The Identification and Production of Materials

1. Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as ethylene, for the production of other substances.

Students Learn To:

.2 Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some of the fractions from the refining of petroleum.
We obtain our supply of carbon based compunds from crude oil. Crude oil consists of a large percentage of large
molecules that have little use. Anything C15+. These un-useful larger molecules are broken down into smaller more useful
products.
Crude oil is used for- Petrol (45%)
- Diesel (27%)
- LPG (9%)
- Aviation Fuel (9%)
- Bitchamin (2%)
- Plastics (1.5%)
- Chemical Products (1.5%)
These large molecules can be converted into useful molecules by catalytic cracking. Cat cracking is a surface
molecule.

This bond is weakened which

makes it easier to break or
react. Catalyst is a zeolite
(Aluminium Silicate)

.3 Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond is readily transformed into many useful products.
Ethylene-

Double Bond is easily broken to

form a variety of products.

Carbon Compounds

Saturated- All the C-bonds are C-C (single bonds) therefore no other atoms can be easily added to the chain.
Unsatuated- Contains C=C bonds (double bonds). Can add other atoms to the chain easily.

Reactions of Ethylene

Hydrogenation- Adding a hydrogen

Halogenation- Adding F2, Cl2, Br2, F2

Hydrolysis- Adding H2O

Polymerization-

.4 Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made.
A double bond on the monomer is broken and single bonds are formed with other monomer units.

Monomer units- Ethylene

monomer units are added together

Which produces polymer units

.5 Identify poly(ethylene) as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this term.
Alkenes, such as poly(ethylene), undergo addition reactions. An addition reaction is a reaction where a double
bond is broken and a substance is added to either side of the bond. In addition polymerization no molecule is realeased.
For example:

.6 Outline the steps in the production of poly(ethylene) as an example of a commercially and industrially inportant
polymert.
Production of Polyethelene

We need a chemical to start the reaction- an initiator, they are generally organoperoxides
Initiation
R stands for an organic chain(some C chain)
Peroxide linkage which is very unstable

Free Radicals.
This creates free radicals (atom or molecule with
unfilled valence shell)

Oxygen Free Radical - O Chlorine Free Radical - Cl

FREE RADICALS ARE EXTREMELY REACTIVE

The free radical breaks the double bond of ethylene.

Propergation

Which creates another free radical

Which creates another and so on and so on

Termination
Eventually, chain ends with another
organoperoxide

Polymers do not have a set length. The type of polyethylene depends on the conditions of the reaction:
- Low Density Polyethylene (LPDE)
- High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

Low Density Polyethylene:

- formed under high pressures, molecules are forced together.

- caused by "back-biting"
- branches off the main chain eg clingwrap
- weaker and softer plastic
- more flexible

High Density Polyethylene:

- formed under lower pressures

- stronger and less flexible eg shopping bags
- polymer chains close together to form amouplous of cyrstalline regions
- "cracking" when compressed.

.7 Identify the following as commercially significant monomers:

- inyl chloride
- styrene
by both their systematic and common names

- vinyl chloride
vinyl chloride
chloroethene

PVC
polyvinylchloride

Formula= n(C2H3Cl)

Polyvinylchloride is important to industry as it is tough, chemically resistant, rigid, can use plasticizers to soften
PVC making it more flexible.
It is good for use in pipes, cladding, tiles,even credit cards if "sunscreen" is added to prevent UV light destroying
C-Cl bond. Also useful in outdoor furniture as it is not permeable to water.

- styrene
- Styrene
Phenylethene
Ethylenebenzene

Styrofoam c
Polystyrene

Formula-

is the benzene molecule C6H6

Extra electrons form ring of electrons

Polystyrene is important commercially as a foam because of its low density and the fact it contains trapped gas. It
can be used as the core of surfboards, is good as a insulator in eskies, insulating cups, food containers and packaging as
gas trapped allows them to absorb shock.
Polystyrene when not a foam is more rigid than PVC although it is more easily broken. It is used as audio cassette
cases and clear drinking glasses.

.8 Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in terms of their properties.

Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)

- LDPE is soft and flexible because of branching
- Permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide but not to water, so LDPE can keep food fresh and stop it drying out
- These two properties make it ideal for cling wrap and other packaging for food.

High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

- HDPE is less flexible but stronger
- It is chemically restitant
- Durable and tough
- These properties make HDPE ideal for shopping bags, toys and containers to hold acid, petrol etc

Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
- The attached Cl atom increases chain stiffening as the Cl atom is a larger atom than the H atom
- PVC is tough, chemical resitant and rigid
- "sunscreens" can be added to stop UV light destroying the C-Cl bond
- Platicizers can be used to soften PVC making it flexible
- It isn't permeable to water
- These properties make PVC useful as water pipes, cladding, tiles, credit cards, outdoor furniture, hoses
- However, plasticisers canpossibly "leak" out which makes it associated with health risks ecspeacially in childrens toys

Polystyrene (Styrofoam c)
- Low density
- Pump gas through until a foam it formed
- Trapped gas
- These properties make styrofoam useful as core's of surfboards, insulation ie eskies, insulatin cups, food containers,
packaging as trapped gas absorbs shock

Polystyrene not as Foam

- More rigid than PVC
- Easily broken
- These properties make it useful in audio cassette cases, clear drinking cups.

2. Some scientists continue to research the extraction of materials from biomass to reduce our dependance on fossil fuels

Students Learn To:

.1 Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compunds presently obtained from the petrochemical industry.
Our fossil fuels (ie crude oil) is not renewable and most are likely to run out during the next 100 years, so it is
important that we investigate alternative supplies of polymer feedstock (C2H4, C3H6).
One alternative is Biomass. Biomass is organic matter produced from plants. Biomass may provide a source of
chemicals and energy as fossil fuel supplies decrease and at the same time provide a use for large amounts of solid wastes
that are difficult to dipose of.
Potentially useful Biomass, includes the waste plant matter from agricultural products such as sugar cane and
corn crops.

.2 Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer.

Condensation polymers are polymers that are produced when monomer units join, producing a polymer and a
small molecule usually H2O.

.3 Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed.

When a condensation polymer is formed, two molecules react, forming the new compound and a small molecule
(usually water). For example:

Polyethylene terephilalate(PET) belongs to a general class of plastics called polyester.

.4 Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a condensation polymer found as a major component
of biomass.
 One of the main components of biomass is cellulose. It makes up the cell walls of plants and is the most abundant
carbohydrate on Earth. Cellulose is made from glucose. Cellulose is called a condensation polymer because of how its
made. A condensation polymer is a compund formed when monomer molecules join together, forming a polymer, and
releasing a small molecule such as water.
Glucose to Cellulose

glucose C6H12O6, C6(H2O)6 is a carbohydrate Cx(H2O)y.

C6H12O6 C6(H2O)6

B-glucose can udergo a condensation polymerisation to produce cellulose. H2O is emitted from carbon atoms one
and four.
Formula- C6H12 conc H2SO4 6C + 6H2O

The overall reaction:

B-glucose cellulose

Cellulose is strong as it can undergo hydrogen bonding, which is much stronger than dispersion forces. Hydrogen
bonding between the chains makes cellulose rigid, strong and resitant to chemical attack.
With cellulose we cannot attack the chain itself, the sides of the chain are attacked and modified eg. cellulose
acetate

Each -OH is replaced by the following acetate group:

.5 Identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon-chain structures needed to build petrochemicals and discuss its potential
as a raw material.
Cellulose contains the basic carbon-chain structures needed to make petrochemicals for use as fuels or as raw
materials for the polymers so it has potential as a raw material. Cellulose can be:
- modified to make new polymers by changing its already existing polymer structure
- broken down to produce a source of carbon compounds such as ethylene, and polymers built from that.
- converted to products such as glucose that can be readily metabolised and thus are useful as a food source

3. Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily avialable from renewable resources, such as plants.

Students Learn To:

.1 Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used.
Dehydration requires an acid catalyst. Ethanol is heated with either concentrated sulfuric acid or phosphoric acid.
Water formed can be absorbed by the acid catalyst or may be removed from the reaction mixture by distillation.
.2 Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in
this process and the catalyst used.
The preperation of ethanol from ethylene, involves the addition of water to ethylene and is a typical addition
reaction.

.3 Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for polar and non-polar substances.
Ethanol will dissolve a large variety of substances. Both polar and non-polar. This is because of its structural
formula:
Polar end can dissolve:
- other polar molecules
- some ionic solids
Non-Polar end can dissolve:
- other non-polar molecules
- organic liquids ie oils
It is used in:
- Cosmetics
- Aftershave
- Deodorants evaporates
- Perfumes quickly
- Medication (chemicals that do not dissolve in H2O, will dissolve in ethanol and then can be mixed)

.4 Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a renewable resource.
Ethanol is a renewable source if produced by fermentation of of sugar. Plants can be regrown on a regular basis.
The natural process of photosynthesis makes it possible to develop 'biomass' fuels, so that in the future,
dependence on 'fossil' fuels can be reduced as they become scarcer, more difficult to recover and hence more expensive.
In Australia, sugar cane and wheat have been used to produce ethanol by the process of fermentation using yeast.
Yeast is a fungus which can multiply in the absence of oxygen by using enzymes to catalyse the decomposition of a sugar
such as sucrose or maltose. In the case of glucose:
C6H12O6(aq) yeast 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)
glucose ethanol carbon dioxide

The alcohol content of the sugar solution cannot rise above 15% in the fermentation process since above that level
the yeast cells would be poisoned.

.5 Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted.

Conditions for the Fermentation of Sugar:
- yeast
- water
- temperature of mid 30s (35 - 37 degrees)
- no oxygen (anaerobic)
- some type of sugar

.6 Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process.

Fermentation of Sugar:
C6H12O6(aq) yeast 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)
glucose ethanol carbon dioxide

.7 Define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and calculate the value for ethanol from first hand data.
Molar Heat of Combustion:
The heat released when 1 mole of a substance is combusted completely in oxygen. For organic fuels - CO2 and H2O are
produced. The heat of combustion is always exothermic.
To Calculate the Heat of Combustion:
1. Q = m x c x Dt

m = mass of water heated

c = heat capacity (usually 4.18 Jg k for water)
Dt = change in temperature

2. Moles of fuel burnt

n = mass of fuel burnt
FM of fuel

3. DH = q (kLmol )
n

.8 Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of its use.
Using Ethanol as a Fuel
Advantages - Renewable(fermentation)
- Complete combustion (produces CO2 and H20 not CO)
Disadvatages - Expensive (distilling from 15% to 95%)
- Overall no real reduction in energy input unless distilled by solar energy
- As a fuel additive >15/20% requires engine modifications
can absorb moisture from air which leads to corrosion of
motor parts
- Ethanol produce less energy per mole than octane = 3% increase in fuel
consumption (with 20% ethanol)
- Disposal of smelly wastes after fermentation - eventually biodegradable

.9 Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for straight-chained alkanols from C1 to C8.

4. Oxidation-reduction reactions are increasingly important as a source of energy.

Students Learn To:

.1 Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of electrons.

The following reaction is called a displacement reaction because the Cu2+ ions have been displaced from the
solution by the Fe(s). Cu as a solid is more stable/less reactive than Fe as a solid. The ions of a less active metal will be
displaced from solution by a more active metal. For example:
Fe filings in CuSO4:
Before After
Fe - dark grey metal "rust"
CuSO4 - blue solution clear

In solution - Cu2+ + SO42- (Cu2+ is responsible for blue colour)

Cu2+ + 2e- Cu(s) "rusty" "coppery"

Fe(s) Fe2- + 2e-
Cu2+ + Fe Fe2+ + Cu
Cu2+ + Fe(s) Fe2+ +Cu(s)

.2 Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by other metals to the relative activity of metals.
See 'Some Standard Potentials' sheet.
Metals at the top of the table are more reactive, they are so reactive they just 'throw' relectrons away. They are
most likely to lose electrons. Metals at the bottom end of the table are more stable, they are most likely to gain electrons.
Something that is on the right wiill react with something that is higher than it, on the left.

.3 Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or gain of electrons.
Oxidation number is very similar to valency. For neutral atoms oxidation number is 0. For charged atoms (ion) oxidation
number = valency (+ or -). In an oxidation reaction:
- There is an increase is the (positive) oxidation number.
eg. Ag+ + e- Ag(s)
Cu(s) Cu2+ +2e- (the Cu(s) went from 0 to 2)

So, oxidation state of an elemant goes up as it loses electrons.

.4 Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions.
In galvanic cells, chemicals interact spontaneously to produce an electric current. The cells is divided into two
half-cells:
- The Anode, where oxidation (loss of electrons) occurs.
Zn Zn2+ + 2e-
- The Cathode, where reduction (eclectrons are gained) occurs.
Cu2+ + 2e- Cu

The half-cells are connected by an external wire which forces electrons, released by the anode, to trevel by an
external circuit to the cathode rather than through the solution.
A salt bridge, usually filled with KNO3, between the two half cells, completes the circuit and enable ions to move.
The salt bridge may be an inverted U-tube of KNO3 with cotton wool plugs at the ends, or strips of filter paper soaked in
the salt solution. The movement of of ions through the salt bridge balances the charges due to the electron flow in the
external circuit.
The overall reaction is obtained by adding the anode(oxidation) and cathode(reduction) half-cell reactions. The
electrons must be balanced.
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

.5 Outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction electron flow.

.6 Define the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electolyte to describe galvanic cells.
Anode - is always the one that udergoes oxidation (where oxidation occurs)
Cathode - is always the one that undergoes reduction (where reduction occurs)
Electrolyte - Solution or molten substance that conducts electricity
Electrode -

5. Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials.

Students Learn To:

.1 Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions under which a nucleus is unstable.
Isotopes are atoms of an element that have a different number of neutrons.

Some of these isotops are unstable because the nucleus of the isotopes undergoes decay. There are two conditions
under which the nucleus will undergo decay:
- Any atom with an Atomic Number larger than 83 (very large nucleus, and it becomes too heavy)
- Ratio of protons/neutrons lies outside the "zone of stability" (see page 69 of text for graph)

.2 Describe how transuranic elements are produced.

Transuranic elements are elements that have an atomic number greater than 92. All are sythetic man made. Z =
93, 94, 95 are all produced in nuclear reactors by absorbing neutrons. The initial attepmts to convert the largest natural
occuring element (uranium U - 235), into heavier elements by neutron bombardment resulted in nuclear fission. The
nucleus was split in two. The formation of larger nuclei from smaller ones is called nuclear fusion.

.3 Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced.

The most common method of radioisotope production is by neutron activation in a nuclear reactor. This involves
the capture of a neutron by the nucleus of an atom resulting in a excess of neutrons (neutron rich).
They may be manufactored in a cyclotron (particle accelerator) in which protons are introduced to the nucleus,
resulting in a deficiency of neutrons (proton rich). The cyclotrons use high voltages and electic fields to accelerate
hydrogen atoms through a vacuum chamber. When they collide with the target substance they produce radioactivity. It can
be more diffcult to make a radioisotope in a cyclotron than in a reactor.

.4 Identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect radiation.

1. Photographic Film - the radiation affects photographic film like ordinary light - the greater the extent of the exposure to
radiation, the darker the area of the developed negative.
2. Cloud Chamber - saturated water vapour, using this you are able to see where particles have been.
3. Geiger Counter - its operation is based on the ionisation of matter by radiation.

4. Scintillation Counter - particles hit the flouresce screen and light is emitted, a scintillation counter measures the
flourescence and hence the radiation causing it.

.5 Identify one use of a named radiodsotope:

- in industry
Cobalt-60 - a gamma-emitting radioisotope. Gamma radiation is long range and has high penetration. It is used
as a thickness guage ie the thicker the material the less particles will pass through. It has a half like of 5.3 years, which is
beneficial for its purpose as it means that it doesn't need replacing often therefore the person whose job it is to replace it
will be exposed less to the harmful radiation.

- in medicine
Technetium-99m - it is the radioisotope most widely used in medicine. It has almost ideal characteristics for a
nuclear medicine scan. It has a half life of 6 hours which enables metabolic processes to be examined yet minimises the
radiation dose to the patient. It decays by an 'isomeric' process which emits gamma rays and low energy electrons. Since
there is no high energy beta emission, the radiation dose to the patient is low. The low energy gamma rays easily pass out
of the body, so they can be detected by the gamma camera. The chemistry of technetium is versatile and can be
incorporated into a range of biomolecules (carriers) which concentrate in specific organs. Technetium 99-m is used in
diagnosis, it bonds with chemicals in the body, and detects blood clots, circulation problems, thyroid problems etc.

.6 Describe the way in which the above named industrial and medical radioisotopes are used and explain their use in terms
of their chemical properties.
see above.