Tungbhadra rivers. Excavations have shown artefacts made of stone, bones, metals,
terracotta etc which determine material culture of this period.

Material culture

Stone and bone tools were found in the form of axes, adzes, borers, pricks etc.
Metal tools like swords, axes made of copper and bronze in phase II

and III were found. Terracotta figurines, pottery with buff ware, red burnished
ware, roughened outer surface in phase II, sprouted and perforated

potteries, wheel turned in later times etc demonstrate the skills of artisan and
craftsmen in these communities. Moreover, some artefacts found had

similarities with Jorwe culture of Maharashtra, Preharappan culture, Iran etc

which reflect communication between these communities. These tools

were used for agriculture, hunting.

Subsistence economy

Bones of domesticated and wild animal have been found. Cattle bone more than goats
show that it was an agropastoral community. Forests in

Western Ghats were cleared and shifting cultivation was practiced. Thus human
settlements kept shifting to south with manufacturing new tools.

Human settlements

People lived in houses made of wattle and daub. Burial practices were followed in
similar patterns as earlier cultures. Adults were buried in extended

position, infants in urns in the house. Grave goods were also found. A continuity
with postharappan chalcolithic settlements can be seen in these

communities.

It was a period of continuity in cultures of south India but their origin is still
unknown. Economy gradually developed with the advent of iron technology.

Megalith builders emerged around the end of 2nd millenium B.C. related with the
use of iron. The transition was gradual from chalconeolithic to

iron age and remnants and influences can be clearly seen.They buried dead outside
their home at a distant place with grave goods and a

characteristic stone megalith put in certain patterns. This was a departure from
previous practices where dead were buried inside houses.

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Pottery was blackred ware ironmade axes, swords, sickles, arrows, tridents,
lamps, tripods etc copper and bronze bells for horses, cattle were

found. They were pastoral nomads and used iron to colonize new areas. Remains of
millets, pulses were also found. It reflects their descent from

agropastoral communities of chalcolithicneolithic period. They traded iron tools

widespread artefacts of iron show their movement and contacts

within south India.

 As iron technology developed new places were colonized, agriculture prospered and
gave way to permanent settlements an urban way of living was

in the making.

VEDIC PERIOD

Rigveda, the oldest of the 'Vedas' denotes clashes between harappans and Aryans
who migrated from west Asia to Northwest of the Indian

subcontinent. History is proved true if the literary texts are complemented by the
archaeological excavations.

Archaeological excavations have not shown any invasion of a different racial

group. Moreover, Painted Grey Ware pottery which was identified as

an Aryan pottery was found in areas away from the paths of Aryan migration like
Bhawalpur, Punjab. A break in cultures was depicted in Vedas

with the invasion of Aryans but late Harappan and postHarappan culture (PGW)
appeared in continuity. The bones which were found on the streets

of Mohenjodaro showing possibilities of war and massacre could be due to deadly

diseases like plague etc. However, linguistic similarities cannot be

denied as IndoAryan language is similar to IndoEuropean language. Even then avesta

had similarity with Vedas but that does not signify

migration from west Asia as other artefacts were completely different.

Aryans were not a race but a linguistic group which may have gradually migrated
from west Asia to Europe, India etc.

AgroPastoral society refers to a society where people are dependent on cattle,

goats, sheep for food. These animals graze for pasture which

keeps them healthy and useful for humans. This type of subsistence is called
pastoralism.

Early Vedic people lived in an age where rivers used to shift their courses
frequently. Hence, an area in cultivation or inhabited at one time may be

inundated in floods some other time. It was difficult to follow agriculture.

Moreover they did not use iron but stone tools axes. They practiced

shifting cultivation by burning forests and domesticating animals. Thus,

pastoralism became their main occupational activity.
 Cattle was pious for early vedic people as they were the main source of
subsistence. Cow milk was used for various purposes from food varieties to

rituals. Wealth was assessed with the amount of cattle owned. This also led to
cattle raids and fights among groups. Rajas or Gopati owned cows

(gau), gotra for clans in tribes etc derived their names from cows. This reflects
the importance of cows during that period. Moreover, cattle were

gifted during occasions which make them valuable to people.

E.V society did not have social divisions and was egalitarian. Caste system was
not present. People lived as tribes with clans as units following

different occupations. Women were subordinate to men as the society was

patriarchal. Rigveda denoted sons as blessing to families when god

was made happy. Education was oral and not well developed. Social differentiation
in the form of priests, Dasas, Panis (who owned alot of cows)

was there though not a rigid type rather based on occupations.

Early Vedic people worshiped forces of nature like water (called as Indra), fire
(called as Agni) etc as Gods and believed in animism. (Soul to natural

forces)They practiced yajna, sacrifices under priestly class for well being of
their clans. Sacrifices were made to incur God's blessings in the form of

wealth and not for spiritual purposes. Religion was still evolving during this
time as certain practices were yet to become rituals. Moreover, priestly

class gained importance due to increased wars between tribals. They prayed to God
to make Rajas win battles and protect their clans.

Iron technology in the later vedic period was used to make weapons as complemented
by excavations. Iron was not used for subsistence in clearing

forests. Forests were burnt for shifting cultivation. Iron was used in chariots
for military activities as war was prevalent between the clans in those

periods.

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 Grihapati was the head of the family and the owner of the land. He also carried
out Yajnas to legitimise his authority. He gave gifts to Brahamanas to

gain blessings. People worked to earn wealth. Women were subordinate to men and
were not involved in major decisions. Land ownership became

important thus leading to permanent settlements of families. Families became

patriarchal in character.

In L.V phase forms of god changed and were not represented by natural forces on
earth. Indra, Agni etc were replaced by Rudra, Prajapati, Vishnu

etc. Now, gods were prayed to help against foes, for petty causes like killing a
foe, worm in body etc. It arose from the transition of temporary

settlements to permanent sedentary settlements. Priestly class gained importance

in performing Yajnas for people in private. As priests were

awarded lands, gifts, cattle they became powerful in the coming years.

Vedic texts talk of expansion of agricultural settlements in 6th century B.C.

Buddhist texts like Vinay Pitakka, Sutta Pitakka tell about the geographical

conditions of these regions. Excavations too have showed extensive development of

agriculture and use of iron from 6th century B.C. Trade

between neighbors and different janpadas has been also depicted. Moreover,
Northern Black Polished Pottery was found at different places thus

denoting connection between settlements.

Gahapati

He was the owner of large pieces of land and households and used slaves captured
in wars to cultivate the fields. This heralded the emrgence of a

deprived and marginalised community.

Merchants

Sethis as depicted in Buddhist texts gained prominence with surplus in

agriculture. This made them trade, get specialised and earn wealth which was

not distributed among tribesmen. This heralded the emergence of private property
where people also shunned clankin ties or vedic constructs.

Ruler & the Ruled

Chiefs became kings, peasants, tribes became subordinate to them and paid taxes
for protection from external aggression. Monarchism, hereditary

posts emerged and kshatriyas, brahamans gained precedence over others. Kinship
based rule got replaced by a hereditary ruler subsequently.

As towns, cities developed with a shift from villages, clan based settlements got
diluted. A mix of clans started living together with

interdependence on each other which lead to development of an economy.

Story of Jivaka

Jivaka traveled across the subcontinent to reach Taxila. Roads and settlements
must have been developing around which made his journey

successful. 'Jivaka' is an example of growing specialization during those times.

Moreover, his skills earned him wealth from individuals rather than

clans or groups. Thus, private property was developing and earnings from trade
supported this development. Indigenous medicine was used to

treat ailing people which shows the knowledge of medicinal plants. Hence, the
mythology of 'Sanjeevani buti in Ramayana' does not look totally false

here. Buddha and Jivaka must have emancipated many and trained more physicians.

Literary vs Archaeology

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Literary texts try to present the then rulers, cities, people as unique and
affluent ones. In a manner they fantasize and exaggerate the facts which
 misleads the readers of history. Hence, excavations are carried out horizontally
and vertically to understand the plausibility of these texts. For

example Ayodhya was depicted as a large city but archaeology showed its expanse
quite less than depicted. Similarly, Mahabharat war, Aryan

invasion etc etc too have not been yet supplemented with excavations. Varanasi and
Ayodhya were depicted as cities expanding in 50 or more

square kilometers but on excavation it was not found to be more than five square
kilometers

Urban Areas

Literary texts talked about sprawling cities with fortified settlements. There was
an administrative guidance of king to whom taxes were paid.

Merchants, craftsmen, prostitutes etc lived in the cities. There were places for
travelers to rest and markets to buy different commodities. Women

wore costly jeweleries which shows the wealth of people. However, beggars,
marginalised people doing menial works also lived in the periphery of the

city. Thus, there was varying occupations in the city and rich and poor lived in
the society.

Archaeology demarcates the blurred lines between fantasy and reality. Literary
texts had exaggerated many characteristics of cities. These

cities were not much big and were less developed than Mauryan settlements.
Different potteries and their presence at different places denote

connectivity between settlements. Coins were used instead of barter system. Cities
were mostly built on trade routes and river banks to facilitate

communication and trade. Houses were of mudbricks and not much developed. A
planned settlement as boasted in literary texts were missing

though soaked pits, drainage system were found. Thus urban settlements in 6th
century BC were a preurbanisation phase before Mauryan

empire.

Brahamanas had varying occupations and not necessarily priesthood but they were
referred as Brahmans only. They were tradesmen, hunters,

bathers, wood cutters in different regions. The rigid varna system was not
strictly followed. This may be because of increased prominence of

Kshatriyas as compared to Brahamanas. To maintain their status Brahamans may have

ventured into other professions. In the Dasbrahmana
 Jataka, Brahamans have been shown as greedy, flatterers, sycophants of kings which
may be because of Buddhist and Brahamans at tenterhooks.

In Buddhist texts, Kshatriyas have been placed as the superior caste as compared
to Brahamanical texts where Brahmanas are superior.

Kshatriyas were not only warriors but teachers, skilled professionals, Vaidyas
etc. Brahmans were priests and kept themselves to rituals, sacrifices.

With urbanisation, Kings which were called Kshatriyas became prominent and
Brahmans became their advisors or subordinates.

Shudras were the last of the four varnas described in Brahamanical texts. They
comprised of craftsmen, artisans, labourers, dasa, karmakaras etc

who were impoverished and subdued by the higher varnas. It was not a rigid
classification as slaves, war prisoners, menial job workers, people

evicted to forests, people who buried dead etc got included in this fold.
Eventually, after years of suppression and poverty, shudras gave birth to

untouchability

Different marks may be having different values or marks were identification of the
region to which punchmarked coin belonged or they showed the

authenticity of coin. However, in external trades coins must be having an

intrinsic value as there was not a global trade system as today.

Agricultural growth led to urbanisation, prosperity which broke the shackles of

rigid varna system. It depended on:

1.Fertile tracts Magadha was located at middle gangetic valley which was very
fertile and suitable for wetrice cultivation. Eventually paddy

surpassed wheat produce in upper gangetic valley.

2.Implements Agriculture prospered with the clearing of forests in middle gangetic

valley by the help of iron tools (Ploughware).

3.Manpower Selfcultivating gahapatis. agricultural laborer from slaves, dasas etc

worked on the fields.
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4.More fieldsWith iron technology wars and conquests increased, more areas were
captured and converted into fields. Rulers conquered lands and

gave it to their folks for cultivation. Many pastorals were also forced to settle
and cultivate in fields.

5.Trade Agricultural surplus increased wealth and created a class of traders.

These traders not only gained wealth but introduced new crops,

seeds from brought from different regions.

6.Administration Rulers, officials controlled and protecetd the distribution of

produce. They taxed people in lieu of protection, trade opportunities

etc. At some places, overtaxation impoverished some.

Agricultural growth led to settingup of an economy and emergence of new classes

based on economic classification. The rich and poor divide

started growing leading to an unequal society in future.

Rural economy started with growth of agriculture. Surplus in agriculture promoted

trade and made people wealthy. They took to other occupations

like jewelery trade, medicine, craftsmanship etc. Land was of paramount value.
Kings donated lands to priests who settled and cultivated lands.

Peasants feeded the nonproducing groups in exchange of money coins. Coins were
of value, acceptable to all and substituted barter system.

Thus, the economy was interdependent on each other.

The rural economy feeded the urban economy and used the products marketed in
urban areas. It was a system based on internal and external

trade. Some trade routes:

 Shravastidakshinpatha, ShravastiRajgriha

TaxilaHimalayas, Kashi to western coast etc.

Longdistance trade Tamluk and Broach to Burma and Sri Lanka

Spread of Buddhism

1.Rigid brahamanical classes Social inequality made people veer to Buddhism where
everyone was considered equal.

2.Orthodox and obsolete practices As people went out of Varna system, vedic
rituals were of less use to them.

3.Wealthy individuals Brahamans loathed merchants, vaishyas who earned wealth and
setup private property. Buddhism gave them respect and

included them in mainstream.

4.Patronage of Rajas Ashoka, Ajatshatru, Bimbisara became staunch supporters of

Buddhism. Eventually, Buddhism spread to other areas with the

patronage of these rulers who kept sending people to propagate ideas of Buddha.

5.Language Buddha taught in Pali which was the language of the common man. Whereas
Brahamans preached in Sanskrit, a language restricted to

elites in the society hence less known to common man.

Jainism is based on four principles of Parsavnath i.e truth, nonviolence,

nonpossession, not accepting anything if not given voluntarily and

celibacy which was added by Mahavira. Its other basic ideas for householders are
nonstealing, nonadultery, nonprofession, noninjury and

speaking truth. Hence monks must tread out in daylight. Salvation can only be
attained by ascetism, extreme penance and leaving all the worldly
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pleasures. Every object, living being howsoever small has a soul. One must follow
nonviolence and not kill any of them. Like Buddhism it also

rejected Vedas and included Vaishyas in its fold.

Ajivikas founded by Nanda Vachha were shudra sanyasinis and Gosala propagated it
most efficiently. They rejected the theory of Vedas and

preached in Shravasti, capital of Kosala. They did not believe in Karma and next
birth. Everything is preordained and man can hardly change

anything. He is helpless with his destiny.

The Mauryan emperor Ashoka in dhamma wants people to respect other sects and
teachings as by respecting it you come to respect your

teachings.

Archeology and literature can construct history in a corroborative manner.

Arthashashtra of Kautilya contains the probable adminstration and

condition of the economy during C.Maurya's rule. Inscriptions and Rock edicts of
Ashoka depict his dhamma and the ways he used to make truce

with other kingdoms. Buddhist and Jain texts like Pitakas, Acharangasutra,
Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa tell about Mauryan empire as Ashoka was

influenced by Buddhism and Chandragupta Maurya by Jainism. Texts of foreign

writers like Megasthenes, a greek who visited during C. Maurya's

rule and Herodotus's account tell a lot about Mauryan empire. Moreover punch
marked coins in circulation during Maurya rule show the

conditions of economy, religious and spiritual beliefs through symbols marked on

coins.

Nanda rule made Magadha empire more stable. It expanded the expanse of empire.
Infact, Alexander did not invade beyond Punjab due to in fearof

Nanda dynasty. It expanded to Orissa with a large number of cavalries, infantry,

chariots and elephants which were the most feared components of its
 power. It also challenged the might of Kshatriya Mahajanpadas of middle ganga
plains who were ruling since a long time in Magadha. They were said

to belong to Shudras and led an empire building process for the first time.

An empire is a political entity under single autonomous ruler which not

necessarily comprises of homogeneous population. There is a stratification in

the society where peasants, warriors, rulers enjoyed unequal status. The monarch
was the supreme authority with ministers, offcials to levy tax,

administer army etc. It keeps expanding its territory through military prowess
trying to become undisputed leader in the world. But, geographical

constraints used to put a spanner on those dreams. It included upper classes as

administrators and lower classes as workers, peasants. A

chakravartin ruler brought stability in an anarchy and consolidated many kingdoms

into an empire. Basically, an empire consisted of privileged groups

exploiting unprivileged ones which resulted in an unequal society

Some accounts show that C.G Maurya was of low caste and he was the son of Nanda
ruler and a slave mother. Some refer them as sakyas as

Buddhist texts talk about Moriya clan of Pipphalivana related to buddha. Ashoka
was married to a vaishya girl from Vidisha and CGM had Gupta

in his name which point towards Mauryas as Vaishyas. Moreover, Brahamans referred
to Magadha empire as a mixed culture and dismissed them as

inferior, impure ones. They already considered foreigners from north west making
the society impure. Puranas referred to an era when Shudras

will rule the roost.

Still, there is no unanimity on origins of Mauryas but all the

eminent rulers veered to heterodox faiths eventually viz CGM to Jainism,

Bindusara to Ajivikas and Ashoka the Great to Buddhism.

Ashoka conquered Kalinga in a pyrrhic war in around 260 BC. He was deeply aghast
after encountering the human lives lost. This changed his

policy of conquest into a policy of peace and truce between the empires. He veered
towards buddhism and preached Dhamma to his friends and

enemies as well. It is probable that Asoka was already under thoughts of Buddhism
due to his Vaishya relations. He found refuge in Buddhist thoughts

to escape the guilt of killing innocent lives. Also, Ashoka inherited a large
kingdom with a heterogenous population. The need of the hour was
 political unification or unity in diversity. Nonviolence and policy of Dhamma
quelled any anger, animosity among people for the state or

themselves.

During Maurya rule, iron technology was used widely. Iron sickles, axes, ploughs
were found in the material remains after excavating Ganges valley.

This led to tilling of loamy soil in the Ganges alongwith clearing of forests.

TAXES

Bali the traditional tax levied by the state.

Bhaga Land tax levied on people and collected by state through officials like
Samharta. It was quite high i.e 1/3 of agricultural produce.

Sannidhata was in charge of government treasury and provided storage facilities

for produce donated in kind.

Villages had to take care of soldiers passing by which can be aggregated as a tax.
Hiranya was a tax taken in cash

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Sharecroppers had to give 1/2 of produce as state provided inputs to farmers.

During emergency or fiscally tough days, state levied Pranaya, a voluntary gift
which was 1/31/4 of produce. It may have turned obligatory in future.

Patliputra was the centre of activity of Mauryan empire and was connected to
different cities in all directions. Towards north, foothills of Himalyas and

Ganges were important trade routes. It extended to Peshawar. Kalinga was the
southeastern trade center from where routes extended to Andhra in

south. Kaushambi, Rajgriha were other important centers. Trade routes extended to
northwest through Ujjain & Taxila which included coastal areas

of Gujarat. It further entered to southern areas. This route was termed as the
Dakshinapatha.
 Internal trade blossomed during Maurya rule due to efficient administration, law
and order, better transport facilities.

A chariot cannot be run on a single wheel. Similarly, king consulted council of

ministers in taking decisions. There was a group of inner council

ministers called mantrins to discuss on specific issues. However, king held the
final authority and his decision was superior to the suggestions made

by council of ministers. Politics played an important role in affairs as council

of ministers tried to enhance their position in front of king. Ministers were

given separate roles like trade and commerce, law, foreigners care, tax collection
etc. They were allowed to carry discussions and amendments even

in King's absence.

Hence, council of ministers were cog in the wheel of good governance by the kin

An organized administration refers to a setup in which all functions are carried

out effectively. There is adequate manpower vested with different

responsibilities to maintain law and order.

Mauryan administration constituted of King at the center and various ministers,

officials carrying out specific purposes. There were 6 sub

committees as specified in Megasthenes accounts to deal with trade and commerce,

tax collection, demographic details of population etc. There

was separate official for looking after mining, iron technology, weights and
measures. There was vertical distribution of power in urban areas with

Nagarika, Gopas and Sthanikas. Disaster management, sanitation, curbing

corruption, adulteration etc were other significant functions carried out by

different officials. Rakshi or police was present and they too were under the rule
of law. Citizens and officials were equal in the eyes of law and

punishment was awarded irrespective of their positions in the society.

Revenue collection determines the strength of a state either in ancient or present

times. Arthasashtra discusses revenue administration carried

during Mauryan rule

 Tax from crown (sita) and private lands called bhaga was
collected. Trade and commerce were regulated and taxed in lieu of protection

and fair play. Mines and their mineral wealth were an important source for taxes.
Other taxes were levied on liquor, 5% of money earned in gambling

income tax on rich, plantations, export and import of goods etc

Money was spent on maintaining law and order in the empire.

Public works like construction of dams for irrigation, roads for transport,

medical care, disaster management etc were carried out. Maintenance of army
constituted an important source of expenditure. As large number of

officials were involved in administration, salaries and pensions formed a

considerable part. Moreover king granted revenue remissions as by Ashoka

to Lumbini, the birth place of Buddha in land tax.

Villages had been talked little in Ashoka edicts. Villages had

Gramika as the highest official for revenue collection. Gopa and Sthanika

were intermediate officials between district and village administration. They

maintained data of boundaries of villages, income of people, law and

order in villages. Moreover, villages were autonomous in administration.

Empires were built on pillars of aggression, imperialism and efficient rulers.

Mauryan empire too had powerful rulers who took it to zenith of its glory.

Early years of Mauryan rule were based on expansion and subjugation. Vast areas of
Indian subcontinent were brought under its rule. However,

after Kalinga war Ashoka turned over a new leaf and adopted the policy of peace,
friendliness with all. Foreign powers were sent peace messages

to propagate Dhamma. Egypt, Syria, Cyprus etc had been depicted in Ashokan edicts.
Chola empire in the south was untouched of Mauryan wrath

with whom they maintained friendly relations. Trade and commerce overseas and
internally bolstered the relations between Maurya and its

neighbours.

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In the later phase of Ashoka's dhamma, Mauryan empire came to be known as

the strongest but peaceful force in the subcontinent. Military

victories were substituted by policy of friendly and moral conquest. The same is
needed in present scenario also.

Ashoka inherited a state massive in expanse and diversified in its population. The
motto of dhamma was to consolidate the vast empire and

smoothen its functioning.

Mauryan empire reached to maximum in its boundaries during the period of

Ashoka. When he fought Kalinga war, he was deeply aggrieved by

the pyrrhic victory. He could not tolerate the bloodshed after the war. He
denounced weapons, miltary conquests after this war. Eventually, he

preached dhamma to all his subjects and propagated it to foreign empires. Rock
edict XIII stresses on winning wars not through military conquest

but through winning hearts of the people, adapting to spiritual and moral values
i.e dhamma. In this edict he renounces violence and adopts non

violence.

Brahamanical system was being resisted by Buddhism, Ajivikas, Jainism and

others. Supremacy of Brahmans and other higher castes was

challenged with the growth of commercial class. New emerging classes wanted
equality in society. This created dissent from the rigid caste system

which had put Vaishyas at a lower level. Hence, Ashoka wanted to silence growing
dissent and promote harmony in the society.

The empire comprised of different castes, sects, races scattered in

different geographical areas.. There was a need to keep them in

consensus. Moreover force cannot be used always to declare state's supremacy. Tax
collection, law and order maintenance needed participation

from people. A code of conduct acceptable to different sects was the need of the
hour.

Dhamma tried to strengthen Mauryan empire through ethical, moral forces

rather than a military one.
 Dhamma was based on ethical and moral principles. It stressed on nonviolence,
peace and brotherhood among all human beings. The military

conquest of war was discouraged in favor of spiritual conquest. It taught respect

and care to Brahmanas, shramanas, elders, women and children.

Animals were not to be sacrificed, festivals and flaunting of wealth was not
supported. Religious tolerance was propagated among the masses to

maintain social harmony. . Moreover, Dhamma was propagated by Dhammamahamattas who

made people aware of Ashoka's good intentions. In a

way Dhamma was a watershed in administration of monarchs and was not seen again in
future. Many kings have fought wars, conquered

kingdoms, established empires but they were forgotten or not praised in the annals
of history but Ashoka became the king of kings or the beloved of

gods through spiritual and moral activities.

Mauryan economy was in distress after Ashoka leading to its downfall. A stable
government and well discussed and effective state policies are very

important for the growth of the economy.

Unnecessary burden on masses by increased taxation, increased public expenditure

on welfare measures, religious tours, dhammayatras etc put

the economy in distress. A famine happened in north Bengal which could be due to
low productivity of agriculture, poor administration in shifting of

surplus produce to starved areas. Mining of iron was also an issue. Poor state
control over vast geographical boundaries may have made extraction

and exploration difficult. Hence expeditions were taken in Andhra Pradesh,

Karnataka for minerals. Corruption also increased manifolds in absence of

a centralised administration and efficient ruler. Many people refused to pay taxes
to centre and local chiefs furthered their intentions.

Pushyamitra sunga, from Sungas who enjoyed viceroyship of Ujjain came to power in
malwa region. He revived brahmanical practices which were

put on hold in Mauryan rule. He performed Ashvamedh yagya or horsesacrifice for

legitimacy and magnify valour. Greeks tried to gain power in the

northwest. Parthians entered India, Kushanas became the most prominent rulers of
the northwest. Satvahans took control over deccan.

Kharavela of kalinga consolidated power in Mahanadi region. In the south, chola,

chera, pandyas were in constant tussle with the local kingdoms.

Tribal incursions caused problems to them. Tribes like Yaduheyas, Gardabhilas,

Arjunaya emerged to mainline. It was impossible to completely

suppress these minor groups. Thus, Mauryan rule left the country in a state of
chaos politically though healthy economically .

Sakas displaced Greeks from bactria. They introduced coin system where silver was
minted into coins. Copper inscriptions were prevalent..

Rudradaman I is known for its inscriptions and coins. Junagadh inscription is

famous. He also patronised sanskrit.

Puranas were the most important source in reconstructing history. Buddhist's

divyadana, Harshcharita by Banbhat, Gargisamhita,

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Malvikagnimitra by Kalidasa, Mahabhasya Patanjali's, Milind Panho etc exemplified

rule of different kings. Moreover, inscriptions, coins

demonstrated the rulers of those times. IndoGreeks were known through their coins
only. Rudradaman, a prominent Saka ruler was known through

inscription at Junagadh etc.

Kushanas occupied the area around Indus and northwest of India. Central Asia had
deep impacts not only on their rule but in the shaping of Indian

future.

Silk route passed from these areas. Kushanas levied taxes and allowed safe and
easy passage of goods. Buddhists scholars from China visited

Kushanas. This played an important role in spreading of Buddhism in other areas.

Trade with Romans brought gold in surplus. Gold coins were minted for the first
time by Kushanas. As new ideas came, technological change also
 took place.

Buildings were made of burnt bricks. Overall, people had decent living conditions
as supplemented by excavations. Potteries, ornaments too have

central Asian effect as new designs with more durability emerged.

Moreover, weapons of better quality were developed. Horses were introduced as

shown in Buddhist sculptures.

Central Asia gave new elements to Indian culture which kept changing and adapting
itself without losing its originality.

TRADE

At the time when Mauryans were at the nadir of their rule, economic prosperity
continued. This led to urbanisation and development of professionals

in the society.

People started doing different works rather than only agriculture. This made the
production of food a domain of a particular class who sold their

produce to others. Moreover, surplus was traded for better profits.

Artisans, craftsmen became specialized and started selling overseas. A new class
of Merchants emerged. Wealth was created which opened more

avenues for trade. Entry of foreign rulers opened new routes of trade.

These rulers established trade relations with other empires. Romans demanded
Indian spices, peppers, gems, diamonds, ivory.

Ganas, guilds were formed which kept donating for religious purposes. Banks were
also functioning to keep deposits. Religious propagation

established new contacts as scholars visited India. Buddhist monastries, other

religious structures were built by merchants
 Trade not only brought prosperity but brought change in culture. The unstoppable
cycle of urbanisation and globalisation got started.

Religion during 200 BC to 300 AD

Buddhism developed into different sects with time. Mahayanaism made Buddha a god
who was meant to be worshiped in temples. It believed that

others can also become Buddha by passing stages of Bodhisatvas and performing
paramitas.. Bodhisatvas were considered as monks of merit

who emulated Buddha. It believes in sunayata or non reality of this world.

Udaygiri caves developed by Kalinga ruler, Kharavela is a Jain centre. Rajgriha or

Rajgir developed as Jain centred in 1st century A.D. Mathura

developed as centre of Jain inscriptions. Taxila was also a Jain centre. Bharuch
and Sopore in western coast, Madurai in south became important

centres.

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Vaishnavism was a sect of Brahmanism which worshiped Vishnu the protector of the
world. It emerged from Vasudeva cult of vedic times. During

Bhakti movement, animal sacrifices were discarded and full devotion and worship to
God was promoted. This led to complete devotion to three gods

namely Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma. Vishnu is said to have many incarnations called
as Dashavatar. Rama, Balrama, Krishna are the most worshiped

incarnations. Sangam literature has many proses, poems written for Vishnu.
Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu is revered as the goddess of wealth. The

theory of Karma explained in Bhagwad Gita forms an important belief of

Vaishnavism. Two symbols were also worshipped namely Garuda his vehicle

and Chakra his weapon

Brahamanism was a religion of worship of gods and animal sacrifices to please

them. During Bhakti movement, animal sacrifices were discarded and
 worship of God became the supreme measure to show devotion. Shiva linga was
worshiped in Shaivism, Vishnu was worshiped in different

incarnations of Krishna, Rama, Balrama etc. Ramayan and Mahavbharata were

interpreted in a different manner. Bhagvad Gita included theory of

Karma where one's work is distributed and it is the only path to salvation. Local
traditions were included in worship. Trees, serpents, animals like cow,

horse were worshiped. Bhakti cult saints composed poems, prose in devotion to God.

Art and Architecture

Art and architecture was quite developed during Mauryan period. Artists sculpted
on polished glass like surface which was different from the earlier

sculptures. Timber was used to construct multi storey buildings at the time of
Chandragupta Maurya. Stupas like at Sanchi, Taxila etc were

constructed without any emphasis on a particular religion but to respect god and
its creation. All these structures had uniquely sculptured symbols,

animals, Jataka stories. Yakshas, Yakshinis were sculpted from stone showing the
beauty of women. Terracota figurines were also prominent in

the imperial art.

Stupa was a dome shaped structure built during Mauryan and Post Mauryan times to
preserve the remains of Buddha.

Sanchi stupa was initially constructed by Ashoka during 250 B.C. There are three
stupas but The Great Stupa is magnificent. Its relief shows the four

stages of Buddha's life birth, attainment of knowledge, Dharamchakra Parivartana,

Mahaparinirvana. Lotus and vines, animal, birds figures are

well sculpted. Jataka stories are displayed.

Structurally it has a Harmika where relics of Buddha were kept in a silver case,
Yasthi a rod at the top of stupa with three umbrella like disc

signifying reverence, veneration and magnanimity. Pradakshinapath surrounding the

stupa with four gates or Toranas linked with Vedika which is

also sculpted.

Gandhara art was a mixture of Buddhist and Hellenestic art. Early Gandhara art
used blueschist stones for sculptures. Later mud, pilaster,
 stucco etc were used. Buddha image had curly hairs, drapery on left shoulder.
Limbs were clearly sculpted with sharp anatomical features. Bronze

reliquary was found in ShahjiKidheri, Taxila and Ivory Plaques in Begram.

Rulers were sculpted in a narrative or with religious figures to suggest divinity.

Sculptures of Kushana kings like Kanishka, Wima had been found in

Mat village in Mathura. Their dress was also sculpted with boots, swords which
show their valour and origin from central Asia. In Amravati art,

images of Satvahana kings like King Udyana and queen were found.

Satvahana dynasty was dependent on trade and commerce. There was connectivity
between ports and inland centers.

Ports in the western coast like Bharuch were connected by Paithan to Ter which led
to western parts in Andhra. Rivers like Krishna provided

connectivity from west (Kolhapur) to east coast. Another route was from Ujjain to
Maheswar at Narmada connecting Ajanta, Pithalkora,

Bhokardhana and to eastern parts.

These routes needed protection as Satvahans were in constant tussle with

Kshatrapas etc. Moreover it was an important source of revenue.

Excavations around these areas supplemented trade as population became

concentrated over these areas.

Tamilham comprised of Kurzirs the village chiefs, Velirs the bigger chiefs and
Vedars the biggest chiefs. They had territories of pastorals, fertile

agricultural lands, dry lands, hilly areas etc. Goods of daily need, food grains
etc were exchanged through barter system.

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However, power of chiefs varied and demand of resources led to clashes frequently.
Weak chiefs were subjugated by powerful chiefs with their

wealth plundered, cattle, grains confiscated. Among the most powerful were the
muvendars namely Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas who ruled in different

areas over the chiefs. Gifts or social service was based on loots which was
distributed among kinship. At times these powerful chieftains or vedars

entered into marriage alliances with less powerful chiefs or velirs. This
maintained healthy relationship between them and support at the time of

major conquests.

These chiefdoms were precursors of a wellestablished state system. Power was yet
to be centralised, bureaucracy was not functional and an

unorganised system prevailed. There was no system of taxation and hereditary

kingship The society was to evolve with trade through seas with

Romans, Mauryas etc in future.

Tinais were ecological zones having different tribes with different occupations.
Kurinji was hilly areas with Kuravar tribes performing slash and burn agriculture.

Mullai was pastoral lands with Ayar tribes, Marutam the fertile land had
agriculturists called uzhavars, Neytal was around seacoast comprising of fishermen,

Paratavars and Pallai the arid zone had robbers belonging to Muavar tribes.

They exchanged their produce with each other thus showing their mutual dependence.
Mullai or pasture lands was used for grazing of cattle which was reared for

milk, wool etc. Shifting cultivation was done to produce millets, lentils, pulses.
They exchanged these with Marutam for rice, paddy etc.

Features of Agrarian villages

1.Use of iron ploughware spades, sickles

2.Use of bullocks

3.Irrigation facilities tanks, wells

 4.Donated lands to Brahmanas who either became Gahapatis or made others cultivate
lands.

5.Paddy transplantation, cotton was grown on black soil.

6.Slaves worked on lands of velirs or chieftains.

Wars were fought due to scarcity of resources. Weak chieftains were attacked and
peasants looted. Victorious side used to praise soldiers,

warriors, king by constructing images, composing poems,songs etc. Sometimes

plunders brought excess wealth than needed which was wasted

even after redistribution. Resources were also destroyed in the war with peasants
tortured and oppressed. Redistribution of wealth was done among

the warriors, kinsmen, Brahmans. These wars which devastated peasants were
celebrated as heroic acts as shown by Sangam anthologies.

Merchants formed trade organisations to serve their interests. Trade organisations

or guilds were better than family units. Loans were given and

deposits taken for trade. They also managed transport over safe paths with
adequate pricing for the members. Overseas trade was also regulated

by these groups. Moreover, donations to religious institutions, construction of

restrooms, watersheds were done.

Ancient Deccan had Satvahan rule where trade routes were clearly demarcated.
Monastries, caves, restrooms, watersheds were constructed for

traders on routes. Arthasahtra says Dakshinapatha as the best route because of

minerals, spices, precious stones found there. Foreign trade was

boosted and security was provided for safe disposal of goods inland.

Whereas in Tamilhama various tribes ruled and exchanged goods on barter system.
Trade was based on coastal routes with inland waters

connecting inner towns. Lighthouses were constructed to facilitate maritime trade

with romans and others.

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Local coins were either copper, gold or silver. Punchmarked coins of Satavahans,
Kahapanas or silver coins and suvarnas or gold coins of

Kushanas or have been depicted in literature and excavated also. Local chieftains
like Maharatti also issued coins. Moreover, rulers tried to imitate

Roman coins as their demand for trade, bullion and ornaments.

Roman coins were made up of gold and silver and rarely of copper. They were
used to buy luxury items in India like spices, precious stones,

potteries etc. They were kept safe by Indian rulers as gold had intrinsic value.
It was used as bullion and hoarded also. Some coins were melted

and new coins of rulers were issued. Some were used as ornaments.

Romans lamented for this drain of wealth to India but luxuries of royal and rich
did not diminish.

Traders in Deccan and south India donated money for creation of monasteries and
other religious institutions. Chaityas, Viharas were carved out.

Such donations were written on inscriptions. It made monasteries powerful and

rich. This may be the cause of development of Mahayana Buddhism

which was liberal in ideas. Whereas in South India donations were not much as
traders, merchants were not wealthy as compared to Deccan

ones.

In Deccan trade and urbanism made the society flexible. Merchants and traders who
were considered Vaishyas gained importance through adopting

Buddhism, Jainism. External trade brought new culture to south India. Traces of
Roman culture can be seen. Old familial ties were broken.

Hereditary basis of occupation was diluted as more options became available like
trading, fishing, carpenter, gold businesses etc. Urbanism led to

flaunting of wealth. Pomp and show became trademark of rich and royals.

Thus, Indian society started reforming at a slow pace but the essence of culture
was maintained.

Sangam Literature
 Tamil bardic tradition was based on expressions and stock phrases used to praise
heroes, warriors or kings. Akam or subjective feelings like

love and Puram or objectifying experience like raid, plunder were demonstrated in
Sangam literature.

Ettutogai a collection of eight poems or Pattupattu a collection of 10 idylls have

akam and purams in it. Moreover, didactic texts like

Patipenkizkanniku and Thiruvalluvars Thirukal were composed.

However, proper dating of these poems are not clear as time of oral composition
and time of coding is different. Still they may belong to 3rd century

BC to 2nd Century AD.

Influence of Sanskrit, aryan culture was there in tamil literature but it

maintained its own essence.

GUPTAS

Samudragupta's imperial efforts are known to history from the Prayagpasasti

inscription at Allahabad written by his court poet Harisena. He

defeated 12 kings in south India but restored them under his rule. As
communication across geographical barriers was an issue it was necessary to

grant them independent rule but under his suzerainity. But, Naga rulers of North
India were similarily defeated and their kingdoms were annexed.

Thus he maintained different policies for kingdoms. Many rulers married off their
daughters to Guptas to prevent annexation of their kingdoms.

However, every kingdom under his empire owed allegiance to his rule.

Chandragupta II ascended to throne when internal dissensions were rife. He

suppressed revolting rulers and established Gupta's supremacy again.

His kingdom expanded from Bengal in the east to Gujarat in the west. He brought an
end to Saka rule by defeating Rudrasimha II. His inscription

tell about his expedition to Bactria conquering Vahilkas. Vakatakas and some Naga
rulers were in matrimonial alliances with him. He defeated rulers

of Bengal and annexed it.

According to his inscriptions CII wanted to conquer the whole of earth which may
be an exaggeration but it does not deny the imperial nature of

Gupta empire.

One who goes up must come down. The downfall of any empire is related to acumen of
rulers and the state of empire inherited by them.

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Guptas followed Samanta system where rulers of South India were independent to
rule after accepting suzerainty of Gupta king. At times of political

tensions like heir to throne etc, these rulers tried to detach themselves from
Guptas. After Skandgupta, Guptas unfortunately could not have any able

ruler to control these revolts.

Moreover, there was a tradition of donating lands to brahmanas. This could have
made them powerful and rich enough which eventually led to

weak economic state of the empire as taxes, revenue decreased.

The imperial nature of this empire made military expenditure very high. This again
put a burden to state's wealth. Even then with invasion of

foreign powers like Hunas made them too weak to rule and administer the vast
kingdom.

Their disintegration was inevitable with the end of rule of efficient kings like
CG, SG,CG2,KG,SkG and the absence of any strong shoulders after

them.
 Officials

MahanandanayakaChief Justice

UparikaIn charge of provinces

VishyapatiIncharge of districts

MahapratiharaChief of Guards of palace

PratiharaRegulated ceremonies and gave entries

DutakasImplemented royal grants given to Brahmans

SandhiVigharika/ MahabaldhikritaMinister of Peace

AshvapatiHead of Horses

PilupatiHead of Elephants

Gopasramin AkshapataldhikritaTo recover dues, check embezzlements, accountant

NarapatiHead of soldiers

RanabandhgarikaManager of stores, supplies, arms and ammunitions

Pustapalarecord keeper

A king should keep a record of land revenue and other sources of income as the
wealth of treasury represents the wealth of Kingdom.
 The King had right to levy taxes for maintaining the empire. One sixth of produce
was royal revenue. Taxes were charged on interprovinces trade

called Uparikara. Commercial tax was called sulka. Bali, visthi was taxed on
labour. There was an officer called Gopasramin or Asthapaladikrita

to maintain registers of revenue, recover dues and check embezzlements, frauds

etc. Moreover Uparikas in Bhuktis and Vishyapati in districts,

Gramyapati in villages checked the payment of taxes.

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Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, vaishyas, Shudras and Untouchables were the highest to

lowest categories in Varna system. In pregupta period varnas were

different from the ideal manner as depicted. In reality there was a mix of varnas
due to intermarriages, foreign migrants etc. Brahamans tried to give

them a mixed caste category like vratya kshatriyas etc.

However, during Gupta period Brahmanas gained prominence due to increased

religiosity of kings, donation of lands to them by kings, rich etc.

They attained the highest and purest category. Even kings practising Buddhism,
Jainism respected them. Eventually, other castes were declared sub

ordinate to them. People were declared untouchables based on their occupation like
craftsmen, scavengers, butchers etc. Their presence was also

debarred and were considered only for menial works. Women too were subordinated
even if they belonged to upper castes. Most of the upper

castes women had little freedom. Even, some Brahamanical texts refer them as
Shudras.

PostGuptas

YashodarmanWestern Malwa and Mandasor

 MaukharisGaya and Kanauj

Kamarupa and Davaka in Assam

Gujjaras in Gujarat and Rajputana

Gaudas in Bengal

Mana and Sailodbhava in Orissa

Maitras of Valabhi in Gujarat

Harsha gained power at the time when Pushyabhuti king Rajyavardhana was killed
through treachery by Sasanka, Gauda king and Gurjaras in

alliance. He defeated Sasanka with the help of Vallabhis with whom he entered into
marriage alliances. Gurjaras were also hostile to him. They had

accepted suzerainty of Pulakeshin II, the famous Chalukya king of Badami who
defeated Harshvardhana subsequently. Harsha had friendly relations

with chinese emperor of Tang dynasty. Chinese sent three ambassadorsto his court.
Hieuntsang was the most prominent one who has written alot

about harsha. Wangsei was the last to come but Harsha died before he reached him.
In the eastern side Harsha was in friendly relations with

Bhaskarvarman, king of Assam.

PostHarsha political conditions did not go into disarray as Many regional kingdoms
consolidated power. Bhaskarvarman in his Nidhipur inscription,

Adityasena, the Later Gupta king in his Apsod inscription are known. In Kashmir,
karakotas established power and went in marriage alliance with

Yasovarman. Yasovarman rose to power at Kanauj after 75 years of Harsha. Many

Rajput dynasties like Chahnamas, Gurjara Pratiharas, Guhilas

flourished for centuries. In Bengal, Palas became a power to reckon with.

Chalukyas at Badami, Pallavas at Kanchi and Pandyas at Madurai were important

powers of deccan after mid sixth century AD. Chalukyas had a
 powerful ruler Pulakesin II who had defeated Harshavardhana. Chalukyas were in
constant tussle with Pallavas who ruled over fertile Kaveri region

and were comparitively wealthy. Pallavas had to fight with Chalukyas and Pandyas
at the same time. Pandyas ruled over less fertile region of river

Vaigai and looked towards Pallavas as a source of treasure. Pallavas led naval
expeditions to Sri Lanka, South east Asia and established their

supremacy. Vishnu temple, tanks at Thailand reflect Pallavas hold over those
areas.

South India has varied geographical barriers with river basins of Krishna, Kaveri,
Godaveri separated by rugged mountains. Hence, it was difficult

for a single kingdom to rule over the entire mainland. This led to consistent
political disunity among the kingdoms. Minor chieftains kept

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supporting these rulers for there own survival. Their power in consolidation with
the major kingdoms of Pallavas, Chalukyas, Pandyas was

unsurmountable. Hence, Chalukyas surmounted Banas, the allies of Pallavas and

Pallavas did the same to Nishadas, Sabaras the allies of Chalukyas

to dismantle the main kingdoms.

Any big kingdom only survives with the help of minor feudatory which kept in check
the growth of other hostile kingdoms.

Pallavas had a system of decentralization in administration. Local sabhas were the

centres of complaints and grievances of the masses. These local sabhas

which had representation of people themselves solved their problems. There were ur
an aseembly of nonbrahamans, sabha an assembly of Brahamanas and

nagaram an assembly of merchants, traders. These formed local committees to manage

sanitation, irrigation through tanks, wells etc in the villages. Pallavas tried

to maintain the supremacy of Brahamanas by donating land to them or to temples.

 In Chalukyan Kingdom local notables managed through sabhas the state affairs but
in the aegis of state officials.

Minor chieftains had an on and off relationship with big kingdoms. Pallavas were
given the highest ritual status and all minor kings showed their

allegiance to Pallavan king. Brahmans had stronghold that time and Pallavan Kings
donated lands and wealth in respect to them. Hence Pallava kings

could have been awarded the highest position in society by the priests.

However, this theory had not been supported as these minor chiefs broke ties
during political turmoil or shifted to Chalukyas for petty gains.

These kings may had a feudal relationship with Pallavas and Chalukyas and tried to
become independent when the central power weakened at times

of conquest. Thus, these chiefs are more appropriately referred as 'subordinate

rulers'.

Coins of gold, silver, copper are rare in postGupta period. Trade with Romans
declined as no roman coins are found. Moreover, Roman empire

itself disintegrated later.

The relationship was not cozy with Arabs, Persians who came to rule the trade
route after Romans. This further declined trade. The Byzantine

empire traded for silk and spices from India. They too in 6th century gained the
knowledge to grow silk worm. This affected the silk trade badly.

Overseas trade with southeast Asia also declined as no pottery, crafts are seen of
those periods. Internal trade declined around coastal areas,

between cities and villages etc. Merchants wealth degraded and trade suffered a
setback.

Irrigation improved with use of ghatiyantra, udghataghati during Harshvardhana.

Tanks, wells, reservoirs were created by variyam committees

established by Pallavas. Land measurement or Halla using plough became important.

Plough and iron technology improved. Cow dung was being

used as manure as written in Harsh Charita. Plants and animal diseases were
managed well.
 Land grants became a norm by kings, rulers, merchants to religious institutions,
individuals. Moreover, soldiers, officials were granted land and its

revenue as salary. This create a class of noncultivating agriculture class. These

bodies leased land to others who could have been tenants or

cultivators. There came to lie middlemen between revenue collection and crop
production. Ultimately the peasant suffered and was reduced to a

slave, laborer who was guided by the landlords.

This resulted in feudal system where landlords and peasants came to light. The
coming world was to be based on this principle only.

Economy moved from urban to rural in postGupta period. Brahmans had increasing
clout as agricultural surplus profited them a lot. A need for

holding land, revenue records arose. This led to creation of a recordkeeping class
called kayasths (also called Karanika, Pushtpala, chitragupta,

asthapalika) who belonged to educated upper classes, lower classes etc.

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Vaishyas were merchant class who benefited from trade. But trade declined with
rural economy which caused migration of Vaishyas to villages and

further decrease in wealth. On the other hand, Shudras gained landholdings and
benefited from agriculture. The socioeconomic gap started

diminishing but Vaishyas remained economically weak. Many lower end Vaishyas were
transformed into Shudras.

In contrast, Shudras soared in numbers as many backward classes increased

assertiveness through landholdings, sharecropping. Thus the

distinction between shudras and vaishyas got blurred. (Alberuni in his writings
have put shudras and vaishyas together as a class).
 As economy grew, sophistication, luxury grew along with rapid increase in
population. The need for lower menial jobs was felt, even agriculture

demanded more labors. This caused inclusion of tribes in the society who were
given the lowest grade in society of untouchables.

The whole society got divided on the basis of caste and became rigid in marriage,
company etc. The rural India had enclosed homes for separate

classes. Sadly, this division is still prevalent in India even after social
consolidation and reforms taken during preindependent and postindependent

India.

Varnasamkara or Varna+Samkara means assimilation of Varnas. This happened due to

growing needs of the society and change in

landholdings. The earlier division based on occupation was supplanted by division

based on wealth, land and class. It cut across the Varnas as

Brahmans allowed assimilation of different backward tribes to harness labor from

them. But this mixing was not fully supported as marriage was

limited to earlier classes only. Infact, society became more rigid seeing these
changes where every class tried to preserve their originality.

This phase was a decline in the position of women. Women were given low social
status along with Shudras according to Brihat Samhita. They

were not given share in landholdings of parents. SatiPratha was prevalent in upper
castes which further demoralised women. After marriage,

women had to go change in Gotra, a subdivision of a caste. This made them a

commodity which was transferred during marriage and established

the patriarchal nature of society.

Castes emerged in Varnas with the change in society. Socioeconomic, political

changes caused proliferation of castes or jatis across the Varnas.

Brahmans became the centre of authority as land grants made them rich and
powerful. Different groups arose from them with differences in work.

Some became landlords, some remained priests, some were peasants etc. Many
migrated to different areas and created new castes among the

local people.
 With improved agriculture, there was a demand of labour. New classes were formed
from tribes. They were given the status of Shudras. Shudras

too developed economically and came at par with Vaishyas.

Kshatriyas remained a heterogenous group. Foreign tribes were awarded Kshatriya

status by Brahmans. Moreover as tribes were assimilated

chiefs tried to declare themselves as Kshatriyas for legitimacy of their rule.

Brahmans were roped in for rituals to authorise the new caste.

Untouchables were the important source of labor. They were expanded with inclusion
of tribes.

Kayasths emerged as a new community and attained the status of Jati. Similarly,
blacksmiths, weavers, goldsmiths formed jatis and became rigid in

marriages etc. Guilds too developed into castes as trade degraded during this
period. Everyone tried to preserve their culture though there was

not much difference between them.

Mauryan polity was based on centralized system of administration. Though rulers at

the periphery were independent to govern. There were

governors also for different areas but there was a code of conduct for all. Dhamma
was to be followed and every area was subordinate to the king.

Also, posts were not hereditary.

Whereas in Guptas and PostGuptas administration became decentralised. They owed

allegiance to the king at centre but many chiefs ruled

autonomously. Moreover, land grants were given to religious figures who were
exempted from taxes and centre's interference. This made these

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donees powerful enough to rule on the local population. There were Uparikas at
Bhuktis, Vishyapatis at districts. Their salary was awarded in the form

of lands with revenue rights to them. These posts over the time became hereditary
thus decreasing the power of king.

Samantas were feudal chiefs who were conquered but given autonomy to rule by the
major power. These samantas tried to become independent from the centre

always. A feature of decentralised polity emerged when people were granted lands.
These people were responsible for administration of those areas and had

immunity from army. They carried taxation of peasants, land and referred
themselves as Mahasamntas, Panchamasabdas etc to proclaim their autonomy.

Eventually, when empires weakened they declared independence. It led to emergence

of noncultivating owners of land called landlords. This gave birth to Indian

Feudalism as said by RS Sharma.

Kings used religious rituals to legitimise their rule. Moreover, it was a period
of growth of religious cults like Vaishnavism and Shaivism. Brahmans

and these Bhakti saints were taken in high regards by these rulers. They were
donated lands, temples were constructed for them. Tirthas emerged

which became centres of pilgrimage for people. Kings supported people in their
religious ideas and became patrons of monks, priests etc. There

could also be a competition between different kings to show their allegiance to

God by constructing temples. Some could be eulogies as these

structures remained their creation throughout the pages of history.

In North India Brahmanism was based on Varna system or caste based society. All
the sections of society were not included as untouchables,

Shudras had restricted entry in temples.

Bhakti movement diluted the divisions in the society with inclusion of all castes,
women in the society. They also shifted to Vishnu and Shiva as their

deities. Moreover there hymns, songs were in the local languages like Tamil as
compared to Sanskrit of Brahmans. Thus they were widely

accepted.

Ultimately Brahmans related these gods to Vedic and local cult gods like Indra,
Varun etc and gave supremacy to a monotheistic god. This

brought Bhakti saints also in fold. Eventually, Alvars and Nayanars disappeared
and were referred compositely as Brahmans, Acharyas etc

belonging to the higher castes of Vellalas. The origin of present day Hinduism
dates to these processes only.

My view point

Why did peple shift from Vedic gods to other less important gods of that time? Why
were tribal rituals, gods also incorporated?

The basic region could be similarities between all of them and their growth as
branches of Hinduism.

However, importance of different gods changed with time.

Imagine a place had drought for a year due to poor rainfall. As science was not
developed like today people must have considered this an act of God.

Now consider a same area where enough rainfall took place, agricultural produce
was marvelous at the same time. Here people would thank god for

his blessings.

There were differences in the name of gods being worshiped by the two communities.
So, people may have shifted their Bhakti to those gods whose

worship gave profits even though the real reason was geography. Thus Gods came and
went with time. With the advent of modern science we know

the real reason behind such difference as rainfall (El Nino), soil types,
agricultural expertise etc. But these Gods are our heritage and it is tough to

leave them completely.

Moreover, humans have fear for something always and Gods were created to give
support and rescue.

Tantricism involved religious rituals followed by nonAryan tribes which were later
adopted by the civilised cults. It focused on matsya or fish,
 mamasa or meat, madya or alcohol, maithuna or sex and mudra or physical gestures.
In Tantricism the focus has been on three things namely,

status of women, sexual rituals and female deities. Women were considered superior
in contrast to the inferior position given by Brahmans.

Tantric priests followed sexoyogic practices to cure illness. They claimed to cure
snake bite, diseases by their magical powers. Image worship, tantric

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cults, worship of tribal gods like Matangi, Candali equivalent to Kali, Parvati of
Hinduism. These gods were also absorbed into the mainstream

Hinduism.

Tantricism was absorbed by other religions of Brahmanism, Buddhism and Jainism.

Female goddesses were worshiped. Image worship, rituals,

sacrifices which were condemned by Buddhism and Jainism came to be practised

freely.

Shakti in Brahmans, Tara in Buddhism and Yakshini in Jainism emerged as female

deities. Mahayana sect of Buddhism emerged due to influence

of Tantricism. Jainism too started showing image worship of Tirthankaras. Brahmans

gave importance to women deities by constructing temples,

composing hymns, songs for them.

Ancient universities in India

Nalanda

Considered to be the worlds first University, Nalanda was an ancient centre of

higher learning from 427 to 1197 AD

It was devoted to Buddhist studies, but it also trained students in fine arts,
medicine, mathematics, astronomy, politics and the art of war.

It also had a library and dormitories for students, and accommodations for
professors. It housed nearly 10, 000 students and 2000

professors.

Students from Japan, China, Korea, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey came here
to learn.

It was also a pilgrimage destination from 1st century A.D.

Buddha often visited this site . Sariputra and Moggallana, two of Budhhas
disciples, are from this area. A tomb named after Sariputra is found

here and he was supposedly born here.

Many monks lived here and studied. Famous among them was Naropa. He was
instrumental in bringing Buddhism to Tibet along with

Shantirakshita and Padmasambhava.

Hsuan Tsang, the famous Buddhist pilgrim from China, came here and taught for
five years in 7 th A.D.

In 12 th Century Bakhtiyar Khalji sacked the university.

In 1860s, archaeologist Aleexander Cunningham identified the site. Excavations

by ASI began in 1916.

Takshashila

According to the available references Takshashila is dated back to at least the

5 th century BC. Some Jataka tales composed in 5th century AD

mention about this place.

 Chanakya (or Kautilya), the Maurya Emperor Chandragupta and Ayurvedic healer
Charaka studied at Taxila. Chanakya composed the famous

treatise Arthashastra (Sanskrit for the knowledge of economics) here.

Generally, students entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen. The Vedas and the
eighteen arts, which included skills such as archery, hunting

and elephant lore, were taught, in addition to its law school, medical school, and
school of military science.

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ART&CULTURE

http://www.frontline.in/artsandculture/heritage/giftsfromthechalukyas/article823226
6.ece?homepage=true

To comprehend the present and move towards the future requires an understanding
of the past that is sensitive, analytical and open to enquiry.

'ROMILA THAPAR'

Uddharet Atmana Atmanam (Let a man raise by himself)

What makes the Shompens distinct from the four other PVTGs (Particularly
Vulnerable Tribal Groups) of Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Jarawas, Great Andamanese, Onges and Sentinelese is that they are only tribe in
the region with Mongoloid features. The others have Negroid

features

Shompen women more than men (Latest report in 2015)

 Need to understand more about them

Ujjain is among the four cities where the Maha Kumbh is celebrated every 12 years,
drawing millions of pilgrims for a holy dip. The other three are

Haridwar, Allahabad and Nashik.

The Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR), is an autonomous organisation of

the Government of India, involved in Indias external

cultural relations, through cultural exchange with other countries and their
peoples. It was founded on 9 April 1950 by Maulana Abul Kalam

Azad, the first Education Minister of independent India.

The Council addresses its mandate of cultural diplomacy through a broad range of
activities. In addition to organising cultural festivals in India

and overseas, the ICCR financially supports a number of cultural institutions

across India, and sponsors individual performers in dance, music,

photography, theatre, and the visual arts. It also administers the Jawaharlal
Nehru Award for International Understanding established by the

Government of India, in 1965

Pichhwai are intricate paintings which portray Lord Krishna. They exist in the
holy town of Nathdwara in the Rajasthan state of India.

Krishna is shown in different moods, body postures, and attire more commonly found
on a cloth or paper. It is a very ancient form of art passed on

from generation to generation and it has a very devotional theme towards Lord
Krishna.

Sri Lalita Someswara Swamy Temple

Dismantled and relocated at Somasila, Telangana

Chalukyas built in Vesara style

 Abu Simbel temple. 1257 BC of Egypt too relocated

Sabarimala is a Hindu pilgrimage centre located at the Periyar Tiger Reserve in

the Western Ghat mountain ranges of Pathanamthitta District,

Perunad grama panchayat in Kerala. It is one of the largest annual pilgrimages in

the world, with an estimated over 100 million devotees visiting

every year. Sabarimala is believed to be the place where the Hindu god Ayyappan
meditated after killing the powerful demoness Mahishi.

Ayyappan's temple is situated amidst 18 hills.

Women of 1050 years not allowed entry as Ayyapa was an austere celibate sage.

Sri Abath Sahayeshwar Temple,

Senthamangalam in Villupuram T.N

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Chola era Ganpathi idols stolen from India and found in USA

Kondane

Raigarh District,Western Maharashtra

Cave art dating to 2nd century BC

Barasingha and Hunter with an arrow and 40 other paintings a chaitya hall with
Stupa at one end Hinayana Buddhism
 Malegaon Jatra or yatra

Loha Taluka of Nanded district

Mahh Bihu

Fishing and feasting festival in Assam

Whole night spent singing and fishing and living in temporary shelters made of
straw called mejis

Some of the Famous Kashmiris and their Contribution:

1.Abhinavgupta : A kashmiri Shaiva Philosopher , who contributed in the field of

Music, Philosophy, dramaturgy ,cognitive sciences, Tantra, yoga

etc.

Notable Contribution and Significance

Tantraloka: To throw Light on Tantra", a synthesis of all the Trika system.

Paratrisikavivarana: Detailing the signification of the phonematic energies and

their two sequential ordering systems, Matka and Malini

2. Kalhana Rajatarangini (an account of the history of Kasmir)

3.Charaka

Charaksamhita book was written by him , vastly taken as base for Indian Medicine
even today.
 4. Habba Khatun Poetess and ascetic, who is also known as 'Nightingale of
Kashmir',

Contribution:Habba Khatun introduced lol to Kashmiri poetry, lol is more or less

equivalent to the English 'lyric

5.Lal Ded poetry

6.Sheikhul Alam mystic poetry.

Since 1982, International Dance Day or World Dance Day, is celebrated on April 29.
This is the day to rejoice the exuberance of the spirit and

all that is vibrant. The International Dance Committee of the UNESCO International
Theatre Institute, started this initiative in 1982 to commemorate

the art of dance. The International Dance Council (CID), a partner NGO of UNESCO
works towards the objective to increase awareness and the

importance of dance among the masses. It also aims to persuade governments all
over the world to include dance in education. Every year on

Dance Day, the CID President sends an official message to every country around the
globe.

Wangla festival

300 dancers and beating of 100 drums by Garos of Meghalaya

Post harvest annual festival

Sun god of fertility worshiped

Kadapa

Gandikota fort

Mesolithic paintings in red ochre

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Triplicane

Parthsarthy Temple in Chennai

Murals depicting Kurukshetra, inscriptions of Chola king Rajaraja I

Alamgirpur

Baghpat district of Uttar Pradesh

Late Harappan phase 19001800 BC

roof tiles, dishes, terracota cakes, figurines, humped buil and snake

Being destoyed by farming.

Kankapuripatnam

close to river Gundalakamma, the cradle of Buddhism in early Christian era

55 bronze artefacts unearthed

Vadnagar
 capital of Gujarat during ancient times

huge centre of Buddhism

Xuangzang visited in 641 AD and noted monasteries and Buddhist establishments

Adurru

2400 year old Buddhist site on western bank of the Vainetaya in east Godavari
district.

World's first most popular STUPA was constructed here

Ayurveda

Ayurvedic physicians believe that there are three doshas or biological energies /
humors found in the human body.

Ancient Indians believed that everything that we see is made up of five elements
Space, Air, Fire, Water and Earth.

Vata is related to elements of space and air pittha is related to elements of

fire and water and kapha is related to elements of water and earth.

Each individual would have different levels of these three doshas, hence the
diversity. However, each person can be classified, belonging to one

or the other type, if one of the doshas predominates.

Meghalaya

Terra Madre festival

 World's first species of citrus fruits like wild citrus fruit.

Excavations at Hampi

Early Vijyanagara empire artefactsDhanwantri, Vishnu, Rama, Lakshmana, hanuman

Soopsashtra

A novel treatise on cookery in Kannada by King Mangharsha III, a Chengapulu ruler

under Hoysala dynasty

It contains Pistakadhaya on wheat and Pankadhyaya in food drinks

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Hague convention, 1954

It wants member countries to protect monuments, structures, centres of cultural

importance all around the globe.

But destruction of cultural sites by ISIS have not stopped. Palmyra known as Pearl
of the Desert

Thatheras

Traditional utensil making of Jandiala Guru, Punjab

Listed in UNESCO Representative list of Intangible cultural heritage, 2014

1.Made of copper, bronze, kansa (alloy of Cu, Sn, Zn)

 2.Developed under patronage of Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1883)

3.Skills are transfered from one generation to another.

4.Traditional use of metals is recommended by Ayurveda.

Hornbill Festival 1st week of december

1.Nagaland people celebrate this large festival and the centre supports its
organisation.

2.Organised by Department of State tourism art & culture at Naga heritage village,
Kashima, Nagaland.

3.Cultural display of music, dance, games, sports etc of Naga tribes.

Lingayats/Virashivas

worship Shiva

Put a loop with a silver linga on left shoulder.

Do not cremate their dead

Belief that on death people reunite with Shiva. So they bury their dead to
prevent rebirth.

Followers of Basvana, a jain, in court of Chalukya King.

Started in Karnataka against rigid brahamanical system in 12th century.

 Ziyarat

Pilgrimage to Sufi Saints Dargahs to get blessings (Barkhat)

ExGharib Nawaz Khwaja Moinuddin chisti's tomb

17th Bharat Rang Mahotsava

Organised by NSD

Largest such theatre festival in Asia

Project Mausam

Launched in 30th session of World Heritage Committee in Doha, Quatar, July 2014

To revive historical maritime, cultural and economic ties with 39 Indian ocean
countries namely Egypt, China etc

Handloom

85% of global production here

2010 Handloom census showed a decline in weavers by 7% p.a.

Low wages than normal workers.

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Largest industry after Agriculture, employs millions.

Traditional skills alive

Need of advertisement, safeguards from Powerloom. gold standard certification for

global sale, market expansion etc.Environment friendly

production than powerlooms.

CertificationThe Handloom Mark guarantees hand woven.

Targeting only a niche group like the affluent class as handlooms are costlier.

Pashmina, Shahtooshof J&K, Kancheepuram silk of T.N, Muga silk

Powerloom demanding dilution of handloom reservations of Saris, dhotis under

Handloom Reservation and Articles for Production Act, 1985. Under

this act 11 textile articles reserved for handloom.

Government subsidises yarn to handloom weavers through NAtional Handloom

Development Corporation.

Under Essential Commodities act and Hank Yarn obligation spinning mills have to
produce yarn called Hank Yarn for handloom.

Powerloom taken livelihood of many moreover power woes many left in a lurch

Powerloom and Handloom should not compete with each other complement and
supplement each other
 Poor credit availability, less educated and less resourceful

Waiving of loans changing the notion that it is for less educated to a profession
with good remuneration attracting youth

Imparting training of youth through NIFT, certification, global connection and

sale

Technical Upgradation changing definition of handloom debate on making handloom

as any process howsoever mechanised with manual

intervention or human energy for production called Hybrid looms but government
retained handloom as any loom other than powerloom

But health issues like soreness in palm, hands, legs, chronic nervous disruption
need a little bit mechanisation. Hence semiautomatic handlooms

can be an option

Changing mentality of weavers promoting awareness of use of technology and

automation

MNREGA sector linkage dresses for government schools, offices, police etc

Varanasi has now climbed the bandwagon of UNESCO "Cities of Music" under the
Creative Cities Network. Nine cities Glasgow (Scotland),

Hanover and Mannheim (Germany), Ghent (Belgium), Hamamatsu (Japan), Brazzaville

(Republic of Congo), Bogota (Columbia), Seville (Spain) and

Bologna (Italy) are also a part of UNESCO "Cities of Music"

Performing arts

Rich cultural heritage of the nation in music, drama, painting, dances etc

Sam Veda (Sam Ragas, hymns)

 E

>

i i

Prehistoric cave painting,

Bhimbetka, M.P

Reached its zenith during Gupta period (Samudragupta), Delhi sultanate, Mughal
rule etc

Folk music and dances during harvesting season, birth of child, marriages etc to
celebrate personally or in groups with the local

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people.

Entire Himalyan region celebrate sowing of wheat crop from Darjeeling to Kashmir.

Lohri on 13th January every year for wheat harvest.

Gidda (women) and Bhangra (men) PUNJAB

Ghoomar by Rajasthani women

 Garba (women) and Dandiya ras (men) in Gujarat

Lavani in Maharashtra, men dance with women on them forming pyramids

Dancedrama or folk theatre

Theatre art is traditional in nature. It is a continuous presentation with no

episodes. None of the characters are introduced. Stress is more on acting,

expressions rather than beauty. With contemporary situations, dialogues are

improvised but the theme is always pure i.e traditional.

For ex Bidapat nach, a descriptive dance

Bhand Jashn of Kashmiri wee entry is made dancing.

Bhavai of Gujarat where slow movements signify entry.

Clowns crack jokes and reflect the socioeconomic problems in the society. Ina very
simple manner, artists perform with the narrator using high pitch

dialogues.

Nautanki in Bihar, U.P, Rajasthan

r
 Kanpur, Lucknow, Haathras

Men were only participating earlier but now women too.

Doha, Chaubola, Cahipaai, Beharetabeel used as metres in verses

Gulab Bai of Kanpur

Bhavai of Gujarat

Kuchh and Kathiawar region

Based on Tablas, flute, Pakhwaj, sarangi, Manjeera

Rare combination of devotional and romantic sentiments.

Tamasha of Maharashtra

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Evolved from jagran, kirtan

Female is main actress with lightning speed moves

Dashavatar of Goa, konkan

 10 incarnations of Lord Vishnu, the god of preservation and creativity

Matsya (fish), Kurma (tortoise), Varaha (boar), Narsimha (lionman), Vaman (dwarf),
Parashuram, Rama, Krishna (or Balram),

Buddha and Kalki.

Artists cover face through paper masks

Krisnattam of Kerala

Under patronage of King Manavada of Calicut

Lord Krishna is portrayed in a cycle of eight plays for eight days

Mudiyettu of Kerala

Victory of Goddess Bhadrakali over Asur Darika

Celebrated in month of Virschikam (NovemberDecember) in temples of Kali

Koodiyattam of Kerala

Based on Sanskrit traditions

Hand gesture and eye movements are unique

Jatra of Bengal
 Fairs in honour of Gods, religious rituals

Krishna Jatra by Chaitanya

Musical where actors dictate scenes, narrate themselves.

Maach of Madhya Pradesh

Songs between scenes

Vanag dialogues Tunes are called rangat

Bhaona of Assam

Ankia naat of Assam

Essence of Brindavan, Mathura, Assam, Bengal, Odisha

Sutradhar or narrator begins in Sanskrit and then in Assamese or Brajboli

Yakshgana of Karnataka

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n I r
 s

I '

Based on stories of Mahabharata i.e Draupadi swaymbar etc and Ramayana stories
like Rajyaabhishek.

Theyyam of Kerala

Therokoothu of Tamil Nadu (street play)

Based on pleasing Mariamann (Rain Godess) for rain harvest.

Bhand Pather

Farming community of Kashmir perform music, dance and acting. Satire, wit and
parody creates laughter. Dhol, surnai, nagara

are used and farmers show their way of living, ideas which are discernible.
Kalhana's 'Rajtaringini' talks about Bhand Pather

MarriedKashmiri Panditwomen wearornamentscalledDej Hor

Swang

Was music based but now prose also.

Clear emotions with accomplishment of rasa an development of character.

Two forms in Rohtak where Haryanvi is used and Haathras where Brij Bhasa.
 Rasleela

Nanda Das prepared on Lord Krishna

Contains pranks on Lord Krishna and gopis

These narrate stories of local heroes and dieties.

Martial arts

Dance of Northeastern hill tribes

Kalariapayattu of Kerala

Chhau dance of Orissa, West Bengal, Bihar

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Lazim of Maharashtra

Canons of classical dance laid down in Bharata's NATYASASHTRA (between 2th century
B.C to A.D, revealed by creator Brahma), Matanga's

Brihadessika (dealt with ragas, desi music, 46th century A.D), Sangeet Sudhakara
of Haripala, Swaramelakalanidhi of Mahamatya

. 3

 Z X

Kathak dance, miniature painting, Sculptural relief dance, Lakshmana Temple,

Kishangarh, Rajasthan Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh

Hindustani Music (Rest of India though Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh also))

Carnatic Music (Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu)

All India Radio (AIR) was going to launch a 24hour classical music channel,
Raagam, on various digital platforms this Republic Day.

HINDUSTANI

Oldest music of Rig Veda

Poems(Psalms) of Rig veda called richas.

Swara, Raga and Tala 3 pillars of Indian music

Natyasashtra

#Gramas i.e a set of svaras or notes (smallest components of music)

Shadja Grama

Madhyam Grama
 #Both differed with one sruti in their panchama (Svar, notes) i.e M.G panchama was
one sruti lower than S.G panchama

Sruti is a unit of measure or small difference between gramas

22 practically but infinite in Indian music

Saptak or octave contained seven notes.

From each Grama subsidiary scales are derived called moorrcchanas

Seven basic note or moorcchanas in a scale

64 moorcchanas derivable from 2 gramas.

2 auxillary svaras by Bharata Antara Gandhara and Kakali Nishada

Melodic forms called Jatis with Graha (starting note) and Nyasa (note ending
phrase)

Medieval India changes

Sangeeta Ratnakara by Sarangadeva in 13th century A.D

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Number and definition of svaras became different.

 With effect of music from Central and West Asia (CULTURE IS DYNAMIC) gramas and
moorchanas disappeared.

15th centuryGrama system became obsolete

Mela or Thata took its place

Only one common note Sa

18th centurySuddha svara in Hindustani music became different

Replaced by Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni

Above is mela aroh of Rag Bilaval

5 variants making 12 notes (tonal regions) to a Saptak

Sa re re ga ga ma ma pa dha dha ni ni

17th centuryVenkatmukhi gave 72 melas out of these 12 notes/tones

Pt. Bhatnake chose 10 out of 72 to give Hindustani Ragas

Tribal and folk songs independent of grammar (ragas, tones etc)

Talas

Cyclical arrangement of time units

 Laghu (one syllable), Guru (two syllable, Plutha (three syllable)

108 talas

Theka defines tala by a stroke of tabla (each stroke defines a bol, syllable)

Musical forms

Anibaddha Sangeet Not restricted by meaningful words and tala

Free impoverisation, finest form is Alap.

Nibaddha SangeetPrabhanda Giti the generic term for nibaddhas with a set of ragas
and talas

Jayadeva's prabhandha (most widely known) had

ashtapadis (songs and verses with eight couplets in

Sanskrit) which spread throughout the country and

developed varyingly

Bhakti movement

Nanak, Kabir, Jaideva, Chaitnya, Surdas, Tulsi, Eknath, Tukaram, Mirabai, Narsi

Abhanga, Kirtans, Bhajans, Baul songs

Nibaddha with Dhrupad

 reached its peak in 15th century to 18th century.

Maharaja of Gwalior, Man Singh Tomar patronised Dhrupada

Swami Haridasa in northern India, a Dhrupadiya prominent feature of Bhakti cult,

Guru of Tansen

DHRUPAD

Sombre approach and emphasis on rhythm

Anibaddha section and sanchari Dhrupad proper

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Dhrupad proper contains 4 parts: Asthayi, Antara, Sanchari, Abhoga

Four schools or vanis of singing Dhrupad

Gauhar vanideveloped raga or unadorned melodic figures

Dagar vani melodic curves and graces

Khandar vani quick ornamentation of notes

 Nauhar vani broad musical leaps and jumps.

Associated with Been and Pakhwaj

In present times receded in glory, restricted to temples only

Khyal

In vogue now, means 'imagination'

Roots from ancient indian Alaps

Propagated by Amir khushrau (13th century), Sultan Mohammad Sarkhi 15th century,
Niyamat khan Sadarang and

Adarang of 18th century

Two forms

Vilambit or slow tempo Khyal

Drut or fast tempo khyal

Both have asthayee (middle and lower octaves) and antara (upper and middle
octaves)

Together they make a song (Bandish), cheez.

Gharanas as compared to vanis in Dhrupad

GWALIOR Gharana
Father Nathan Peerbaksh

OthersHaddu Khan, Hassu Khan

Open voice clear enunciation of words with stress on swaras, raga, talas

Musicians Krishna Pandit, Raja Poonchawale.

AGRA Gharana

Father Khuda Baksh of Agra

Similar to Gwalior with open and clear voice

Bol taan fast and medium Layakari

Musicians Vilayat Hussain khan, Fayyaz Khan

JAIPUR Atroli Gharana

Alladiya Khan in 19th20th century

Medium speed, open and clear voice

Medium speed Khyal with Alankars (repetitive motifs)

insistence on tala
 Musicians Mallikarjun Mansur, Kishori Amonkar

Rampur Saheswan Gharana

Rampur, U.P

slow and fast khyals folowed by Tarana

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lyrical and full of tonal embroidery

Nisar Khan, Rashid Khan

Thumri

love song, textual beauty

Set to ragas like Bhairavi

musical grammar not needed

Poorab or Banaras slow

Punjab style mercurial (liable to change)

Rasoolan Devi, Siddheswari Devi

 Tappa

Fast note patterns

Difficult and need practice as Thumri, khyal, dhrupad.

CARNATIC MUSIC

Silappadhikaram, 2nd century A.D musical epic of Tamil

Tolkappiyam, Kalladam by Vaishnavite and shaivite saints during 78th century A.D

Hindustani and Carnatic music had same origins.

With advent of Muslims, Hindustani music got affected by Arabic and Persian styles
and became phenomenal in Mughal courts.

Whereas, carnatic music developed under original lines and got patronage of
Krishandeva Arya of Vijaynagara kingdom.

South Indian music was prevalent in the reign of Yadavas in middle ages at their
capital Deogiri.

Carnatic Sangeeta PitamahaPurandardasa,1484

He introduced certain changes which exist at present in carnatic music.

Malavagowla scale forms the basic scale of music instruction

Svaravalis, Janta varisas, Suladi sapta, tala alankars and gitams are master
pieces.
 Devaranamas or Dasar Padas were kirtans of Purandardasa

Melakarta scheme of Venkatamukhi contained all modern and ancient modes in a

systematic formula

Venkatamukhi's work Chaturdandi Prakasika in 1620 A.D72 Melakartas

Golden age of music throughout the world1750 to 1850 A.D

Trinity of Thyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, Syama sastri were contemporaries of

western musicians like Beethoven, Mozart,

Haydn.

Few musicians were Vina Kuppayar, Patnam Subramanyam Iyer, Ramand Srinivas
Iyengar, Mysore Sadsiva Ro,

Mysore Vasudevathar, Papanasam sivan

Sangeeta Sampradaya Pradarshini of Subarama Dikshitar in 1904

Similarity with Hindustani music

Many musicians had knowledge of Hindustani music and adopted raga to carnatic
compositions.

Nibadha Sangeet, Anibadha Sangeet closely matched with Kalapita sangeet,

Manodharma (improvised music) and classified as

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sacred music, art music.

Many musics have similarities with Hindustani music like Raga Kaphi, kanad,
Khamaj, Paraj, Purvi, Bhairav

Musical trinity too adopted ragas like Yaman Kalyan, Hamir Kalyan etc

Ancient prabhandhas gave way to different music. Some musical forms are:

GITAM

Simple in composition with melodious flow of music.

Devotional, performed for Acharyas.

Slow tempo, without repetition of any line with no variance.

Gitalankars like a iya, a iyam, va iya etc are special features called matrik
padas.

Purandardasa wrote gitas for Vishnu, Maheswara, Ganesha called Pillari Gitas.

It was composed in Kanada, Sanskrit, Bhandira Bhasa

Lakshya and Samanya Gitas based on ragas.

Gurumurti Sastry, eminent musician after Purandardasa, Venkatamakhi wrote Lakshana

Gitas.
SULADI

Similar to Gitam but of higher standards

Different parts on different talas called talamalika.

Devotional, contain fewer sahitya syllables than gitam, more vowel extensions.

Of varying tempo like vilambit, madhyam, druta

SVARJATI

More complicated than gitams and learnt after gitams gives way to Varnams.

3 sections: Pallavi, Anupallavi, Charanam.

DEvotional or amorous music

Based on dance form with Jatis or talas, solfa like tak tari kita..

Syama Sastri composed svarjatis without jatis

JATISVARAM

Similar to svarjati

No sahitya or words but only tala, solfas of dance

Pallavi, Anupallavi sung with jatis, Charnam with svaras and jatis.
 Ragamalika Jatisvaram

VARNAMS

No counterpart in Hindustani music.

Devotional or love based

Pure in character which makes vocalist and instrument player master in this art
and gain command over raga, tala, bhava

Few words and profusion of vowels.

Two types

Tana Varnam Music based Words only for Pallavi, Anupallavi, Charnam

Pada Varnam Dance based Words for all angas.

Two angas or sections in Varnam

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Purvanga Pallavi, Anupallavi and muktayi svaras

Uttaranga/Ettukadai Charnam and Charna svaras

 Musicians Pachchimiriyam Adiyapapaya, Shyama Sastri, Mysore Vasudevachar, Ramnad
Srinivas Iyengar, Patnam Subramanyam

Ayer, Swati Tirunal, Venkatsubyya

KIRTANAM

Soulstirring music of devotion

Talapakam composers in 15th century wrote Pallavi, Anupallavi, Charnamas

Charnamas are two or more with rest same.

MusiciansBhadrachalam Ramdas, Thyagaraja

KIRTI

PADA

JAVALI

TILLANA

PALALVI

TANAM

Delphic Games
 1000 years old games of Greece

Revived by International Delphic Council in 1994

India is hosting it in Goa, 2016

6 categories: musical arts and sounds/ performing arts/ language arts/visual arts/
social arts/ ecological arts and architecture.

SATRAS

It is an institution central to the religiocultural resurgence initiated in Assam

by the great Vaishnavite saintreformer Srimanta Sankaradeva (1449

1596). The entire gamut of religious, social and cultural activism in medieval
Assam of the 15th17th century centred on the Satra, with the naam

ghar or kirtanghar as its nucleus. Six centuries later, the Satras, spread across
Assam, continue to be at the heart of Assamese culture, including

music, dance, drama, the fine arts and now, tourism

http://indianexpress.com/article/explained/satrasinrownowcentreofassamlifeforcentur
ies/

There are nearly 900 of them today, and the most important Satras are at Majuli
island in the Brahmaputra, and in Barpeta, Nagaon

and Dhubri. Satriya dance is performed by Bhakats who have won Sangeet Natak
Academy award.

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NCERT/ Others

Resources

On the basis of status of development

Potential Resources

Are not utilised at present but identified.

Solar, Wind energy in Rajasthan, Gujarat.

Developed Resources

Surveyed and quantity and quality determined

Stocks

In abundance

Humans donot have adequate technology or expertise to harness them

Water containing H&O, inflammable gases.

Reserves

In abundance
 Not in use at present but future use on technology.

Resource Planning

India has vast reserves of minerals, energy sources etc. But these are scattered
over the whole subcontinent. Rajasthan has solar energy but less

water, Leh has mineral resources but less water etc. Some states are rich in one
but deficient in another. Each can supply each other to meet

requirements. A planned management of these resources where surplus is diverted to

deficient is needed.

1.Identification

Surveying, mapping and quantitative, qualitative estimation of resources

2.Planning

Use of S&T, skill and institutions to develop these identified areas.

3.Matching

Developing synchronisation between national demands and resource development.

Issues

Some states have abundant resources (Jharkhand) but deficient technology,

expertise, manpower to use them. Whereas some states with little

resources are more prosperous than these states. Hence development depends not
only on availability of resources but on

Technology

Quality of Human resources

Historical experiences of people. (Colonial power had these advantages)

In view of increased exploitation and limited resources and demand of

industrialization of the developing south, sustainable development is needed

and was emphasised by Brundtland Commission Report in 1987.

ElNino and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)

IOD is positive when western Indian ocean is more warm than eastern Indian ocean.
It helps SW monsoon gain moisture pushing it towards India.
 El Nino is abnormal rise in temperature of equatorial Pacific off the coast of
South America. It affects rainfall in India, winter in eastern Australia

IOD neutralises the effect of El Nino. But it is not yet established

EQINOOEquatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation

More associated with El Nino.

It is oscillation between eastern and western waters of Indian ocean.

It counters El Nino as western waters are made more warmer than eastern thus
bringing more rainfall to western coast of India

which is beneficial for monsoons.

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Earthquake

Hypocentre or focus is the place of crust where movement starts. Epicentre is

above it.

Sesmic waves are:

1.P waves or Longitudnal waves

2.S waves or Surface waves

3.L waves or Surface waves

Common earthquake prediction methods are seen as animals agitated behaviour,

snakes out on the surface, fish in the ponds get agitated.

Bhuj Earthquake was of 6.9 Richter scale on 26 January, 2001.

Q.Why tropical areas do not have lumbering industry?

 Assessment of buildings by RVS

(Rapid Visual Screening)

1.Type A Mud, thatched roofs etc

2.Type BStone built with timber roof.

3.Type CConcrete made, well wooden built

4.Type XNot covered in above.

For engineers to assess vulnerable buildings and make them resistant.

Proper affordable climate change reistant housing is a burning problem today.

Indira Awas Yojana etc have been less effective.

EARTH

Inner planetsMercury, Venus, Earth, Mars Made up of rocks.

Outer planetsJupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto

Pluto has been declared a dwarf planet located in the Kupier belt (A belt
containing ice masses revolving around sun).

New Horizon's aircraft will reach Pluto this year.

Ceres is the largest asteroid. Dawn of NASA will reach Ceres in 2015. It will give
initials about beginnings of solar system.

Moon has revolving period of 27 days and the same time as rotating spin. It is
located 3,84,000 Km from earth.

That is why we are able to see only one side of the moon.

Sun is located 150 million km from earth.

Mars has two moons Phobos and Delmos.

Pole star indicating north direction is also called as 'North Star'. By measuring
the angle of Pole star gives the latitude of that

place.

'Meridians of Longitudes' and 'Parallels of Latitudes' are imaginary lines on

earth with degrees and direction specified to them.

The distance between two meridians of longitude is termed as 'degrees of

longitude'

When Prime Meridian 0 degrees will have sun at overhead or the highest point of
sky then all places will have the same on the 0

degrees longitude.

Earth rotates 1 degrees in 4 minutes. It can be used to calculate time of places

India has local time adopted to central meridian 82*30' E passing at Mirzapur near
Allahabad.

Russia has 11 time zones, USA, Canada have 6 time zones.

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The vertical line from the

earth plane

s orbital

The earth's axis

a V A

Qce..

23

Ben 51

>

Spring

Np. Equinox

(21 March)

Autumn

Winter in the

Summer in the

Northern Hemisphere Northern Hemisphere

Summer Solstice Winter Solstice

(21 June) SUN (22 December)

Winter in the Summer in the

Southern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere

A ..

Domains of Earth

Lithosphere, Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, Biosphere

7 continents according to size: Asia>Africa>North America>South

America>Antarctica>Europe>Australia

Northern hemisphere is called the land hemisphere

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Asia

In eastern hemisphere

Ural mountains separate from Europe in west

Largest producer of Tin (China, Malaysia, Indonesia)

China is leading producer of Rare Earth Metals (17 elements including Lanthanides
and yttrium, scandium), lead, antimony, tungsten

Rare Earth MetalsUses

Aerospace and defense

Retain magnetic strength at high temperatures

Used for laser resolution

Health care

MRIs, cochlear impalnts, Ytrium in solid state lasers and cancer treatment

Clean Energy

Wind turbines, car batteries, CFLs, LED, Magnetic refrigeration

Electronics

Computer, optical drives, smartphones

Transportation
 Electric motors, Hybrid cars, catalytic converters

Chemical Oil refining and Manufacturing

Refining of crude oil into gasoline, use in specialty metal alloys.

Africa

has the longest river Nile flowing through Egypt.

Sahara desert, the largest hot desert

South America

World's largest river 'Amazon'.

Andes run north to south in western side.

Australia

Island continent

Antarctica

Thick ice sheets

Indian observatories like Maitri, Dakshin Gangotri, Bharathi

Strait

A narrow passage of water connecting two large water bodies like sea and ocean or
seas.

Examples Strait of Malacca, Hormuz

Isthmus

A narrow strip of land joining two landmasses.

Examples Isthmus of Panama, Isthmus of Kra (Thailand)

HYDROSPHERE

71% water and 29% land.

Ocean water movements are the waves, the tides, the oceanic currents.

97% water in oceans is salty, 2.5% fresh water, 70% of fresh water is in glaciers
 Mariana trench in Pacific ocean is deepest (11,022 Km)

Atlantic Ocean is S shaped, coastline is highly indented which is good for ports.
It is busiest ocean in terms of commerce.

It is connected with Pacific ocean by Berring Strait.

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ATMOSPHERE

Extends to 1600 km height

Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere, Exosphere

Density decreases with height. Sea level densest and above density decreases.
Mountain climbers feel oxygen crunch due to low

density of air.

Temperatures also decrease with height.

Wind moves from high pressure to low pressure.

BIOSPHERE

Narrow zone of contact between land, water, air where life exists.

Plants, animals, microbes depend on it for survival.

LANDFORMS

Mountain is a hill which is more than 600 metres in 'elevation' above the sea
level.

Mountains in a line called Range.

Fold mountains

Formed due to tectonic process of collision of plates. Himalayas, Alps are the
young mountains. Aravali, Applachians, Ural mountains

are old.
 Keeps getting weathered by erosion.

Block Mountains

Formed when large spaces are broken and displaced vertically

Elevated part is called horst and depressed part is graben

Rhine valley, Vosges mountain in Germany

Volcano mountains

Formed due to volcanic activity

Mt. Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, Africa, Mt. Fujiyama in Japan, Mt. Shindake in Japan,
Mt. Calbuco in Chile.

Mauna Kea (10,205 metres) which is underwater in Hawaii higher than everest

PLATEAU

Elevated flat land with steep slopes at one or more sides.

Deccan Plateau in India, East African Plateau in Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Western
plateau of Australia, Tibet Plateau the highest

called as 'Roof of the World' is 4,0006,000 metres above the sea level.

Rich in mineral deposits. Afrcan plateau for gold and diamond, India's
Cjhotanagpur plateau for iron, coal, manganese.

Contain waterfalls like Hundru in Jharkhand on Subarnekha, Jog falls in Karnataka.

Lava plateaus are rich in black soil which is fertile and good for cultivation.

PLAINS

Near river valley, very fertile, thickly populated

Formed by deposition by rivers.

Ganga river valley, Yangtze in China etc.

MAPS

Globe studies earth as a whole. Map is specific and more detailed if we need to
know about cities, countries, physical features.
 Physical Map

Shows physical landforms like mountains, plateaus, rivers, plains.

Political Map

Shows cities, towns, villages, countries with boundaries.

Thematic Map

Shows rainfall, distribution of forests, industries which give specific

information

Three components of a map

DistanceScale is used. For example5 km on road shown by 2 cm means 1 cm on map is

2.5 km on road.

Large scale (1 cm on map is 500 m) map gives more information

than small scale (1 cm on map is 5 km) maps.

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DirectionCompass which always shows North direction. It is always shown in upper

corner of a map and is called North line.

North, South, East, West are cardinal points.

SymbolsGives a lot of information in a limited space.

Brown for mountains, yellow for plateau, green for plains, blue
for water bodies.

Sketch

Rough drawing without scales

Plan
 Detailed map showing small area on a large scale with length and breadth of
housing, sanitation projects.

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 (continental sn f |

Internationai waters

(outside Temtorai waters)

Exclusive Economic Zone

(200 nautical miles)

Contiguous zone

( 12 nautical miles)

Territorial waters

( 12 nautical miles)

Internal waters 7

Baseline

(mean low water mark)

Land

1 nautical mile equals 1.6 Km.

Minerals, water resources, forests, wildlife, etc within 12 nm belong as national

resources.

Beyond EEZ international consensus is required to utilise resources.

Manganese is mined by India from Indian Ocean beyond EEZ

Time of Standard Meridian 82 30'E passing from Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh is the
standard time.
 UN Convention on Law of the Seas

Member countries have the right to exploit 370 km of their continental shelves

They can also exploit 650 km if proof of extension of continental shelves is

submitted.

Latitudinal extent influences the duration of day and night as one moves from
south to north

That is why differences between duration of day and night is hardly felt at
Kanyakumari which is 8 degrees north of equator.

Whereas at Kashmir difference can be actually felt as it is 37 degrees away from

equator.

Theory of Plate Tectonics

Crust is made of 7 major and some minor plates.

Movement of these plates causes stress leading to volcanic, folding and faulting
activity.

Convergent Boundary

Two plates come towards each other which slide against each other or come below
another.

Divergent Boundary

Two plates move away from each other

Transform Boundary

Two plates slide horizontally past each other.

Gondwana Island

It was a continent made up of today's India, South Africa, South America,

Australia, Arabia, Madagascar amd Antarctica,

It existed in Precambrian period around 600 mya and disintegrated due to

convection currents 180 mya.

PROCESS
 Continental Drift Theory by Alfred Wenger, 1912

Pangaea broke into Laurasia in North and Gondwanaland in South.

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1.Indian plate drifted north and struck with Eurasian plate.

2.Sedimentary rocks termed 'Tethys' got accumulated in the geosyncline and folded
to form mountains of Western Asia and Himalayas.

3.It led to depression in northern flank of Peninsular plateau which got filled by
silt and rivers started flowing there forming the northern plains.

4.Himalayas and northern plains are the most recent landforms.

India comprises of 43% plains, 30% mountains and 27% plateaus.

Land Utilisation

3.28 million sq km is total geographical area of India.

It depends on :

1.Physical factors: 2.Human factors:

Topography Population

Climate Technology

Soil Culture and traditions.

ft.

General land use Categories 1960- 61 General land use Categories 2002 03

Reporting Area. 100 per cent

18. 11% 22.57%

 45.26* 43.41% /

12.01%

h- 6 29%

4.95% ' i ( 7, 92%

4.71% A s 3.45%

^ N

1.50 %

^ 1.10

<H 4 41%

3 73% 3.50% 6 23 7.03% 3.82%

Forest

| Culturable Waste land

] Barren and waste land Fallows other than Current Fallow

| under non agricultural use

Area - Current Fallow

 Pastures Gra . Land

n Permanent and /U^ Not Sown Area

| under . Tree crops and Groves

Area mLsc

Culturable Wasteland is land which has not been cultivated for more than 5
agricultural years.

Current fallow is land left uncultivated for 1 or less than 1 agricultural year.

Other than current fallow is land left uncultivated for 15 agricultural years.

Area sown more than once in an agricultural year plus net sown area is called
Gross Cropped Area.

Other than current fallow lands are poor in quality and cost of cultivation is
high leading to once or twice cultivation in 23 years. If it is included in Net

Sown Area then NSA share increases to >50%.

National Forest Policy, 1952

33% is minimum desired forest area in the country.

Forest cover in India includes forests occurring naturally and areas demarcated
for forests like plantations, regenerating lands etc. Hence figures may

be less when actual forest cover is viewed.

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State of Forest Report, 2013

Total area under forest is 697,898 sq km. or 21.23% of total geographical area.

If patches of forest land left for regeneration is counted then it becomes 24%.

Dense forests are 12.24 % and open are 8.99%

 Mangrove is 4628 sq km with Gujarat, W.B, A&N have widespread mangrove cover.

Land Degradation

Wastelands include arid, rocky, desert areas and land put to nonagricultural uses
like roads, railways, settlements etc. Overuse of land by

agriculture, excessive irrigation (Punjab,Haryana,U.P), deforestation, soil

erosion, mining (Jharkhand,Chattisgarh,M.P,Odisha),

overgrazing (Maharashtra,Gujarat,Rajasthan,M.P),quarrying have degraded land.

1.Water eroded area is 56%

2.Forests degraded area is 28%

3.Wind eroded area is 10%

4.Saline and alkaline land is 6%

HIMALAYAS

Run from west to east for 2400 km with width of 400 km in North to 150 km in
northeast.

1.Great Himalayas or Inner Himalayas or Himadri

World's highest peaks located Mt. Everest.

Kanchenjunga (8598 km) is the highest peak in India.

Rocks are made up of Granite.

2.Middle/Lesser Himalyas or South to Himadri.

Hill stations like Kullu,Manali in H.P, M Himachal ussourie, Ranikhet, Nainital in

Uttranchal.

Valley of Kashmir, Kangra, Kullu

Pir Panjal (longest), Dhaula Dhar, Mahabharat ranges.

3.Shivalik Range Southernmost.

Gravel and alluvium brought by rivers

DUNS longitudinal valley between Himachal and Shivaliks.

 Dehra dun, Kotli dun, Patli dun, Pinjore dun

Divisions from west to east

1.Punjab Himalayas

Between Indus and Satluj rivers

Also known as Kashmir and Himachal Himalyas

2.Kumaon Himalayas

Between Satluj and Kali rivers

3.Nepal Himalayas

Kali and Teesta rivers

4.Assam Himalayas

Between Teesta and Dihang rivers

Regional Names

Dhaulagiri, Sagarmatha, Anapurna, Ganesh, Laltang etc

Purvachal or Eastern Himalayas

Patkai, Naga, Mizo, Manipur Hills

Brahamputra is easternmost boundary of Himalayas

Himalayas bend beyond Dihang gorge

Composed of sandstones and sedimentary rocks in Northeast.

NORTHERN INDIAN PLAINS

Punjab Plains

Western part of plains in Punjab and akistan

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Formed by Indus and tributaries.

Doabs present (It means area between two rivers)

Ganga Plains

Between Ghaggar and Teesta rivers

Bhabbar

rivers deposit pebbles of 816 km width

lying parallel to Shiwaliks

All streams disappear

Terai

South of Bhabbar streams reemerge and create wet, swampy and marshy region.

Forests & wildlife present but were cleared after independence for settlements.

Dudhwa National Park

Bhangar

Older fertile alluvium like a terrace

Soil contain calcareous deposits called Kankar

Khadar

Newer deposits renewed by rivers and more fertile

Intensive agriculture followed.

GREAT INDIAN DESERT

150mm rainfall

Luni river flows to Arabian sea

Barchans or crescent shaped dunes in Indian part and longitudnal dunes in

Indopakistan boundary.

Thar desert has clear skies all the time. Sands do not absorb and reflect all the
heat this results in high temperatures in the day

and subfreezing temperatures in night. This is in contrast to alluvial plains

where humus absorb heat.

PENINSULAR PLATEAU

Old metamorphic and igneous rocks

Central Highlands

North of Narmada river covering Malwa Plateau.

Vindhayn range in south and Aravalis on northwest.

Chambal, Sind , Betwa drain from southwest to northeast in a slope.

East extends to BUNDELKHAND and BAGHELKHAND

Chotanagpur plateau in east

Deccan Plateau

South of Narmada

Satpura range in north

Maikala, mahadeo, Kaimur hills in east

High in west and slope towards east.

Extension as Meghalaya, KarbiAnglong Plateau, Nort Cachar hills.

Garo, Khasi, Jaintia Hills

Western and Eastern Ghats

Western ghats is higher and narrower than eastern Ghats. Its height increases
towards south.

WG can be passed through passes only namely Pal ghats, Thal, Bhor Ghats

WG receives orographic rainfall along western slopes.

EG is irregular and dissected by rivers.

Highest peak is Anaimudi in Western and Mahendragiri in eastern ghats.

 Udagamandalam or ooty and Kodaikannal as hill stations.

Black soil area or Deccan Trap is present. It is of volcanic origin and formed of
igneous rocks.

Aravali hills in western and northwestern margins as eroded and broken hills
running southwest to northeast direction

Ponmudi is a hill station near Thiruvananthpuram, Kerala known for Dental tourism

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COASTAL PLAINS

Western coast is narrower than eastern coast

West coast

Northern part as Konkan

Middle part as Kannad plain

Southern part as Malabar coast

East coast

Northern part as Northern Circars

Southern part as Coromandel Coast

Deltas of Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari

Chilika Lake, the largest salt water lake in Odisha in Mahanadi delta.

ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS, LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS.

Earlier Lakshadweep was Minnicoy, Laccadive and Amindive and named in 1973 as
Lakshadweep

Corals in Lakshdweep
 In problem due to

1.Pollution by Ships

2.Global warming

3.Reclamation

Andaman has active volcano on Barren Island.

Coral polyps secrete Calcium carbonate

Barrier reef

Great Barrier reef of Australia.

Fringing Reef

Atolls

Circular and horseshoe shaped corals.

CLIMATE

It is affected by location, altitude, pressure & wind system, distance from the
sea, ocean currents and relief features.

Elements of weatherTemperature, humidity, rainfall, wind speed.

Average weather pattern taken over along time, say 25 years is climate of that
place.

Distance from the sea is called continentality i.e very hot during summers and
cold during winters.

Factors affecting Indian climate

1.Latitude

Tropical and subtropical climates as ToC passes india.

2.Altitude

Himalayas in the north with more than 6000 metres height prevent cold winds in
Central Asia from entering India. This makes winter milder in India as

compared to Tibet and Cenral Asia.

3.Pressure & wind systems

 Northeasterly winds or trade winds which blow from east to south occupy India.

Coriolis force pushes them to right and towards India but with little moisture.

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El Nino took away cold from winters in India

Warm Pacific westerlies affected by anticyclonic winds and jet streams

*For winter monsoon, westerlies flow south of its normal position in 3060 degrees
over the Indian landmass but it remains north of Indian landmass

*Jet streams flow 512 km north of Indian landmass but have moved south to
foothills of Himalayas

Dry and less cold winters controlled fungal diseases of rabi crops which grow in
humid and cold environment in winters however rabi crop yield

may get hit with high temperatures.

Wheat may ripen prematurely thus affecting yield of the crops.

Three weather seasons in India:

1.Cold weather season (winter)

MidNovember to February with January and February being the coldest months.

Days are warm and nights are cold.

NE trade winds prevail over the country.

Western cyclonic disturbances bring rainfall called 'mahawat' which is much needed
for Rabi crops.

Peninsular India has constant weather due to moderating affect of oceans.

Tamil Nadu which receives less rainfall being parallel to BoB branch of SW
monsoon.
 2.Hot Weather season(summer)

March to May

Shift of ITCZ occur northwards.

Low pressure develops from Patna to Thar desert which beckons monsoon in future.

'Loo' a westerly wind blows from northwest and Pakistan region. These heat waves
cause heat shocks to people.

Dust storms are common in northern India. They cause little rainfall and make
weather cold.

Kal Baisakhi or Nowesters occur in West Bengal and Assam are thunderstorms with
violent winds, torrential downpours with hail

Mango showers or premonsoon showers occur in Kerala and Karnataka which help in
ripening of mangoes.

3.South west monsoon (rainy)

June to September

Agriculture in India is dependent on monsoons. (Winds blow from sea to land)

Only 30% of cultivated land is irrigated rest is monsoon dependent.

Mawsynram (Assam) has highest rainfall.

Duration is 100120 days with variability and different parts receive rainfall at
different times.

Burst of Monsoon occurs when there is continuous rainfall in heavy and slow form
for a few days.

When rainfall is >100 mm per hour then it is called cloud burst.

Progress of Monsoon

1.Monsoons reach the southern tip of Indian peninsula by first week of June.

2.It gets divided into two parts namely Arabian sea branch and Bay of Bengal
branch

3.Arabian sea branch causes rainfall in Maharashtra starting from Mumbai which
receives heavy rainfall.

4.As western ghats are mountainous in nature, windward side receives heavy
rainfall but leeward side or Vidarbha part of

Maharashtra gets deficient rainfall.

 5.Arabian sea branch moves to central India and SaurashtraKuchh area. Aravallis
lie parallel to SW monsoons which results in minor

rainfall.

6.Bay of Bengal branch enters Assam and strikes with lofty mountains of Garo,
Khasi, Jaintia hills and causes immense rainfall in these

areas. Mawsynram in southern ranges of Khasi hills receives heaviest rainfall.

7.Now BoB branch goes towards Bihar, Bengal, Odisha and causes rainfall over these
areas. Rainfall decreases east to west.

8.It reaches Delhi around 30th June but causes less rainfall as compared to other
areas as most of the moisture is lost in Eastern

India.

8.Now BoB and Arabian sea branch meets near Ganga plains. LehLadakh, cold desert
receives little rainfall.

9.Withdrawal of monsoon starts from October in northern India primarily moving

towards south. Winter rainfall complements with

withdrawal of SW monsoon in DecemberJanuary.

10.Islands receive rainfall from the last week of April to first week of May.

11.T.N, A.P receive less rainfall as they lie parallel to BoB branch. Moreover
they lie on the leeward side of the mountains.

Their appetite for rainfall is met in northeastern monsoons and eastern

cyclonic disturbances.

12.Breaks in rainfall

It occurs because of shifting monsoon trough northsouth. This causes floods in

some parts and drought in others. farmers are also

affected accordingly. When trough shifts to Himalayas, heavy rainfall occurs

in mountainous catchments of Himalayan rivers.

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13.Double rainfall in some parts

Punjab, Haryana, H.P, Kashmir due to western cyclonic disturbances.

 4..Season of Retreating Monsoon (Autumn)

October and November

Low pressure weakens and gradually replaced by High pressure with apparent
movement of sun. ITCZ also shifts southwards.

October Heat High temperatures and humidity as days are hot but land is still
moist.

Northeast monsoon causes rainfall in Tamil Nadu, A.P (Winds blow land to sea)

Easterly jet streams bring cyclonic disturbances causing havoc in eastern coast.
Intensity of cyclones increase northwards towards

Odisha, Andhra Pradesh. Deltas of Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri are always affected
with these cyclones.

Monsoon acts a unifying bond

Agriculture, festivals, culture of India and its people are related with monsoons.
Northern region is affected at mass with monsoons thus creating

similar conditions everywhere.

VEGETATION

When grasses, shrubs, trees grow on their own without human interference for along
time then it is called natural vegetation (Virgin vegetation). It

is classified into three broad categories: FORESTS, GRASSLANDS, SHRUBS ('Brahma

Kamal' is a medicinal herb)

Medicinal Plants in India

2000 plants in Ayurveda with 500 in regular use

World's Conservation Union's Red List named 352 medicinal plants with 52
critically threatened and 49 endangered.

Sarpagandha for blood pressure

Jaman as diuretic, seed powder for diabetes

Arjun for earache, blood pressure

Babool as tonic, for eye sores,

Neem, Tulsi,

Kachnar for asthma and ulcers.

 Southern slopes of Himalaya are covered with thick vegetation as compared to
northern slopes.

This is because Himalayas have eastwest alignment and slope facing south receives
more rainfall and sunlight.

Tropical Rain Forests

Rainfall throughout the year with multilayered forest.

Ebony, Mahogany, Rosewood

A&N islands, Western part of Western Ghats, Northeastern states.

Toucan have large, long beak to reach fruits on branches which are too weak to
support its weight)

Lion Tailed Macaque of Western Ghats in India (critically endangered)

Onehorned Rhinoceros of Assam and West Bengal.

Temperate Evergreen Forests

Mid latitudinal region in eastern margin of continents

South East Brazil, SE USA, South China

Hard and soft wood trees like Oak, Pine, Ecualyptus.

Tropical Deciduous Forests

Rainfall is seasonal during monsoons.

Moist deciduous

200100 cm rainfall

Northeastern states, foothills of himalays, Jharkhand, West Odisha, Chattisgarh,

eastern slopes of W.G

Teak, Sal, Bamboo, Shisham, Sandalwood, Khair, Kusum, arjun, mulberry

Dry deciduous

Rainfall of 10070 cm

M.P, Plains of U.P, Bihar, parts of Maharashtra

Teak, Sal, Peepal, Neem

 Central America & Northern Australia

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Animals in these forests are Tigers, Langoors, Elephants, Lions, Monkeys etc

Temperate Deciduous Forests

Higher latitudes

NE USA, New Zealand, Chile, coastal region of West Europe.

Oak, Ash, Beech etc.

Animals like Deer, foxes, wolves and birds like pheasnats, monals

Mediterranean Vegetation

West and south west margin of continents, around Mediterranean sea in Europe,
Africa, Asia

California, south west Africa, south western South America & South west Australia.

Hot and dry summers with mild rainy winters

Citrus fruits like Olives, Grapes cultivated with little wildlife

Thorny Bushes

Western margin of continents

Dry areas, scanty rainfall, scanty vegetation (<70 cm rainfall)

Leaves are reduced to spines to conserve water, succulent stems, sunken stomata,
deep tap roots

Babool, Khair, Cactus, Keekar

Rajasthan, Punjab, Gujarat, Haryana, Eastern slopes of Western Ghats

rabbit, fox, Wolf, Wild Ass, Camels, Rat snakes

 Mangrove vegetation

Found in salty water regions

'Sundari' trees of Sunderbans give durable hard timber

West Bengal, A&N islands, Deltas of Ganga, Mahanadi, krishna, Godavari, Kaveri

Royal Bengal Tiger

Mountain or Montane Forests

Higher latitudes (5070) in northern hemisphere for Coniferous forests known as

Taiga.

Increase in height temperature falls

Wet temperate around 10002000 metres.

Evergreen broadleaf trees like oaks, chestnuts.

15003000 metres temperate coniferous forests

Conifers like Pine, Spruce, Deodar, Chir.

>3600 m Alpine vegetation

Silver fir, Pine, Birches, junipers but get stunted near snowline

Alpine grasslands

Used by nomadic tribes like Gujjars, Bakrawala

Tall softwood evergreen trees useful for making pulp.

Willow tree for bats, matchboxes from soft wood.

Silver fox, mink, polar bear, Kashmir stag, spotted dear, Ibex, Red Panda, goats
with thick hair.

Sholas are temperate forests found in Nilgiri, Anamalai and Palani hills.

Tropical Grasslands

Located at equator and extend to tropics

Moderate rainfall with tall grasses (34 m height)

Savannah grasslands in East Africa, Campos in Brazil, Llanos in Venezuela

 Elephants, Deers, Cheetah, Leopards.

Temperate Grasslands

Mid latitudes and interior of continents

Short grass, Prairies called 'Sea of Grass'

Prairies in North America, Velds in South Africa, Pampas in Argentina, Steppes in

Central Asia, Downs in Australia

Prairies

(Derived from 'Pirata' means meadows)

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Warm summers and cold winters with Hot wind 'Chinook'

Moderate rainfall 50 cm

Maize is the major crop with potatoes, soyabean, alfaalfa

 Mechanised farming and called 'Granaries of the world' due to surplus wheat
production.

American Buffalo or Bison (which got extinct due to hunting for farming). dogs,
coyotes, rabbits

Dairy farming and food processing industries.

Coal and Iron making it most industrialised area.

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At heights of 6001200 km

Cold and dry winters (510 degrees celsius) with July as coldest month

Short and warm summers

Rainfall in November to February summer months due to warm ocean currents.

Red Grass, acacia, maroola with lions, leopards, cheetahs and kudu

Ranches, Cowboys for cattle rearing, Merino sheep reared for wool

Mining of Gold from Johannesburg, Kimbereley mines for Diamond

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Tundra vegetation

Polar areas, extremely cold

Scant vegetation of mosses, lichens, shrubs

Thick fur and skin to prevent heat loss, pad of fat in feet to walk on snow.

Polar bear, Walrus, Seals, Penguins

Forest Fires

1.Natural fire due to lightning

2.Fire due to heat generated in the litter

3.Local inhabitants, miscreants etc

Wildlife

Critically Endangered

Cheetah

Pinkheaded duck

Mountain quail

Forest spotted owlet

Plants like Mahua (Madhuca Insignis) & Hepatneuron (species of grass)

79 species of mammals, 44 of birds, 15 of reptiles and 3 of amphibians threatened.

1500 plant species endangered

Endangered Species

Black Buck Crocodile Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, Lion tailed Macaque, Sangai
(Brown deer in Manipur), Nicobar megapode
 Vulnerable Species

Blue Sheep, Asiatic elephant, Gangetic Dolphin

Threatened species

Embelica tribes (medicinal climber)

Himalayan Yew, a medicinal plant producing taxol (Barks, needles, roots) found in
H.P, Arunachal Pradesh.

Rare Species

Himalayan brown bear, wild asiatic buffalo, desert fox, hornbill, Cycas Dyer
endemic to Eastern Ghats.

Endemic species

Andaman Teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andaman wild pig, Mithun in Arunachal Pradesh

Extinct Species

Asiatic cheetah (1952, poached for skin), Pinkheaded duck

Depletion

Colonial period exploitation for timber, railways, commerce etc put a heavy loss.

According to Forest Survey of India, 26,200 sq km of land was converted into

agricultural land between 1951 to 1980.

NE states depleted forests by jhumming.

Enrichment Plantation

A particular species grown extensively which eliminated original species from that
land

Teak monoculture in South, Chir pine in Himalayas replaced Himalayan oak,

Rhodenderon.

Forest and wildlife are vital to quality of life in India. Poverty is the outcome
of environment degradation.

They are centres of not only biodiversity but also cultural diversity. Tribals,
villagers are dependent on forests for timber, forest produce, water etc.

Women go deep in forests to collect firewood/fodder/water. Hence, loss of forest,

climate change affects them more than men. These forests are

traditionally attached to them. Some children who are not educated in any school
know these traditional values of trees, their medicinal properties etc.

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Reserve forests

Most valuable

>1/2 of total forests

M.P(75%), J&K, A.P, Kerala, Maharashtra, T.N etc

Protected forests

Protected from further depletion

>1/3rd of forests

Haryana, Bihar, Punjab, Odisha, Rajasthan, H.P

Unclassed Forests

Belong to communities, government, individuals.

National animal

Tiger (Talks on to convert to Lion)

Sunderban Tigers most ferocious

Poaching, loss of habitat a problem

Gir forests Lion or Asiatic Lion in Gujarat

 One horned Rhinoceros, Elephants(Kerala, Karnataka also) in W.B and Assam

Camels and asses in Thar desert of Rajasthan, Rann of Kuchh.

Wild goats, snow leopards, bears in Himalayas.

Tiger reserves

BhadraKarnataka

SimlipalOdisha

KanhaMadhya Pradesh

ManasAssam

Sunderbans, BuxaW.B (Threatened by dolomite mining, habitat of elephant also

affected)

CorbettUK

SariskaRajasthan (Community preservation)

PeriyarKerala

Gharial in Katerniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary

Community Conservation

In Alwar, 1200 hectares of forest declared as Bhairodeav Dakav 'Sonchuri'

Sariska reserve where people conserve forests, tigers.

In recent times, tigers, elephants have clashed with humans mainly in villages.
This has happened due to increasing settlements inside or nearby

forests which have degraded habitats of these animals.

However, many villages do not harm these animals and take preventive measures.
Insurance of animals or immediate compensation

by government also supplements nonkilling of animals.

Some movements

1.Chipko movement in Himalayas

2.Farmer and citizen groups for conservation like Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and
Navdanya.

3.JFM or Joint Forest Management restores degraded forests by involving local

communities. They help forest department and use

forest produce in return.

National bird

Peacock

Migratory birds like Siberian crane, Stork, Flamingo, Pintail Duck, Curlew,
Pelican migrate and come during winter. (December

to March)

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WILDLIFE WEEK

Celebrated in the first week of October every year

ECOSYSTEM

It is a system formed by interaction of living organisms with each other and

physical and chemical factors of the environment linked by transfer of

energy and material.

LITHOSPHERE

Crust

Oceanic is 5 km thick and is made up of Silicon & Magnesium (sima)

Continental is 35 km in thickness and is made up of silicon and aluminium (sial)

Mantle

It is 2900 km below crust.

 Core

Innermost part of earth and is divided into inner and outer core.

Contains iron and nickel in molten form (nife) at very high temperature and
pressure

Center of earth is 6000 km deep. Farthest point excavated is 6 km in search of oil

in the deepest mine of South Africa.

Igneous rocks

Formed by cooling of molten lava which comes to surface

Extrusive rocks which are formed when lava gets cooled fast to form fine granules
on surface of earth.(ExBasalt)

Intrusive rocks are formed when lava is trapped in crust and undergo slow cooling
leading to formation of large grains. (ExGranite)

Contains ironore (North Sweden), Copper & Nickel (Ontario, Canada), Chromites &
Platinum

Sedimentary Rocks

Formed by weathering, erosion due to action of wind, water of igneous rocks

Contains fossils of plants, animals and other microorganisms

Contain nonmetallic minerals like limestone (Caucasus, France), manganese of

Georgia, Ukraine, phosphate beds of Algeria

Metamorphic Rocks

Formed after igneous and sedimentary rocks undergo great heat and pressure and may
form lava or solidify to rock.

Clay to Slate and Limestone to Marble.

Rock cycle is the above transformation of one rock into another.

Minerals have certain physical properties and fixed chemical composition. All
minerals are rocks but all rocks are not minerals.
 Lithospheric Plates

These plates move on molten magma very slowly

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Endogenic forces

Earthquake, Volcano, Landslides are sudden forces

Mountains are formed through diastrophic forces.

Exogenic Forces

Erosional and depositional forces of river, wind, seawaves and glaciers.

Rivers

Waterfalls

Meanders

OxBow Lake

Floodplains

Leeves

Distributaries

Delta

Seawaves

Sea caves erosion of rocks by sea water waves forming caves

Sea arches Caves become bigger on more erosion forming arches

Stacks Roofs break down leaving walls

Sea cliffsErosion by sea waves forming steep rocky coast vertically above sea
water.
 Beach is a depositional feature of sea waves.

Wind

Wind deposits sands forming sand dunes in deserts.

Mushroom rocks are formed after erosion of base and sideways by wind

Sand deposited over large areas is called Loess.

Wind vane measures direction of wind.

Highest waterfall is Angel Falls, Venezuela.

Niagra Falls between Canada and USA

Victoria Falls on Zambia and Zimbawe in Africa.

ATMOSPHERE

Nitrogen is 78%, oxygen is 21%, Argon is 0.04%, Carbon Dioxide is 0.03%, Argon is
0.93%

According to NASA 100 km above is outer space.

Structure

Exosphere

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-80 85

km

Mesosphere

\
 Km

Stratosphere

Ozone layer

^7 I/ m

/ Will

Troposphere

Troposphere

Average height is 13 km

Rainfall, fog, hailstorm

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Stratosphere

Average height is 50 km

Airplanes fly

Ozone layer

Thermosphere

Contains ionosphere

Meteorites burn

Radiowaves transmission
 Exosphere

Very thin air

Helium and Hydrogen

Air Pressure

On moon no air pressure

Body exerts pressure which can cause bursting of vessels. Hence, protective suits
in space.

On earth body exerts counter pressure to air pressure.

High pressure means clear sunny skies

Low pressure means cloudy skies, wet air.

Cyclones

Tidal surge is dangerous where 710 m high waves can inundate 20 km inside coast.

Moisture

Orographic rainfall

Cyclonic rainfall

Convection rainfall

Precipitation is in the form of sleet, hail, snow and rain

Jet Planes leave white trail behind as the moisture from their engine condenses.

WATER 2.7% only fresh water. Most water in glaciers, icecaps and salty oceans and
seas.

Terrarium

Artificial enclosure for keeping small house plants.

Average salinity of oceans is 35 parts per thousand.

Dead sea has 45 parts per thousand. Swimmers can float in it due to increased
density.
 Tsunami or Harbour waves

Pacific ocean has early warning system to give 3 hour early notice.

Indian Ocean has less seismic activity and no such warning system.

TIDES

Spring tide

When sun and moon are in diagonals to earth then tides are low.

Neap Tide

When sun and moon are in same line then highest tides called Neap tides.

Ocean currents

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How oceans serve as carbon sinks?

Oceans contains >90% of carbon on earth. It keeps a check on GHG effect in

atmosphere by absorbing CO2.

1.Absorption of Co2

Pressure difference in surface of water and atmosphere causes C02 to get in

oceans.

CO2 is absorbed by phytoplanktons floating in oceans.

2.Inorganic to organic.

CO2 is absorbed in inorganic form but is converted to organic form by these

planktons.

They respirate to release CO2 which is again fixed by Calcium to calcium

carbonate.

This CaCO3 is deposited in shells of organisms or sent to ocean bed.

Thermohaline circulation
 1.At equator/tropics

Water upwells to surface due to high temperature and low salinity

It moves to higher latitudes.

2.At temperate/polar

Water downwells with increase of temperature, increase in density as more saline.

It moves to equatorial regions as deep water and again upwells there.

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Areas where warm and cold currents meet are best fishing grounds and foggy areas
difficult for navigation.

Japan and eastern coast of North America

Hydel power countries Paraguay, Norway, Brazil and China

Water scarcity in India by 2025UN Development Report?

Heavy rainfall in monsoon but water drains to rivers, seas

Poor water conservation measures like reservoirs, rainwater harvesting

Increased urbanisation led to clearing of forests and poor recharge of ground

water.

Global warming and climate change will affect seasonal patterns in India leading
to defecient rainfall.

Private water pumps in urban areas.

Pollution in rivers, contamination of ground water, excessive irrigation has

increased salinity in fields.

Water for cultivation, sanitation purposes except drinking can be met through
properly recycled water.

Water conservation

Rain water harvesting on roofs

Inundation channels in fields

Diversion channels called Guls or kuls in western Himalayas for agriculture.

Khadins in Jaisalmer and Johads in RajasthanRain fed storage structures.

Underground tankas in Bikaner, Barmer, Phalodi for storing rain water or palar
pani. It beats the summer heat too.

Bamboo drip irrigation system in Meghalaya

Gendathur in Karnataka where households collect rain water

Tamil Nadu has made rooftop rainwater harvesting compulsory in all houses with
penal provisions.

JL Nehru 'Dams are the temples of modern India'

Dams are multipurpose projects and will breathe life to village economy and cause
rapid industralisation and urbanisation.

For flood control, irrigation, electricity generation, drinking water.

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Pressure groups like Narmada Bachao Anndolan opposed construction of 'Sardar

Sarovar Dam' on Narmada river in Gujarat.

Dams, barrages have killed natural flow of rivers. This has led to excessive
sedimentation, poor cleaning capacity of rivers.

Wildlife both aquatic and terrestrial through floods, inundation are affected.

Some dams have caused floods in lowlying areas in excess rainfall.

Waterborne diseases, pests affect local population.

Inter state water disputes

Rivers flowing through different states

Issue arises in upstream and downstream states with respect to dams, height of
water in dams, barrages, pollution, agriculture, excessive public use

etc.

Disputes

1.KrishnaGodavari dispute between Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh on

diversion of more waters at Koyna dam by Maharshtra.

2.Cauvery dispute between Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu.

3.Tungabhadra water dispute between Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka

4.Periyar issue between Kerala and T.N

5.Narmada issue between Maharshtra, Gujarta, Madhya Pradesh, Rajathan

 6.Mahi dispute between Gujarta, Rajsthan , M.P

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etc

Inter State Water Disputes Act, 1956

Section 4 directs setting of tribunal to deal with disputes

Tribunal will have status of S.C

Amendment in 2002 prevents change in verdicts before 2002 but not after 2002. It
prohibits tribunals from forming a new tribunals for an

earlier case.

Four tribunal awards givenKrishna, Godavari, Narmada and Cauvery.

Many more tribunals on Ravi and Beas and New Krishna disputes.

Interstate water disputes: Tribunals Plausible?

Adhoc water tribunals decide cases which is out of original jurisdiction of

Supreme Court.

Section 262(2) was applied as members of CA thought that these disputes would not
arise. Moreover they thought of bypassing

unnecessary litigations and solution through mutual agreements.

But tribunals have become centres of adversial proceedings and protracted delay in
results.
 Telangana water issue

Mission kakatiya to renovate tubewells, borewells, tanks ands build new lakes.

Why?

1.Telangana lacks natural water resources

Historically, it was a tank irrigated area. Rainwater conservation is needed.

2.River disputes

Krishna, Godavari waters more to A.P than Telangana.

3.Depleting groundwater

Skeletal fluorosis is highest in Telanagana. Depleting groundwater has raised

iron, flouride and other mineral contents in groundwater.

Issues

1.Lack of funds.

2.River disputes with A.P

3.MNREGA

Renovation was proposed to be done through MNREGA related work but central
government has decreased funds in it.

Moreover many districts are out of MNREGA where renovation is proposed.

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TRANSPORT

Roads

Golden quadrilateral with expressways connecting Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai.

Highest is MannaliLeh highway in Himalayas

Railways

Bullet trains feasibility in India is being studied by Chinese and Japanese

companies.

India has largest network in Asia.

Xinjing in China to Lhasa in Tibet is at an altitude of 4,000 km above sealevel.

TransSiberian railway is longest railway between St. Petersburg to Vladivostok in

west Pacific coast of Russia.

Waterways

Cheapest way of transport

India has 14,500 Km of navigable waterways.

6 inland waterways.

Airways

Fastest but costly and affected by bad weather, storms.

River Basins

Amazon River Basin

Largest river basin in the world

Hot and wet climate, humid day and nights

 Days are hot, nights are cool but humid

Tropical Evergreen Forests, thick cover which block sunlight from reaching to
ground

Orchids, Bromelaids (store water in leaves where frogs lay eggs)

Birds like Toucans, Bird of Paradise, animals like sloth and ant eating Tapirs,

Anaconda, boa snakes, Piranha fish

Tapoica, Pineapple, sweet potato, coffee, cocoa.

Staple food is Manoic or cassava.

Practise slash and burn agriculture

Deforestation a major issue with recent water scarcity in Sao Paulo, Brazil as
absence of Amazon forests will decrease rainfall

GangaBrahmaputra River Basin

Onehorned Rhinoceros in Brahamaputra basin

Terrace farming practised

Dolphins (Sushu) of Ganga dying due to pollution of water, wastes of industries,

dams constructed, boats for tourism etc.

Haridwar to Varanasi most polluted stretch

SEWAGE INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION N SOLID WASTE

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 Pollution in Ganges

1.Farakka barrage in West Bengal

Downstream it has caused problems

Slit overload, bank erosion of agricultural lands, loss of biodiversity.

2.Pollution by industries, sewage etc.

Control of pollution from agricultural runoffs

Chemical industries paper pulp, glass, tanneries, sugar mills, brass and metal
ware

138 drains across the country discharging affluents in Ganges.

1649 Gram Panchayats with no sanitation facilities defecate in open

3.Hydroelectric projects

300 projects in making

Recently 3 HEP dismissed earlier by Central Water commission and environment

ministry revamped interministrial or departmental tussle leading

to failure in implementation of policies

4.Diverson of water by private agencies.

5.Climate change

Melting of glaciers in Hindukush himalayas.

6.Other

Interlinking of rivers, new dams, water diversion and excessive extraction of

drinking water

Faulty agricultural practices, unregulated urbanisation.

Projects yet

1.Ganga Action Plan, 1983

Phase I completed in 2000.

 Phase II merged with National River Conservation Plan (NRCP)

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Covers 152 towns in 16 states for 27 interstate rivers.

Pollution abatement processes where sewage is intercepted, diverted and treated.

The government focused mainly on STPs in different cities but none of these STPs
were constructed simultaneously and many still remain in

process hence STPs were working over capacity

Moreover, STPs were not maintained and repaired. This caused shut down of many
STPs and others ran on low capacity.

Corporates being roped in to solve the above issues new STPs to be setup in 118
urban centres which are the new focus areas apart from main

cities lease will be given for 15 years and more.

2.Mission Clean Ganga, 2009

3.Namami Gange under MoRD

Clean Ganga Fund 2073 crores

NGOs, private institutions, foreign companies can contribute.

Tax free with Swachh Bharat Kosh

Approved 20,000 crores in May, 2015

7,000 crores for completing pending Sewage Treatment Plants

13,000 crores for upkeep of existing plants and installing new ones.

Ganga cleaning brought under Ministry of Water resources from Ministry of

Environment.
 4.Ministry of water resources changed to Ministry of Water Resources, River
development and Ganga rejuvenation.

Demanding national heritage status for Ganga.

5.National Ganga River Basin Authority funded by 70:30 with centre and states
contribution.

A world bank funded National Ganga River Basin Project (NGRBP) of Rs 7,000 crores
and Japan International Corpration Agency

(JICA) 496 crores

6.NGT ordered 17 industries for zero liquid discharge or face no electricity.

CLEANUP ACT

o Centre working on comprehensive legislation for rejuvenating Ganga

The legislation would pave the way for a Centralised Authority on Ganga
Cleaning

Centre plans to setup 1112 trash cleaning machines to clean Ganga

surface by monsoon in various cities

o Two highpowered committees chaired by Finance Minister Arun Jaitley and

Road Transport Minister Nitin Gadkari overseeing the work

on Ganga cleaning

o Kanpur Tanneries has to be connected with sewage treatment plant by

March 2017 or face closure

A new law would require consent of 11 riparian states hence centre following a
federal approach in cleaning Ganga

High powered body, a SPV to be setup

Cremation in the open 100 new crematoriums and repairing old ones

Solid waste biological treatment by villagers themselves

Creating awareness among public

Surface cleaning machines from abroad ordered

 STPs at different plants mandatory government support and checks

Private corporates for cleaning remuneration through annuities

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DESERTS

Hot and cold deserts

Sahara desert

Hot tropical desert largest on earth (8.54 million km2) covering 11 African
countries

Freezing cold nights with hot days

Bedouins, Tuaregs are nomadic tribes.

Egyptian cotton world famous

Crude oil in Libya, Algeria, Egypt, Nigeria with Iron, phosphorous, manganese,
uranium as other minerals.

India's relations with Mozambique (supplies coal, natural gas), zambia etc

'Tafilalet Oasis' is 13,000 sq. km Oasis

Ladakh Desert (KhapaChan or Snow land)

Cold desert at high altitudes with Glaciers like Gangri

Sunlight scorching due to thin atmosphere. Sun stroke and frost bite at the same
time.

Winters temperature are below 40 degrees celsius. Day temp. above zero degrees.
Drass is the coldest place on earth.

Even then Indian army is in Drass and other extremely cold regions protecting
our country. SALUTE!

Apples, apricots and walnuts, willows, poplar trees but overall sparse vegetation.

Scant 10 cm rainfall.

Buddhists and Muslims population

 Monastries with traditional 'Gompas' like Hemis, Thiksey, Shey, Lamayuru

Leh is the capital of Ladakh. NH 1A connects Leh to Kashmir through Zoji LA pass

Shahtoosh wool of Chiru or Tibetan antelope

Lipulekh pass in Almora, Uttarakhand opens in IndiaChina border trade from June 1
to Oct 31

Soil

Sandy soil

Large particles

Air between particles, less water holding capacity

Cotton growth

Loamy soil

Silt particle of size between clay and sand

Holds less water

Pulses, oilseeds

Clayey soil

Tiny particles packed tight

Holds water and not air between spaces

Used for pottery, growth of wheat, paddy

SOIL PROFILE

Soil Types

Alluvial Soils

Great Northern Plains, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri river plains

Contain sand,silt and clay in varying amounts

In piedmont plains or upper part of river valleys coarse soil and larger
particles.

Duars, Chos and Terai

Old alluvial or Bangar and New alluvium or Khadar

 rich in Potash, poor in Phosphoric acid & Lime

Ideal for sugarcane, paddy, wheat, pulses etc

Soils in drier areas are alkaline and can be used after irrigation.

Black Soil

Regur soil or black cotton soil

Deccan trap (Basalt) region, NW Deccan made up of lava flows.

Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, M.P, Chattisgarh, SE areas of Godavari, Krishna

valleys.

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Clayey soil which holds moisture needed for cotton

Calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime

Poor in phosphoric contents

Develop cracks in dry weather necessary for aeration

Sticky after first showers and need tilling.

Red and Yellow soils

Formed from igneous rocks in low rainfall areas of eastern and southern parts of
deccan plateau.

Red colour is due to diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks.

Yellow colour when hydrated.

Chillies, wheat, carrots, tobacco, sugarcane, jowar, dry farming

Laterite Soil

High temperature and heavy rainfall areas.

Intensive leaching in rainfall and low humus content due to high temperature where
bacteria gets destroyed.
 Kerala, Karnataka, T.N, M.P, Hilly Odisha & Assam.

Tea, Coffee grown in hilly areas after soil conservation techniques, use of
fertilizers, manures.

Cashewnut in Kerala, T.N, A.P

Arid Soils

Red to brown

Saline, sandy soils with excessive evaporation gives alt in areas like Kachh.

Lacks humus, moisture

Kankar with calcium carbonate in bottom layers prevent infiltration of water.

Soil can be used after proper irrigation as in Western Rajasthan.

Forest Soils

Hilly and mountainous areas with rainforests

Hilly sides have loamy and silty soil with coarse soils in upper slopes.

Acidic with low humus content

Soil Conservation

Soil erosion

Gully erosion forming ravines like Chambal valley

Bad land as top soil removed.

Sheet erosion occurs when water flows over large areas.

Mulching

Bare ground between plants is covered with straw

Straw absorbs moisture and prevent surface erosion.

Contour Barriers

Stones, grasses, soil are used to build barriers along contours.

 Trenches are made in front to collect water

Rock Dams

Rocks piled to slow down flow of water

Prevents gullies and soil erosion

Terrace Farming

Planting trees by making flat surfaces on slope of hills

Prevent surface runoff and erosion

Contour Ploughing

Ploughing parallel to contour of hill slopes

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Shelterbelts/Strip cropping

Plants, trees in rows to check wind movement to protect soil cover

Prevent sand dunes

Intercropping

Different crops sown in alternate rows

RESOURCES

Natural

HumanmadeBuildings, Bridges, Industries etc

HumanKnowledge, Education, Skills

Natural according to level of development and use

1.Actual Resources

Quantity is known

Coal in Ruhr, Germany, Petroleum in West Asia

2.Potential Resources

Actual quantity not known and not in use atpresent

May be used in future

Uranium in Ladakh, Wind energy etc

The distribution of natural resources depend on:

1.Altitude

2.Terrain

3.Climate

Extraction of Minerals

1.Mining

Opencast mining Shallow depth

Shaft mining Deep

2.Drilling

Very deep reserves like petroleum

3.Quarrying

Digging on the surface or near surface located minerals.

AGRICULTURE (Cultivation on soil, raising crops, rearing livestock)

1.Sericulture is rearing of silkworms

2.Pisciculture is breeding of fishes in tanks, ponds

3.Viticulture is cultivation of grapes

4.Horticulture is growing vegetables, flowers, fruits for commercial use.

 Types:

1.Subsistence farming

Growing Rabi and Kharif crops, Maize, pulses, etc

Intensive farming More labour, simple tools on small land

Shifting cultivation

Slash & Burn Agriculture, Jhumming in N.E India, Milpa in Mexico, Roca in Brazil,
Ladang in Indonesia, Malaysia.

Heavy rainfall with quick regeneration of vegetation.

Maize, yam, cassava, potatoes

Amazon basin, tropical Africa, SE Asia, NE India

Nomadic herding

Sahara, Central Asia, Rajasthan, J&K

3 main areas are North Africa, Arabian Peninsula to Central China, Mongolia and

Tundra region of Eurasia and Southwest Africa and island of Madagascar

Herdsmen move from one place to another due to climatic constraints and terrain

Sheep, camel, yak reared for wool, milk, meat, hides.

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2.Commercial Farming

Commercial grain farming

Single crop grown generally wheat, maize due to harsh winters

Temperate areas of North America, Europe and Asia

Mixed farming

Growing food &fodder crops and livestock

Europe, Eastern USA, New Zealand, Argentina, SA

 Plantation agriculture

Large amount of labour and capital

Tea, coffee, sugarcane, banana, cotton

Processed on farm and transport is needed.

Rubber plantations in Malaysia, Coffee in Brazil, Tea in Sri Lanka, India

Rubber Industry

Need of a National Rubber Policy

It should deal with gradewise production targets, import targets and sustainable
price

Production declining since 201112

Tapping area has decreased with tapping area only 56% of the total area under
rubber

Commercial Dairy farming

Northwestern Europe, Canada and Southeastern Australia, NZ, Tasmania

Mediterranean Agriculture

Mediterranean region around Europe, North Africa, Tunisia to Atlantic coast,

Southwest Australia, Southwest South Africa, Southern California.

Viticulture or cultivation of citrus fruits like olives, grapes

Horticulture

Flowers in gardens

Netherlands for tulips.

 Cooperative farming

Collective farming/Kolkohz in Soviet era

Rice

High temperature, high humidity and excess rainfall

Alluvial clayey soil as it retains water

China>India>Japan>SL>Egypt

West Bengal, Bangladesh grow crops >3 times due to favourable conditions.

Wheat

Moderate temperature and rainfall

Bright sunshine at the time of harvest

Well drained loamy soils

USA, Canada, Argentina, Russia, Ukraine, Australia, India (grown in winter)

Millets

Coarse grains on less fertile, sandy soils

Moderate temperature and adequate rainfall

Jowar, Bajra, ragi in India

Niger, China, Nigeria

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Maize

Moderate temperature, rainfall and lots of sunshine traditionally Kharif but

successfully grown in Bihar, Bengal, NE sates in rabi, spring season

Well drained fertile soil

 North America, Brazil, China, Russia, Canada, India, Mexico

Commercial use food only 23% of produce poultry feed, breweries, livestock

Value for protein rich maize enhanced beta carotene or Vitamin A fed to
livestock with genetically enhanced concentration of lysine and methionine

Profitable, less water requirements give edge over rice, wheat, cotton, jute

Recent growth in production in India at Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh.

High productivity of 12 tonnes per hectare fast export and transport facilities

Cotton

High temperature, light rainfall, 210 frostfree days, bright sunshine

Black alluvial soils

China, USA, Pakistan, Brazil, Egypt

JUTE

GOLDEN FIBRE India produces only 95 lakh bales annually.

Cash crop grown in West Bengal and eastern parts.

Requires alluvial soil humid climate, high temperature with high rainfall

Major producers in world India (62%, Largest producer but net importer) Bangladesh
(36%, Largest exporter) Myanmar (2%)

Environment friendly than synthetic ones.

Stems rot in water and fibres taken outRETTING

MarchApril to JulyAugust

Employment to 2.5 Lakh people in West Bengal

Problems

1.Agricultural

Poor agricultural varieties, no HYV seeds, obsolete machinery

 No supervision by government

Poor MSPs, markets (APMC)

Lack of labour due to migration

Volatile prices

2.Government's apathy

Only use is for sacking

*Under Jute packaging materials act, 1987 mandatory packing of sugars and
certain products in Jute bags

*Since 2005 100% packaging in Sugar mills

Export is also for yarns and other products

No support for decorated bags and thus low domestic consumption

Developed world is not aware of Jute

Import from Bangladesh of cheap jute products affects domestic producers.

No labour rights, gratuity, dearness allowances and payments kept by jute mills.
This demoralises employment in Jute sector and make it a non

profitable venture.

Recent decision of government to exempt sugar mills from packing in Jute bags
created furore.

3.Hoarding jute millsofficials in nexus

Dilution of 5.4 lakh units for packaging and diverting to plastics.

4.Mafia in smuggling

Cheap imports from Nepal and Bangladesh and mills put their seal on these bags and
sell to government. Local farmers are hit.

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Government steps

1.National fibre policy,2010

Upgradation of jute industry

MSPs, S&T support

2.Jute Technology Mission

Mini mission I : R&D in jute sector to develop HYV seeds, short duration crops
etc

Mini mission II : R&D to farmers and suggest them measures of growing jute
profitably by S&T knowledge

Mini mission III : Market linkages of jute products, strengthening APMCs,

adequate prices to farmers

Mini mission IV : Market to industries, exports, etc

3.RTUF Restructured Technology Utilisation Fund

Allotting funds for development of Jute and other textiles.

Subsidies to mills to support jute growth.

4.JPMA (Jute Packaging Material Act, 1987)

90% in food grain and 20% in sugar reserved for jute packaging

Relaxation only when jute not available

Standing Advisory Committee under Ministry of Textiles deals with cases related to
jute packaging

It is checking import of jute from Nepal and bangladesh.

Coffee

Warm and wet climate timely showers in march help in blossoming of flowers and
cherries formation.
 Welldrained loamy soils

Grown first at Baba Budan Hills, Western Ghats 70% production in Karnataka.

Hill slopes suitable, Eastern and Western Ghats in India

Brazil is largest producer followed by Columbia, Vietnam, Honduras, Indonesia,

India

Rains crucial in SeptemberOctober for Brazillian crop

Intercropping with black pepper which provides shade to coffee

Coffee board of India estimates production annually 5.9 bags or approx 3.47 lakh
tonnes in 201415

Woes

Arabica exports slowed down and replaced by Robusta

White stem borer and coffee leaf rust affected Arabica while Robusta is a
resistant crop

Tea

Beverage crop in plantations

Cool climate with well distributed rainfall 2025 degrees celsius

Welldrained loamy soils and gentle slopes 100150 cm rainfall sulphur rich

Labour required to pick leaves humid climate

Well drained soils hence grown on slopes of hills valleys too can support growth
lest it is well drained

Kenya (Largest exporter at the moment giving trouble to India), India, China, SL

Problems

Exports declining due to increased production by Kenya, Sri Lanka Egypt, a

traditional market of India decreased imports with political turmoil, also

Kenya overtook India because of geographical proximities.

Minimum Fertilizer Content in tea is another issue

Darjeeling Tea workers in penury

Need to skill them for other works provide social security specially to small tea
growers take action against insensitive management

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India exports to Russia, Iran, Pakistan facing competition from other countreis

KRUCIAL program for export promotion where Indian delegates meet their foreign
counterparts Kazakhstan, Russia, China, Iran, Arab Republic of

Egypt and Latin America

Factors affecting location of industries

Production cost should be minimum

Footloose industries are located irrespective of raw materials and other

requirements as transportation, connectivity has

developed.

Emerging industries are called 'Sunrise Industries' like IT, wellness,

hospitality, knowledge.

Energy intensive industries like Aluminium industry are located near power
stations, hydroelectric stations.

Iron & Steel Industry

Backbone of a nation's modern industry

China, Japan, USA, Russia, Australia, India, Germany, Colombia, Venezuela,

Brazil(Vale, Rio Tinto)

Raw materials needed are Iron ore (hematite), Limestone, Magnesium (dolomite),
coal (10 tonnes for 1 tonne ore), manganese

Steel is formed with iron ore mixed with coal, limestone in a blast furnace.

Trends in location

1.Before 1800

Situated near raw materials, water availability, power supply.

2.1800 AD to 1950

Situated near coalfields, railways and canals

3.After 1950 AD

Situated near ports, raw materials, power are transported/imported to industry and
exports done easily.

Jamshedpur (TATA steel)

Located at Subarnekha and Kharkai river

Coal from Jharia

Iron ore, Manganese, dolomite from Odisha, Chattisgarh

Kolkata provides a good market

Railway line of BengalNagpur for transport

Hugli as port
 Pittsburgh

Valleys of Ohio,Monogahela and Allegheny rivers

Ironore mines at Minnesota

Great Lakes waterway for shipping ore

Quality coke from Pennsylvania.

Youngtown in east, Chicago, Gary in west.

Europe

Birmingham for coal mines

Loraine in France for iron ores

Russia's Ural area for steel, Southern Ukraine, Donetsk etc

Issues

ORE related

Exports have decreased to 5 mt from 127 mt

High export duty of around 30% 5% duty on pellets

Production has decreased

Shutting down of mines in Odisha after Supreme Court's orders on environmental

issues

High royalty fees 15% District Mineral Foundation 30% of royalty and National
Mineral Trust around 2%

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Cheap ore imports from Australia, Brazil

Global prices falling to below 40$ a tonne

Steel related
 Cheap imports from China China itself imports ore from Brazil, Australia etc and
produces cheap steel

Cotton

High temperature, light rainfall, 210 frostfree days, bright sunshine

Black alluvial soils

China, USA, Pakistan, Brazil, Egypt

Cotton Textile Industry

India, China, Japan, USA are producers.

Muslins of Dhaka, Chintzes of Masulipatnam, Calicoes of Calicut, Goldwrought

cotton of Burhanpur, Surat, Vadodra.

Traditional cotton industry met with tough competition from cheap textiles of
Manchester, U.K. Import duties were very less. India

was turned from a net exporter to net importer. It started supplying raw materials
i.e cotton to Britain. Thus our industry got crippled.

Industrial revolution on onehand favored growth of industries in Britain but

killed traditional industries in India.

1st textile mill at Fort Gloster, Kolkata in 1818 and 1st mechanised textile mill
in Mumbai in 1854. Its warm, moist climate, skilled labour favored.

Modern industries are scattered all over the country as warm, humid climate can be
created artificially, transport through railways, mechanised mills

can be established anywhere.

Ahmedabad as Manchester of India. 1st mill in 1859 located on Sabarmati river.

Issues at present

power looms at stand still.

High input and transaction costs.

Competition in export markets with high tariffs in abroad

US, China, Eu charge high duties.

 Way ahead

1.Rationalising MSPs

2.Direct cash transfers

3,TUF scheme of NDA I rule to extended

4.A comprehensive National Textile Policy is needed for level playing field, equal
wages, costs, tariff rates across the country.

Osaka

Manchester of Japan

Yodo river

Cotton imported from Egypt, USA, India, China

Information technology Industry

Why located in groups?

For easy access from highways, main roads

Benefit from exchange of knowledge

Services such as roads, car parks, waste disposal can be managed collectively.

Silicon Valley,California & Bengaluru, India.

Others are NCR Gurgaon, Noida, Hyderabad, Chennai, Pune, Kochi, Thiruvanthapuram.

These areas basically Bangalore, California have decent climate, skilled labour
force, cheap living, educational institutions,

government support, access to markets, space for future expansion etc

HUMAN RESOURCES

Factors affecting distribution of population

1.Geography

Climate, Topography (Plains like Nile, Gnga rivers), Soil, Water, Minerals

2.Social

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Housing, Education, Health facilities

3.Cultural

Religious, Cultural significance like Varanasi, Jerusalem

4.Economic

Industries for employment, services, malls etc

Mumbai, Delhi

Population Pyramid

Drainage basin

Area drained by a single river system

Any elevated area such as mountain or upland which divides two river basins is
called a Water Divide

Amazon basin is world's largest.

Drainage Patterns

Dendritic (Flow on slope of terrain)

Radial Streams from central peak or dome)

Trellis (Tributaries at right angles as hard and soft rocks are parallel to each
other)

Rectangular (on rocky terrain)

Himalayan River System

Perennial as originate from glaciers

Travel long distances before draining to sea.

Carry huge loads of silt, sand due to erosion, weathering, deposition etc.

Middle and lower courses form meanders, oxbow lakes

 Well developed deltas

Indus River System (River+Tributaries)

Originates from Lake Mansarovar in Tibet

Tributaries like Zaskar, Shyok, Hunza, Nubra, Gilgit, Shigra, Dras, Gasting join
in Kashmir region

Flows through GilgitBaltistan (in PoK at present)

Receive kabul river in left bank at Attock

Right bank tributaries Khurram,,Tochi, Gomal, Viboa, Sangar. They all originate in
the Sulaiman

ranges.

'Panjnad' a little above Mithankot five rivers of Punjab, namely Satluj, Beas,
Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum. It finally discharges into the Arabian

Sea, east of Karachi.

Flows in India only through the Leh district in Jammu and Kashmir.

Satluj (Indira Gandhi canal), Ravi (Rohtang Pass), Beas (Beas Kund), Chenab,
Jhelum join at Mithankot in Pakistan.

2900 km in length but majority of basin is in Pakistan with 1/3rd in H.P. Punjab,
J&K

IndusWater Treaty (1960)

Between India & Pakistan where India can use 20 % of water

For irrigating southern and western parts of Rajsthan, Punjab, Haryana.

Ganga River System

Alaknanda and Bhagirathi which emerges from Gangotri glacier join at Devprayag in
Uttarakhand to form GANGA.

Yamuna arising from Yamunotri glacier in Himalayas join at Allahabad.

Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi the left bank tributaries of Ganga rise at Nepal Himalayas

Chambal join Yamuna, Son, Betwa, Sharda are right bank tributaries

It flows till Farkka barrage in West Bengal where it bifurcates into

BhagirathiHoogly which drains into BoB.

The mainstream flows into Bangladesh where it is joined by Brahamputra.

 It is known as Meghna in Bangladesh

They form SUNDERBAN DELTA

This delta is largest and fastest growing delta in the world and comprises of
Sundari trees, wildlife diversity including the most fierce

Royal Bengal Tigers

It is 2500 km in length and plains extend from Ambala in Punjab to Sunderban for
1800 km with fall of only 300m in elevation.

This increases its massive erosion capacity leading to meanders, oxbow lakes
downstream.

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Brahmaputra River System

Originates east of Lake Mansoravar in Tibet close to Indus, Satluj

Flows through Tibet carrying less silt as the terrain is rocky

Takes a 'U' turn at a gorge near Namcha Bharwa (7757m peak) and enters Arunachal
Pradesh as 'Dihang'

Joined by Lohit, Dibang, Barak, Subansiri in Assam

Enters Bangladesh with huge silt and rainfall fed from Indian landmass forming
small riverine islands in Assam.

(MAJULI is largest of all in Assam)

Called Jamuna in Bangladesh

Cause floods in Assam and Bangladesh as changes its course suddenly due to huge
siltation.

PENINSULAR RIVER SYSTEM

Most of the rivers seasonal

Shorter course with shallow depth as terrain is rocky, rocks are old etc

Rift valley for two rivers which flow into Arabian Sea and rest flow into BoB.
 Narmada River Basin

Rises in Amarkantak Hills in Madhya Pradesh and tributaries join at right angles
(trellis)

Flows in rift valley due to faulting into Arabian Sea

Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh drained.

Marble rocks in Jabalpur where river flows through a deep gorge and Dhuadhan
waterfalls

Tapi Basin

Rises in Satpura ranges in Betul district of Madhya Pradesh

Flows through a rift valley with short course and drains into Arabian Sea

Covers Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat

Bharatpuzha in Kerala, Mahi, Sabarmati in Gujarat, Periyar in Kerala flow west.

Mahanadi Basin

Rise in Chattisgarh

Drains Chattisgarh, Odisha, Maharashtra, Jharkhand and falls to BoB

Chilika Lake is largest salt water lake in Odisha formed by Mahandi

Godavari Basin

2nd Largest river basin of India

Rises from Western Ghats near Nashik and flows for 1500 km into BoB (Hence called
as Dakshin Ganga)

Drains Maharashtra (50%), Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh

Tributaries are Penganga, Wainganga, Manjra, Purna, Wardha, Pranhita.

Krishna Basin

Rises from a spring near Mahabaleshwar, Maharashtra flows for 100 km into BoB

Tributaries are Tungabhadra, Musi, Ghatprabha and Bhima

Raichur doab a fertile zone between Krishna and Tungabhadra

Maharshtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh

 Nagarjuna river valley project

Kaveri Basin

Rises in Brahmagirii range of Western Ghats flows for 760 km into BoB at
Cuddalore, TN.

Receives rain water both in winter and summer.

Tributaries are Amravati, Bhavani, Hemvati and Kabini

Drains Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu

Sivasundram waterfalls, Karnataka 2nd biggest in India supplies electricity to

Mysore, Bangalore and Kolar gold fields.

Other rivers

Baitarni, Brahmani, Damodar (Sorrow of West Bengal), Subarnekha

LAKES

Formed by rivers when they form meanders, oxbow lakes, lagoons in coastal areas
etc.

Fresh water Lake Wular (Largest) in JK, (Formed by tectonic activity)

Dal, Bhimtal, Nainital, Loktak (Manipur), Barapani

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Salt water lake Chilka (Largest), Pulicat, Kolleru, Sambhar lake in Rajasthan
(seasonal), Dal lakes etc

Artificial Lakes due to dams like Guru Gobind Sagar (Bhakra Nangal Project) on
Satluj river.

Useful for drinking, sanitation, hydroelectricity.

Prevent flooding during heavy rainfall, provide recreation, tourism

 URANIUM

Found in Telangana, Andhra Pradesh (latest in Sriailam Forests), Chattisgarh,

Chotanagpur Plateau, East Singhbhum, Rajsthan

Jaduguda in Singhbhum Thrust Belt, Jharkhand is the first uranium deposit to be

discovered in the country in 1951

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