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Documente Profesional
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and control
protection
guide
I>
MERLIN GERIN
mastering electrical power
GROUPE SCHNEIDER
presentation
contents page
presentation 1
grounding systems 3
short-circuit currents 9
discrimination 15
electrical system protection 21
transformer protection 29
motor protection 35
AC generator protection 41
capacitor protection 47
sensors 53
generalities Protection devices continuously monitor the Protection, however, has its limits: faults
electrical status of system units and cause have to actually occur in order for it to take
them to be de-energized (e.g. tripped by a effect. Protection cannot therefore prevent
circuit breaker) when they are the site of a disturbances; it can only limit their duration.
disturbance: short-circuit, insulation fault... Furthermore, the choice of a protection
The objectives are: system is often a technical and economic
to contribute to protecting people against compromise between the availability and
electrical hazards, safety of the electrical power supply.
to prevent equipment damage (the power The choice of a protective device is not the
produced by a three-phase short-circuit on a result of isolated study, but rather one of the
MV busbar can melt up to 50 kg of copper most important steps in the design of the
within 1 second, the temperature at the electrical system.
centre of the arc can exceed 10,000C), Based on an analysis of the behaviour of
to limit thermal, dielectric and mechanical electrical equipment (motors,
stress on equipment, transformers...) during faults and the
to maintain stability and service continuity phenomena produced, this guide is intended
in the system, to facilitate your choice of the most suitable
to protect adjacent installations protective devices.
(for example, by reducing induced voltage in
adjacent circuits).
In order to attain these objectives, a
protection system should have the following
features:
speed,
discrimination,
reliability.
difficulties and selection The selection criteria involve many aspects: Unfortunately, optimizing one of these
technical characteristics (system function, requirements is automatically to the
criteria overvoltage, fault current, etc...), disadvantage of the other. Two typical
operation (service continuity, maintenance), grounding methods accentuate this contrast:
safety, the ungrounded neutral system, which
cost (investment and operating expenses), eliminates the flow of earth fault current
local and national customs. through the neutral but causes the most
In particular, there are two major technical overvoltage,
considerations which are, in fact, contradictory: the directly grounded neutral system, which
reduces overvoltage to a minimum, but causes
Reducing the level of overvoltage high fault current.
Overvoltage is of several origins: An intermediate solution is therefore often
lightning overvoltage, which all overhead chosen: the impedance grounded neutral
systems are exposed to, up to the user supply system.
point,
internal system overvoltage caused by
operations and certain critical situations
(resonance),
overvoltage resulting from an earth fault itself
and its clearance.
Reducing earth fault current (If).
Fault current that is too high produces a whole
series of consequences:
damage caused by the arc at the fault point;
particularly the melting of magnetic circuits in
rotary machines,
thermal withstand of cable shields,
size and cost of earthing resistance,
induction into adjacent telecommunication
systems,
danger for people created by raised frame
potential.
Protections
The detection of weak fault current Id requires
protections other than overcurrent phase
relays.
These earth fault" protections detect fault
current:
c directly in the neutral earthing
connection 1 ,
c or within the system by measuring the
vectorial sum of the 3 currents using:
v 3 CTs feeding the phase overcurrent
protections 2 ,
I > v a core balance CT - (accurate solution - to be
N
used preferably) 3 .
introduction A short circuit is one of the major incidents Although short circuits are less and less
affecting electrical systems. likely to occur in modern well-designed, well-
The consequences are often serious, if not operating installations, the serious
dramatic: consequences they can cause are an
c a short circuit disturbs the system incentive to implement all possible means to
environment around the fault point by swiftly detect and attenuate them.
causing a sudden drop in voltage, The short circuit value at different points in
c it requires a part of the system (often a the system is essential data in defining the
large part) to be disconnected through the cables, busbars and all breaking and
operation of the protection devices, protection devices as well as their settings.
c all equipment and connections (cables,
lines) subjected to a short circuit undergo
strong mechanical stress (electrodynamic
forces) which can cause breaks, and
thermal stress which can melt conductors
and destroy insulation,
c at the fault point, there is often a high
power electrical arc, causing very heavy
damage that can quickly spread all around.
definitions Short-circuit current at a given point in the Short-circuit power is defined by the formula
system is expressed as the rms value Isc Ssc = eUn . Isc (in MVA).
(in kA) of its AC component. This theoretical value has no physical
The maximum instantaneous value that reality; it is a practical conventional value
short-circuit current can reach is the peak comparable to an apparent power rating.
value Ip of the first half cycle.
This peak value can be much higher than
2.Isc because of the damped DC
component that can be superimposed on
the AC component.This random DC
component depends on the instantaneous
value of voltage at the start of the short-
circuit and on the system characteristics.
current
DC component
2 2 Icc
time
The Isc value of three-phase short circuit There may not be a single source of voltage,
phase-to-phase short- current at a point F within the system is: but rather several sources in parallel, in
circuit U particular, synchronous and asynchronous
Isc = motors, reacting like generators upon the
e Zsc occurrence of short circuits.
Zsc Isc
F in which U refers to the phase-to-phase Three-phase short circuit current is generally
voltage at point F before the fault occurs and the strongest current that can flow in the
U Zcc is the equivalent upstream system system.
Zsc impedance as seen from the fault point. Two-phase short circuit current is always
F
c in theory, this is a simple calculation; in weaker (by a ratio of e/2, i.e.
practice, it is complicated due to the difficulty approximately 87%).
U Zsc of calculating Zsc, an impedance equivalent
2-phase Isc = U
to all the unitary impedances of series- and 2 Zsc
F parallel-connnected units located upstream
from the fault. These impedances are
themselves the quadratic sum of reactances
and resistances.
Zsc = VR2 + X2
Calculations can be made much simpler by
knowing the short-circuit power Ssc at the
point that joins the distribution system.
Knowing Ssc at this point, the equivalent Za
impedance upstream from this point can be
calculated using the formula:
U2 U
Za = , Isc =
Ssc e Za
i1
i2
i3
t
fault
occurs 3 short circuit currents at generator terminal
equipment behaviour There are 2 types of system equipment, the Active equipment
type that intervenes and the type that does This category comprises the equipment
during short-circuits not intervene at the time of a fault. designed to clear short circuit currents:
Passive equipment circuit breakers and fuses.
This category comprises all equipment This property is expressed by the breaking
which, due to its function, must have the capacity and if required, by the making
capacity to transport both normal current capacity upon occurrence of a fault.
and short-circuit current without damage.
breaking capacity
This equipment includes cables, lines, This basic characteristic of a switching
busbars, disconnecting switches, switches, device is the maximum current (in rms kA)
transformers, series reactances and it is capable of breaking in the specific
capacitors, instrument transformers. conditions defined by the standards, it
For this equipment, the capacity to withstand generally refers to the rms value of the AC
a short-circuit without damage is defined in component of the short circuit current;
terms of: sometimes, for certain switchgear, the rms
electrodynamic withstand (expressed in value of the sum of the 2 components is
peak kA), characterizing mechanical specified: AC and DC; it is then "unbalanced
resistance to electrodynamic stress. current".
thermal withstand (expressed in rms kA for The breaking capacity requires other data
1 to 5 seconds) characterizing maximum such as:
admitted overheating. voltage,
R/X ratio of broken circuit,
system natural frequency,
number of breaks at maximum current,
for example the cycle: B - M/B - M/B
(B = breaking; M = making),
status of the device after test.
The breaking capacity appears to be a fairly
complicated characteristic to define:
it therefore comes as no surprise that the
same device can be assigned different
breaking capacities depending on the
standard by which it is defined.
I>
I>
Ir
I
max. SCB I I
min. SCA
(*)
IRA IRB IRC IRD
IR: setting of overcurrent protection
I>
I>
t current setting
B IrB t C B A
t current setting t C B A
blocking input
I>
I>
R
phase-to-phase fault
logic selectivity system
I>
I>
D1 D2
way of detection
example of use of directional protections
slectivit par protection These protections compare the current at There are two main principles:
the ends of the monitored section of the The high impedance protective device is
diffrentielle system. Any difference in amplitude and series-connected with a stabilization
phase between the currents indicates the resistor (1) in the differential circuit.
presence of a fault. This is a self-
I I'
protected disciminating protection system as it only The percentage-based differential protective
equipment reacts to faults within the area it covers and device is connected separately to the I and I'
is insensitive to any faults outside this area. current circuits.
The protected equipment can be: a motor, The difference between these currents I - I'
an AC generator, a transformer, or a is determined in the protective device and
connection (cable or line). the protection stability (1) is obtained by a
Rs restraint related to the measurement of
This protection is used to :
c detect fault currents lower than rated let-through current I + I' .
I current 2
c trip instantaneously since discimination is (1)
based on detection and not on time delays. The stability of the differential protective
high impedance differential protection device is its capacity to remain dropped out
diagram when there are no faults within the zone
being protected, even if a differential current
is detected:
I I' v transformer magnetizing current,
protected v line capacitive current,
equipment v error current due to saturation of the
current sensors.
I> t
D
(fig. 1)
phase-to-earth faults
Grounding by resistance on transformer
(fig.2)
H
Outgoing lines, the incoming line and the
grounding connection are equipped with
IN > earth fault protection devices.
These devices are necessarily different from
multiphase fault protections as the fault
currents are in a different range.
Outgoing line protections are set selectively
in relation to the incoming line protection,
3
which is itself set selectively in relation to the
protection equipping the grounding
connection (respecting discrimination
intervals).
IN > The fault current is fed back by the
A
capacitances of the fault-free outgoing lines
and the grounding resistance. All the fault-
free outgoing line sensors detect capacitive
current.
2 D3 D2 D1
So as to prevent inadvertent tripping, the
protection device on each outgoing line is
set at a setting higher than the outgoing
IN > IN > IN >
line's own capacitive current.
c fault at 1 : the D1 circuit breaker trips,
actuated by the protection device linked to it,
1 c fault at 2 : the A circuit breaker trips,
actuated by the incoming line protection
device,
c fault at 3 : the protection device located
on the neutral grounding connection causes
circuit breaker H to trip at the transformer
(fig. 2) primary.
resistive current capacitive current
IN > IN >
I t
rD D
(fig. 3)
(fig. 4)
system with two incoming phase-to-phase faults (fig.1) phase-to-earth faults (fig. 2)
lines System with two transformer incomers System with two transformer incomers
or with two incoming lines Grounding by resistance on the
The outgoing lines are equipped with phase transformers. The outgoing lines are
overcurrent protections with a time delay of equipped with earth fault protection devices
tD. The two incoming lines A1 and A2 are set at a setting higher than the
equipped with phase overcurrent corresponding capacitive current with a time
H1 H2
protections selectively set with the outgoing delay of tD.
lines, i.e. at a value of The incomers (A1 and A2) are equipped with
I> t I> t tA tD + t.
H H directional protections with a time delay of tR.
They are also equipped with directional The grounding connections are equipped
protection devices with time delays set at with earth fault protections, the setting of
tR < tA - t. which is higher than the settings of the
Therefore, a fault at 1 is cleared by the incomer and outgoing line protections with a
T1 T2 opening of D2 with a time delay of tD. time delay of tN tD + t.
3 A fault at 2 is cleared by the opening of Therefore, a fault at 1 is cleared by the
A1 and A2 with a time delay of tA opening of D1.
(the directional protections do not detect the A fault at 2 is cleared by the opening of
fault). A1, A2, H1 and H2, triggered by the
I t I t protections located on the grounding
R R A fault at 3 is detected by the A1
directional protection which opens at time tR, connections of the 2 transformers.
t t A fault at 3 is detected by the A1
I> A I> A allowing continued operation of the fault-
free part of the system. The fault at 3 directional earth fault protection which opens
however is still fed by T1. At time at time tR, allowing continued operation of
tH tA + t, H1 is actuated by the phase the fault-free part of the system.
A1 A2
overcurrent protection with which it is However, fault 3 is still fed up to time tN,
equipped. the moment at which the protection located
2
on the corresponding transformer's
grounding connection triggers the opening of
D1 D2 the H1 circuit breaker.
I> t I> t
D D
1
H1 H2
detection way
(fig. 1)
IN > t t IN >
N N
3
IN t IN t
R R
A1 A2
2
D1 D2 D3
detection way
(fig. 2)
(fig. 3)
I> t = 0,1 s
2
D1
I> t = 0,6 s
D2
I> t = 0,3 s
(fig. 4)
(fig. 1)
(fig. 2)
(fig. 4)
types of faults The main faults affecting transformers are: c external: phase-to-phase faults in the
c overloads, downstream connections. The downstream
c short-circuits, short circuit current produces
c frame faults electrodynamic forces In the transformer that
An overload can result from an increase in are liable to affect the windings mechanically
the number of loads being fed and then develop in the form of internal
simultaneously or from an increase in the faults.
power absorbed by one or more loads. A frame fault is an internal fault. It can
It results in an overcurrrent of long duration occur between the winding and the tank
causing a rise in temperature that is frame or between the winding and the
detrimental to the preservation of insulation magnetic core. It causes gas emission in oil
and to the service life of the transformer. transformers. Like internal short circuits, it
Short circuits can be inside or outside the can cause transformer damage and fire.
transformer: The amplitude of the fault current depends
c internal: faults occurring between winding on the upstream and downstream grounding
conductors with different phases or faults in systems, and also on the position of the fault
the same winding. The fault arc damages within the winding.
the transformer winding and can cause fire.
c in star connections (fig.1), the frame
In oil transformers, the arc causes the
current varies between 0 and the maximum
emission of decomposition gas. If the fault is
value depending on whether the fault is at
a weak one, there is a slight gas emission
the neutral or phase end of the winding.
and the accumulation of gas can become
dangerous. A violent short circuit can cause c in delta connections (fig.2), the frame
major damage that can destroy the winding current varies between 50 and 100% of the
and also the tank frame by the spread of maximum value depending on whether the
burning oil. fault is in the middle or at the end of the
winding.
I I
I max I max
I max
2
(fig.1) (fig.2)
(fig.5)
I >
N
(fig.6)
I (1)
I>
(2)
I>>
(2)
I > (3)
N
I > (3)
N
(4) (4)
I >
N
(5)
(6) (6)
LV LV
MV/MV MV/MV
I (1) I (1)
I> I>
(2) (2)
II >>
>>
I >>
I >
N
(3) I >
N I
(3) (7)
(4) (4)
I >
N
I >
N
(6) I
(5) (8)
introduction The motor constitutes an interface between Modern motors have optimized
the electrical and mechanical fields. characteristics which make them
It is found in an environment linked to the inappropriate for operation other than
driven load, from which it is inseparable. according to their rated characteristics.
The motor is therefore a relatively fragile
Furthermore, the motor can be subjected to electrical load that needs to be carefully
inner mechanical stress due to its moving protected.
parts.
A single faulty motor may cause disturbance
in a complete production process.
(fig.2)
Ii > unbalance
I> overcurrent
I> overcurrent
I differential
Ii > unbalance
I> overcurrent
fig.1
I thermal overload
I
> voltage restrained overcurrent
U
G
I thermal overload
I
> voltage restrained overcurrent
U
G
P < real reverse power
I thermal overload
I
> voltage restrained overcurrent
G U
P < real reverse power
IN earth fault
thermal overload
I
G > voltage restrained overcurrent
U
types of faults The main faults which are liable to affect A capacitor component short-circuit is
capacitor banks are: due to the flashover of an individual
overload, capacitance.
short-circuit, with no internal protection: the parallel-
frame fault, wired individual capacitances are shunted
capacitor component short-circuit. by the faulty unit:
An overload is due to temporary or the capacitor impedance is modified
continuous overcurrent: the applied voltage is distributed to one
continuous overcurrent linked to: less group in the series
raising of the power supply voltage, each group is submitted to greater stress,
the flow of harmonic current due to the which may result in further, cascading
groupe 1 presence of non-linear loads such as static flashovers, up to a full short-circuit.
V converters (rectifiers, variable speed drives), with internal protection: the melting of the
n-1 arc furnaces, etc., related internal fuse eliminates the faulty
groupe 2 temporary overcurrent linked to the individual capacitance:
V energizing of a capacitor bank step. the capacitor remains fault-free,
groupe 3 Overloads result in overheating which has its impedance is modified accordingly.
V an adverse effect on dielectric withstand
n-1 and leads to premature capacitor aging.
A short-circuit is an internal or external
groupe n fault between live conductors, phase-to-
phase or phase-to-neutral depending on
whether the capacitors are delta or star-
connected. The appearance of gas in the
gas-tight chamber of the capacitor creates
(fig.1) overpressure which may lead to the opening
of the case and leakage of the dielectric.
A frame fault is an internal fault between a
live capacitor component and the frame
created by the metal chamber.
Similar to internal short-circuits, the
appearance of gas in the gas-tight chamber
of the capacitor creates overpressure which
may lead to the opening of the case and
leakage of the dielectric.
I> overcurrent
U> overvoltage
IN earth fault
I> overcurrent
Filter
I thermal overload
I> overcurrent
introduction Protection or measuring devices require These devices fulfill the following functions:
data on the electrical rating of the equipment reduction of the value to be measured
to be protected. (e.g.1500/5 A),
For technical, economic and safety reasons, galvanic isolation,
this data cannot be obtained directly from providing the power required for data
the high voltage equipment power supply; processing and for protection operation
the following intermediary devices are itself.
needed:
voltage transformers (VT),
current transformer (CT),
core balance CTs to measure earth fault
current.
current transformers (CTs) The CTs are characterized by the following Accuracy level power
values (according to IEC 185 standards)*. Secondary power at rated current for which
CT voltage the accuracy level is guaranteed. Expressed
This is the operating voltage applied to the in VA, it indicates the power that the
CT primary. Note that the primary is at the secondary can deliver for its rated current,
HV potential level and that one of the while respecting the rated accuracy class.
P1
secondary terminals is generally earthed. It represents the total consumption of the
I1 secondary circuit, i.e. the power consumed
As for other equipment, the following is also by all the connected devices as well as the
I2 defined : connecting wires.
S1 maximum1 min. withstand voltage at
standard frequency If a CT is loaded at a power rating lower
maximum impulse withstand voltage. than its accuracy level power, its actual
accuracy level is higher than the rated
e.g. for 24 kV rated voltage, the CT must accuracy level. Likewise, a CT that is loaded
S2 withstand 50 kV voltage for 1 min at 50 Hz too much loses accuracy.
and 125 kV impulse voltage .
Admissible short time current
P2 Rated transformation ratio Expressed in rms kA, the maximum current
It is usually given as the transformation ratio admissible for 1 second (Ith) (the secondary
between primary and secondary current being short-circuited) represents CT thermal
I1/I2. Secondary current is generally 5 A overcurrent withstand. The CT must have
or 1 A. the capacity to withstand short-circuit current
Accuracy level for the time required to clear it. If the clearing
It is defined by the composite error for the time t is other than 1 sec., the current the CT
accuracy limit current. can withstand is Ith / Vt.
e.g. 5P10 means 5% error for 10 In Electrodynamic withstand expressed in peak
10P15 means 10% error for 15 In kA is at least equal to 2.5 x Ith
5P and 10P are the standard accuracy Normal values of rated currents:
classes. at the primary (in A)
5 In, 10 In, 15 In, 20 In are the standard 10 - 12.5 - 15 - 20 - 25 - 30 - 40 -
accuracy limit currents. 50 - 60 - 75 and multiples or decimal
The accuracy limit factor is the ratio submultiples.
between the accuracy limit current and the
rated current .
Class X is another way of specifying CT * Also to be taken into account are elements related to the
characteristics based on "knee-point type of assembly, characteristics of the site (e.g.
voltage" (fig.1, CT response in saturated temperature), system frequency, etc...
state).
S1
I Knee-point voltage (fig.1)
m
This is the point on the current transformer
V
magnetization curve at which a 10%
increase in voltage V requires a 50%
increase in magnetization current Im.
S2
P2
V
+10%
Im
(fig.1)
earth fault
(fig.3)
(fig.1)
Differential measurement
by core balance CT
I1
I2
I3
I >
N
(fig.2)
protected zone
P1 P2 P2 P1
differential protection
voltage ratio:
Un
100
(1)
also to be taken into account are elements related to the
voltage ratio:
type of assembly, characteristics of the site
Un/ (e.g. temperature...) etc...
100/