PEDIGREE ANALYSIS

males are represented by a square and females are represented by a circle

individuals who marry into the family are completely normal
recessive conditions skip generations
o if neither the parents nor the offspring display the condition, the condition is
recessive
o if either the parents or the offspring is affected, the condition is dominant
if there are more males than females affected, the condition is sex/X linked

ORIGIN OF LIFE
earth's atmosphere consists mostly of nitrogen and oxygen
earth's early atmosphere did not contain oxygen
o it contained hydrogen, ammonia, methane and water

EVOLUTION
gene pool: all of the genes of all the people in the population
genetic variability is when each person in the population has a distinct set of genes
genetic variability tells us that gene pools have many different alleles
random mutation of dna causes genetic variability
o a mutation can be passed on to offspring and then all future offspring would display
the results of the mutation
evolution: change in population over time / change in gene pools
driving force of evolution is natural selection
genetic variability allows some individuals to be better competitors than others
with each generation, it has more of the alleles that come from the better competitors
different species can't produce viable offspring together
speciation is the formation of a new species by evolution
divergent evolution is when two populations of the same species end up having different
behaviors and traits
speciation is the extreme form of divergent evolution
convergent evolution is when two species become more similar to each other in terms of
behaviors and traits
o convergent evolution can never bring two completely different species into a single
species
homologous structures have similar ancestries and common traits but not have the same
function between species
o example: human arm and whale flipper
analogous structures have different evolutionary ancestries but they have the same function
o example: wings in birds / insects
vestigial structures are structures that were important at one time but is no longer important.
it becomes smaller until it eventually are not seen in the organism anymore
o example: appendix in humans and leg bones in snakes

TAXONOMY
phylogeny describes the branch of biology that focuses on evolution and the differences
between species
order of phylogeny: domain > kingdom > phylum > class > order > family > genus > species
taxonomy is the classification and naming of organisms
carolus linnaeus came up with the modern system of classification called the binomial system
binomial system is based on a two part name for each organism
o first part is the genus
o second part is the species
KEY DOMAIN AND KINGDOMS
I. domain bacteria
o made up of prokaryotes
o kingdom: eubacteria
o phylum: cyanobacteria also known as blue-green algae that can photosynthesize
II. domain archaea
o made up of prokaryotes but has some features in common with eukaryotes
o described as extremophiles because they can live in harsh conditions
o extreme halophiles live in extremely salty conditions
o extreme thermophiles live in extremely hot conditions
o methanogens extreme anaerobes that release methane gas as a waste product
o kingdom: archaeabacteria
III. domain eukarya
o made up of eukaryotes
o divided into 4 main kingdoms
o A. kingdom protista
most are unicellular but some are multicellular such as algae
3 main groups: protozoa (animal like protists), algae (plant-like
protists), fungus-like protists
phylum rhizopoda (amoebas)
all unicellular
move about using cellular extensions called pseudopodia.
found in soils and also in freshwater and marine environments
some are parasitic
phylum apicomplexa (sporozoans)
all animal parasites
some cause serious diseases such as malaria,
caused by the parasite plasmodium
have life cycles with both sexual and asexual stages
often require two or more different host species to complete life
cycle.
eg. requires both humans and mosquitoes to complete life cycle.
phylum ciliophora (ciliates)
characterized by their use of cilia for movement and feeding.
example: paramecium.
phyla myxomycota and acrasiomycota (slime molds)
resemble an overgrown amoeba.
contain many nuclei
phylum euglenophyta (euglena)
unicellular, photosynthetic algae
move with a flagellum (a whip like tail)
phylum bacillariophyta (diatoms)
live in both freshwater and marine environments
have unique glass-like walls
walls remain behind when the organism dies and forms the
sediments known as diatomaceous earths.
diatomaceous earth is useful as a filtering medium.
diatoms make up an important part the marine food chain
diatoms are the most important producers in phytoplankton
phylum phaeophyta (brown algae)
commonly known as seaweeds
 the largest and most complex of the plant-like protists.
all are multicellular
most live in marine environments
some very large such as the giant kelp
o B. kingdom plantae
multicellular, eukaryotic and photosynthetic
cell wall made of cellulose
grouped into the categories:
nonvascular plants
vascular plants
seedless plants
seed plants
o nonflowering plants (gymnosperms)
o flowering plants (angiosperms)
Division Bryophyta (Nonvascular Plants)
Has no vascular tissues / lacks xylem and phloem
Require water for fertilization
Live in damp areas where water is abundant
Has no true leaves, roots or stems
Examples include mosses and liverworts and hornworts
Division Filicinophyta (Ferns)
Has vascularization / has xylem and phloem
Has leaves, roots and stems
Has no seeds
Reproduce by releasing spores
Examples include ferns
Division Coniferophyta (Conifers)
Has vascularization
Have leaves, roots and stems (stems are woody and leaves are waxy
and needle-like)
Reproduce by seeds which are found in cones
No flowers
Examples include pine trees, firs, cedars and conifers
Division Angiospermophyta (Flowering Plants)
Has vascularization
Produce flowers and pollen
Seeds are protected by fruits and nuts
Examples are apples, lima beans, tomatoes, melons
Class monocots
o Named for their single seed leaves called cotyledons
o Parallel veins in leaves
o Flower parts in multiples of these
o Complex arrangement of vascular tissue in stems
o Fibrous root system
Class dicots
o Two seed leaves / two cotyledons
o Netlike veins in leaves
o Flower parts in multiples of four or five
o Vascular tissue arranged in a ring
o Taproot system
o C. kingdom fungi
eukaryotic and multicellular
 exception is yeast since it is unicellular
cell wall made of chitin
filamentous structure and are multinucleate
lack chloroplast so they are heterotrophs
absorptive feeders
live on decaying materials
classified as decomposers
division zygomycota
reproduces sexually
examples are common molds and mycorrhizae
division basidiomycota
examples are mushrooms, shelf fungi and puffballs
some are edible
o D. kingdom animalia
phylum porifera (sponges)
sessile (nonmoving)
no body symmetry (asymmetrical)
no mouth or anus (have pores to obtain water and nutrients)
live in marine environments
examples include sea sponges
phylum cnidarian (coelenterates)
have radial symmetry
have a mouth but no anus (single entrance body cavity)
central, sac-like digestive system
may have tentacles with stinging cells for capturing and disabling
prey
examples include jellyfish, sea anemones and coral
phylum platyhelmintha (flatworms)
have bilateral symmetry
cephalization (have a head)
have a flattened body shape to increase sa:vol ratio
may be parasitic
examples include tapeworms and planaria
phylum annelida (segmented worms)
have bilateral symmetry
have a separate mouth and anus
excrete waste through metanephridia
examples include earthworms and leeches
phylum mollusca (mullusks)
soft-bodied with hard external shells
o exception is octopus and squid
have bilateral symmetry
3 major body regions
o Foot for movement
o Visceral mass where organs are contained
o Mantle which may produce a shell
examples include snails, slugs, octopi, squid and clams, oysters
phylum arthropoda (anthropods)
largest and most diverse phylum
have bilateral symmetry
have a separate mouth and anus
eliminate wastes through Malpighian tubules
 have jointed body sections / appendages and have a hard
exoskeleton (chitin)
segmented body with a head, thorax and abdomen
examples include insects, crustaceans (crabs), arachnids (spiders),
scorpions and centipedes
phylum Echinodermata (echinoderms)
slow-moving or sessile animals
radial symmetry
spiny exoskeletons
water vascular system
examples include sea stars, sea urchins, and sand dollars
phylum chordate (chordates)
have bilateral symmetry
have a separate mouth and anus
have a notochord and dorsal nerve chord, pharyngeal gill slits and a
tail
almost all are vertebrates
examples include mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish (also
invertebrate sea squirts)
Class Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous Fishes)
o flexible skeletons made of cartilage instead of bone
o well-developed jaws and fins
o breathe through gills
o Some lay eggs, and some bear live young
o Examples are sharks and sting rays.
Class Osteichthyes (Bony Fishes)
o true bone skeletons
o breathe through gills
o lay large numbers of eggs, which lack shells
o live both freshwater and marine environments
o Examples are bass, tuna, and trout.
Class Amphibia (Amphibians)
o well adapted to both land and water
o eggs lack shells and must be laid in the water
o have an aquatic larval stage
undergo a metamorphosis into a terrestrial adult.
o breathe through lungs and/or skin
o Examples are frogs and salamanders.
Class Reptilia (Reptiles)
o terrestrial animals
o thick, scaly skin adapted to resist water loss
o live well in dry areas, although some inhabit water.
o eggs have shells to resist dehydration, or they bear live
young
o breathe through lungs.
o examples are crocodiles, lizards, and snakes.
Class Aves (Birds)
o tetrapods (4 legs) with the forelimbs modified as wings
o breathe through lungs
o lay shelled eggs.
o They are endothermic
o Examples are owls, eagles, sparrows, and penguins.
 Class Mammalia (Mammals)
o endothermic
o have hair
o nourish their young from mammary glands
o breathe through lungs
o Most bear live young
o Examples are rodents, kangaroos, antelope and humans.