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INTRODUCTION

Background

What is sound waves?

Sound waves are mechanical or longitudinal waves which are created from vibrations
between the particles of the medium. When it is moved through the medium of air then the air
particles are displaced by the moving energy of sound waves and wave is travelled. But it can
also be a longitudinal wave like in vibrating tuning fork which creates waves from vibrations.

But what type of wave is sound? How it is travelled from one medium to another medium? Is
it mechanical wave or longitudinal wave or pressure wave? Here we are given a complete
explanation of these questions. Lets discuss a detailed description on the sound waves.
(in the link)

History of sound wave

Sound is the result of waves created in air was first developed by Leonardo da Vinci around
1500 A.D. This concept was then developed by other people. Around 1600 Galileo
demonstrated that pitch of sound depends on its frequency. However even then the nature of
sound as form of waves was not established beyond doubt. This realization came slowly with
contribution of many different scientists. For example, around 1640 Marin Mersenne, a
French mathematician, measured speed of sound in air. Around 20 years later Robert Boyle
established that sound cannot travel without a medium, which is an essential characteristics of
any kind of wave, and this lead to the concept that sound is a pressure change. Later Sir Issac
Newton established the correct relationship between speed of sound in a medium and the
density and compressibility of the medium. Thus we can say that many people contributed to
developing the understanding the nature of sound as waves.

How are sound waves created?

Vibration of an object produces sound waves. The vibrating object moves in one direction and
compresses the air directly in front of it. As the vibrating object moves in the opposite
direction, the pressure on the air is lessened so that an expansion, or rarefaction, of air
molecules occurs. One compression and one rarefaction make up one longitudinal wave. The
vibrating air molecules move back and forth parallel to the direction of motion of the wave
receiving energy from adjacent molecules nearer the source and passing the energy to
adjacent molecules farther from the source. Pitch is determined by the frequency of the tone
that the ear receives. High notes are produced by an object that is vibrating a greater number
of times per second than for a low note. The loudness of a sound depends upon the subjective
effect of intensity of sound waves on the ear. In general, more intense sounds are louder, but
the ear does not respond similarly at all frequencies. Two tones of the same intensity but with
different pitches may then appear to have different loudness.
Literature Review

PURPOSE: To measure the wavelength, frequency, and propagation speed of ultrasonic


sound waves and to observe interference phenomena with ultrasonic sound waves.

APPARATUS: Oscilloscope, function generator, transducers, meter stick, angle board.

PROCEDURE:
1. Set the signal generator to a frequency of 40 kHz. Adjust the scope controls (trigger,
beam intensity, vertical amplification and horizontal sweep rate) so that trace A shows
several, steady cycles of the sine waves. Place the transmitting transducer facing the
receiver at a distance of a few centimetres. Vary the frequency around 38 to 42 kHz.
Measure the period of oscillation directly from the oscilloscope's screen, using the sweep
rate (microseconds per centimetre) marked on oscilloscope's sweep control. To make the
period measurement as accurate as possible, measure the time interval corresponding to
several complete oscillations.
2. Measure the wavelength by slowly shifting the receiving transducer a known distance
away from the transmitter while noting on the oscilloscope screen by how many complete
cycles the wave pattern shifts. Don't choose just one cycle, but as many cycles as can
conveniently be measured along the meter stick.
3. Use the measured period of ultrasonic oscillations from Part 1 and the wavelength from
Part 2 to compute the speed of sound through air. The oscillation period measured with
the scope sweep calibration is more accurate than the frequency readings on the signal
generator.
4. The setup will be similar to Figure 2, but another transmitting transducer will be added.
The pair of transmitters is placed side-by-side and driven in phase by a signal generator; a
third receiving transducer is at an angle which can be varied. Record the transmitter
separation d which should be kept as small as possible, and the angular positions max
for interference maxima.

5. Confirm the constructive interference relation, n = d sin max, by plotting sin max as a
function of the integer n. The slope of the best straight line will enable to calculate (d/), and
then the separation d in terms of the theoretical wavelength = c/f.
6. Set up the two transmitters, separated a distance d as shown in Figure 4, and the receiver at
P a distance z from S1. Keeping S1 and P fixed vary the separation d and record the values of
d for which maxima and minima in intensity are observed at the receiver.

7. Figure 5A shows a single transmitting and a receiving transducer are fixed in position about
30cm apart. A flat object, such as the side of book, that can act as a "mirror" for ultrasonic
waves is oriented parallel to the line joining the transducers, and is moved towards and away
from the meter stick. Observe on the scope the resulting wave signal at the receiving
transducer.

8. Remove the "mirror". With the transmitting transducer 4 cm away facing the receiver,
slowly change the separation. Note that amplitude variations are observed as the separation
changes .The maxima correspond to sound antinodes at the ends of the space when linear
boundary conditions are satisfied, as with strings or sound tubes excited at a fixed frequency.
Count several amplitude variations and record the corresponding separation shift. Calculate
the wavelength from the amplitude observations and compare with previous determination
from phase variations.

RESULTS:

1) Frequency Measurement
Oscilloscope Time Base Per Div (TB): __________
Number of Waves Counted on Screen (NW):_________
Number (& fractional parts) of Divisions Covered by Waves (ND): ________
Period of One Wave = TB * ND / NW = _________ Frequency = _________
2) A. Wavelength Measurement:
Number of Waves Moved on Oscilloscope Nw: _________
Initial Position of Movable Sensor Pi: ___________
Final Position of Movable Sensor Pf: ___________
Distance sensor moved, Pi - Pf = D: _____________
Length of One Wave, Wavelength = D/Nw : ___________
2) B. Speed of Sound: use your wavelength and frequency to calculate c.
c = f = __________ Ratio c/(344m/s) = ________
3) A. Two Source Interference of Sound: Separation of Sources, d: ________
Determine the slope of line fitted to the data.
slope /d _______ Use the measured d to get _______
Compare the wavelength measured on the oscilloscope (Part 2) with the value from
interference (Part 4):
R (ratio) = (oscilloscope) / (interference) = __________

max sin (max) n

3) B. Show a sample calculation for the theoretical values for d.

d (max) exp d (max) thy d (min) exp d (min) thy n

Sources: https://www.physics.rutgers.edu/ugrad/276/sound.pdf

Theory

Wave interference is the phenomenon that occurs when two waves meet while travelling
along the same medium. The interference of waves causes the medium to take on shapes that
result from the net effect of the two individual waves upon the particles of the medium.

Constructive interference is a type of interference that occurs at any location along the
medium where the two interfering waves have a displacement in the same direction. In this
case, both waves have an upward displacement; consequently, the medium has an upward
displacement that is greater than the displacement of the two interfering pulses. Constructive
interference is observed at any location where the two interfering waves are displaced
upward. But it is also observed when both interfering waves are displaced downward. This is
shown in the diagram below for two downward displaced pulses.

Destructive interference is a type of interference that occurs at any location along the medium
where the two interfering waves have a displacement in the opposite direction. For instance,
when a sine pulse with a maximum displacement of +1 unit meets a sine pulse with a
maximum displacement of -1 unit, destructive interference occurs. This is depicted in the
diagram below.

The interference of sound wave is given by:

The speed of the sound in the air:


OR
Problem Statement
The goal of the experiment is to find out the interference of the sound wave.

Objective
To determine the interference of the sound wave.

Interference of Waves
Boundary Behavior

Reflection, Refraction, and Diffraction

Interference of Waves

The Doppler Effect

What happens when two waves meet while they travel through the same medium?
What effect will the meeting of the waves have upon the appearance of the medium?
Will the two waves bounce off each other upon meeting (much like two billiard balls
would) or will the two waves pass through each other? These questions involving the
meeting of two or more waves along the same medium pertain to the topic of wave
interference.

What is Interference?

To begin our exploration of wave interference, consider two pulses of the same
amplitude travelling in different directions along the same medium. Let's suppose that
each displaced upward 1 unit at its crest and has the shape of a sine wave. As the sine
pulses move towards each other, there will eventually be a moment in time when they
are completely overlapped. At that moment, the resulting shape of the medium would
be an upward displaced sine pulse with an amplitude of 2 units. The diagrams below
depict the before and during interference snapshots of the medium for two such
pulses. The individual sine pulses are drawn in red and blue and the resulting
displacement of the medium is drawn in green.
Constructive Interference

In this case, a sine pulse with a maximum displacement of -1 unit (negative means a
downward displacement) interferes with a sine pulse with a maximum displacement
of -1 unit. These two pulses are drawn in red and blue. The resulting shape of the
medium is a sine pulse with a maximum displacement of -2 units.

Destructive Interference

In the diagram above, the interfering pulses have the same maximum displacement
but in opposite directions. The result is that the two pulses completely destroy each
other when they are completely overlapped. At the instant of complete overlap, there
is no resulting displacement of the particles of the medium. This "destruction" is not a
permanent condition. In fact, to say that the two waves destroy each other can be
partially misleading. When it is said that the two pulses destroy each other, what is
meant is that when overlapped, the effect of one of the pulses on the displacement of a
given particle of the medium is destroyed or canceled by the effect of the other pulse.
Recall from Lesson 1 that waves transport energy through a medium by means of
each individual particle pulling upon its nearest neighbor. When two pulses with
opposite displacements (i.e., one pulse displaced up and the other down) meet at a
given location, the upward pull of one pulse is balanced (canceled or destroyed) by
the downward pull of the other pulse. Once the two pulses pass through each other,
there is still an upward displaced pulse and a downward displaced pulse heading in
the same direction that they were heading before the interference. Destructive
interference leads to only a momentary condition in which the medium's displacement
is less than the displacement of the largest-amplitude wave.

The two interfering waves do not need to have equal amplitudes in opposite directions
for destructive interference to occur. For example, a pulse with a maximum
displacement of +1 unit could meet a pulse with a maximum displacement of -2 units.
The resulting displacement of the medium during complete overlap is -1 unit.

This is still destructive interference since the two interfering pulses have opposite
displacements. In this case, the destructive nature of the interference does not lead to
complete cancellation.
Interestingly, the meeting of two waves along a medium does not alter the individual
waves or even deviate them from their path. This only becomes an astounding
behavior when it is compared to what happens when two billiard balls meet or two
football players meet. Billiard balls might crash and bounce off each other and
football players might crash and come to a stop. Yet two waves will meet, produce a
net resulting shape of the medium, and then continue on doing what they were doing
before the interference.

The Principle of Superposition

The task of determining the shape of the resultant demands that the principle of
superposition is applied. The principle of superposition is sometimes stated as
follows:

When two waves interfere, the resulting displacement of the medium at any
location is the algebraic sum of the displacements of the individual waves at
that same location.

In the cases above, the summing the individual displacements for locations of
complete overlap was made out to be an easy task - as easy as simple arithmetic:

Displacement of Pulse 1 Displacement of Pulse 2 = Resulting Displacement


+1 +1 = +2
-1 -1 = -2
+1 -1 = 0
+1 -2 = -1

In actuality, the task of determining the complete shape of the entire medium during
interference demands that the principle of superposition be applied for every point (or
nearly every point) along the medium. As an example of the complexity of this task,
consider the two interfering waves at the right. A snapshot of the shape of each
individual wave at a particular instant in time is shown. To determine the precise
shape of the medium at this given instant in time, the principle of superposition must
be applied to several locations along the medium. A short cut involves measuring the
displacement from equilibrium at a few strategic locations. Thus, approximately 20
locations have been picked and labeled as A, B, C, D, etc. The actual displacement of
each individual wave can be counted by measuring from the equilibrium position up
to the particular wave. At position A, there is no displacement for either individual
wave; thus, the resulting displacement of the
medium at position will be 0 units. At position B,
the smaller wave has a displacement of
approximately 1.4 units (indicated by the red
dot); the larger wave has a displacement of
approximately 2 units (indicated by the blue dot).
Thus, the resulting displacement of the medium
will be approximately 3.4 units. At position C,
the smaller wave has a displacement of
approximately 2 units; the larger wave has a
displacement of approximately 4 units; thus, the
resulting displacement of the medium will be
approximately 6 units. At position D, the smaller
wave has a displacement of approximately 1.4 units; the larger wave has a
displacement of approximately 2 units; thus, the resulting displacement of the medium
will be approximately 3.4 units. This process can be repeated for every position.
When finished, a dot (done in green below) can be marked on the graph to note the
displacement of the medium at each given location. The actual shape of the medium
can then be sketched by estimating the position between the various marked points
and sketching the wave. This is shown as the green line in the diagram below.

Wave Propagation

Ultrasonic testing is based on time-varying deformations or vibrations in materials,


which is generally referred to as acoustics. All material substances are comprised of
atoms, which may be forced into vibrational motion about their equilibrium positions.
Many different patterns of vibrational motion exist at the atomic level, however, most
are irrelevant to acoustics and ultrasonic testing. Acoustics is focused on particles that
contain many atoms that move in unison to produce a mechanical wave. When a
material is not stressed in tension or compression beyond its elastic limit, its
individual particles perform elastic oscillations. When the particles of a medium are
displaced from their equilibrium positions, internal (electrostatic) restoration forces
arise. It is these elastic restoring forces between particles, combined with inertia of the
particles, that leads to the oscillatory motions of the medium.

In solids, sound waves can propagate in four principle modes that are based on the
way the particles oscillate. Sound can propagate as longitudinal waves, shear waves,
surface waves, and in thin materials as plate waves. Longitudinal and shear waves are
the two modes of propagation most widely used in ultrasonic testing. The particle
movement responsible for the propagation of longitudinal and shear waves is
illustrated below.

In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in the


longitudinal direction or the direction of wave
propagation. Since compressional and dilational forces
are active in these waves, they are also called pressure
or compressional waves. They are also sometimes
called density waves because their particle density
fluctuates as they move. Compression waves can be
generated in liquids, as well as solids because the
energy travels through the atomic structure by a series
of compressions and expansion (rarefaction)
movements.

In the transverse or shear wave, the particles oscillate at


a right angle or transverse to the direction of
propagation. Shear waves require an acoustically solid
material for effective propagation, and therefore, are not
effectively propagated in materials such as liquids or
gasses. Shear waves are relatively weak when compared
to longitudinal waves. In fact, shear waves are usually
generated in materials using some of the energy from
longitudinal waves.

Wave Propagation.URL
http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/wave-interference

http://www.cabrillo.edu/~jmccullough/Applets/Applets_by_Topic/Superposition_Interferenc
e.html

http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/sound/u11l1c.cfm

http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/sound/Lesson-1/Sound-is-a-Mechanical-Wave

http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/sound/Lesson-1/Sound-as-a-Longitudinal-Wave

Stereo Speaker Interference Experiment


Note: Java Applet should start in a pop-up window. If you get a message "need java2
for this applet" then download the Java plug-in if you are using Windows. This applet
only works on java 2.

This java applet demonstrates interference between two sources of sound waves. You
need two speakers (or one speaker and a reflecting wall) and a sound card (preferably
stereo).

Measure or estimate the distance between your speakers and set the Speaker
Separation slider accordingly. (Uncheck the Metric Units checkbox if you want.)
Then turn on the Sound checkbox. The applet will play a sine wave out of both
speakers, which should create an interference pattern similar to the one shown. The
speakers are shown as blue dots. Plug one ear with a finger / earplug, and move your
head around the room (at speaker level) to see if you can pick up the variations in
sound intensity. They should roughly match the interference pattern, although there
may be many differences due to reflections from walls and other objects; also this
applet uses a simplistic point source model for the speakers, which will not match
reality very well at higher frequencies.

If you have a stereo sound card, then check the Stereo checkbox. You can use the
Balance slider to verify that the stereo mix is working. With 'stereo' turned on, you
can adjust the relative phase of the two speakers. By default, the speakers are 180
degrees out of phase, so the sound intensity will be low half-way between them.

Note that if you have a subwoofer, then low frequencies will be coming out of the
subwoofer rather than the main speakers, so the interference pattern won't match your
experience. You might like to unplug the subwoofer for the duration of this
experiment.

You can measure distances on the view by clicking the mouse and dragging.

You can also view the interference pattern between one speaker and a reflecting wall
by setting the Speaker Separation to twice the distance between the speaker and the
wall. Uncheck the Stereo checkbox or set the Phase Difference to zero. Imagine the
wall being drawn vertically down the middle of the screen.

It is also interesting to move the speakers right next to each other and then set the
phase difference to 180 degrees.

Java by Falstad

https://www.physics.rutgers.edu/ugrad/276/sound.pdf
INTERFERENCE OF SOUND WAVES

INTRODUCTION: In this experiment we deal with sound waves, produced by and


detected with ultrasonic transducers. Sinusoidal waves can be characterized by the
following parameters:
Wavelength:......................................
Frequency:........................................f
Period: ..............................................T = 1/f
Wave propagation speed: ................c = f = /T .
[The speed of sound through air (at 20 C) is 344 m/s.]
Ultrasonic transducers: A transducer is a device that transforms one form of energy into
another, for example, a microphone (sound to electric) or loudspeaker (electric to sound).
In this experiment the transducer is a "piezoelectric" crystal which converts electrical
oscillations into mechanical vibrations that make sound. The piezoelectric material
contracts (or expands) a small amount when a voltage is applied across the crystal. The
crystal has a natural resonance frequency, like a bell, at which it will vibrate when struck.
If the frequency of the voltage applied to the piezoelectric crystal is the same as its natural
frequency, the crystal will settle into steady large amplitude oscillations that produce high
intensity sound waves. The oscillating frequency of the transducers you will use is near
40 kHz which is beyond what can be heard by the human ear (about 20 kHz).

Oscilloscope: The oscilloscope is an electronic device that acts as a voltmeter that can
respond very rapidly to changes in the applied voltage. It is used here to display a graph
of the instantaneous voltage applied to the crystal as a function of time.
Interference of Waves: Figure 1, on the next page, is a drawing of the basic concept of
interference of coherent waves from two point sources. S1 and S2 are wave sources
oscillating in phase (because the two transducers are driven by the same voltage signal
generator) and separated by distance d. P is the place where we place a detector. At point
P the path difference to S1 and to S2, is the distance S2P - S1P. When this path difference
is an integral multiple of the wavelength , waves arriving at P from S1 and S2 will be in
phase and will interfere constructively.
S2P - S1P = n . (1)

where n = 0, 1, 2,-- is referred to as the order of the particular maximum. Note that
constructive interference gives maximum intensity:

If we can assume that S1P and S2P >> d and , Eq. (1) then we see from Fig. 1 that S10-
Sound-Interference - 2 - Page 2 of 8

figure 1
3. Double Source Interference:
A.
Figure 3

(Take values for n and max on the right side as positive and those on the left as
negative so your plot is a straight line (sin = -sin) rather than a "V"). The slope of your
best straight line will enable you to calculate (d/ ), and then the separation d in terms of
the theoretical wavelength = c/f.
B. Now we will use a setup with a different geometry where Eq. (2) does not apply. Set
up the two transmitters, separated a distance d as shown in Fig. 4, and the receiver at P a
distance z from S1. Keeping S1 and P fixed vary the separation d and record the values of
d for which maxima and minima in intensity are observed at the receiver. Use Eq. (1) to
calculate the expected values and compare with your data.

See Fig. 5A which is a view of the setup from above. Both a single transmitting and a
receiving transducer are fixed in position about 30cm apart. A flat object, such as the side
of book, that can act as a "mirror" for ultrasonic waves is oriented parallel to the line
joining the transducers, and is moved towards and away from the meter stick. Observe on
the scope the resulting wave signal at the receiving transducer. What do you see? How do
you account for the effect? What happens when you block the direct path with paper?
(Keep your body away to avoid reflection effects.) You may also keep the "mirror" fixed
in position and vary transmitter-receiver separation, starting at about
25 cm. What do you observe?
See Figure 5B. Remove the "mirror". With the transmitting transducer 4 cm away facing
the receiver, slowly change the separation. Note that amplitude variations are observed as
the separation changes (two per wavelength shift of separation-why?). The maxima
correspond to sound antinodes at the ends of the space when linear boundary conditions
are satisfied, as with strings or sound tubes excited at a fixed frequency. Count several
amplitude variations and record the corresponding separation shift. Calculate the
wavelength from your amplitude observations and compare with your previous
determination from phase variations. S10-Sound-Interference - 6 - Page 6 of 8
History of superposition

the principle of superposition was first stated by Daniel Bernoulli in 1753: "The general
motion of a vibrating system is given by a superposition of its proper vibrations." The
principle was rejected by Leonhard Euler and then by Joseph Lagrange. Later it became
accepted, largely through the work of Joseph Fourier.

Sound Waves Interference


When two waves meet at the same point in the space at the same time it
occurs the phenomena called interference. The resulting displacement is
the sum of the individual displacements of each wave.

Sound Waves Interference, Example.- Assume you have two


loudspeakers separated 1 meter excited by the same oscillator emitting a
1150 Hz sound frequency. You are 4 m from one of the loudspeakers. At
what distance from you should be the second loudspeaker to produce
destructive interference? Assume the air velocity is 343 m/s.

Solution:
The wavelength of this sound is = v/f = (343 m/s)/(1150 Hz) = 0.3 m.
To produce destructive interference, you should be half wavelength or
0.15 cm apart from one loudspeaker than the other. So, you should be at
4.15 or at 3.85 m from the second loudspeaker.
5. Optional.

A. In the discussion in the introduction we noted that when there is a maximum in the
intensity of the sound, constructive interference occurs. Intensity is the sound power per
unit area. On the other hand, sound is a pressure wave. That is, as the sound wave passes
the average air pressure oscillates about its average value. The two quantities are related
in that the intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the pressure
oscillation. Which quantity does the ultrasonic transducer measure -- intensity or pressure
amplitude? Explain specifically what it is about your data that motivates your answer.
B. In Fig. 1 we make an implicit assumption about the angular variation of the intensity of
the sound waves emitted by S1 or S2. What is this assumption? Set up the apparatus as
shown in Fig. 6 and record the signal as a function of angle. (Up to now you have only
looked for maxima and minima.) Plot the signal versus angle. On your plot show the
predicted angular dependence implicitly assumed in Fig. 1. Discuss why the actual
transmitter signal has a different angular dependence from the expected value.
dsinmax=n. (2)

Figure 1

PROCEDURE:
1. Measuring frequency: The setup is shown in Fig. 2: a variable frequency signal
generator drives one ultrasonic transducer; its output is also applied to channel B of the
oscilloscope. (Later in the experiment two transmitting transducers will be connected to
channel B.) The output of a second receiving ultrasonic generator is applied to channel A
of the scope. Channel Bs trace (pattern of the oscilloscope) shows the sinusoidal voltage
applied to the transmitting generator; channel A's trace shows the sinusoidal voltage
coming out of the receiving ultrasonic crystal.
Set the signal generator to a frequency of 40 kHz. Adjust the scope controls (trigger, beam
intensity, vertical amplification and horizontal sweep rate) so that trace A shows several,
steady cycles of the sine waves. Place the transmitting transducer facing the receiver at a
distance of a few centimeters. If you think the transducers are not functioning (nothing on
trace A), it is most likely that the function generator is not at the exact resonance
frequency. Vary the frequency around 38 to 42 kHz. You should tune to resonance when
the signal getting through to the receiving transducer (trace A) reaches a maximum.
Warning: Do

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