123

Chapter B-1

Chapter 1

Fundamentals of pneumatics

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Chapter B-1

1.1 Physical fundamentals

Air is an abundant gas mixture with the following composition:

! Nitrogen approx. 78 vol. %
! Oxygen approx. 21 vol. %

It also contains traces of carbon dioxide, argon, hydrogen, neon, helium,

krypton and xenon.
To assist in the understanding of the natural laws as well as the behav-
iour of air, the physical dimensions which are employed. The data is
taken from the International System of Units, SI for short.

Basic units Quantity Symbol Units

Length L Meter (m)
Mass m Kilogram (kg)
Time t Second (s)
Temperature T Kelvin (K, 0 C = 273.15 K)

Derived units Quantity Symbol Units

Force F Newton (N) = 1 kg m/s2
Area A Square metre (m2)
Volume V Cubic metre (m3)
Flowrate qv (m3/s)
Pressure p Pascal (Pa)
1 Pa= 1 N/m2
1 bar = 105 Pa

Newtons Law: Force = mass acceleration

F=ma
where a is replaced by the acceleration due to gravity
g = 9.81 m/s2
Pressure: 1 Pascal is equal to the constant pressure on a surface
area of 1 m2 with the vertical force of 1 N (Newton).

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The pressure prevailing directly on the earths surface is known as at-

mospheric pressure (pamb). This pressure is also referred to as reference
pressure. The range above this pressure is known as excess pressure
range (pe > 0), the range below is referred to as vacuum range (pe < 0).
The atmospheric differential pressure pe is calculated according to the
formula:
pe = pabs pamb

This is illustrated by the following diagram:

Fig. 1.1
Air pressure

Atmospheric pressure does not have a constant value. It varies with the
geographical location and the weather.
The absolute pressure pabs is the value relative to pressure Zero - Vac-
uum. It is equal to the sum of the atmospheric pressure and the excess
pressure or vacuum. In practice, pressure gauges which only indicate
the excess pressure are generally used. The absolute pressure value
pabs is approximately 100 kPa (1 bar) higher.
Generally, in pneumatics all data concerning air quantity refers to the so-
called standard state. According to DIN 1343, the standard state is the
status of a solid, fluid or gaseous substance defined by standard tem-
perature and pressure.

Standard temperature Tn = 273.15 K, tn = 0 C

Standard pressure pn = 101325 Pa = 1.01325 bar

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1.2 Characteristics of air

A characteristic of air is its minimal cohesion, i.e. the forces between the
air molecules are to be disregarded for operating conditions usual in
pneumatics. In common with all gases, air has no particular shape. Its
shape changes with the slightest resistance, i.e. it assumes the shape of
its surroundings.

Fig. 1.2
Boyle-Mariottes Law

Boyle-Mariottes Law Air can be compressed and it endeavours to expand. The applicable
relationship is given in Boyle-Mariottes Law. At constant temperature,
the volume of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to the abso-
lute pressure, i.e. the product of absolute pressure and volume is con-
stant for a given mass of gas.
p1 V1 = p2 V2 = p3 V3 = Constant

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The following example illustrates the above principles. Air at atmos- Example calculation
pheric pressure is compressed by an air compressor to 1/7th the vol-
ume. What is the gauge pressure of the air assuming a constant tem-
perature process ?

p1 V1 = p2 V2
V1
p 2 = p1 Note: V2 / V1 = 1/7
V2
p1 = pamb = 100 kPa = 1 bar
p2 = 1 7 = 700 kPa = 7 bar absolute

Therefore: pe = pabs pamb = (700 100) kPa = 600 kPa = 6 bar

A compressor that produces 600 kPa must have a compression ratio of

7:1

Air expands by 1/273 of its volume at constant pressure, a temperature Gay-Lussac law
of 273 K and a temperature rise of 1 K. According to the Gay-Lussacs
law, the volume of a given mass of gas is proportional to the absolute
temperature as long as the pressure does not change.

V1 T1
= V1 = Volume at T1, V2 = Volume at T2
V2 T2
or
V
= Constant
T
The volume change V is:
T2 T1
V = V2 V1 = V1
T1
The following applies for V2:
V1
V2 = V1 + V = V1 + (T2 T1 )
T1

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The above equations only apply if the temperatures in K are used. In

order to be able to calculate in oC, the following formula is to be used:
V1
V2 = V1 + (T2 T1 )
273C + T1

Example calculation 0.8 m3 air at temperature T1 = 293 K (20 oC) are heated to T2 = 344 K
(71 oC). How much does the air expand?
0.8m 3
V2 = 0.8m 3 + (344K 293K)
293K
V2 = 0.8m 3 + 0.14m 3 = 0.94.m 3

The air has expanded by 0.14 m3 to 0.94 m3.

If the volume is kept constant during the temperature rise, this results in
the following formula for the pressure increase:
p 1 T1
=
p 2 T2
or
p
= Constant
T

General gas equation The general gas equation is a combination of all three:
p 1 V1 p 2 V2
= = Constant
T1 T2

In the case of a given mass of gas, the product of pressure and volume
divided by the absolute temperature is constant.
This general gas equation results in the previously mentioned laws, if
one of the three factors p, V or T is kept constant in each case.
! Pressure p constant isobar changes
! Volume V constant isochore changes
! Temperature T constant isothermal changes

TP101 Festo Didactic