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ChapterOutline
1.1Signals
1.2FrequencySpectrumofSignals
1.3AnalogandDigitalSignals
1.4Amplifiers
1.5CircuitModelsforAmplifiers
1.6FrequencyResponseofAmplifiers
1.7IntrinsicSemiconductors
1.8DopedSemiconductors
1.9CurrentFlowinSemiconductors
1.10Thepn JunctionwithOpenCircuitTerminals
1.11Thepn JunctionwithAppliedVoltage
1.12CapacitiveEffectsinthepn Junction
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1.1Signals
Signalprocessing
Signalscanbeofavarietyofformsinordertocarryinformationfromthephysicalworld
Itismostconvenienttoprocesssignalsbyelectronicsystem,therefore,thesignalsarefirst
convertedintoanelectricform(voltageorcurrent)bytransducers
Inputsignal Outputsignal
Signal
(voice,speed, Transducer Transducer (voice,speed,
pressure,etc.) Processor
pressure,etc.)
ElectricalSignals ElectricalSignals
v(t) v(t)
t t
Signalsources
Thevenin form:(voltagesourcevs +seriesresistanceRs)
Presentingthesignalbyavoltageform
IspreferredwhenRs islow(Rs canbeneglected)
Nortonform:(currentsourceis +shuntresistanceRs)
Presentingthesignalbyacurrentform
IspreferredwhenRs ishigh(Rs canbeneglected)
Inelectronicssystems,thesignalistakenfromoneofthetwoformsforanalysis
Twoformsareinterchangeablewithvs(t)=is(t) Rs
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1.2FrequencySpectrumofSignals
Sinusoidalsignal
Asinusoidalsignalisgivenas:va(t)=|Va|sin(at + a ) va(t)
Characterizedbyitsamplitude(|Va|),frequency(a)andphase(a )
Va
Frequencydomainrepresentation
Anytimedomainsignalcanbeexpressedbyitsfrequencyspectrum t
Periodicsignal Fourierseries
a
Nonperiodicsignal Fouriertransform T
Periodicsignal
Thefundamentalfrequencyofperiodicsignalsisdefinedas0 =2/T.
Aperiodicsignalcanbeexpressedasthesumofsinusoidsatharmonicfrequencies(n0)
Example:asquarewavewithperiodT
4V 1 1
v(t ) (sin 0t sin 30t sin 50t ...)
3 5
Timedomainrepresentation Frequencydomainrepresentation
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4V 1 1
v(t ) (sin 0t sin 30t sin 50t ...)
3 5
Nonperiodicsignal
TheFouriertransformisappliedtoanonperiodicfunctionoftime
Thespectrumofanonperiodicsignalcontainsallpossiblefrequencies
Timedomainrepresentation Frequencydomainrepresentation
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1.3AnalogandDigitalSignals
Signalclassification
Analogsignal:signalcantakeonanyvalue Continuoustimeanalogsignal
v(t)
Digitalsignal:canonlytakeonfinitequantizationlevels
Continuoustimesignal:definedatanytimeinstant
Discretetimesignal:definedonlyatthesamplinginstants
Sampling:theamplitudeismeasuredatequaltimeintervals t
Quantization:representthesamplesbyfinitevalues Discretetimeanalogsignal Sampling
Quantizationerror:
Differencebetweensampledvalueandquantizedvalue
Canbereducedbyincreasingthequantizationlevels
Dataconversion t
Analogtodigitalconverter(ADC):
Digitalsignal
b0
Analog A/D b1 Digital Quantization
vA 3
input converter output
...
bN1 2
Digitaltoanalogconverter(DAC): 1
0 3,3,3,2,3,3
b t
Digital b0 D/A vD
Analog
1
input converter output
...
Quantizationerror
bN1
vD b0 20 b1 21 ....bN 2 N 1
t
vA =vD +quantizationerror
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1.4Amplifiers
Gainofamplifiers
VoltagegainAv vO /vI
CurrentgainAi iO /iI
PowergainAp vO iO /vI iI
Amplifiergainsaredimensionless(ratioofsimilarlydimensionedquantities)
Voltageandcurrentgaincanbepositiveornegativedependingonthepolarityofthevoltageand
thecurrent
Thegainisfrequentlyexpressedindecibels:
VoltagegainAv (dB) 20log|Av |
CurrentgainAi (dB) 20log|Ai |
PowergainAp (dB) 10log|Ap |
Gain>0dB |A |>1(amplification)
Gain<0dB |A |<1(attenuation)
ThepolarityofthevoltageandcurrentisnotshownindBexpression
Amplifierpowersupplies
Amplifiersrequiredcpowersupplies
Pdc =VCCICC +VEE IEE
Pdc +PI =PL +Pdissipated
(efficiency)=(PL /Pdc )100%
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Transfercharacteristicsoflinearamplifier
Theplotofoutputresponsevs.input transfercharacteristics
Forlinearamplifier,thetransfercharacteristicisastraightline
passingtheoriginwithslope=Av
Itisdesirabletohavelinearamplifiercharacteristicsformostof
theapplications
Outputwaveformisanenlargedcopyoftheinput:vO(t)=AvvI(t)
NohigherpowertermsofvI attheoutput
Amplifiersaturation
Practically,theamplifiertransfercharacteristicremainslinear
overonlyalimitedrangeofinputandoutputvoltages
Theamplifiercanbeusedasalinearamplifierforinputswing:
L/Av vI L+/Av vO =AvvI
Forinputlargerthantheswinglimitation,theoutputwaveform
willbetruncated,resultinginnonlineardistortion
Thenonlinearitypropertiescanbeexpressedas:
vO =a0 +a1vI +a2vI2 +a3vI3 ..
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Nonlineartransfercharacteristicsandbiasing
Inpracticalamplifiers,thetransfercharacteristicsmayexhibitnonlinearitiesofvariousmagnitude
Thenonlinearitycharacteristicswillresultinsignaldistortionduringamplification
Inordertousethecircuitasalinearamplifier:
Usedcbiastooperatethecircuitnearthemiddleofthetransfercurve quiescentpoint
Superimposethetimevarying(ac)signalonthedcbiasattheinput
Besurethatthesignalswingissufficientlysmallforgoodlinearapproximation
Thetimevarying(ac)componentsattheoutputisthedesiredoutputsignal
Slope=Av
vO
vO (t)
Q
VO
VI
vI vI (t ) VI vi (t ) vo (t ) Av vi (t )
vO (t ) VO vo (t ) dv
Av O |at Q
dvI
vI (t)
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Symbolconvention:
dcquantities:IC,VD
Incremental(ac)quantities:ic(t),vd(t)
Totalinstantaneous(ac+dc)quantities:iC(t),vD(t)
iC(t)=IC +ic(t)
vD(t)=VD +vd(t)
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1.5CircuitModelsforAmplifiers
Conceptofequivalentcircuit
Practicalamplifiercircuitcouldberathercomplex
Useasimplifiedmodeltorepresentthepropertiesandbehavioroftheamplifier
Theanalysisresultsdonotchangebyreplacingtheoriginalcircuitwiththeequivalentcircuit
Voltageamplifiers
Asimplifiedtwoportmodeliswidelyusedforunilateral voltageamplifiers
VoltageAmplifier
Themodeliscomposedofthreecomponents:
Inputresistance(Ri):theresistancebylookingintotheinputport
Outputresistance(Ro):theresistancebylookingintotheoutputport
Opencircuitvoltagegain(Avo):thevoltagegain(vo/vi)withoutputopencircuit
Circuitanalysiswithsignalsourceandload:
vo RL
Voltagegain: Av Avo
vi RL Ro
Overallgain: Gv vo Ri Avo RL
vs Ri Rs RL Ro
Idealvoltageamplifier:Ri = andRo =0
Theparameterscanbeobtainedbycircuitanalysisormeasurement ix
Analysis(measurement)oftheinputresistance:
Theresistancebylookingintotheinputport vx
(findix foragivenvx orfindvx foragivenix) Ri vx/ix
Analysis(measurement)oftheoutputresistance: ix
Setvi =0byinputshort
Theresistancebylookingintotheoutputport
vx
(findix foragivenvx orfindvx foragivenix) Ro vx/ix
Analysis(measurement)oftheopencircuitvoltagegain:
Givenvx atinput
vo
Findopencircuitoutputvoltagevo
vo isdividedbyvx vx
Avo vo/vx
Bufferamplifier
Impedancemismatchmayresultinareducedvoltageswingattheload
Bufferamplifiercanbeusedtoalleviatetheproblem
Thegainofthebufferamplifiercanbelow(~1)
Thebufferamplifierhashighinputresistanceandlowoutputresistance
Unilateralmodels
Theamplifiermodelsconsideredareunilateral;thatis,signalflowonlyfrominputtooutput
Themodelissimpleandeasytousesuchthatanalysiscanbesimplified
Notallamplifiersareunilateralandmorecomplicatedmodelsmaybeneededfortheanalysis
Exercise2: Considertwoamplifierstagesarecascaded.Themodelofthefirststageis
givenbyRi =1M,Ro =10k andAvo =20,whilethemodelofthesecondstageisgivenby
Ri =100k,Ro =10 andAvo =2.
(1) Findthevoltageamplifiermodelforthecascadeamplifier.
(2) ForRs =100k andRL =100 ,findAv andGv.
Conceptoffrequencyresponse
Theinputsignaltoanamplifiercanbeexpressedasthesumofsinusoidalsignals
Frequencyresponse:thecharacteristicsofanamplifierintermsofitsresponsetoinputsinusoidals
ofdifferentfrequencies
Measuringtheamplifierfrequencyresponse
Applyingasinusoidalsignaltoalinearamplifier,theoutputisasinusoidalatthesamefrequency
Theoutputsinusoidalwillingeneralhaveadifferentamplitudeandashiftedphase
TransferfunctionT()isdefinedasafunctionoffrequencytoevaluatethefrequencyresponse
MagnitudeofT()isthevoltagegainoftheamplifier:|T()|=Vo /Vi
PhaseofT() isthephaseshiftbetweeninputandoutputsignals:T()=
Amplifierbandwidth
Thebandwidthisdefinedwithin3dBfromtheflatgain
Forsignalcontainingcomponentsoutsidethebandwidth,theoutputwaveformwillbedistorted
Flatgain
3dB
vo(t)=Vosin(t+ +)
vi(t)=Visin(t+ )
Inductors
d
Currentvoltagerelation: vL (t ) L iL (t )
dt
Forsinusoidalsignals: iL (t ) I 0 cos(t ) vL (t ) CI 0 sin(t )
TheratioofvoltageamplitudeandcurrentamplitudeisproportionaltoL,andisconsidereda
frequencydependentimpedance
Phasoranalysis: iL (t ) I 0 cos(t ) I L I 0e j
vL (t ) LI 0 sin(t ) VL LI 0e j ( / 2)
Z L VL / I L jL
Vo ( j ) 1 / jC 1
T ( j )
Vi ( j ) R 1 / jC 1 jRC
K
General form T ( j )
1 j / 0
K
Magnitude | T(j ) |
1 ( / 0 ) 2
Phase T ( j ) tan 1 ( / 0 )
or 180 tan 1 ( / 0 )
Straightlineapproximations:
Lowfrequencymagnitude:|K|indB
Cornerfrequency:0
Fastevaluationofgainandphase
Exercise4:Findthetransferfunctionandplotitsfrequencyresponse.IsitaSTCnetwork?
Covalentbond
Eachvalenceelectronofasiliconatomissharedbyoneofitsfournearestneighbors
Electronsservedascovalentbondsaretightlyboundtothenucleus
Electronholepair
At0K,nofreecarriersareavailable Sibehavesasaninsulator
Atroomtemperature,asmallamountofcovalentbondswillbebrokenbythethermalenergy
electronholepairgenerationasfreecarriers
Bothelectronsandholesarefreetomove cancontributetocurrentconduction
Exercise1.27(Textbook)
Exercise6:WhatmustND besuchthatn =10000p atroomtemperature(T =300K)
Freecarriersinsemiconductors
Mobileparticleswithpositiveornegativecharges:electronsandholes
Thetransportationofcarriersresultsincurrentconductioninsemiconductors
Carrierdrift
Thermalmotionintheabsenceofelectricfield:
Thedirectionofflightbeingchangedateachcollisionwiththeheavy,almoststationaryions
Statistically,aelectronhasarandomthermalmotioninthecrystalstructure
Netdisplacementoveralongperiodoftimeiszero nonetcurrentflow(I =0)
ThermalmotionunderelectricfieldE:
Thecombinedmotionofelectronunderelectricfieldhasarandomandadriftcomponent
Still,nonetdisplacementduetorandommotioncomponentoveralongperiodoftime
Thedriftcomponentprovidestheelectronanetdisplacement
Driftisthecarriermovementduetotheexistenceofelectricfield
ElectricfieldE =0 ElectricfieldE 0
Speed(instantaneous)>0 Speed(instantaneous)>0
Nonetdisplacement DriftcomponentduetoE
Velocity(average)=0 Velocity(average) 0
dp
J p ( diff ) qD p
dx
dn
J n ( diff ) qDn
dx
Dn:diffusionconstant(diffusivity)ofe
Dp:diffusionconstant(diffusivity)ofh+
Electrondiffusion Electrondiffusion
Builtinpotential Builtinpotential
n(x) n(x)
fromelectronconcentration fromholeconcentration
Electrondrift
dn dp
Excessnegative J n qn n E qDn 0 J p qp p E qD p 0
dx dx
mobilecharge dn dp
n n E Dn p p E D p
dx dx
VT dn dV VT dp dV
E E
x x n dx dx p dx dx
dn dp
dV VT dV VT
n p
n2 p1
E V21 V2 V1 VT ln V21 V2 V1 VT ln
n1 p2
n1 n2 e V21 / VT p1 p2 eV21 / VT
ND(x) ND(x) Excesspositive
spacecharge
Exercise7:Asiliconbarhasacrosssectionalareaof4cm2 andalengthof10cm.
(1) ForintrinsicSiwith n =1350cm2/Vsandn =480cm2/Vs,findtheresistanceofthe
baratT =300K.
(2) ForextrinsicSiwithNA =1016 /cm3,n =1100cm2/Vsandn =400cm2/Vs,findthe
resistanceofthebaratT =300K.
Exercise1.28(Textbook)
Example1.9(Textbook)
Exercise1.29(Textbook)
Physicalstructureofapn junction
Closecontactofantypesemiconductorandaptypesemiconductor
Atwoterminaldevicewithanodeandcathode
pnjunctionincontact
ptype(NA)ntype (ND)
ptype:dopingconcentration:NA
ntype:dopingconcentrationND
Majority carriersarecrossingtheinterfacebydiffusionandrecombinedintheotherside
LeavinguncompensatedspacechargesND+ andNA depletionregion
Indepletionregion,electricfield(potential)buildsupduetotheuncompensatedspacecharges
Thebuiltinpotentialbehavesasanenergybarrier,reducingthemajoritycarrierdiffusion
Thisfieldresultsinminority carrierdriftacrosstheinterfaceintheoppositedirectiontodiffusion
holediffusion
Jp =0
holedrift
electrondiffusion
Jn =0
electrondrift
ptype V0
nn 0 p p0 N N
| V0 | VT ln VT ln VT ln A 2 D
ntype np0 pn 0 ni
N D xn N A x p
(qN D xn / Si )( xn x p ) / 2 VT ln N A N D / ni2 Emax
Electrostaticpotential(V)
2 SiV0 N A 2 SiV0 N D 2 SiV0 N A N D
W xn x p
qN D ( N A N D ) qN A ( N A N D ) q ND N A
V0
2 SiV0 2 SiV0 x
ForNA>>ND: W ForND>>NA: W xp xn
qN D qN A
Potentialofelectron
Example1.10(Textbook)
Exercise1.32(Textbook)
Depletionregion
Forwardbias:VF reducesthedepletionregionandtheenergybarrier
Reversebias:VR increasesthedepletionregionandtheenergybarrier
Forwardbias(V=VF) Reversebias(V=VR)
Chargedensity( v) Chargedensity(v)
qND qND
xp xn x xp xn x Emax qN D xn / Si qN Ax p / Si
qNA qNA
2 Si (V0 V ) N D N A
Electricfield(E) Electricfield(E) W
q ND N A
xp xn x xp xn x
NA 2 Si N A (V0 V )
Emax Emax xn W
N A ND qN D ( N A N D )
Electrostaticpotential(V) Electrostaticpotential(V)
ND 2 Si N D (V0 V )
xp W
N A ND qN A ( N A N D )
V0+VR
V0VF
xp xn x xp xn x
Totaljunctioncurrent:J(x)=Jn(x)+Jp(x)=Jn(xp)+Jp(xp)=Jn(xp)+Jp(xn)
AssumeJp andJn donotchangeacrossthedepletionregion:Jp(xp)= Jp(xn)andJn(xp)=Jn(xn)
Thetotalcurrentcanbeexpressedas:J(x)=Jn(x)+Jp(x)=Jn(xp)+Jp(xp)=Jn(xp)+Jp(xn)
qDn n p 0 qD p pn 0 qV / kT
J J n ( x p ) J p ( xn ) ( e 1) J s (e qV / kT 1)
L Lp
n
TheIVcharacteristicsofthepn junction
Thejunctioncurrentdependsonthejunctionvoltage
Thejunctioncurrentisproportionaltothejunctionarea
Thejunctioncurrentisgivenby I I s (e qV / kT 1)
D p Dn Dp Dn
Saturationcurrent: I s qA p n 0 n p 0 qAni2
L Ln L N
p p D Ln N A
Example1.11(Textbook)
qND
qNA
qNA
Electricfield(E) Electricfield(E)
Emax
Emax
Electrostaticpotential(V) Electrostaticpotential(V)
Breakdown
voltage
Breakdown
voltage
Depletionorjunctioncapacitance Chargedensity
Thedepletionwidthiscontrolledbytheterminalvoltage
ptype ntype
Thechangeofterminalvoltage(dV)willresultindQ atthe
edgeofthedepletionregion capacitance
ThejunctioncapacitanceduetospacechargeisCj =dQ/dVR
positivespacecharge
dQ d qAN D wn q Si ND N A (donors)
Cj A
dVR dVR 2(V0 VR ) N D N A negativespacecharge
Cj canalsobeestimatedbyaparallelplatecapacitor: (acceptors)
2 Si N D N A
W (V0 VR )
q ND N A
Si A Si q N A N D 1 VR
Cj A C j0 1
wdep 2 N A N D V0 VR V0
Si q N A N D1
C j0 A
2 N A N D V0
Smallsignaldiffusioncapacitance:
Q T I T I s e qV / kT T I s eV / VT
dQ T
Cd ( )I
dV VT
Cd islargeunderforwardbiasconditions
Cd isneglectedunderreversebiasconditions
Capacitanceofpnjunction
Operatedatforwardbias:C =Cj +Cd
Operatedatreversebias:C Cj
Totalcapacitanceincreasesasamorepositivejunctionvoltageisapplied
Exercise1.40(Textbook)