Topics

Elastic wave measurements 1. Principle of wave measurement in a soil specimen

in laboratory soil specimens
2. Bender element testing

Institute of Industrial Science 3. Various sensors for wave measurement and their
Reiko Kuwano performance

Advanced Geotechnical Engineering

E, 2017.4/24

Application of elastic wave measurement

Principle and history of Nondestructive inspection for RC or metal

elastic wave measurement in soil defect, failure, deterioration of inspected materials

Geotechnical investigationelastic wave exploration

properties and structure of ground

Ultrasonic pulse test for rock

shear moduli and Poissons ratios
 Frequency domain Dynamic measurement in laboratory
100000 0.01 0.01
Ultrasound ultrasound Resonant column test measuring resonant frequency as well as amplitude, first
proposed in 1930s, then further developed in 1970s,
10000
0.1 0.1 mainly applied for strain levels of 10-410-2.

Laboratory
sound 1
test 1
1000
sound Wave
Frequency 10 10 length
Hz) 100

100 100 Vair=343m/s
Vwater=1482m/s
10 Field infrasound at 20
earthquake
exploration 1000 1000

infrasound
1 Dynamic response obtained from RC test
10000 10000
Combination of tortional shear and resonant column test, Shear stiffness and damping at various strains can be
capable of measuring shear moduli at wide strain range measured
(developed and improved in The University of Texas at
0.1 100000 100000
in the air in the water
Austin since 1970s) after Stokoe et al.1995

Dynamic measurement in laboratory Shear wave measurement of soil specimen: history

Ultrasonic pulse test measuring travel time period of pulse wave transmitting
Ultrasonic test device (for rock) cannot be directly applied to soil specimens
through cylindrical or prismatic rock specimen
codeJGSISRM P wave P wave can transmit in the water faster than soil skeleton. P wave
velocity does not reflect soil properties for saturated specimens
S wave dynamic responses of transmitter/receiver do not suit to soil

Shear modulus, Youngs

modulus and Poissons
ratio are calculated from
the measured P and S
waves
For shear wave measurement of soil specimens, piezoelectric ceramic bimorph,
bender element (BE), was adopted.
Shirley1978, Shirley & Hamilton1978, Horn (1980), Schultheiss (1981)

After Dyvik & Madshus (1985) reported the comparison between shear stiffness
after Geotech websitehttp://www.geo-tech.co.jp/index.htm
obtained from BE and RC technique, BE was recognised by researchers
I have tried to use this apparatus for a sand sample at Royal School of Mines, but
Since late 1990s, BE technique spread rapidly, as it can be installed in various
Applicable for only P wave apparatus at relatively low cost.
 Shear wave measurement by BE
Amplitude,Volts
Function Generator
Transmitter

Bender element Time, t

l
Oscilloscope

t Bulk density of soil Receiver

l
G ( ) 2
t

Vs: Shear wave velocity

Shear moduli at small strains can be obtained

Bender element (BE) Installation of BE in various testing apparatus

Piezoelectric ceramic materials to generate a voltage in response to applied smalllight weighteasy to work
mechanical stress, and vise versa. Non-destructive
Bimorph element bender element cheap
Compression Shear
Two piezoelectric ceramic elements are glued to either side
element element of an intermediate conductive shim. When a voltage is
Conductive applied, one element elongates while other shortens, forcing Possible to install into various test apparatus
shim the bimorph to bend.

Oedometer Shear box Triaxial Hollow cylinder

torsional shear
Series connection Parallel connection
polarisation
Suitable for receiver Suitable for transmitter
Used for rock specimens

series
element size
specimen Approx. 10mm15mm
specimen
parallel penetration in soil is
3 5mm. Torino univ. NGI NGI Lyon
Yokohama Hokkaido univ. City univ.
 BE test method and interpretation
In early190s, a pulse wave was used for transmitting wave. The first deflection of
output is considered to be the arrival.
input
BE test method and interpretation
Near field effect there is a strong coupling between the P and S wave in the near
field when wave propagates from the source which is neither a point nor infinite plane.
Near field effects observed in BE test
Brignoli and Gotti, 1992)
Brignoli and Gotti (1992)
Viggiani and Atkinson 1995 S wave
f 2.5kHz
Jovicic, Coop and Simic (1996) d
d/1.1

output raised questions f 5kHz

d/4.8
Near field component
Where is the true arrival? point 0, 1 or others? f 10kHz decayed when frequency
1ms Near field effects d/8.1 increased.

pulse wave, or sinusoidal wave?

Cross correlation method
far near In order to avoid the confusion
P wave
due to near field effects, it is
recommended to conduct BE test
Near field depends on the size of source with high frequency wave whose
and wave length wave length is one third to one
fifth.

BE testing; it should be noted BE testing; it should be noted

Frequency dependency: grain size and wave length: dispersion Frequency dependency: grain size and wave length: dispersion
The equivalent continuum assumption applies when wave lengths are much greater the equivalent continuum assumption applies when wave lengths are much greater than grain sizes
than grain sizes.
Especially for coarse grained soil !!
Shear wave velocities of sands and gravels measured in Koseki lab.
An assembly of monosized masses separated a distance a and linked through after Wicaksono, 2007
springs T5 (1.597) H4 1.741) H6 1.733) H3 1.731)

Dynamic measurements gives

T3 (1.533) T1 1.458) H5 1.722) H7 1.756) H1 1.762) H2 1.736)
a
after Santamarina, 2001 T2 (1.590) 1.2
Toyoura Sand

T4 (1.595) 1.1
(1.61)
T.Sand
TC-4(1.61)
Granite
Dmax=12.5mm(2.21)
Hualien site
T7 (1.604) 1.0 PS19(2.02)
TC-3(2.15)
T6 (1.602) 0.9 T.Sand TC-10(2.05)
TC-11(2.17)
20a Vph TC-6(1.63)
PS15(1.97)

0.8 Toyoura Sand

TC-2(2.09)

Vs,cyc/ Vs,sv or V
TC-5(1.62)

0.7
faster velocities
Toyoura Sand Chiba Gravel
TC-7(1.62) TC-14(1.98)
Dmax=50mm(2.23)
2a 0.6 TC-15(2.01)
Regression line
0.5 for gravelly soils TC-13(1.92)
Granite
Vg 0.4
Dmax=31.5mm(2.21)
Triaxial tests on undisturbed samples
Sand TC-1(1.92)
TC-12(1.91)
0.3 Gravelly soil (specimen dia. 10cm)
Gravelly soil (specimen dia. 30cm)
At the long wave length motion, restitution force 0.2 Crushed rock AnhDan et al,2002
3 Maqbool,2003
between masses is minimum. 0.1
( ): dry density in g/cm
Inversion analysis of field measurement
When wave length is 2a, the maximum restoring a 0.0
force is imposed on springs as neighboring masses Velocities in terms of / to highlight the dependence 0.001
0.01
D50/(/2)
0.1 0.2 0.3

are in opposite phase. Energy is not transmitted on the spatial scale a

through the network. Wave length is greater than grain size
 BE testing; it should be noted BE testing; it should be noted
Effects of specimen size and shape Effects of specimen size and shape
Connolly and Kuwano (1999): specimen size/shape affects the BE measurements.
Arroyo et al. (2006): numerical analysis showed that size and boundary condition
of cylindrical specimen affect the received signal.
Tests with slender shapelong wave lengthreflective boundaryweak-decay
material may be misleading.
20016mm HS

50mmH200mmAbsorbing boundary 50mmH200mmNon-absorbing boundary

20020mm TX P S P S
20038mm TX
8cm from BE tip
8cm from BE tip

20050mm TX
Cyclic TS
12cm from BE tip
200100mm TX 12cm from BE tip
20070mm TX

16cm from BE tip 16cm from BE tip

Issues to be noted in BE testing Issues to be noted in BE testing

Effects of sample shape/size Cylindrical specimens with different size/shape
Assumption in the BE test interpretation

Receiver BE
S-wave transmitting along the
straight line between transmitter and
receiver arrive first.
S-wave
travel path
P-wave

Near field effect

compression
P-wave generated additionally beside
the transmitter element reflects at the
lateral surface of specimen.
Transmitter BE (Lee & Santamarina 2005, Arroyo et
al. 2006) 30mm h100mm
50mm h180mm 50mm h100mm
Longer size Standard size Thinner size
 Effects of size/shape of specimen Issues to be noted in BE testing
50mm, h100mm 30mm, h100mm Question to the performance of transmitter BE
(Pallara, O., Mattone, M. and Lo Presti, D.C.F., 2008, IS-Atlanta)
100mm 100mm
The effects of multiple reflections
Presence of near field effect from the closer lateral boundary is
apparent . Input voltage
50mm 30mm
Measured displacement of BE
4 6

Square 4
Output Voltage (mV)

Output Voltage (mV)

15.6kHz
Square
2

0 15.6kHz
-0.2 7.8kHz0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
7.8kHz
-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
3.9kHz
-2 3.9kHz
-2
50Pa
50Pa
-4 -4 Based on the monitoring of BE motion, the input electrical signal may not
Time (ms) Time (ms)
represent the actual bender displacement.

BE testing, current situation BE testing, current situation

For further improvement Spreading rapidly due to its simplicity

wave shape However, some uncertainty remain

pulse wavesingle sinusoidal wave continuous sinusoidal wave, others
determination of arrival time ? Interpretation of BE testing, G=V2, is based on the idea;
start to startpeak to peakcross-correlation one dimensional wave propagation plane wave
International round robin test by TC29, ISSMGE material is isotropic, uniform, continuum
reliable data can be obtained by BE standardisation by JGS
In reality,
three dimensional wave propagation from a (not perfect point) source
Extension of application near field effects
measurement of decay a specimen has its shape (i.e. presence of boundary)
measurement of P wave and Bio (second kind of P) wave reflection and interference of waves
material is anisotropic, non-uniform, granular media
travel path? dispersion?
International Round Robin Test of BE International Round Robin Test of BE
Does BE test offer reliable results?
Example of the results
Period: September 2003 September 2005
Participants: 23 laboratories from 11countries

Specification
air pluviated Toyoura sand
Dr=50% and 80% at v=25kPa
dry or fully saturated
Isotropic or anisotropic (K=0.5) or K0 (for
oedmeter test) stress state

Apparatus: Triaxial, Oedmeter, Direct shear,

Torsional shear
Specimen size, element size, input wave,
interpretation and etc. are varied.
Acceptable or too scattering??

International Round Robin Test of BE Survey on BE test

Re-evaluation by TC29 JGS members using time-domain start-to-start method A survey on the BE testing has been recently conducted by JGS, in preparation for
the discussion of standardization of BE method.
saturated
dry Questionnaire was sent to 305 JGS members who are interested in BE testing.
187 answers were obtained.
11

Purpose of BE test others

saturated
dry practice,
39
Evaluation of in-situ saturation degree design research
Quality management of improved soil
77
Others
Acceptable?? Still scattering in dry condition, and in oedmeter test.
Parameter setting for
Comparison to numerical analysis (Total: 127)
in-situ test
Details are reported in the TC29 website and JGS publication :
http://www.jiban.or.jp/file/e/tc29/BE_Inter_PP_Test_en.pdf Quality check of
Yamashita,S., Kawaguchi,T., Nakata,Y., Mikami,T. Fujiwara,T. and Shibuya,S. Interpretation of undisturbed sample
Bender element test is not only for researchers.
(Total: 88)
International Parallel Test on the Measurement of Gmax Using Bender Elements Soils and
Foundations, Vol.49, No.4, 631-650.
 Survey on BE test JGS standard for Bender Element test

Apparatus installed Geo-material

BE only, Simple shear, Unconfined silt, intermediate soil,

compression, In-situ measurement, decomposed granite,
Centrifuge model, Frost heave Oedmeter ballast, peat, volcanic ash
test
Others Others

Improved Clay
soil
Model Triaxial
test Soft rock
Gravel
Sand

Hollow cylinder
torsional Shear box

Bender element test is used in various apparatus and for various materials.

Multi directional BE measurement Multi directional BE measurement

Multi-directional BE for SvhShv Shh measurement SvhShv Shh measurements 15kHz

40kHz

Ticino sand
18kHz

Pennington et al. (2001 Fioravante & Capoferri, R. (2001

Installing miniature BE in triaxial specimen of Gault clay Attaching BEs on the side of specimen in different SvhShv
S SvhShv way, Shh, Shv and P waves are measured.
Stiffness measurement using multi-directional BE Stiffness measurement using multi-directional BE

Multi-directional BE test Lateral BE

3 pairs of BEs are attached to the specimen
Measuring Shv and Shh by attaching side surface of cylindrical specimen

Soil specimen are assumed to be Sample

Bender
Membrane
Svh(T) cross anisotropic element
Slot Weight of plug : 6.5g
Glue
Shear wave propagating vertically and Weight of socket : 8g
horizontally Latex rubber O-ring Weight of cable : 20g/m

Socket Plug
Shh(R) Horizontally propagating waves are Cable
Shv(T)
further separated into
Shv(R)
Shv & Shh
Shh(T) smalllightweight
Consisting of a plug and socket, being
installed into a sand specimen without
losing suction
Svh(R)

Stiffness measurement using multi-directional BE Stiffness measurement using multi-directional BE

Strain level in BE Elastic properties of soil

Assuming that a soil specimen is a cross-anisotropic elastic body, stress-
Depending on material properties and test conditions. strain increment relationship can be expressed by Hookes law.
Back-calculate displacement of element from output voltage, then
convert to strain, 5 Independent parameters can
1
hh vh
0 0 0 be chosen as ;
E
Transmitter A1m0.01 h
Eh Ev
, ,
hh vh
Receiver A 0.01 m 0.0001 xx
1



0 0 0 xx
E Eh Ev
yy h
yy
u hv hv 1
t=n/(2f) Limit strain levels measurable zz

0 0 0 zz Other parameters;

in static testing yz Eh Eh Ev
yz vh hv
1
0
zx 0 0 0
Gvh
0
zx


A Ev Eh
x xy 1 xy
Vs/f 0 0 0 0 0
Gvh Eh
1 Ghh
u 2fA 2f 0

0 0 0 0
Ghh 2(1 hh )
cos ( x Vs t )
x Vs Vs
Stiffness measurement using multi-directional BE Stiffness measurement using multi-directional BE

Measurement of small strain stiffness Measurement of small strain stiffness

Combination of small cycle triaxial tests and bender element tests Small stress cycle test
enable us to determine all the cross-anisotropic elastic constants. 250

200 h'=142kPa

5 Independent parameters; v '=316kPa

Other parameters and relationship;
, , vh hv 150 h'=142kPa 10
Eh

q (kPa)
Ghh v '=316kPa
Ev Eh 2(1 hh ) 5 h'=constant
100

q (kPa)
test Elastic constants obtained 0
50
v cycle (h =const.) test Ev, vh -10 -5 0 5 10
v '=constant
-5
h cycle (v =const.) test Eh, hh 0
0 50 100 150 200 250
and
p' (kPa) -10
Bender element test p' (kPa)
Bender element test Gvh, (Ghh)

It is valid when dynamic and static measurements give the same properties.

Stiffness measurement using multi-directional BE Stiffness measurement using multi-directional BE

Measurement of small strain stiffness Measurement of small strain stiffness

Small stress cycle test on sand at anisotropic stress condition Ham River sand Small stress cycle test on sand at anisotropic stress condition Ham River sand
10 Ev'=520MPa Youngs modulus (Ev) & 10
HRS : e=0.66 Poissons ratio (vh) HRS: e=0.66
8
(elastic limit)
1
v v '
8
h'/h=300MPa h 1 hh
h'=142kPa elastic limit
h'=142kPa
h
6
v '=316kPa Ev v '=316kPa 6

4
Vertical strain vh
Eh
Lateral strain h v ' 4

2 Ev Horizontal strain
v' (kPa)

Eh
Ghh
0.002 2

h' (kPa)
0 HRS : e=0.66
0
2(1 hh )
-0.004 -0.002 0 0.002 0.004
-2 vh=0.35 -0.004 -0.002 0 0.002 0.004 by BE measurement
0.001 -2
Radial strain (% )

-4
-4
-6 Vertical strain
0
-6
-0.003 -0.002 -0.001 0 0.001 0.002 0.003
-8
-8 Eh and hh are calculated
-10 -0.001
Strain (% ) (elastic limit
-10
from v-v' ) Strain (% )
linear elastic range after yielding
v cycle h constant test -0.002
h cycle v constant test
Axial strain (% )
Stiffness measurement using multi-directional BE Stiffness measurement using multi-directional BE

Measurement of small strain stiffness Anisotropy of shear stiffness for various materials
2.5
Measurement of horizontal Youngs modulus dynamic measurement : Ghh>Gvh
HRS Eh>Ev
GB
2
Toyoura sand
In general, static measurement
Eh HPF4 silt
Ghh Bender element test velocity Pentre clay-silt gives opposite results;
2(1 hh ) Kaolin i.e. horizontal stiffness is softer.
1.5

Ghh/Gvh

h 1 hh Wave propagates faster in
Triaxial testh cycle test
1
horizontal direction?
h Eh
Prediction for HRS
from empirical relationship
0.5

2 equations, 2 unknown parameters Due to shape and arrangement

of particles ??
0
&can be obtained 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
In particular, for clay
K (=h'/v')

Stiffness measurement using multi-directional BE Stiffness measurement using multi-directional BE

Effects of stress history Effects of stress/strain history

200

Small strain stiffness observed during shearing process

HRS: e=0.75
Small strain shear stiffness
There seem to be little
under isotropic and anisotropic 150
effect of stress history. show sudden change at some point.
stress states v/h2.2 Ghh
Ghh'/f(e) (MPa)

Small strain shear

100
stiffness depend on
800
only current stress
200
C
50 states (and void ratio). 160 B 160
D
HRS: e=0.65, 0.68 HRS: e=0.65, 0.68 B
150 140
140
600

D
Ghh Gvh
D 0 isotropic consolidationaxial loading
100 C isotropic consolidation
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 120 120
and swelling and swelling (h' constant)

q (kPa)
-0.04
v'/pr) (h'/pr)0.53 (A-B-C) (A-B-C)
B C
q (kPa)

50 200 400

Gvh/f(e) (MPa)
Ghh/f(e) (MPa)

100 axial loading (radial

100 axial loading (radial
E HRS: e=0.75
A G X stress constant) stress constant)
0 (C-D) (C-D)
80 80 X radial loading X
0 100 200 300 400 150 radial loading (axial
200
radial loading (axial
(v ' constant)
-50 1st anisotropic state (ABCD) D stress constant) stress
E constant)
Gvh Y
Gvh'/f(e) (MPa)

(C-D) Y
constant p' (DEFE) 60 60 (C-D)
-100 1st isotropic state (EGEA) Y empirical trend E empirical trend
F 100 A C
2nd anisotropic state (ABCBA) 40 40 A B
A 0
-150 2nd isotropic state (AE) 0 200 400 600
E p' (kPa)
p' (kPa) Gvh'=f(e,effective stresses) 20 20
50

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
0
-0.04 0.53 0.32 0.20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 (v'/pr ) *(h'/pr ) (v'/pr ) *(h'/pr )
0.32 0.20
v'/pr) (h'/pr)
Stiffness measurement using multi-directional BE Stiffness measurement using multi-directional BE

Effects of stress/strain history Effects of stress/strain history

A sudden change in small strain shear stiffness
occurs when dilation starts. 2 Due to strong dilation by shearing,
HRS: e=0.65, 0.68 small strain stiffness changes (in most
Constants in empirical equation 1.8
cases decreases).
Change in particle arrangement change
m n
1.6 Y The degree of anisotropy also alters.
and states of contact Gij Cf (e) i j
pr pr 1.4

800
800
1.2

Gvh/Ghh
axial loading
D
HRS: e=0.65 600
1 radial loading
axial loading 600

(path CD) empirical trend

axial loading 0.8
(kPa)

(h' constant)

q (kPa)
400 400 X
0.6
q

X radial loading X
200 (v ' constant) 0.4
200 E
HRS: e=0.68 Y
Y 0.2
radial loading C
A B
(path CE) 0

0 0 200
p' (kPa)
400 600 0
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Volumetric strain (%)
Stress ratio, R (= v '/ h ')

Application of BE method Application of BE method

Estimation of internal structure using elastic wave tomography in trapdoor test
Estimation of internal structure using elastic wave tomography Arrangement of bender elements

0.45

Receiver
Shear wave velocities between multiple 0.40

transmitters and receivers are

0.35

0.30

measured. The distribution of wave

0.25

Y
0.20

velocities are then estimated using

0.15

0.10

Transmitter Receiver
tomography analysis. 0.05

0.00
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
X

Bender elements are used for the Distribution of difference of wave velocities
Distribution of wave velocities
shear wave measurement. between before and after trapdoor test, shear
planes observed in the model ground are also
shown.

before trapdoor test after trapdoor test

 BE summary

Bender element testing become popular due to its simplicity.

Various sensors for wave measurement
It is cheap, small, lightweight, non-destructive, easy to install into most soil
testing apparatus. and their performance
On the other hand, some uncertainty remains in the interpretation and
applicability. Effects of specimen shape and boundary condition, input wave
shape and frequency, grain size, material decay, etc. need to be further
investigated.

Stiffness measurement by elastic wave velocity Stiffness measurement by elastic wave velocity

Wave velocity measurement Wave measurement tools for a laboratory specimen currently used in IIS, the University of Tokyo

Travel Time
Trigger
Loading
Trigger shaft

Top Cap Time

Transmitter Bender
Bender Element Element Disk type
(sensor 1) Sensor 1 Sensor 2 Sensor
Accelerometer

Membrane dBE dTA Accelerometer

Wave velocity =
Specimen
Receiver Travel Length
Bender Element between sensor 1 and 2
(sensor 2) Trigger & Disk Transducer (DT)
Pedestal Bender Element (BE)
Travel Time
Accelerometer (TA) for S wave for P &S wave
between sensor 1 and 2
for P&S wave
 Trigger Accelerometer (TA) method Bender Element (BE) method

Piezo-ceramic bimorph elements are

Trigger Accelerometer apparatus setting used for transmitter and receiver.

Becoming increasingly popular since 1980s.

P type triggers S type triggers

VP/S=d/t VS=d/t
Amplifier Function Generator Transmitter Bender
element
Function Generator

d vs
vp d
t
vs
Signal Oscilloscope Receiver Bender element
t
Amplifier
Oscilloscope
Accelerometers attached
on the membrane

PS-type Disk Transducer (DT) method Disk Transducer setting in a triaxial apparatus

Both P and S wave measurement is possible Loading system

using disk type piezo-ceramic element. Disk
Load cell
It can be easily applicable to undisturbed sample, Transducer
in Top cap
as it does not have to insert into the specimen.
Input signal

mechanics
Amplifier

Control
PS-type Disk Transducer Function
Generator
for a 75mm specimen Acrylic plate
Drainage Data
28mm LDT fixed
Silicon S-type Element (=20mm, t=2mm) and back Processing
pressure on
S units specimen
Specimen
P Oscilloscope
(input and output
Araldite signals are tapped)

40mm
Disk Transducer
Output signal in Pedestal

P-type Element (=20mm, t=2mm) Triaxial apparatus

 Wave form P&S wave simultaneous excitation

P&S wave simultaneous excitation Tested materials

100
Toyoura sand
Silica
80
sand

Cumulative passing
Hime
60 gravel
only P excitation Toyoura D50= 0.45
sand
40 D50= 1.72
D50= 0.19

(%)
20

0
0.01 0.1 1 10
only S excitation Grain size (mm)

Both P&S excitation

Toyoura sand , D50=0.2mm Silica sand #5, D50=0.5mm Hime gravel, D50=1.7mm
 Shear moduli obtained from different techniques Shear moduli obtained from different techniques
BE: Bender Element
TA: Trigger Accelerometer
Diameter of DT : 10mm
measurement, GBE , GTA-S, GTA-P , GPDT-S, GDT-P (MPa)

Small strain shear stiffness obtained from dynamic

400
GBE=Vs(from BE)2 DT: Disk Transducer
400
Small strain shear stiffness obtained from dynamic

Hime gravel

measurement, GBE , GTA-S, GTA-P , GDT-P (MPa)

Toyoura sand
BE: Bender Element GTA-S=Vs(from TA-S)2
TA: Trigger Accelerometer
300 300
DT: Disk Transducer
GTA-P=ETA-P/2(1+)
(ETA-P= VP(from TA-P)2)
200 200 Diameter of DT : 10mm
BE
GDT-S=Vs(from PT-S)2
TA-S
GDT-P=MDT-P (1-2) / 2(1- ) For coarser materials, BE and DT
TA-P
100 (MDT-P= VP(from DT-P)2) 100
BE
give lower values,
PT-S
DT TS-S
TA-P due possibly to
DT
PT-P
GTC=E/2(1+) PT-P
DTP insufficient contacts?
dynamic=static
dynamic=static loosening created around element?
Based on the assumption that the
0 0
specimen is isotropic
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Small strain shear stiffness obtained from Small strain shear stiffness obtained from
static measurement, GTC (MPa)
GTA-P, GTA-S>GDT-P, GDT-S, GBE>GTC static measurement, GTC (MPa) GTA-P, GTA-S>GTC>GBE, GDT-P

Small strain stiffness obtained from DT Small strain stiffness obtained from DT
 Statically and dynamically evaluated
Small strain stiffness obtained from DT
Poissons ratios

(0.5V p2 Vs2 )

V p2 Vs2

Disk Transducer for a large triaxial specimen Disk Transducer for a large triaxial specimen

Disk Transducer of 80mm using 4 sets of P&S elements (20mm Amplitude of S-wave signal with increasing number of P&S elements

Piezo-ceramic
Disk transducer / element
Receiver (80mm)

Specimen
50cm

Stainless steel
Disk transducer / S Acrylic plate
P
Transmitter (80mm)
23cm Development of required size of wave measurement device is possible.
 Measurement of elastic wave on granular materials Measurement of elastic wave on granular materials

Large triaxial cell

Specimen:
Tested materials: Tested materials:
Rectangular (23cm23cm50cm)
Toyoura Sand (D50 = 0.2 mm) Toyoura Sand (D50 = 0.2 mm)
Silica Sand, No. 3 (D50 = 1.7mm) Silica Sand, No. 3 (D50 = 1.7mm)
Ooiso Gravel (D50 = 12mm) Ooiso Gravel (D50 = 12mm)

Accelerometer
Percentage finer by weight (%)

Percentage finer by weight (%)

Horizontal Specimen Vertical
LDT LDT

Accelerometer

Particle size (mm) Particle size (mm)

Shear stiffness of Ooiso gravel under isotropic stresses Poissons ratios of Ooiso gravel under isotropic stresses

Shear moduli obtained by three methods; cyclic loading, TA and DT Poissons ratios obtained by three methods; cyclic loading, TA and DT

DT
TA
ST

ST DT
TA
 Effects of (grain size / wave length) on shear wave Effect of anisotropy on the static and wave measurement method
Shear wave velocity derived from shear stiffness

a= 0.7
Vs = Vs derived from cyclic loading ST) Shear modulus assuming
Shear wave velocity measured

isotropic material
obtained from cyclic loading

from DT or TA measurement

DT

TA Anisotropy
increases
Shear modulus assuming
anisotropic material
a= 1.4 when 1 = 3

a= 1.2
Anisotropic coefficient
Stiffness obtained from wave measurement is larger a = Ev/Eh
when grain size is larger (or wave length is shorter)

Anisotropy of the specimen affect the difference of the result.

DT Summary Elastic Wave Measurement Summary

A sensor for measuring elastic wave in a laboratory soil specimen was developed Elastic wave measurement is useful to obtain elastic parameters of tested
using disk shaped piezo-ceramic element. P & S wave can be measured at the materials in non-destructive manner. However, there still remain some
same time when P & S elements are excited simultaneously. uncertainties to be investigated.

By using multiple numbers of piezo-ceramic elements, development of required Typical relationship between G and current stresses are altered due to the
size of Disk Transducer was possible. Disk transducers of 80mm diameter were change in soils structure.
installed in a large triaxial apparatus.
There are various sensors for the wave measurement. The most widely used
Elastic wave measurements on gravel were successfully conducted using large one is bender element.
size disk transducer.
We should note that each sensor has its applicable range and the results
Dynamically evaluated stiffness tended to be larger compared to statically evaluated from wave measurement and static loading may not be always
evaluated stiffness. It may reflect effects of (grain size / wave length) or identical.
anisotropy, or both.