Measuring

Evolution of Populations
 5 Agents of evolutionary change
Mutation Gene Flow Non-random mating

Genetic Drift Selection

AP Biology
 Populations & gene pools
Concepts
u a population is a localized group of
interbreeding individuals
u gene pool is collection of alleles in the
population
remember difference between alleles & genes!
u allele frequency is how common is that
allele in the population
how many A vs. a in whole population

AP Biology
 Evolution of populations
Evolution = change in allele frequencies
in a population
u hypothetical: what conditions would
cause allele frequencies to not change?
u non-evolving population
REMOVE all agents of evolutionary change
1. very large population size (no genetic drift)
2. no migration (no gene flow in or out)
3. no mutation (no genetic change)
4. random mating (no sexual selection)
5. no natural selection (everyone is equally fit)
AP Biology
 Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
Hypothetical, non-evolving population
u preserves allele frequencies
Serves as a model (null hypothesis)
u natural populations rarely in H-W equilibrium
u useful model to measure if forces are acting on
a population
measuring evolutionary change

G.H. Hardy W. Weinberg

AP mathematician
Biology physician
 Hardy-Weinberg theorem
Counting Alleles
u assume 2 alleles = B, b
u frequency of dominant allele (B) = p

u frequency of recessive allele (b) = q

frequencies must add to 1 (100%), so:

p+q=1
BB Bb bb

AP Biology
 Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
How do we determine if a population is
in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?
u Find out the genotype frequencies in
the population.
u Calculate the frequencies of the
dominant and recessive alleles (p and
q).
u Calculate what the allele frequencies

would be in one generation of random

mating.
AP Biology
 Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
If the allele frequencies after one round
of random mating change at all from
the original frequencies, the population
is not in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
and evolution has occurred within the
population.

AP Biology
 Hardy-Weinberg theorem
Counting Individuals
u frequency of homozygous dominant: p x p = p2
u frequency of homozygous recessive: q x q = q2
u frequency of heterozygotes: (p x q) + (q x p) = 2pq
frequencies of all individuals must add to 1 (100%), so:

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

BB Bb bb

AP Biology
 B b
H-W formulas B BB Bb
Alleles:
p+q=1 B b b Bb bb

Individuals:
BB Bb bb
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

BB Bb bb

AP Biology
 Using Hardy-Weinberg equation
population:
100 cats q2 (bb): 16/100 = .16
84 black, 16 white q (b): .16 = 0.4
How many of each p (B): 1 - 0.4 = 0.6
genotype?

p2=.36 2pq=.48 q2=.16

BB Bb bb

MustWhat are population

assume
AP Biology the genotype frequencies?
is in H-W equilibrium!
 Using Hardy-Weinberg equation
p2=.36 2pq=.48 q2=.16
Assuming BB Bb bb
H-W equilibrium
Null hypothesis

p2=.20
=.74 2pq=.64
2pq=.10 q2=.16
BB Bb bb
Sampled data
How do you
explain
AP Biology the data?
 Application of H-W principle
Sickle cell anemia
u inherit a mutation in gene coding for
hemoglobin
oxygen-carrying blood protein
recessive allele = HsHs
w normal allele = Hb
u low oxygen levels causes
RBC to sickle
breakdown of RBC
clogging small blood vessels
damage to organs
u often lethal
AP Biology
 Sickle cell frequency
High frequency of heterozygotes
u 1 in 5 in Central Africans = HbHs
u unusual for allele with severe

detrimental effects in homozygotes

1 in 100 = HsHs
usually die before reproductive age

Why is the Hs allele maintained at such high

levels in African populations?

Suggests some selective advantage of

being heterozygous
AP Biology
 Single-celled eukaryote parasite
Malaria (Plasmodium) spends part of its
life cycle in red blood cells

AP Biology 3
 Heterozygote Advantage
In tropical Africa, where malaria is common:
u homozygous dominant (normal) die of malaria: HbHb
u homozygous recessive die of sickle cell anemia: HsHs
u heterozygote carriers are relatively free of both: HbHs
survive more, more common in population

Hypothesis:
In malaria-infected
cells, the O2 level is
lowered enough to
cause sickling which
kills the cell &
destroys the parasite.
Frequency of sickle cell allele &
AP Biology distribution of malaria
HARDY-WEINBERG
PRACTICE PROBLEMS

p+q=1

p2 + 2 pq + q2 = 1
 Black (b) is recessive
to white (B)

Bb and BB pigs look alike

so cant tell their alleles by observing their phenotype.

ALWAYS START WITH RECESSIVE alleles.

p= dominant allele q = recessive allele

4/16 are black.

So bb or q2 = 4/16 or 0.25

q= 0.25 = 0.5
http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/labbench/lab8/samprob1.html

Once you know q

you can figure out p
... p+q=1

p+q=1

p + 0.5 = 1

p = 0.5

Now you know the allele frequencies.

The frequency of the recessive (b) allele q = 0.5

The frequency of the dominant (B) allele p = 0.5
WHAT ARE THE
GENOTYPIC FREQUENCIES?
You know pp from problem
bb or q2 = 4/16 = 0.25

BB or p2 = (0.5)2 = 0.25

Bb = 2pq = 2 (0.5) (0.5) = 0.5

25% of population are bb

25% of population are BB
50% of population are Bb
http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/labbench/lab8/samprob1.html
Within a population of butterflies, the color brown (B)
is dominant over the color white (b). And, 40% of all
butterflies are white.
q2 = 0.4

q= 0.4 = 0.6324

p = 1 - 0.6324 = 0.3676

aa = 0.4 = 40%
Aa = 2 (0.632) (0.368) = 0.465 =46.5%
AA = (0.3676) (0.3676) = .135 = 13.5%
Image from: BIOLOGY by Miller and Levine; Prentice Hall Publishing 2006
PRACTICE HARDY WEINBERG
1 in 1700 US Caucasian newborns have
cystic fibrosis. C for normal is dominant
over c for cystic fibrosis.

Calculate the allele frequencies for

C and c in the population

Image from: BIOLOGY by Miller and Levine; Prentice Hall Publishing 2006
1/1700 have cystic fibrosis

q2 = 1/1700

q= 0.00059

q = 0.024

p = 1 0.024 = 0.976

Frequency of C = 97.6%
Frequency of c = 2.4%

NOW FIND THE GENOTYPIC FREQUENCIES

CC or p2 = (0.976)2 = .953

Cc or 2pq = 2 (0.976) (0.024) = 0.0468

cc = 1/1700 = 0.00059

CC = 95.3% of population
Cc = 4.68% of population
cc = .06% of population
Now you can answer questions about the population:

How many people in this population are heterozygous?

0.0468 (1700) = 79.5 ~ 80 people are Cc

It has been found that a carrier is better able to survive

diseases with severe diarrhea. What would happen to the
frequency of the "c" if there was a epidemic of cholera or
other type of diarrhea producing disease?

Cc more likely to survive than CC.

c will increase in population
The gene for albinism is known to be a recessive allele.
In Michigan, 9 people in a sample of 10,000 were found to
have albino phenotypes. The other 9,991 had skin
pigmentation normal for their ethnic group.

Assuming hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, what is the allele

frequency for the dominant pigmentation allele in this
population?
q2 = 9/10000

q= 0.0009 q = 0.03

p = 1 0.03= 0.97

Frequency of C = 97%
Frequency of c = 3%
CC or q2 = (0.976)2 = .953

Cc or 2pq = 2 (0.976) (0.024) = 0.0468

cc = 1/1700 = 0.00059

CC = 95.3% of population
Cc = 4.68% of population
cc = .06% of population