21-03-17

Clula estructura
& Funcion

Teoria Celular
All living things are made up of cells.
Cells are the smallest working units of all
living things.
All cells come from preexisting cells
through cell division.

Definicion

A cell is the smallest unit that is

capable of performing life
functions.

1
 21-03-17

Tipos de clulas

Prokaryotic
Eukaryotic

Procarionte
Do not have
structures
surrounded by
membranes
Few internal
structures
One-celled
organisms,
Bacteria

http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/prokaryotic_cells.html

nSISTEMA DRMICO: cobertura

exterior en contacto con el ambiente.
Protege de la prdida de agua, del
dao e invasiones de bacterias,
hongos e insectos. Hay dos tipos:

EPIDERMIS
Formada por una o varias capas de clulas
vivas, en funcin del grado de adaptacin a
la sequedad.
Clulas aplanadas, con forma a menudo
irregulares, interdigitales, con formas
regulares, poligonales (hexagonales).
No presenta espacios intercelulares, bien
trabadas
Recubre y protege a las estructuras
primarias de todo tipo de plantas, sean
herbceas o leosas (peridermis).

2
 21-03-17

Eucarionte
Contain organelles surrounded by membranes
Most living organisms
Plant Animal

http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/eukaryotic_cells.html

Clula animal Tipica

http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/images/cell.gif

La Clula Vegetal

Unidad bsica
Posee caractersticas propias
diferentes a las clulas animales
A medida que las clulas maduran, se
diferencian y se especializan

3
 21-03-17

Clula Vegetal

Trminos para distinguir

Crecimiento
Desarrollo
Diferenciacin
Meristema

Qu es Crecimiento?

Expansin celular

Divisin celular

i.e., Clulas de mayor tamao y mayor

cantidad de clulas

4
 21-03-17

Qu es Desarrollo?

Diferenciacin celular

Transicin desde el crecimiento

Vegetativo a crecimiento Reproductivo

Qu es Diferenciacin?

produce un nuevo tipo de clula.

Habitualmente asociado a los

meristemas.

Clula Vegetal Tipica

http://waynesword.palomar.edu/images/plant3.gif

5
 21-03-17

Componentes
Organelos

Membrana
Outer membrane of cell
that controls movement
in and out of the cell
Double layer

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

Pared celular
Most commonly found
in plant cells &
bacteria
Supports & protects
cells

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

6
 21-03-17

Nucleo

Directs cell activities

Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear
membrane
Contains genetic material - DNA

Membrana nuclear
Surrounds nucleus
Made of two layers
Openings allow
material to enter and
leave nucleus

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

Cromosomas
In nucleus
Made of DNA
Contain instructions
for traits &
characteristics

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

7
 21-03-17

Nucleolo
Inside nucleus
Contains RNA to build
proteins

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

Citoplasma
Gel-like mixture
Surrounded by cell membrane
Contains hereditary material

Reticulo endoplasmico
Moves materials around
in cell
Smooth type: lacks
ribosomes
Rough type (pictured):
ribosomes embedded in
surface

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

8
 21-03-17

Ribosomas
Each cell contains
thousands
Make proteins
Found on ribosomes
& floating throughout
the cell

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

Mitocondria
Produces energy through
chemical reactions
breaking down fats &
carbohydrates
Controls level of water and
other materials in cell
Recycles and decomposes
proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

Aparato de Golgi
Protein 'packaging
plant'
Move materials within
the cell
Move materials out of
the cell

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

9
 21-03-17

Lisosomas
Digestive 'plant' for
proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates
Transports undigested
material to cell
membrane for removal
Cell breaks down if
lysosome explodes

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

Vacuolas
Membrane-bound
sacs for storage,
digestion, and waste
removal
Contains water
solution
Help plants maintain
shape

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

Cloroplastos
Usually found in plant
cells
Contains green
chlorophyll
Where
photosynthesis takes
place

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html

10
 21-03-17

Pared Celular
Functiones
Structure and synthesis
Structural components
Cellulose microfibrils
Structure
Primary walls
Biosynthesis
Secondary walls
Patterns of cell expansion, Multinet
Hypothesis
Cell wall loosening
Cessation of cell wall expansion
Summary

Functions of Cell Walls

Primary functions:
Regulating cell volume
Determining cell shape
Cell-cell adhesion
Secondary functions forms
specialized structures for:
Transport
Defense
Reproduction
Important for human economics:
Paper, textiles, fibers (cotton,
flax), charcoal, lumber
Plastics, film, coatings, gels,
thickeners...

Functions of Cell Walls (cont.)

Cell walls are Cell walls are
essential! dynamic
When cell wall is
removed
protoplasts adopt a
spherical shape

Protoplasts

11
 21-03-17

Structure and Synthesis of Cell Walls

Architecture
Cell walls are heterogeneous structures
Composed of layers lamellae analogous to layers in
plywood
Each cell secretes its own wall; junction between the
walls is the Middle lamella
Cell wall is penetrated by plasmodesmata connecting
neighboring cells

Plasmodesmata

Structural Components of Cell Walls

Cell walls are primarily composed of sugar polymers - polysaccharides

Structural Components of Cell

Walls

12
 21-03-17

Where are cell wall components synthesized

in the cell?
Cellulose microfibrils
are synthesized at the
plasma membrane.

Electron micrograph
showing Golgi stacks
and vesicles
containing xyloglucan
and glycosylated
proteins

Synthesis of cell wall polysaccharides

by enzymes in the Golgi apparatus.
Polysaccharides are secreted to the wall
by fusion of membrane vesicles to the
plasma membrane.

Schematic diagram of major structural

components of the primary cell wall

(Hemicelluloses)
- Cellulose fibrils are cross-linked (by hemicelluloses) within and between lamellae
- A primary wall 50 nm thick has 5-10 lamellae of cellulose microfibrils

Structural model of a cellulose microfibril

13
 21-03-17

Structural model of a cellulose microfibril

How are cellulose microfibrils synthesized?

Cellulose fibrils are composed of linear chains of glucose

Fibrils are synthesized from UDP-Glucose

Each fibril contains multiple cellulose chains hydrogen

bonded together (18-36 cellulose chains in higher plants)

Model of
cellulose
synthesi
s

Cellulose synthesis is catalyzed by protein complexes

- terminal complexes (or particle rosettes) -
that are embedded in the plasma membrane
- Terminal complexes are comprised of hexameric rosettes
- Rosettes are thought to be the smallest unit of cellulose synthase complex

14
 21-03-17

Microtubules are thought to direct cellulose synthase

Cellulose synthase genes (CES) have been identified

based on homology to prokaryotic cellulose biosynthetic
enzymes

Does CesA encode a cellulose synthase?

- Several mutations have been identified that cause cell wall defects.
- rsw1 (radially swollen 1) is mutated in CesA1 and causes root swelling,
stunted growth and lethality in severe alleles
- CesA has been localized to the terminal complexes

15
 21-03-17

Arabidopsis mutant screens revealed phenotypes

of many CES genes

Arabidopsis CesA mutants have defects in the

glycosyltransferase catalytic domain

Model for cellulose microfibril biosynthesis

In this model, at least two types of

CesA polypeptides, and , are
required for spontaneous rosette
assembly. Two different types of
isoforms can be distinguished, 1
which interacts with two isoforms
only, and 2 interacting with another
2 isoform and two isoforms. B
Plant Cell Physiol (2002): 43, 1407-1420

16
 21-03-17

Other structural proteins and cell wall cross-linking

Pectins
- are negatively charged polysaccharides that give compressive strength to
the cell wall
- bind Ca2+ to form a gel (used in making jelly)
- differentially localized within cell walls
- modulate porosity, pH, ion concentrations within the wall
Hydroxyproline
Hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins (HRGP)
- predicted multimeric, rod-shape structure

Proline-rich proteins (PRP)

- predicted multimeric, rod-shape structure

Glycine-rich proteins (GRP)

- predicted -sheet structure

Arabinogalactan proteins (AGP)

- more than 90% of mass of AGPs may be sugars
(primarily galactose and arabinose)
- may function in cell adhesion and cell signaling
during cell differentiation

Primary cell walls originate de novo during the final stages

of cell division when cell plate separates daughter cells
Cell plate forms when Golgi vesicles
and ER cisternae aggregate in
spindle midzone area of dividing cell

This aggregation is organized by the

phragmoplast, a complex assembly
of microtubules, membranes and
vesicles that forms during late
anaphase or early telophase

Membranes of vesicles fuse with

each other and with the lateral
plasma membrane to become the
new plasma membrane separating
the daughter cells

Contents of the vesicles are the

precursors from which the new
middle lamella and primary wall
are assembled

Secondary walls
Many plant cells synthesize secondary walls after the cell has
completely elongated (i.e. after cell expansion has ceased)

Primary walls: Secondary walls:

15-30% cellulose 50-95% cellulose
No lignin Lignin present

17
 21-03-17

Secondary walls () are found in various cell types

Fruit stone cell (e.g. pear) Collenchyma (Medicago stem)

Stomatal guard cell

Secondary walls make up the bulk in woody plants

Tracheary elements develop reinforced cell walls that can form in a
variety of patterns

Secondary walls are multilayered and thickness and

orientation of cellulose fibrils may differ in these layers
Lumen

18
 21-03-17

How does the plant cell direct wall growth?

Patterns of cell expansion

Isotropic Anisotropic
(randomly oriented cellulose microfibrils) (transverse cellulose microfibrils)

Cell wall deposition continues as cells enlarge

The Multinet hypothesis for wall extension
Newly synthesized cellulose microfibrils
are continually deposited on the inner
surface of the wall in transverse
orientation.

As cell elongation proceeds, the older

(outer layers) are progressively thinned
and weakened.

The cellulose microfibrils of these outer

layers are passively rearranged to a
longitudinal orientation.

Thus, the wall mechanical properties are

determined by the inner layers.

Cell wall loosening

To make room for new microfibrils, cell
wall needs to be loosened

Two modes of extending walls:

Cleavage of hydrogen bonds between

fibrils by expansins

Glucanases and other hydrolytic

enzymes cleave hemicellulose cross
bridges, e.g. XET = xyloglucan
endotransglycosylase, a wall-loosening
enzyme

Growing cell walls extend much faster at

acidic pH than at neutral pH acid growth:
proton extrusion by plasma membrane H+-
ATPase acidifies the wall, activating expansin;
example: initiation of root hair

19
 21-03-17

Cell Expansion = Wall loosening + H2O uptake

1. Original cell
2. Increase in wall
extensibility and reduction
in turgor (P)
3. Water uptake
4. Increase in cell volume
5. Wall becomes rigid
(increased cross linking)
and turgor pressure
increases
6. Wall thickens

Cell expands incrementally by repeating steps 1-6

Plasmodesmata
Plasmodesmata allow
the transport of
substances from one
cell to the next
They are cytoplasmic
threads which
connect the living
protoplasts of
adjoining cells

20
 21-03-17

Functions of Vacuoles
Place to store organic compounds, such
as proteins stockpiled in vacuoles of
storage cells in seeds.
Plant cells main repository of inorganic
ions, such as potassium and chloride.
Functions as plant cells lysosomal
compartment
Disposal sites for metabolic by-products
that would be dangerous in cytoplasm

More Functions
Help protect the plant against predators
because they contains poisonous or
unpalatable compounds.
Elongates to absorb water, allowing the
plant cell to become larger with a minimal
investment in new cytoplasm.

Creation of Vacuoles
Developed by coalescence of smaller
vacuoles.
These are derived from the endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus.

21
 21-03-17

Vacuoles
Vacuoles are membrane
bound organelles filled
with cell sap
The membrane is
referred to as the
tonoplast
Different kinds of
vacuoles may have
different functions within
the same cell
Along with water based
cell sap, vacuoles
typically contain salts,
sugars and some
dissolved proteins

Vacuole Growth

Vacuole and Turgor Pressure

22
 21-03-17

Beetroot cell vacuoles

Other Important Facts

Is an integral part of the endomembrane
system.
Only appears in plant cells.
Some are enriched in pigments that color
the cells.
Like vesicles, Vacuoles are membrane-
enclosed sacs within the cell.

Plastids
Plastids are a characteristic component of
plant cells
Plastids are classified and named based
on the kinds of pigments they contain
Each plastid is surrounded by two
membranes and internally the plastid has
a system of membranes which form
flattened sacs called thylakoids and a
ground (fluid) substance called stroma

23
 21-03-17

Chloroplasts

Plant Cells with Chloroplasts

Chromoplasts
Chromoplasts lack
chlorophyll but
synthesize and retain
carotenoid pigments
which are responsible
for the yellow, orange
or red colors of many
flowers, old leaves,
some fruits and some
roots

24
 21-03-17

Leucoplasts
Leucoplasts are
nonpigmented
plastids some of
which synthesize
starch while others
produce oils or
proteins
Upon exposure to
light they may
develop into
chloroplasts

Proplastids
Proplastids are small,
colorless or pale green
undifferentiated plastids
that occur in
meristematic cells of
roots and shoots - they
will eventually develop
into other, differentiated
plastids such as the
chloroplasts,
chromoplasts or
leucoplasts

25