Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2017) 89:13531365
DOI 10.1007/s00170-016-9183-2
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
A comprehensive study in quantification of response
characteristics of incremental sheet forming process
Akhil Garg 1 & L. Gao 2 & B. N. Panda 3 & Swagatika Mishra 4
Received: 25 April 2016 / Accepted: 13 July 2016 / Published online: 26 July 2016
# Springer-Verlag London 2016
Abstract Incremental sheet forming (ISF) has emerged as
one of the rapid prototyping processes in forming 3D-shaped
products from design data without much need for human and
tool intervention. Past studies show that an extensive focus
has been paid on the analysis of surface roughness, clamped
accuracy, and energy consumption in terms of machine stand-
by and positioning energy, while very little focus was paid to
deformation energy and unclamped accuracy. In this context,
system identification-based methods can play a vital role in
determining and evaluating hidden relationships between the
inputs (tool diameter, wall angle, sheet thickness, and step
down) and two characteristics, namely, deformation energy
and unclamped accuracy. The present work proposes compre-
hensive study based on the feedback-evolutionary system
identification (FB-ESI) approach in predictive evaluation of
multiresponse characteristics. The validation and robustness
of the models were done based on statistical error metrics,
cross-validation, new complexity metrics, and hypothesis
tests. Furthermore, the model analysis based on the parametric
and sensitivity procedures resulted in 2D and 3D plots that
measure the nature of the two characteristics with respect to
* B. N. Panda
biranchi.panda3@gmail.com
1
Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Shantou University,
Shantou 515063, China
2
The State Key Laboratory of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and
Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1037
Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430074, China
3
IDMEC, Instituto Superior Tcnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av.
Rovisco Pais, 1040-001 Lisboa, Portugal
4
Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology,
Burla 768018, Sambalpur, India
each of the four inputs. It was found that sheet thickness and
wall angle influence the most the deformation energy and
unclamped geometrical accuracy, respectively. The findings
from this analysis are useful in monitoring deformation energy
and thus promoting greener environment.
Keywords Incremental sheet forming . Optimization .
System identification . Deformation energy . Genetic
programming
1 Introduction
The incremental sheet forming (ISF) process is an emerging
rapid prototyping process for making complex and custom-
ized parts by forming sheet metals based on progressive local-
ized plastic deformation using a hemispherical headed tool on
computer numerically controlled machine tools (Fig. 1) [1].
The greater flexibility in its forming limits makes it a viable
process for low-cost and small-batch production. ISF process
build the desired geometry of the designed part by accurate
tool path generation from computer-aided manufacturing soft-
ware without much need of human and tool intervention. The
advantages of this process include enhanced formability, low-
er forming forces, and greater flexibility in the process [2].
However, the wider applications of this technology and its
commercialization is hindered by limitations in its geometrical
accuracy, processing times, and higher consumption of energy
needed for deforming metal sheets [3, 4]. These multiresponse
characteristics are highly influenced by technological param-
eters such as wall angle, step depth, tool diameter, spindle
speed, and sheet thickness etc. [4].
Significant attention on experimental work and numerical-
based finite element models have been paid in optimization of
surface roughness, formability limits, and clamped geometric
1354 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2017) 89:13531365

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the Y axis

ISF process
Z axis
Forming tool Blank holder

Wall angle
Work piece

Initial sheet

ss
thickness

ne
ck
hi
Initial sheet

t
et
he
ls
Step down

na
Fi
Experimental rig

Final formed sheet

accuracy of the formed part from ISF [5, 6]. Various variants In context of optimization of energy consumption of
of surface roughness such as mean surface roughness, root the ISF process, Duflou [13] suggested three general ways
mean square (RMS) surface roughness, and mean peak to such as the redesign of machine tools and control parts,
valley height were investigated based on the spindle speed allocation of the machine tool at reasonable level, and the
and step depth by formulation of an empirical model [7]. selection of the appropriate inputs (tool diameter, wall
Empirical models were formulated to study the effects of tool angle, sheet thickness, step size, etc.). Dittrich et al. [14]
radius and step depth on the surface roughness and formability presented the notion (exergy) of extracting the maximum
of pyramidal and conical shaped ISF-formed parts [8]. valuable work from the ISF process at a given state and
Formability was effectively measured by Ham and Jeswiet concluded that the material of the sheet used has
[9] using the design of experiment methodology based on
two inputs: maximum forming angle and effective strains.
The geometric accuracy of the ISF-formed parts is catego- Surface roughness,
rized into three components such as clamped accuracy, clamped geometrical
unclamped accuracy, and final accuracy (Fig. 2). A major accuracy and
emphasis was paid in improving the clamped accuracy of formability
the formed parts [3]. The works comprising of numerical Response
modeling was undertaken by Essa and Hartley [10] to mini- characteristics Direction
mize the sheet bending, springback, and pillow effects. The of ISF process towards
effect of the two different depth values and springback effect Motivation
on the shape deviations of the ISF-formed pyramid parts were
evaluated numerically. It was found that the strains arising due Deformation energy
to structural bending results in the deviations in final and Unclamped
geometrical accuracy
shape, while the springback has little effect. Statistical
modeling based on the design of the experiment methods
such as Box-Behnken were undertaken to study the ef- Statistical and
fects of the inputs (tool radius, step size, wall angle, sheet Experimental
thickness, and final product depth) on the geometric ac- Strategies
SI methods
curacy of the truncated cone formed from the ISF process
for ISF
[11]. Sheet thickness and step size were found to be the process
main inputs affecting accuracy. Similarly, Ambrogio et al.
[12] applied the design of an experiment methodology to
study the effect of these inputs on the dimensional accu- System
racy of the ISF-formed parts. Based on the qualitative Identification (SI)
analysis, it was found that the geometric accuracy was Theory
found to be highest at the bottom and the overall accuracy Fig. 2 Motivation behind choosing response characteristics and the
was 1 mm. system identification theory
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2017) 89:13531365
significant contribution to the total exergy input. A de-
tailed quantitative analysis was performed by Branker
et al. [15] to measure the effects of feed rate, lubricant,
and step-down size on the carbon dioxide emission, cost,
and energy consumption of the aluminum-designed hat
from the ISF process. His analysis concluded that at
higher values of feed rate and step-down size and using
the lubricant at a given state of the ISF process, the ener-
gy consumption was reduced by 69 % and cost by 8.4 %.
Ingarao et al. [16] presented detailed empirical compari-
sons in the context of energy consumption and material
savings for the ISF and conventional stamping processes.
The findings from the analysis reported that the ISF pro-
cess results in higher consumption of deformation energy
than stamping process does, while the material savings
were more in the case of the ISF process. It was also
concluded that the energy consumed during forming by
the ISF process exhibited higher dependence on the ma-
chine type, material type, part geometry shape, and thick-
ness. Further investigation by Ingarao et al. [17] on the
material type for energy consumption on the three differ-
ent machines (CNC milling machine, six-axis robot, and
the AMINO) was conducted. It was found that the mate-
rial type has no influence on the energy consumption as-
pect of the ISF process on CNC milling machine, while
the six-axis robot was found to be influenced the most by
it. The AMINO setup was proved to be most efficient in
terms of energy consumption, but the total energy (ma-
chine standby energy, positioning energy, and deformation
energy) consumed is the highest. This was due to the
higher speed of the forming tool. The model was formu-
lated to reduce the processing time. Similar conclusions to
Branker et al. [15], of increasing the feed rate and step-
size to certain limits, resulted in significant reduction of
total energy consumption. Another study [18] measuring
the effects of inputs (forming time, etc.) on the energy
consumption on CNC milling and CNC turning machine
was investigated. It was concluded that forming time has
the highest influence on energy consumption, and thus, by
reducing the forming time by ten times, the reduction of
Table 1 Machine parts and
specifications for the ISF process No. Machine parts
1 X and y axis of machine
2 Z-axis
3 Hemispherical tools
4 Material
5 Geometry of part
1355
energy consumption of eight times can be achieved. Study
on the effect of process parameters (sheet material, step
down, and tool rotation speed at the two designed levels)
on energy consumption was evaluated [19]. The results
concluded that the rotation speed of the tool influences
the energy consumption the most.
Literature studies have been summarized in Fig. 2. It shows
that the extensive focus was given to optimization of surface
roughness, clamped accuracy, energy consumption in terms of
machine standby, and positioning energy, while very little focus
was paid to deformation energy and unclamped accuracy [2].
Deformation energy is of prime importance because higher
deformation energy implies higher heat generation between
the tool and sheet resulting in tool and part wear, and thus,
premature failure of the part. On the other hand, the attention
was paid to improving the clamped accuracy with less focus
on unclamped accuracy, which is due to the development of
stresses due to plastic deformation. The simultaneous optimi-
zation of both the deformation energy and the unclamped
geometric accuracy is a challenging multiobjective optimiza-
tion problem with conflicting objectives. Accurate geometric
accuracy requires higher deformation energy and thus in-
creases the cost and poses productivity and environmental
threat. The evolutionary system identification (E-SI) theory
[2024] specifically tasked in the automation of the formation
of models from the given data can be applied. Genetic pro-
gramming (GP) is one such approach that is based on evolu-
tionary SI and its past studies have proven its ability to model
complex systems quite accurately [25, 26].
The present study proposes the feedback-based evolution-
ary system identification (FB-ESI) approach. The proposed
approach is based on the hybridization of the two SI methods
to quantify the multiresponse characteristics of the ISF pro-
cess. The multiresponse characteristics include the deforma-
tion energy and the unclamped geometric accuracy. The inputs
considered are step down, sheet thickness, tool diameter, and
wall angle. The models are formed for the each characteristic,
analyzed and validated, and the surface analysis performed on
each results in quantitative relationships which can monitor
the two characteristics simultaneously.
Machine specifications
Maximum speed of 60 m min1 and repeatability of 0.5 mm
Power of 1 kW and maximum force of 3 kN
10, 20, and 30 mm in diameter
Tungsten carbide tip
Body of k110 steel
Aluminium alloy 7075-O
Sample size 300 mm 300 mm
Pyramid
1356 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2017) 89:13531365

Table 2 Experimental data from

the ISF pyramid parts No. Step down Sheet thickness Tool diameter Wall angle Deformation Unclamped
(mm, X1) (mm, X2) (mm, X3) (degree, X4) energy (J) geometrical
accuracy
(mm)

1 1 1.8 10 70 6286.4 1.62

2 1 1.8 30 70 5346.7 1.93
3 0.5 1.8 20 50 5574.4 2.81
4 2 1.8 20 50 2887.5 3.23
5 0.5 1.8 20 70 7414.2 1.21
21 0.5 1.8 10 60 7225.8 2.86
22 2 1.8 10 60 4856 3.58
23 0.5 1.8 30 60 6799.6 3.18
24 2 1.8 30 60 3290.5 3.75
36 0.5 1.27 20 40 4273.85 2.74
37 1.25 2.54 10 50 5982.155 3.07
38 1.25 2.54 20 60 5655.818 3.85
39 1.25 2.54 30 50 4269.083 4.84
40 1.25 1.8 30 50 2636.342 3.38

2 Experimental setup of the ISF process

The experimental details of the ISF process under wet condi-

tions including the machine specifications and the procedure
of measuring the deformation energy and unclamped geomet-
ric accuracy is referred and kept the same as that discussed in
[3]. The machine AMINO (maximum mold-forming capacity
of 2100 mm 1450 mm 550 mm) was used to perform the
ISF process. The other specifications of the machine including
the material type and the forming tool are shown in Table 1
[3]. The four inputs considered in this process are step down,
sheet thickness, tool diameter, and wall angle. Step down is
defined by the perpendicular length between the two contours
generated from the computer-aided programming software for
the pyramid designed part; wall angle is the angle between the
plane and the final formed sheets [3]. 12 blank holders are
used to fix the sheets. Controller FANUC was used to control
the movement of the forming tool. Lubricant shell oil 68 was
used as a lubricant. The deformation energy, designed formed
depth, and unclamped geometric accuracy are the response
characteristics [3].
The deformation energy was evaluated based on the force
components in all three directions. The deformation energy
measured is the energy consumed in deformation and will be
valuable for understanding of the effects of the process param-
eters on the deformation mechanism [3]. Among the three com-
ponents (two horizontal and one vertical), the two horizontal
components of the force are multiplied by the tool movement
on the sheet in the horizontal direction and the forming time
results in the energy deformation in these two directions. The
deformation energy in the vertical direction is evaluated by the Fig. 3 Line graph showing the nature of a deformation energy and b
multiplication of the force component in the vertical direction unclamped geometric accuracy
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2017) 89:13531365 1357

Fig. 4 Scatter matrix showing the nature of a deformation energy and b unclamped geometric accuracy with respect to four inputs

and the step down and the forming time. In this, the summation deformation energy (J) and unclamped geometric accuracy
of the deformation energy in three directions results in the total (mm) with higher non-linear variations. Figure 5 shows that
deformation energy. On the other hand, the geometric there is a high non-linear collinearity between the inputs and
unclamped accuracy was measured by the 3D digitizer. The the two characteristics. The fivefold cross-validation approach
3D data of the part was processed using GEOMAGIC and is used for splitting of the data into five training and testing
the dimensional errors between the formed and the CAD data datasets. The training dataset accounts for 75 % of the total
was computed. The deviation measured in the vertical direction samples while the testing set accounts for 25 % of the samples.
of the designed pyramid and targeted truncated pyramid profile
was used as global geometric error [3]. Experimental
In this way, by varying the four inputs (step down (mm), data of the
sheet thickness (mm), tool diameter (mm), and the wall angle ISF process YMODEL
YGP
GP +
(degree)), the response characteristics (deformation energy (J)
and unclamped geometric accuracy (mm)) were measured. A EGP

total of 40 samples (Table 2) were collected from the study Error component of
the GP model and the
measuring these response characteristics based on varying the experimental data
four inputs as given in Li et al. [3]. Figures 3 and 4 show the SVR
nature of two response characteristics (deformation energy (J)
and unclamped geometric accuracy (mm)) of the ISF-formed Fig. 5 Schematic diagram of the feedback-based evolutionary system
pyramid part. Figure 4 shows the non-linear nature of the identification (FB-ESI) approach
1358 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2017) 89:13531365

Fig. 6 Bar graph with the lowest MAPE of the ESI and FB-ESI models (a) and b deformation energy for dataset 4 (c), and d unclamped geometric
accuracy for dataset 3

3 FB-ESI approach
The FB-ESI approach comprises two potential SI methods of
genetic programming (GP) and support vector regression
(SVR) connected in parallel mechanism with each other. In
this work, ESI is referred to as evolutionary system identifi-
cation approach of GP. The motivation behind adapting these
two methods is to combine the positive features of the two
methods. GP is known for producing the explicit models and
the SVR is known for providing the generalization ability of
the models. Secondly, the notion of parallel mechanism en-
sures that the predictions obtained from the GP model are
trustworthy as the SVR model connected in parallel predicts
the error of the GP model; the summation results in the actual
prediction value. Figure 5 shows the parallel mechanism
adapted for these two methods. The SVR method takes in

Table 3 Statistical metrics of the

proposed models Models R2 RMSE (%) MAPE (%) Multiobjective
error (MO)

Training Testing Training Testing Training Testing Training Testing

phase phase phase phase phase phase phase phase

Deformation energy (J)

ESI 0.94 0.93 16.72 21.36 4.09 9.04 8.03 34.81
FB- 0.97 0.96 9.12 17.37 2.01 2.81 4.96 16.37
ESI
Unclamped geometric accuracy (mm)
ESI 0.96 0.89 18.43 26.36 13.06 17.41 0.31 7.07
FB- 0.97 0.94 11.45 21.37 8.12 10.31 0.16 1.21
ESI
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2017) 89:13531365 1359

Table 4 Actual and model values

obtained from the testing data No. Actual FB-ESIDE(J) ESIDE (J) Actual FB-ESIGE ESIGE
deformation unclamped (mm) (mm)
energy (J) geometric
accuracy
(mm)

1 4856 4918.05 4711.76 3.584 3.48 3.19

2 6799.6 6785.32 6755.68 3.187 3.20 3.10
3 3290.5 3156.32 3316.24 3.756 3.72 3.85
4 2503.1 2470.08 2361.29 2.491 2.46 2.54
5 5925.3 5918.78 5979.71 3.787 3.77 3.79
6 3435 3438.16 3541.29 2.391 2.39 2.38
7 8191.6 8056.55 7831.21 2.825 3.14 1.72
8 4492.2 4599.07 4980.55 3.699 3.61 3.77
9 4450.5 4599.07 4980.55 3.516 3.61 3.77
10 4569.7 4599.07 4980.55 3.7977 3.61 3.77

the necessary input data (experimental data and predictions of model by predicting its error. To understand the notion of this
the GP model) and acts as a feedback method for the GP mechanism, each method is discussed in brief.
Y Model Y GP EGP 1

where YGP is the output value obtained from the ESI GP ap-
proach, EGP is the prediction of the error of the GP model
made by the SVR model, and YModel is the actual value pre-
dicted by the hybridized FB-ESI approach of GP and SVR.
GP [27] based on evolutionary SI follows the same mech-
anism of genetic algorithms (GAs). The only difference be-
tween them is that GP produces tree-shaped structures, i.e.,
models, whereas GAs produce crisp values for inputs that
optimize the process. In other words, GP is used for model
building processes whereas GAs are used for post model anal-
yses (optimization). The functional and terminal sets in GPs
are responsible for the determination forms of the models. The
fitness function/objective function used is structural risk

Fig. 7 Performance of the proposed models on the testing dataset: a Fig. 8 Box plot statistical distribution of the relative error of the
deformation energy and b unclamped geometric accuracy proposed models on the testing dataset
1360
minimization (SRM) [28], and the rest mechanism is the same
as those given in past studies [29].
The framework of SVR is developed on the principle of sta-
tistical learning theory of SRM [3032]. It is also referred to as
the extension of support vector machine algorithm, which was
used to solve classification problems. The ability of SVR in
modeling complex symbolic regression problems has been found
Fig. 9 Relationships between a
deformation energy and b
unclamped geometric accuracy
based on one of the four inputs
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2017) 89:13531365
[32]. Advantages of SVR over the traditional soft computing
methods are that it is not based on any statistical assumptions
and is completely a data-driven black box modeling approach.
The basic concept of this method is to transform the given non-
linear problem to a linear problem by projecting the input space
into a higher dimensional space using a kernel function.
Complete details about this methodology can be found in [32].
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2017) 89:13531365 1361

The methods are implemented in MATLAB R2010 with the Appendix are the formulated models from the datasets. These
parameters such as population size; number of generations; depth models are analyzed statistically in Sect. 4.
of the tree; tournament size; and number of iterations set at 300,
100, 8, 7, and 10, respectively. The kernel function used for SVR Mean absolute percentage error MAPE%
is radial basis functions with its parameters (width and sigma)  
1 X  Ai M i 
estimated using the coupled simulated annealing and grid search  100 2
n i  Ai 
methods. The bar graph (Fig. 6) reveals that the mean absolute
percentage error (MAPE, Eq. 2) of the models corresponding to
dataset 3 (unclamped geometric accuracy) and dataset 4 (defor- where Mi is the value predicted by a model, and Yi is the actual
mation energy) is minimum. Equations A1 to A4 in the value of the output.

Fig. 10 Relationships between a

deformation energy and b
unclamped geometric accuracy
based on two of the four inputs
1362 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2017) 89:13531365

4 Statistical and parametric analysis

of the formulated models

The statistical analysis of the formulated models is conducted

based on the metrics given by Eqs. A5 to A8 in the Appendix.
The error metric (R2, RMSE, MAPE, and MO) values shown
in Table 3 represents the performance of the models (FB-ESI
and ESI) on the training and testing data. In the context of
training (learning) accuracy, both the methods performed well.
On the other hand, for the testing data, it was found that the
FB-ESI-formulated models performed better than the ESI
models for both characteristics (deformation energy and
unclamped geometric accuracy). Table 4 shows the actual
and predicted values of the models from both methods, which
suggests that that the FB-ESI approach performed better than
the ESI approach. Figure 7a, b illustrates the curve fitting of
the models, which also reveals that the predictions obtained
from the FB-ESI models are well in agreement with the actual
data [2]. Figure 8 shows the boxplot revealing the statistical
distribution of the relative error of the FB-ESI models.
Figure 8 shows that the variations (range) were quite low
and therefore the performance of the models are satisfactory.
From the analysis, it is clear that the models formulated by
the FB-ESI approach for deformation energy and unclamped
geometric accuracy outperformed those by ESI. In the follow-
ing section, the relationships between the two characteristics
and the four inputs will be revealed by adapting the parametric
and sensitivity procedure.
2D and 3D analyses of the models for the two characteris-
Fig. 11 Percentage impact of inputs on a deformation energy and b
tics (deformation energy and unclamped geometric accuracy)
unclamped geometric accuracy
of the ISF process were done based on the parametric and
sensitivity procedures given in [33, 34]. The 2D analysis
(Fig. 9a) illustrates the main effect of each input on deforma- part followed by the combined effect of pairs (tool diameter
tion energy. It clearly shows that the deformation energy de- and wall angle and tool diameter and sheet thickness).
creases with an increase in the values for step down size and Sensitivity of the inputs to the two characteristics was com-
tool diameter, while it increases with an increase in the values puted based on finding the maximum/minimum and observing
of sheet thickness and wall angle. Figure 9b shows that the the number of peaks from the 2D and 3D plots, respectively. It is
unclamped geometric accuracy increases non-linearly with an found from Fig. 11a, b that the sheet thickness influenced defor-
increase in the values for step down size, sheet thickness, and mation energy the most followed by step down, wall angle, and
tool diameter, while it decreases non-linearly with an increase tool diameter. For unclamped geometric accuracy, wall angle has
in the values of wall angle. the highest influence followed by sheet thickness, tool diameter,
Figure 10a shows that the combined effect of step down and step down. Overall, sheet thickness plays a greater role and
and sheet thickness produces the highest variations (number has the highest influence for both response characteristics. The
of peaks) in the deformation energy of the pyramid ISF- analysis suggests that the sheet thickness value should be low to
formed part followed by the combined effect of the input pairs achieve lower deformation energy and higher to achieve higher
(step down and wall angle and wall angle and sheet thickness). unclamped geometric accuracy. In this way, a simultaneous mon-
Figure 10b shows that the combined effect of pair sheet thick- itoring of the deformation energy and unclamped accuracy can
ness and wall angle produces the highest variations in the be achieved by selecting the appropriate values of sheet thick-
unclamped geometric accuracy of the pyramid ISF-formed ness, step down, and wall angle.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2017) 89:13531365 1363

5 Conclusion
The present work highlights the motivation of incorporating
system identification theory in modeling two response char-
acteristics of the ISF process. In this context, the comprehen-
sive study based on the FB-ESI approach is proposed for the
quantification of deformation energy and unclamped geomet-
ric accuracy based on four inputs (step down, sheet thickness,
tool diameter, and wall angle). Statistical analysis based on the
cross-validation approach and statistical error metrics con-
cludes that the proposed approach outperformed the ESI ap-
proach. This is because the SVR model acts as an error pre-
diction model, and thus, for each instance that the deformation
energy and geometric accuracy is predicted from the ESI mod-
el, the value of error adds to it, giving a sense of trustworthi-
ness and true prediction value for the ESI model. The pro-
posed models can be used in industries to predict and monitor
the two characteristics offline, thus saving some amount of
experimental resources and time. Parametric analysis reveals
that the sheet thickness influences deformation energy of the
ISF-formed part the most, while the wall angle influences the
unclamped geometric accuracy the most. Future work for au-
thors is to include additional parameters such as machine type,
spindle speed, and final depth and investigate their effects on
the response characteristics (deformation energy and
unclamped geometric accuracy) of the pyramid part fabricated
from ISF technology.
Acknowledgments This study was supported by the Shantou
University Scientific Research Funded Project (Grant No. NTF 16002).

Appendix

 ESI j 6820:6584
Deformation energy
6:4104* tanhtanhx1 x1 tanhx1*x2*x4*x2
  
2:672966 *sintanh6:306133 611:5618* expplogx2 x4

2:672966*15:079500*x4*x2
 
tanplogexpx4 sintanhx4 tanhtanhx1sintantanhsinx2
82:1989*sincostanx1*15:079500*x4*x2 
A1
2397:1489*expx1*sincoscosx3x2 9:0185* x4*x2
  
x1*x3 *x1tanhcosx3 0:78093* x4*x2
 
x1*x3 *x4tanhcosx3tanhcosx3

615:5297* expplogx2 x4 2:672966*15:079500*x4*x2
 
tanplogexpx4 sintanh13:897179 tanhtanhx2sintan8:192150
536:0318*sincostanx4tanhcosx3

Deformation energy FBESI j 1010:4684   

1577:844*cosx3 tanx1 262:2599* plog exp plogx3

cosx2x4 1126:3437*x1 tanx1 15:5027*x4*cosx3 x3 A2
1:5183*x1*x4*17:778431 x4 1899:1108*x2 46:3769*x4*x2
434:0188*x1*x2*plogx3
1364 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2017) 89:13531365

Unclamped geometric accuracyESI mm 5:7766 0:55639

  *sinx2  
coscosx2*cosx2*sinx4 52:5593* exp plog tanhsinx4 cosx2 x4
   
x4 *plogcostanx1x1 sinx4*sin0:359594 20:6344* exp x2
 
x3 x2 x2 0:0027559
  A3
*x4*tantantanhcosx4 0:016091* tan tantantanhx1*x2

*tanplogsinx2x4 0:017112
*tanx3 plogexpcosx4 0:054642*tanx2sincosexpx4
sincosx3*x2 1:5677*tantanhtanplogx4*x2 sinsinx1

 
Unclamped geometric accuracy FBESI mm 3:1317 0:43795* sin tanhx1
     
x2*x3 plogx4 *tancosx2x2 expx1 0:17119* cos cos x4 x1
 
x2x4 x4 x1 0:52787*tancostancosx1x2x2 0:079698

* x2*x2 expx2 tanx2 1:492886
 
cosx1*x4 sinx4 * tanhtanhexpx2

cossincosx4 plog0:101505 x3
3:2196*cossinx4*tanhtanhexpx2 A4
0:34202*sinsinx1*tanhx3*tanhx2 1:784e007
* tanx2*x2 expx2 tanx2 1:492886
    
* sintanexpx4 x1* exp tan x4 x1 x2
   
x4 0:043985* x2*x1 expx2 tan 1:197751
  
x4 cosx1*x4 sinx4*tanhx3 * tanhtanhexpx2

costanx4 plog0:101505 x3
 
Coefficient of determination R2
0 12
n   
X
B Ai Ai M i M i C
B C
B C
B v C
B i1
C A5
u
B uX n  2 X n  2 C
@t Ai Ai M i M i A
i1 i1
v
u N
uX
u
u jM i Ai j2
t i1
Root mean square errorRMSE A6
N
MAPE RMSE
Multiobjective errorMO A7
R2
jM i Ai j
Relative error%  100 A8
Ai
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2017) 89:13531365
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