Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
1
VI. Course Requirements
2
VII. Course Policies and Requirements
1. Excellent attendance is vital
4
ENGLISH 2B FOR COLLEGE FRESHMEN
5
CONTENTS
6
CHAPTER 1: SENTENCE BASICS
Sweeping Statements
A Unified Sentence
A Coherent Sentence
An Emphatic Sentence
An Accurate Sentence
An Appropriate Sentence
8
An Acceptable Sentence
9
Avoiding Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
10
CHAPTER THREE: WRITING A PARAGRAPH
The Paragraph
Writing a Paragraph
A Good Paragraph
12
CHAPTER FIVE: EXPOSITORY WRITING
What is Exposition
Types of Exposition
Definition
Explanation of A Process
Summary or Prcis
Paraphrasing
The Essay 13
Structuring The Essay
14
CHAPTER SIX: DESCRIPTIVE WRITING
15
Selection of Details
Arrangement of Details
16
CHAPTER SEVEN: WRITING A TERM PAPER
17
Data Gathering Techniques
Types of Notes
The Preliminaries
18
The Text of a Term Paper
Other Parts
Typing Guidelines
20
CHAPTER EIGHT: PRINCIPLES OF BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION
The First Favorable Impression
Sincerity
Clarity
Conciseness
Completeness
21
Correctness
Courtesy
Coherence
Promoting Goodwill
22
Indented Style Extreme Format
Semi-Block Format
23
NOMA Simplified Format
Hanging-Indented Format
24
CHAPTER 1
SENTENCE BASICS
25
A Clear and Logical Sentence
26
A. Thousands of people jam lotto outlets
throughout Metro Manila every Wednesday
and Saturday in a last minute rush to buy
tickets for the days draw.
27
B. Anybody can be a millionaire by winning the
lotto jackpot.
30
Sweeping Statements
Example:
31
Corrected:
32
Use of Idioms and Figurative Language
34
CHAPTER 2
THE GOOD SENTENCE
35
A Unified Sentence
36
1. Once a subject is used, see to it that the
predicates talks about it.
37
A Coherent Sentence
This means that a sentence should have all its
component parts hold on to each other. From
word to word, phrase to phrase, clause to
clause, between or among them, proper
relationships must always establish. Success in
unity leads to coherence. But more than that,
particularly in compound, complex and
compound complex structures, tense and voice.
This also requires proper coordination and
subordination of clauses as well as proper
positioning of modifiers to establish good
relationship.
38
An Emphatic Sentence
39
Again, in simple sentences, observance of
this may not be as much of a problem as that in the
compound, complex, and compound-complex
sentences, because as it is generally gives one
major thought. In compound sentences, in as much
as both or all the clauses involved are equal of
rank, parallel and uniform structuring is very
important.
40
In complex sentences, there should be a
proper play-up of the more important thought over
the less important one through the use of effective
sliding words.
41
An Accurate Sentence
42
An Appropriate Sentence
43
1. While in a Laboratory Room Jenny can say:
Alice, look at the worms. They all enjoy
nipping the flesh of the durian. Let us
scoop a couple of them and examine them
through the microscope.
44
2. While Terry can say: Fely, come join me,
because Fely is his friend, of his age, and a
fellow student., he cannot just say so the
same to Miss Vasquez because she is his
teacher. The appropriate approach would
be: Would you care to join me, Miss
Vasquez?
45
An Acceptable Sentence
46
1. While Wilson can say, Youre really
crazy, to Rene and Rene may not mind it
at all, because they are old friends,
definitely Wilson cannot say that to
Lawrence, a new officemate.
47
IMPORTANT WAYS TO A GOOD
SENTENCE
48
Recommendations to make a good sentence are
following:
49
Guarding against being Fragmentary
50
Often these fragments sneak into your
speech or writing and act as confusing breaks to
the smooth flow of your sentence.
Sentence fragments may be one of the
following types:
a. The statement that results from the dependent
clause is punctuated as though it were a
complete sentence.
Possible corrections:
Change is a way of life.
52
b. a group of words that has no subject or predicate
or both.
54
d. An appositive phrase may sometimes be written
incorrectly as a complete sentence.
55
Fragments with ing ed, verb forms but
with no predicate verbs are the trickiest kinds of
fragments to identify, in place of a verb a
participle is used.
56
Avoiding being Run-On, Overloaded, Empty
57
a. Two simple sentences may make up a run-on
sentence.
Fused Sentence: The laughter drowned out the
speaker we could hardly hear him.
Comma Splice: The laughter drowned out the
speaker, we could hardly hear him.
58
b. A compound sentence can be run into a
simple sentence.
59
A complex sentence can also be incorrectly
combined with a simple or compound
sentence.
60
Here are some ways to correct each of these
three errors:
61
2. You could use a semi-colon instead of a period if
the sentences are closely related.
62
3. You could also correct a run-on sentence by
adding a coordinating conjunction (and, but,
or,) between clauses.
63
Words like however, also, therefore, and
thus, are conjunctive adverbs. Use a semi-colon
before a conjunctive adverb and a comma after it
when it comes between two independent clauses.
The laughter drowned out the speaker; therefore, we
could hardly hear him.
65
To fix such sentences, study the following
suggestions:
66
The following sentences try to say too much.
Notice the revisions and be sure you understand the
reason for the changes.
67
Revised : To me sleeping is fascinating because I
consider it as time of sweet dreams. These dreams can
come in a very special place or I happen to be
thinking of. They may even be a place that does
not exist at all.
68
Wordiness
In case of
In the final analysis use: finally
73
In the nature of use: like or
Things of that nature things like that
76
The facts and ideas that are conveyed are logically
arranged in compact statements which are just right
because the relationships of words are beyond
questions.
77
C. AVOIDING SHIFTING IN PERSPECTIVES
79
2. Shift From Past to Present Tense
81
3. Shift From Singular To Plural
83
5. Shift From Statement to Question
84
These shifts tend to occur most often in narrative
writing when you are asked to write a piece of
fiction, an autobiographical account, a prcis or
summary of someone elses ideas, or a plot
summary.
85
D. Avoiding Misplaced And Dangling Modifiers
86
Misplaced Modifiers
87
Examples:
88
Consider this example:
89
The corrected sentence would look like this:
90
Adverb Modifiers
91
Examples:
Examples:
95
Dangling Modifiers
96
Observe these sentences:
Dangling Participle
Reading the newspaper, the telephone rang.
Dangling Infinitive
To understand the subject the book must be
studies carefully.
(This sentence says that the book must understand
the subject.)
97
Dangling Elliptical Clause
While waiting for a ride, the rain poured.
(This sentence says that the rain was waiting for a
ride.)
99
E.Observing Parallel And Uniform Construction.
Parallelism
In any context, it suggests similarity of angle,
direction, and form. When the parts of a sentence
match grammatically and uniform structures can be
identified as a repetition of words, phrases, or
clauses, it can be appropriately pointed out here that
not all repetitious writing is bad. It is not the
monotonous or needless repetitions that you should
avoid. Repetition of grammatical patterns to express
sameness of ideas so that parallel ideas appear in
parallel form is desirable. It makes your writing
effective.
100
Observe the parallel and uniform construction in the
following illustrations:
In Word:
101
In Phrase:
102
In Subordinate Clause :
103
In Predicates:
104
In Independent Clause :
106
Faulty: Cecile wants loyalty form her
friends and to be appreciated
for her efforts.
Correct Cecile wants loyalty from her
friends and appreciation for her
efforts.
107
Faulty: Julie requested that I help her
with her Math problems and
another explanation to the
procedure.
108
Certain contexts, especially those that involve
comparison or contrasts, call for parallel and
uniform structures. A series of elements separated
by commas within a sentence should be parallel.
109
The two halves of a compound sentence should be
parallel.
110
Certain sets of words or phrases signal a series
of related statements and call for parallel and
uniform structure.
111
Faulty: The President not only vetoed the
bill but also he was against too
much government spending.
112
To achieve parallelism and uniformity, you need to
match verbs, nouns, prepositions, phrases or other
elements of your sentence. See this work in
examination questions and classified ads. Example
of an examination question:
113
Example of classified ad:
Wanted:
114
F. Observing Proper Coordination And
Subordination
116
Coordinating Conjunctions
Correlative Conjunctions
118
Conjunctive Adverbs
Not only the way you speak but also the way you
walk make your appear very sexy.
122
Subordination
127
Choppy: Joey dela Cruz is the union president.
Joey dela Cruz is furious. He will lead
a protest.
128
Faulty subordination results when an important
idea placed in the subordination clause.
129
CHAPTER 3
WRITING A PARAGRAPH
130
THE PARAGRAPH
133
1. Pitch your point
Example of a point:
134
2. Support Your Point
This means that you need to back up your point with
explanations, proofs or reasons that will help bring
home a desired message.
Example of supporting sentences:
All prime commodities get sold at relatively
low prices.
The same was true with the prices of luxury
items.
Generally, customers is able to buy every items
cheaper by as much as twenty five percent.
135
3. Write Your Paragraph In Style.
136
Example of styling:
137
In styling, the general expression All prime
commodities was reduced into specifics--Rice,
fish, meat, vegetables, sugar and oil while
luxury items a likewise general term, is reduced
to specific trinkets, handbags, fans, headbands,
ribbons and flowers._ If further desired, the above
specifics can still be reduced so that rice may be
fish, milkfish; meat, beef; vegetables,
eggplants; and so forth.
138
4. Make It Grammatically Correct.
This means that you guard your paragraph against
grammatical errors or weed it out of grammatical
flaws.
Example of Grammatical Correction:
Market Day is usually a Bargain sale Day in Santa
Barbara. Rice, fish, meat, vegetables, sugar and oil
get sold at relatively low prices. The same is true
with the prices of trinkets, handbags, fans,
headbands, ribbons and flowers. Generally,
customers are able to buy every item cheaper by as
much as twenty five percent.
139
In grammatical polishing, the verb was in
the first and third sentences is replaced with is
because the sentences which carry them clearly aim
to state a fact or general statement. Then gets in
the second sentence is replaced with get, its
subject being plural All prime commodities.
The is of the fourth sentence is changed to are
because its subject customers is plural and then
the word items because it is modified by every
which is singular should always be followed by a
singular name. Thus, item.
140
THE TOPIC SENTENCE OF A PARAGRAPH
141
An expressed topic sentence may be the first
sentence in the paragraph which affirms what is to
follow; the last sentence which sums up what have
been said; and illustrative topic sentence,
explanation or expansion of which constitutes the
paragraph; or an interrogative topic sentence
wherein the answer constitutes the paragraph itself.
142
Example:
143
Transitions Within a Paragraph
144
1. Pronouns
Use a pronoun that refers to a person, place, thing
or idea in the preceding sentence. Study how the
underlined words help to link the sentences in the
following paragraph.
Summary Attitude
in summary fortunately
to sum up unfortunately
naturally finally
147
Take note of the transition that happened in this
paragraph:
149
3. Repetition of Key Words
Observe how the underlined words in the
following paragraph acts as bridges between ideas.
150
4. Parallel Structure
This means putting your words phrases or clauses in
the same form whenever best to do so or whenever
called for by the situation.
Example:
Man is the highest creation of all creations. Woman
is the most sublime of all ideals. God made for man
a throne; for a woman, the altar; the throne exalts,
the altar sanctifies. Man is the cerebrum, woman is
the heart; the cerebrum fabricates light; the heart
produces love; light fecund, love resuscitates.
151
Man is the code, woman is the gospel; the code
corrects, the gospel perfects. Man is the genius,
woman is an angel; genius is indefinable, angel is
immeasurable. Man is strong in reason, woman is
invincible in her tears; reason convinces the most
stubborn, tears soften the hardest of mortals. Man
is the temple, woman is the sanctuary; before the
temple we revere, before the sanctuary we kneel.
Man is the ocean, woman is the lake; the ocean has
its pearl that adorns, the lake has its poem that
dazzles. At least the man is placed where the earth
ends and the woman where heaven begins. (Victor
Hugo The Man and The Woman)
152
A GOOD PARAGRAPH
A good paragraph is so organized that it moves
smoothly and progresses inevitably towards an end.
Every sentence has a reason or purpose for being
there. To attain this, the paragraph should have unity,
coherence and emphasis, the same qualities desired
in a good sentence.
Unity In A Paragraph
The principle of unity involves the choice of a basic
idea built along a single design and producing
oneness of effect or impression. To obtain unity, the
paragraph should be built around a topic sentence.
153
Since the topic sentence summarizes the idea
developed in a paragraph, it is imperative that all
supporting details in the form of reason,
explanation, or argument should be relevant to the
main idea. Whatever does not belong to the
development of this idea must be rigorously ruled
out. In this way, readers are guided by concrete
details, facts, or explanations. This enables them to
understand more fully what the paragraph is trying
to say.
155
Coherence In A Paragraph
156
1. Orderly Arrangement Of Ideas
157
Example:
I boarded a jeepney whose signboard read
Blumentritt-Avenida. All at once, a sweet fragrance
assailed my nostrils. I looked around to find out if I
could spot one particular perfumed person among the
passengers. My eyes travelled from left to right but my
nose was even more curious. I sniffed at the young
coed next to me. No,not she. Then I shifted my seating
position a little toward the matron at the other side, to
my left. Not she either. I was about to give up when I
happened to look at the direction of the driver and I
saw that the fragrance was that of a sampaguita
garland hanging from the jeepneys stop, close the
drivers head. 158
1.b. Space Order
Example:
160
1.c. Logical Order
Example:
162
2. The Use Of Effective Structural Devices
163
2.a. Correct Use Of Reference Words
Pronouns
164
Conjunctions, or conjunctional words , phrases
165
General to specific: in fact, especially, for
instance, for example
Addition: also, too, furthermore, moreover,
besides
Reference: the former, the latter, the following
Attitude: fortunately, unfortunately,
naturally, an a sense
Summary: in summary, to sum up, in
conclusion, finally
166
Example:
167
2.c. The Use Of Well-Organized Sentence
Structures
168
Example:
169
Emphasis In A Paragraph
170
Example:
Communication is a process whereby a party called a
sender transmits a message to another party called a
sendee in order for the said message to be
understood. It may take place either verbally,
meaning, when the sender uses words in conveying
his message or non-verbally when the sender uses
kinesics, paralanguage, object language, proxemics,
chronemics and other similar signs of messages.
Whether verbal or non-verbal, it makes use of
different channels of transmission of message. For it
to effectively take place it must consider the time
place, audience, occasion and medium involved.
171
If you notice in this paragraph, all sentences
focus on the subject communication. This is made
possible by sustaining it from one sentence to
another, of course, with the use of the substitute
word It.
172
METHODS OF DEVELOPING A PARAGRAPH
173
Example:
174
By Examples
The idea is best developed by giving
illustrations or examples.
Example:
Psychoanalysis gives special emphasis to
unconscious motivations. Even slips of the tongue,
forgetting of appointment and other simple acts of
everyday life are traced to motives of which the
individual may not be aware of at the moment. Thus,
the bored hostess, after an insufferable evening,
said, not what she intended (but what she meant):
Well goodbye. Im sorry you came.
175
Likewise, the debutante at a dance, much interested
in a young gentleman, intended to ask him when he
was going to dance with her, but instead asked,
When are you going to marry me? There is no
good reason for supposing that all such lapses are
unconsciously motivated; some may be purely
accidental-but there is no doubt that many have such
motivation. (An excerpt from Psychology: The
Fundamentals of Human Adjustment by Norman
Munn)
176
By Comparison Or Contrast
177
Example:
By Definition
Example:
183
Narration. The incident which led to the situation
or problems is narrated. The writer must see to it
that the facts are accurate. Objective, factual
reporting is necessary.
184
CHAPTER 4
WRITING A WHOLE COMPOSITION
185
THE WHOLE COMPOSITION
As a thinking social being, you will always need to
express your thoughts, ideas, and feelings. At this
point of your study, you are expected to have a
considerably good grasp of the various
idiosyncrasies of the English language. Having
studied how to write effective sentences and
paragraphs, you are now ready to write a whole
composition. Although it is generally presumed that
of all the language skills writing is the hardest you
are bound, nevertheless to master the art of
communication through effective
writing.
186
Francis Bacon wrote that Writing maketh an
exact man. Therefore, when you can put down
your thoughts, ideas, and feelings on paper and
make your readers understand what you are saying,
you are on the road to being an exact man in
communication. As a student in college, you should
realize that relevant effective writing is the key to
future professional success.
187
WRITING A WHOLE COMPOSITION
188
BEFORE ACTUAL WRITING
Choose a Subject.
You may use three possible sources of a subject:
imagination, observations, and experience. Your
experiential background can cover three general
areas of interest: your personal life, your college life
and your social life in the outside world of local,
national, and international affairs.
189
In doing this, choose a subject that is
interesting to you and to your reader, and that you
know much about. This will make the writing job
easier for you to do.
190
Explore Your Subject
192
EXAMPLE: Summer in Barrio Ticol
198
1. Exposition
199
2. Description
200
3. Narration
201
4. Argumentation
206
Example:
208
Of course, other things to consider are your
purpose for writing, the type of composition you
want to write and then rhetorical mode that is suited
to your purpose in writing. You can use either for
rhetorical modes; description, narration, exposition,
and argument. These types of composition will be
taken up in detail in a separate unit.
209
Engage in Free Writing
210
Since writing is a skill that improves with
practice, the more you practice writing, the more the
words you need to use come easy. Thus, a free,
relaxed kind of exercise or limbering up should help
you off to a good start.
The following suggested exercises in free
writing should help in unwinding potential writing
abilities and breaking down on mental and
emotional barriers to this important skill.
In free writing you write about anything that
comes to your mind with no concern for correctness,
logic, or order. In this exercise, anything goes.
211
anything goes. Observe this example of free writing
done by a student:
214
Outline Your Ideas About The Topic.
215
Examples: Topical Outline
A. Intellectual
1. Discovery of new words
2. Skills to attach unfamiliar words
3. Access to various areas of knowledge
4. Keener judgment and sharpened
analytical ability
216
B. Emotional
1. Refinement of feelings
2. Sharpened responses and sensibilities
3. Awareness of other peoples feelings
4. Cathartic and therapeutic effects.
C. Social
1. Awareness of social influences
2. Better understanding of social
situations and social problems.
217
II. Influence on Personal Life
A. Improvement of Interpersonal
Relationships
B. Better understanding of human
behavior
C. Better understanding our own selves
D. Better scholastic performance
218
III. Global Benefits
A. Growing consciousness of people and
events around the world
B. Deeper interests in activities that
involve humankind
C. Realization of our human potential as
contributors to history
D. Vision and skills contributing to a
viable future of humanity.
219
I. The cultural benefits derived from reading cannot be
underestimated.
A. The intellectual aspects offer these gifts:
1. Vocabulary enrichment results after the
discovery of new words.
2. Skills are formed to attach unfamiliar words.
3. Books give us access to various areas of
knowledge thus, making us well-informed
individuals.
4. We develop keener judgment and sharper
analytical ability.
5. We perform better in school.
220
B. Books offer emotional outputs.
1. We experience a refinement of feelings.
2. We develop sharpened a responses and
sensibilities.
3. We develop awareness of other peoples feelings.
4. We imbibe their cathartic and therapeutic
effects.
C. Reading also reflects the influences on our personal
life.
1. We become aware of the influences that society
offers
2. We develop better understanding of social
221
situations and social problems.
II. Reading also reflects the influences on our
personal life.
222
III. Reading benefits can also be felt in their global
dimension
223
DURING ACTUAL WRITING
Create Your Title
As stated earlier, this title can already be ready for
you as early as the time when you have angled your
limited subject for a topic.
227
An anecdote an analogy beginning
A striking statement a general statement
A question a quotation
A descriptive opening a summary
228
1. Anecdote
229
Example:
232
2. Striking Statement
233
Example:
235
3. Question
236
Example:
238
4. Descriptive Opening
239
Example:
240
5. Analogy Beginning
Example:
243
6. General Statement
Example:
245
7. Quotation
Example:
247
8. Summary
249
Compose Your Body
250
1. In Chronological Order
2. In Logical Sequence
251
1. From the known to the unknown
2.From the particular to the general
3. From the simple to the complicated
4. From the abstract to the concrete
252
3. Climactic Order
253
Close With An Effective Ending.
254
1. Quotation
255
Example:
With saint Augustine they said: Let us not
leave them alone to make in the secret of this
knowledge as thou didst before the creation of the
firmament, the division of light from darkness, let
the children of thy spirit, placed in their firmament,
make their light shine upon the earth, mark the
division of night and day, and announce the
revolution of the times for the old order is passed,
and the new crises; the night is spent, the day is
come forth; and thou shalt crown the year with the
blessing, when thou shalt send forth laborers into
256
thy harvest sown by other hands that theirs;
when thou shalt send forth new laborers to new
seedtimes, hereof, the harvest shall be not yet.
(Matthew Arnold, Sweetness and Light)
257
2. Problem or Question
258
Example:
259
3. Suggestion to Question
Example:
261
4. Significant Incident
Example:
263
5. Summary
Example:
And so we shall continue to be ushered through
luncheons and herded through cafeterias, until we
264
become chronic dyspeptics. We shall be besieged
with telegrams, bombarded with extras, and bawled
at by bell boys until we fall victims to nervous
prostration. We shall be battle geared in
elevations, shuttle-cocked in subways, joggled in
taxi-cabs, jostled in street cars, and jolted in
Pullmans until we succumb to apoplexy. And we
shall be kept everlastingly on the go, we are shipped
off in sixty horse power hearse to the only peaceful
place we have ever known. For thus we shall have
served the God of Time. (Percival White, The
Almighty Minute)
265
Check Your Transitions
266
1. Transitional devices
An example of this consequently
As a result finally
At this time incidentally
In addition first
Another for example
Furthermore nevertheless
However on the other hand
In spite of soon
Moreover such
Too therefore
267
Thus
Study the paragraphs below. Explain the
relationship illustrated by the transitional words
used.
268
Such irresponsible words might result in
misunderstanding. It will prompt people to say that
the writer is not very literate. Therefore, the moral
should be obvious; dont use a word unless you are
sure of its meaning.
269
2. Repetition Of A Key Word In The Preceding
Paragraph.
Example:
Courage is not always shown in big acts. The
student who can go up to this teacher and stammer.
Sir, I am sorry, but I cheated on that test, is
displaying as much courage as the public official
who tells the investigating committee, Madam
President, Im sorry but I mishandled project funds
causing great losses to the Philippine
Government.
270
3. Pronouns
Example:
272
AFTER ACTUAL WRITING
1. Review your first draft for content improvement.
Ask these questions as you mark your draft for
revisions:
a. Is my point of view clearly established in my
opening paragraph? Do my readers know what
my intentions are?
b. Is my opening interesting enough for my readers
to want to continue? Have I saved my supporting
points for the following paragraphs? How can I
make the paragraph more effective?
273
c. Have I developed a different main point in each
paragraph? Does my topic sentence clearly state
the point of the paragraph? Do I have plenty of
details and examples to support the main idea in
each paragraph? Are any of the paragraphs
extremely short or extremely long?
274
e. Are my ideas in the best sequence? Should I
move anything around? Do I need to move
information that I added to a more appropriate
spot? Have I organized my thoughts most
effectively?
275
g. Have I considered my audience as I wrote? Will
they understand my purpose? Will I get the
response I intended to get? What can I do to
make the paper more interesting? Have I been
honest with my readers?
278
c. Check for subject-verb agreement with present
tense verbs. Check for the ed endings on
regular past tense verbs. Make sure you have an
s or es ending on plural verbs. Make sure you
havent left out any word unintentionally.
279
e. Check your punctuation. Have you put in all
periods and question marks at the ends of
sentences? Are there commas between words in a
series, before conjunctions in compound
sentences and offer introductory groups of words?
Do possessive words have apostrophes?
280
CHAPTER 5
EXPOSITORY WRITING
281
Exposition appears primarily to the
understanding, not to the will, feeling, or
imagination. Its purpose is to make a thing or an
idea clear to the readers mind. Its value as a form
of discourse is drawn from the fact that it tests
knowledge. The ideal concept here is that one must
know matters clearly and thoroughly from others.
In return, he must also be able to make his ideas
known in more or less similar clarity and
thoroughness. Just like the other types of discourse,
it can be done in prose or in poetry. Thus, the
classification expository prose and expository
poetry.
282
Expository writing must follow a careful
method or planning, a strict logical step-by-step
procedure.
284
TYPES OF EXPOSITION
285
1. Definition
2. Explanation of a Process
3. Summary or Precis
4. Paraphrase
5. The Essay
286
Definition
This is the base of all writings whose aim is to
explain. It does not only give a name or several
synonyms but it makes a thing clear or distinguishable
from the other members of its family or class.
The word definition is derived from the
combination of the prefix de and the Latin verb form
finire which means to limit or to set bounds; thus,
definition means boundary or termination, a fence that
sets off what is being defined to avoid confusion with
other objects, or an enclosure that separates it from all
the other things of its kind.
287
So far, definition has been rendered in three
general ways: the dictionary way, (Dictionary
definition); the one-sentence logical way, (One
Sentence Logical definition); and the extended way,
(Extended Definition).
288
1. Dictionary Definition
289
Example:
291
Example:
Microphone
(Term)
is an instrument
(Genus)
used for converting sound waves into variations of
an electric current for transmitting or recording
sound.
(Differentia)
292
4. Extended Definition
293
Example:
Drop a cricket from your hand and it falls to the
ground. We say that the cause of its fall is the
gravitational pull of the earth. In the same way, a
cricket ball thrown into the air does not move on
forever in the direction in which it is thrown; if it did it
would leave the earth for good, and voyage off into
space. It is saved from this fact by the earths
gravitational pull which drags it gradually down, so
that it falls back to earth. The faster we throw it, the
further it travels before this occurs; a similar ball
projected from a gun would travel for many miles
before being pulled back to earth. (Sir James Jeans,
The Universe Around Us) 294
b. Comparison And/Or Contrast:
295
Example:
297
c. Analysis
298
Example: Analysis by Partition
299
Go into a meadow where the grass has not
been cut and you will wade through thousands of
grass flowers, their golden stamens dangling in the
breeze. Watch a maple with low branches in the
spring; day by day, you will see the flower buds
open, the flowers develop and finally maple fruits
grow from the remains of the flowers. The pussy
willow is so called because someone thought the
furry flower clusters looked like body cats. If you
cut twigs of oak or cottonwood trees in the spring
and put them in jars of water their flowers appear.
300
A typical flower includes the following parts:
303
Example: Analysis By Classification
c. Elimination
Example:
310
Explanation Of A Process
311
The planning and organization of the materials
for explanation of a process often depends upon the
subject. In scientific and technical subjects, a question
on the basic principles of the work may have to be
answered. Some technical or semi-technical terms will
have to be defined for clarification before they can be
freely used. Pictures or description of equipment may
also be presented and their specific functions
explained. Only after these can one start explaining the
stages of the work. What possible difficulties can one
foresee? How will one detect the success of the work?
The plan for unity, proportion, and emphasis is most
important in explaining a process.
312
Example:
Back in my old hometown, saltmaking is an
industry. As early as February, men, women and even
little children flock to the beaches, not to cool off
(February is cold enough), but to stake out a portion of
the sandy shore for their use. About 20 to 30 square
meters would be a manageable size for two people to
work on.
The sand is then sprinkled with sea water and
allowed to dry. This process is repeated twice, for a
total of three times. When the sand has caked, it is
scrapped off and deposited into a burnay (an unglazed
earthen jar) with a spout near its bottom.
313
Additional sea water is poured into the jar.
The resulting saline fluid is strained and collected.
This fluid is then brought to the hurno (a large oven-
like cooking place made of earth).
315
Summary Or Precis
317
2. Read carefully, analytically, and reflectively twice
or thrice looking up the meaning of all unfamiliar
words and phrases. Endeavor to answer the
following questions:
318
3. Use your own words.
319
6. Do not comment or interpret. The sole
function of a prcis is to summarize the
original authors essential meaning.
320
Paraphrasing
This is the antithesis of the prcis. While the
prcis is a condensation of the original material, the
paraphrase is a full-length explanation of the
meaning of the subject being tackled. Both
however, are concerned with re-wording as they are
both writing and oral activities that need re-
expression of the original meaning of the subject in
the very own words of the writer.
Paraphrase is derived from the Greek words
para, meaning beyond, and phrasein, tell.
321
The following are helpful suggestions by Harry
Shaw in the writing of a paraphrase:
322
c. Restrict your changes to passages which require
simplification and do not fail to do this, no matter
how difficult, for failure to do so means leaving a
gap in thought.
323
f. Add nothing which is not in the original. This
will distort likewise, the authors original idea.
324
The Essay
An essay is an exposition of an authors
thoughts or reflections on some subjects of human
interest. It is generally classified into formal essay
and informal essay, depending on its tone and its
purpose. But, specifically it may be any expository
type like the character sketch, criticism and
review, the classification of which is based on the
subject it takes up.
332
c. The springboard view, so-called because like the
springboard in a swimming pool, the writer starts
his critical essay from a book and then proceeds
to his review of other books of the same theme or
subject matter. He makes just few comments
about each book. This method is usually found
in monthly or quarterly magazines or in books of
literary criticism.
341
General introductory remarks
controlling idea.
342
The Body Of An Essay
344
Topic sentence
345
The Conclusion Of An Essay
347
348
Make sure your essay is balanced. You should
not have an introduction or conclusion that is
excessively too long or short.
The Whole Essay
The controlling idea is especially important:
the introduction states it, each of the body
paragraphs discusses one aspect of it, and the
conclusion restates it.
.. controlling
idea.
350
351
352
Model:
Title : Writing an essay
Introductory remarks : Writing an essay, while
easy for a fortunate few, can
be a sheer torture for others.
Controlling Idea : To accomplish this feat, all you
have to do is follow a few simple
rules
Topic Sentence : The first step in writing an essay
is selecting a controlling idea and
writing an introduction.
353
After gathering all the ideas or
facts that pertain to the topic, see if
they form a pattern that will
suggest a possible controlling idea.
Once you have decided on a
controlling idea, write an
introductory paragraph that
presents it in a clear and
interesting way. The introduction
should not only arouse your
readers interest, but should also
keep them interested so they will
want to read further.
354
Topic Sentence :The essays body paragraphs
are also very important.
357
From Topic To Controlling Idea
358
Pre-writing Phase:
359
Example:
360
Going Around The Controlling Idea
363
THE INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH
364
ATTRACTING ATTENTION
365
Every time I pick up the paper I read about
crime in the streets. Something has to be done!
367
Even this is what you want to tell your readers,
it is risky way to begin; you would appeal only to
those who already agreed with you. A more gradual,
controlled presentation of your opinion would be
more likely to be read through by the undecided
people whom you want to reach. You might instead
try an opening like this:
Although Boy Assog has built up quite a
substantial following in his two years as dogcatcher,
his 1992 conviction for embezzlement of city funds
and his subsequent confinement to a state mental
hospital raised serious doubt about his qualification
for a seat in the city government.
368
STATING THE CONTROLLING IDEA
Besides attracting and holding your readers
attention, the introduction introduces the subject
matter of the essay and indicates through the
controlling idea, what will be discussed.
1. Remember: A good introduction should:
2. Attract the readers attention.
3. Hold the readers attention and make them
receptive to the writers ideas.
4. Move gradually from general opening
statements to a specific controlling idea.
369
Examples:
1. Direct Announcement
Often, beginning and experienced writers
alike to choose to open their eyes with a
straightforward announcement of the argument to
follow.
370
Example:
During the last twenty years, the Supreme
Court has made many far-reaching decisions. It has
been responsible for opinions that significantly
affected the rights of individuals accused of crimes.
Several of these rulings have touched off debates
among the lawmakers. The two most controversial
decisions have been reached in the Escobedo and
Miranda cases.
Although the direct announcement
introduction is straightforward, that doesnt mean it
has to be dull.
371
In this magazine article, the head approach uses built-
in-shock value of the word botulism to get attention.
Example:
Botulism the very word strikes terror. And well
it might for this insidious form of food poisoning
usually caused by improper home canning can paralyze
in hours and kill agonizingly in days. On the rise in
recent years and threatening ever larger number of
people of because of the great increase in home
gardening and canning; botulism is now playing its
deadly game by some curious new rules. (Liz Wick
Murray, The Case of the Homemade Poison, Good
Housekeeping)
372
2. Quotation or Dialogue
373
Example:
374
An editorial from a student newspaper uses
quotation to involve the reader in the discussion.
Example:
A newspaper should print news, not
opinions. This statement seemed to be popular
after the last provocative issue of THE EAGLE,
which was roughly 43 percent opinion. It seemed
too, that an oversensitive student body prefers to
read ambivalent and dull facts, rather than opinions
that challenge the overall sentiments of this college
community.
375
3. Anecdote
379
Example:
380
You can also begin a personal opinion paper with
refutation. It is a natural choice for this students
course evaluation.
Example:
All through the semester, I have heard other
students complaining about how unnecessarily
difficult the physics course was. They resented the fact
that Dr. Sicam expected us to know not only the
mathematical formulas but the theories us to know but
the theories behind them as well. Many students
criticized him when he asked us to write a ten-page
paper examining the scientific history of a great 381
discovery in physics. They claimed that this type of
assignment was a waste of time. But I disagree. This
is the first science course I have ever taken where I
actually understood what I was doing.
Example:
Early in May, 1998, a man in my
neighborhood was shot to death by a robber. Two
days later a riot broke out. Later that month, my
brothers wife gave birth to my mothers first
grandchild. My mother never saw her grandchild,
for she had suffered a stroke and had been in a
come since April. She died early in July. In June my
sister received a full scholarship that enabled her to
become the first member of my family to attend 385
college. The horror and joy of the summer of
1998 will always be part of me; they taught me
the profoundest lesson of my life: human
existence can be a living hell, but love and
hope can make hell beatable.
8. Question
Beginning an essay with a question, or
even a riddle, may be a particularly
provocative strategy. The writer may answer
the question of leave it hanging; in other case,
most readers will want to read on.
386
In the following book report, the writer uses a
question to introduce his subject.
Example:
388
THE BODY PARAGRAPHS
390
The Body Development
391
Transition
The word transition literally means movement
from one place to another. In writing transition means
moving from one sentence to another, or from one
paragraph to another smoothly and without abrupt
shifts in logic or subject. To accomplish this, a writer
will sometimes use certain words or phrases that act as
bridges to carry readers into a new sentence of
paragraph. Without these transitional elements an essay
can be like a list, at best, a group of loosely connected
elements. Transitional elements prepare for each new
idea and relate each new statement to the last. Here is a
list of a few useful transitional elements, arranged
according to their functions in sentence.
392
393
In addition to transitional words or phases,
certain techniques establish continuity between
sentences or paragraphs. Repeating words, ideas,
key phrases, or even a pattern of word orders from
sentence can often serve this function. Answering a
question, or completing an idea that has been left
incomplete, can also give an essay a smooth flow.
Finally, the careful use of a pronouns like this,
these, or them can carry over ideas by referring
back to the previous sentence. (But an essay
saturated with transitional elements and techniques
can be as confusing and tiresome to a reader as one
in which they have been left out.)
394
Perhaps the best way to see how useful transitions
are is to look at a paragraph in which they are
absent.
Example:
When I first began in attending college, I had
no idea what I wanted to do with my life. I am an
accounting major. I will probably go into business
for myself as a tax accountant. I have a much better
ideas of my goals. Last year I didnt know what to do
with my major. When I was a freshman, I didnt even
know Id be an accounting major. Three years can
make a lot of difference in terms of a young womans
career plans. 395
The sentences in this passage do not flow
smoothly into one another. Without some signals of
their sequence and logic, the relationships among
them are hard to determine. Even the most basic
transitions can eliminate some of the choppiness and
ambiguity.
Example:
397
THE CONCLUDING PARAGRAPH
Many books, movies, and speakers have achieved
lasting fame because of their final lines. A
conclusion has the power to draw together and
clarify everything that has previously been said. If it
is skillfully and dramatically constructed, the
conclusion can be not only a summing up that bears
the weight of all that has gone before it, but also a
strong, succinct message in its own right. The fairy
tales and they lived happily ever after and
Abraham Lincolns powerful government of the
people, by the people. For the people, shall not
398
perish from the earth of his Gettysburg Address
are effective and memorable in themselves, and also
make the works they conclude more memorable
even famous.
399
From one point of view, the conclusion of
your essay is its most important part. It is your last
word on the subject, your last chance to make your
point to your readers.
Example:
The next few years of mu life passed quickly, probably
because I was so busy. In this space of three years I 405
got my equivalency diploma and held down three
jobs -- in sales, in the restaurant business, and in a
mens clothing store. I also hitchhiked around the
country. When I came back from my trip, I decided
to return to school, and thats how I wound up this
English class, taking the first step toward getting a
college degree.
407
You can make a general or abstract
conclusion more convincing if you provide an
analogy with another situation. A student essay
about the perils of living at college concludes with
this analogy:
Example:
In many ways, learning the ins and outs of
living on campus is almost like taking a survival
course. This training is not as thorough as what the
army would put you through, but it comes close; it
is learning survival in society instead of in the
wilderness. 408
4. Prediction
410
Recommendation Of A Course Of Action
414
REVISING YOUR ESSAY
When you finish writing the first draft of your
essay, you probably feel like throwing down your
pen and calling it quits. As tempting as this urge is,
you should not give in to it, because one of the most
important steps in your writing is yet to come.
Experienced writers know that there is a long way to
go from the first draft to the finished essay.
417
418
419
420
421
CHAPTER 6
DESCRIPTIVE WRITING
422
Descriptive writing is writing to appeal to all
the senses of the readers by creating impressions
and through words. Objects are perceived by the
observer, and these perceptions are conveyed in
printed or oral form in description.
423
You must have learned from experience that
whenever you try to explain anything, you have to
use description to make your explanations clear and
interesting to your reader or listener. In the process
you make use impressions which you receive
through your five senses: sight, hearing, taste, smell
and touch. These sensory details are the materials of
description. Your ability to describe is a test to your
sensitivity and awareness of the world around you.
If only you would always look at objects carefully
and accurately, then you would be able to describe
fully and effectively.
424
In addition to words, mimicry and pantomime
may aid you in oral description. In written
description, however, you have rely entirely on
words. For the word picture to be complete, you will
have to give specific and concrete details drawing
on the impressions that an object or scene has made
on all your five senses. You will not only mention
what you see, you will have to mention also what
you smell, the delicious odor of the apples and the
oranges and the fragrance of the sampaguita. You
will have to mention also that you taste the sweet,
juicy apple.
425
Two elements are involved in descriptive
writing: the object seen and the person seeing the
object. Thus, your purpose in describing a scene or
object depends on your point of view not only
your physical point of view or the place at which
you should be but also your mental point of view or
your attitude towards it.
426
TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE WRITING
427
Example:
ROSE
This is a perennial shrub or vine of the genius Rosa with
the family rosaceae , an almost universally distributed
group of some 200-250 species. The great majority are
native to Asia. Many are cultivated for their beautiful
fragrant flowers. These are commonly white, yellow,
orange, pink, or red. There are usually five petals, borne
singly or in small clusters. The flowers of cultivated
roses are often double, i.e., with multiple sets of petals.
The stem is prickly. The leaves are alternate and
privately compound, i.e., feather-formed. The rather
oval leaflets are sharply toothed. The fleshy, edible,
berry-like fruit is known as the hip. 428
Evocative or Impressionistic Description.
429
Example A:
430
Her eyes were shaped like a cats, blue as star
sapphires when she was in a good mood. When she
was angry, they deepened into a brooding state
color, with threatening flashes of green. Her nose
was straight and Hebraic. Her mouth could be
passionately expressive one moment and style prim
the next. The author-painter W. Graham Robertson,
who knew her well, wrote that he had no idea
whether or not Sarah Bernhardt was even passably
good-looking. Beauty with her, he said, was a
garment she could put on or take off as she pleased.
When she put it on, her face became a lamp
through which glowed pale light, her hair burned
431
like an aureole, she grew tall an stately; it was
transfiguration.
434
For there were leaves. At first they came in
pair, and did not tire me to count them one by one
every morning, like a little child ecstatic over a
discovery. And then the leaves were too many to
count, and I have to give up the delightful
occupation. Theres nothing more to do after that
but to wait, and the waiting was not long. Almost
overnight, it seemed, the leaves became a riot of
green trembling shoots in the morning sunlight and
spreading all over the bamboo trellis. The patola
and ampalaya began to flower, and the eggplants
were over a foot tall. So now the fruit, I said aloud
within me. And soon the harvesting of them.
435
And as the fruit took a final shape and began
to lengthen, I know for certain that this at least was
fulfillment, and as I watched the children and wife
laying on smudges under the trellis and wrapping
the young ampalaya fruit with rags to keep off the
bugs and protect the fruit from worms, my heart
swelled with joy within me. This was beautiful and
perfect. I thought the growth of plant was, the
flowering was, the fruitage was, the ways of the
children and the wife were tending the plants with
tender and loving hands. All these were perfect and
beautiful. (Conrado V. Pedroche)
436
WRITING A DESCRIPTIVE COMPOSITION
Descriptive writing is governed by certain
laws of design.
Selection Of Details
Whether the purpose is information or
emotion, you must select the sense impressions
which are relevant to your purpose. To illustrate: If
you are describing a machine in terms of its
function, its color is not worth mentioning; if you
are creating a festive mood such as Christmas or a
wedding reception, eliminate details that distract
from the atmosphere.
437
Arrangements Of Details
Details are important in a lengthened
description. Because description deals primarily
with terms in space, the following arrangements of
details are suggested:
1. Order of Place
In describing a room for instance. Start at one
side and work around it mentioning the objects that
meet your view as you progress. Similarly, a person
might be described from head to foot or a landscape
from near to far to near.
438
2. Order Of Outstanding Feature
439
3. Relative Importance
440
THE LANGUAGE OF DESCRIPTION
The language of description must be most
descriptive of sense impressions and moods desired
to be created. This can be done by carefully
choosing your words. In doing this, consider the
following prescriptions:
442
Example:
A FACE
I am not treacherous , callous, jealous,
superstitious, supercilious, venomous, or absolutely
hideous.
Studying and studying this expression,
exasperated desperation
When love or order, ardor, incircuitous simplicity,
with an expression of inquiry, are all one needs to
be! Certain faces, a few, one or two or one to my
mind, to my sight, must remain a delight. (Marianne
Moore) 443
3. Use Absolute Phrases
A descriptive utterance becomes retentive and
picture arousing with the use of an absolute phrase
separated by a comma from the rest of the sentence.
This phrase becomes very emphatic when uttered
last.
Example:
The frightened mother ran after her babys
kidnappers, her feet not touching the ground.
My pale-looking student seated in the last row
stared at the question sheet for a few minutes,
mongo-like perspiration rolling down his neck.
444
4. Use nouns describing Adjectives
Usually we say that adjectives describe nouns.
In descriptive phrases it could be the other way
around, particularly when we attempt to specify
shades of color.
Examples:
445
5. Use Figures of Speech
446
Types of Figure of Speech
Simile This expresses comparison between two
basically different things with the use of as or like.
I felt like a rat caught in a trap.
The night was as black as the ace of spades.
449
Synecdoche This is the figure of speech that
expresses the name of a part as a substitute for
the name of a whole or the name of a whole as
substitute for a part.
450
Irony This express a meaning in a word or words
which are opposites of the thing meant. Closely
related to irony are sarcasm and understatement.
454
Allusion - This refers to literature, mythology,
history, the Bible or famous events from
contemporary life.
My boyfriend is an Adonis.
Dont be a Scrooge to your employees.
Oxymoron this is the use of terms normally
thought of as contraries in themselves. This figure
of speech is closely related to paradox.
455
Allegory a story in which characters represent
abstract qualities or ideas.
457
Symbolism the use of an object to represent an
abstract idea.
458
Idiomatic usage is largely determined by
custom. People agree to use an idiom to mean a
certain thing regardless of its literal meaning.
Expressions like to bring about, or to put up
with do not make sense taken word for word but
sound right to anyone who speaks English.
459
460
461
CHAPTER SEVEN
WRITING A TERM PAPER
462
Term paper writing is definitely one of the
most important activities in college. It summons the
student to a mission whose main concern is to
investigate on a subject thoroughly for a period of
time and in turn present findings about it.
Successful writing of it therefore makes of the
student well-informed about a chosen subject.
3. Interview
As a research tool, the interview is commonly
used in studies involving social and psychological
cases. This is a similar technique to the
questionnaire but is more flexible because of the
direct interactions between the interviewer and the
interviewee.
There are two types of interview: Formal, which
makes use of a carefully prepared questionnaire and
Informal, which may not use a prepared
questionnaire. The interviewer may just prepare an
outline of important points.
4. Observation
Information is gathered by watching or noting
what is happening in a systematic manner. The
observer looks for definite things around which will
serve as evidence of desired objectives.
5. Appraisals and/Or Ratings
Outline Notes
A note may be in the form of an outline,
covering either a whole article or some part of it.
Care should be taken to make sure that the
requirements of the outline form do not wrap the
actual discussion represented.
The Introduction
This chapter introduces the paper to the
readers. It has the following parts, each written in
one or two paragraphs:
1. Statement of the Problem
It indicates the purpose of the paper or the
specific questions or problem it seeks to answer.
Footnotes
Originally footnotes are notations at the
bottom of the age written for any of the following
reason:
a. To acknowledge indebtedness and consequently
make publication of substance or words from
another writer legal.
b. For cross-reference of scholars who may not want
to relate the contents of the study of the paper to
their own researches.
c. For comments or opinions regarding something
said in the text.
d. For statistic and figures
e. And for enabling the reader makes his
independent consultation of sources of
information in the event that he gets interested.
In the process, they remain written for the
same purposes, but as to position on the page, they
are not anymore confined at the bottom. In the case
of quoted materials, some writers would prefer to
indicate the acknowledgment immediately after
them.
Book
Example:
Encyclopedia Britannica. 14th Edition (1929), Vol.
11, pp. 616-617. Article, Hockey
Magazine Articles
Author Put down the name as in the case of a
book.
Title Enter and punctuate the title as in the case of
a book, but do not underline for italics; enclose the
title in quotation marks.
Facts of Publication Give: the name of the
magazine (underline for italics); the volume (in
Arabic numerals); the inclusive page numbers for
the article; the date (in parentheses). These items
should be separated by commas (except before the
parentheses), with a period at the end.
Newspaper Articles
The authors name as usual. If the article is
unsigned, begin with the title.
The Title, as for a magazine article, in quotation
marks. If there is no title, a brief title should be
supplied, in square brackets.
Name of the paper, exact date, (section if
necessary), page, column
Appendices
Appended materials may be in the form of
letters of instruction, codes, memos,
communications, or questionnaires used in the
gathering of data. This part is optional.
TYPING GUIDES
547
From your own experience in dealing with
friends and associates, you know what kind of
behavior and personal characteristics affect most
people favorably. You know that friendliness usually
wins friends, but sarcasm and indifference do not
produce better results. If each of your letters meets
the following ten requirements, the chances that you
are successful letter writer. A good letter meets the
following:
Creates a favorable first impression
is courteous
is clear
is concise
is complete
is correct
is coherent
flows smoothly
is well organized
Mesdames:
(if addressees are females)
Sir:
Dear Sir:
(If your addressee is a male)
Madam:
Dear Madam:
(if your addressee is a woman)
Your Excellency:
Dear Mr. President:
(for the highest official of the land)