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Lecture 4

Moisture and Atmospheric


Stability
Atmospheric Water
In order to predict storms, rainfall, and
climate change, we need to quantify
moisture and determine when vapor
changes into liquid or ice.
Question!
Are deserts devoid of atmospheric
moisture?
Properties of Water
Physical States
only natural substance that occurs naturally in three states on the earths
surface
Heat Capacity
Highest of all common solids and liquids
Surface Tension
Highest of all common liquids
Latent Heat of Fusion
Highest of all common substances
Compressibility
Virtually incompressible as a liquid
Density
Density of seawater is controlled by temperature, salinity and pressure
Liquid has maximum density at +4oC; solid phase has lower density!
Properties of Water (cont)
Radiative Properties
transparent to visible wavelengths
virtually opaque to many infrared wavelengths
large range of albedo possible
water 10 % (daily average)
Ice 30 to 40%
Snow 20 to 95%
Cloud 30 to 90%
Energy associated with phase change
Sublimation

Deposition
Why does it take so much energy
to evaporate water?
In the liquid state, adjacent water molecules
attract one another
- charge on O attracted to + charge on H
we call this hydrogen bonding
This same hydrogen bond accounts for
surface tension on a free water surface
column of water
Sublimation - evaporate ice directly to water vapor
Take one gram of ice at zero degrees centigrade

Energy required to change the phase of one gram of ice to vapor:

Add 80 calories to melt the ice


Add 100 calories to raise the temperature to 100 degrees C
Add 540 calories to evaporate the liquid

Total Energy ADDED for sublimation of 1 gram of ice:

80 + 100 + 540 = 720 calories


Deposition - convert vapor directly to ice
Take one gram of water vapor at 100 degrees Centigrade

Release 540 calories to condense


Release 100 calories to cool temperature of liquid to oC
Release 80 calories to freeze water

Total energy RELEASED for deposition of 1 gram of ice

540 + 100 + 80 = 720 calories


Water vapor pressure

Molecules in an air parcel all contribute to parcel pressure


Each subset of molecules (e.g., N2, O2, H2O) exerts a partial
pressure
The VAPOR PRESSURE, e, is the pressure exerted by water
vapor molecules in the air
similar to atmospheric pressure, but due only to the water vapor
molecules
often expressed in mbar (2-30 mbar common at surface)
Water vapor saturation

Water molecules move between the liquid and gas phases


When the rate of water molecules entering the liquid
equals the rate leaving the liquid, we have equilibrium
The air is said to be saturated with water vapor at this point
Equilibrium does not mean no exchange occurs
eS vs T plot
The saturation vapor
pressure of water increases
with temperature
At higher T, faster water
molecules in liquid escape
more frequently causing
equilibrium water vapor
concentration to rise
We sometimes say
warmer air can hold more
water
There is also a vapor
pressure of water over an ice
surface
The saturation vapor
pressure above solid ice is
less than above liquid water
How do we express the amount of water vapor
in an air parcel?
Absolute humidity
mass of water vapor/volume of air (g/m3)
changes when air parcel volume changes
Specific humidity
mass of water vapor/mass of air (g/kg)
Mixing ratio
mass of water vapor/mass of dry air (g/kg)
Specific humidity and mixing ratio remain constant as long as
water vapor is not added/removed to/from air parcel
Dew point temperature
Expressing the water vapor pressure

Relative Humidity (RH) is ratio of actual vapor pressure to


saturation vapor pressure
100 * e/eS
Range: 0-100% (+)
Air with RH > 100% is supersaturated
RH can be changed by
Changes in water vapor content, e
Changes in temperature, which alter eS
The Sling Psychrometer
Measures water vapor content of air
Which environment has higher water vapor content?
Water vapor is distributed
throughout the atmosphere
Generally largest amounts are found close
to the surface, decreasing aloft
Closest to the source - evaporation from
ground, plants, lakes and ocean
Warmer air can hold more water vapor than
colder air
Fresh vs. salt water

Most of the earths water is found in the oceans


only 3% is fresh water and 3/4 of that is ice
The atmosphere contains only ~ 1 week supply of precipitation
The Earths Hydrologic Cycle
Hydrologic Cycle

Evaporation
from oceans is
vital!

2001 Prentice-Hall. From Lutgens and Tarbuck, The Atmosphere, 8th Ed.
Cloud Condensation Nuclei
Once water vapor is in the air, we can
cool a parcel until the water condenses
into a cloud.
However, condensation normally
requires a condensation nucleus.
These are often called CCN cloud
condensation nuclei.
A condensation nucleus is a particle
that provides a site upon which water
vapor molecules can condense.
Evapotranspiration

Potential (land-only)
evapotranspiration

http://www-cger.nies.go.jp/grid-e/gridtxt/pet.html
Moist and Dry Air
We say that the air is dry when there
is no water vapor in the air.
The air is moist when there is some
water vapor in the air. Recall that the
amount of water vapor in the air can
reach 4%.
Note:
Moist air does not imply that condensation
has occurred!
Moist air can be cloud-free.
Almost all air in the atmosphere is moist.
Saturated Air
We say that the air is saturated when
moist air is in a state of equilibrium with
a plane (flat) surface of pure water or
pure ice at the same temperature and
pressure.
Consider a box of water with only dry air
above the water:
Dry Air

H2O
Saturation
Over time, water vapor
molecules will leave the
liquid and go into the
vapor phase.
For a given temperature H2O
and pressure, there will be
When we achieve this
a limit to the amount of
equilibrium state (same
water vapor molecules that number of molecules
can enter the air without leaving the liquid as
the same number returning) we say the
returning to the liquid. air is saturated.
Supersaturation
We can continue adding water vapor to the
air beyond saturation (but we have to do
work to do this!)
We say that a supersaturation condition
exists in a given portion of the atmosphere
when the relative humidity exceeds 100%.
Or we can say that the air is supersaturated
when the water vapor in the air is in excess
of that required to achieve saturation.
Moisture in the Air

Humidity: Refers to the amount of


water vapor (gaseous water) that is
in the air. (H2Ov)

We will be learning 5 different ways


of representing the amount of water
vapor in the atmosphere.
Humidity Variables
First let us consider five humidity
variables

1. Absolute Humidity
2. Specific Humidity
3. Mixing Ratio (w)
4. Vapor Pressure (e)
5. Relative humidity (RH)
Absolute Humidity
Absolute Humidity
The mass of water vapor (in grams)
per unit volume (m3) of dry air.
Called the water vapor density.
Not terribly useful in meteorology.
A simple change in volume will
change the absolute humidity!

mv g
a= Units:
3
volume m
Absolute Humidity -- Problem
Absolute Humidity
The value for absolute humidity changes
as the volume changes.
So, if a parcel were to rise and the volume
expands, then the absolute humidity would
decrease even though the amount of water
vapor had not changed!
We say that absolute humidity is not
conserved.
Absolute humidity is not used much in
meteorology.
Specific Humidity
Specific Humidity

The ratio of the mass of water


vapor (in grams) to the mass of air
(dry air plus the vapor) in kg.
Recall that the absolute humidity was the
ratio of the mass of water vapor to the
volume of the dry air (m3).

mv g
q= Units:
ma kg
Specific Humidity
Consider the
average
specific
humidity at
various
latitudes.

Highest q in the
tropics!

1994 West Publishing Co. From: Ahrens,


Meteorology Today, 5th Ed.
Mixing Ratio
Mixing Ratio: The ratio of the mass of
water vapor to the mass of dry air
(usually 1 kg) in a sample. mv
w=
md
w = mass H2Ov / mass dry air (in g kg-1)

Example: 10 g kg-1

Range: 0 to 30 g kg-1
Mixing Ratio and Specific
Humidity
We can relate the mixing ratio to the
specific humidity by the following simple
relationship:

w
q=
1+ w
Pressure -- Review

Pressure is the force per unit area


that the atmosphere exerts on any
surface it touches.
The molecules in the air are in
constant rapid motion.
When a molecule collides with a
surface, such as your skin, the
molecule exerts a force on that
surface.
Pressure -- Review
Pressure is the cumulative effect of
these air molecule colliding with a
surface.

Air pressure depends on:

The kinetic molecular activity


(temperature)

The mass of the molecules

Gravity
Pressure -- Review
Pressure is a force per unit area:

F
P=
A
In meteorology we use the units millibars.
Typical sea-level pressure is
approximately 1013 mb.
We shall revisit pressure later -- what about
the pressure associated with water vapor?
Vapor Pressure
Vapor pressure: The partial pressure of
water vapor, i.e., that portion of total
atmospheric pressure that is due to the
presence of water vapor (H2Ov).
Recall: N2, O2, A, CO2
Each of these gasses exerts a pressure.
The sum total of these partial pressures is the
total atmospheric pressure.
We denote the vapor pressure by the letter
e.
Vapor Pressure
Example 1:
Assume an atmosphere is made up of
three gasses:
CO2 -- 75 %
N2 ---- 15 %
H2 ---- 10 %
You measure the pressure and find it to
be 1000 mb. What is the partial
pressure of Nitrogen?

1000 mb x 0.15 = 150 mb


Vapor Pressure
Water Vapor Pressure Range: 0 to 50 mb
(80 mb is extreme)
Example 2:
If the atmospheric pressure was 1015 mb and
the water vapor molecules made up 2% of the
volume, then the partial pressure of the vapor,
the vapor pressure, would be:
1015 mb + 0.02 = 20.3 mb
2%
Vapor Pressure
Saturation: If there is the maximum
concentration of water vapor (H2Ov)
molecules in the vapor phase at a given
temperature, we say the vapor is saturated.
This depends only on the temperature of the
air.

Therefore, for any given temperature (T),


there is a saturation vapor pressure (es), and
a saturation mixing ratio (ws).
Saturation Vapor Pressure

The saturation vapor pressure is the vapor


pressure (H2Ov) at a given temperature of a
system that has attained saturation.
In other words, the saturation vapor pressure
represents the pressure of the maximum
amount of water vapor that can exist in the
air (under normal conditions) at a particular
temperature.
The saturation vapor pressure is different
depending on the phase of the water.
Saturation Vapor Pressure

es Saturation vapor pressure with respect to


liquid water.
esw Saturation vapor pressure with respect to
ice.

The saturation vapor pressure is strongly a


function of temperature and highly non-linear.

Let us now look at the saturation vapor pressure


curve (liquid water) for normal temperatures.
Saturation Vapor Pressure
As the temperature
increases, so does the
mean kinetic energy of
the molecules. More can
escape the water surface
and enter the air. The
pressure exerted by
these molecules is
higher.

This occurs regardless of


whether air is present or
1998 Wadsworth Publishing Company
not!
Is Moist Air More Dense?
Consider the mean atomic weight of dry air
consisting only of oxygen and nitrogen:
Nitrogen = 14 x 2 = 28 x 0.78 ~ 22
Oxygen = 16 x 2 = 32 x 0.21 ~ 7

29 Units
Now consider the mean atomic weight of water vapor
only:
Hydrogen = 1 x 2 = 2
Oxygen = 16 x 1 = 16

18 Units
Moist air is less dense than dry air and will tend to
rise.

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