Reading Material AMT

Chapter 2 (Non-Traditional Machining)

Introduction
Traditional machining involves removal of material from the workpiece by mans of the shear
forces. In comparison to that non-traditional machining doesnt use any of the shear forces for
metal removal.

Categories of machining involves:

1. Cutting It involves single point cutting tool or multi-point cutting tool, each of which is
having a clearly defined geometry.
2. Abrasive process Process which involves abrasive particles for the gradual metal
removal process. e.g. grinding process
3. Non-traditional machining utilizing electrical, chemical and optical source of energy
instead of mechanical source.

Traditional vs Non-Traditional Machining

Traditional machining (Primary source of energy) Mechanical

Non-Traditional Machining (Primary Source of Energy) Electrical, Chemical and optical

Primary Method of Metal removal: Traditional Shearing process (explain it)

Non-Traditional doesnt use shearing (explain it)

e.g. abrasive water jet cutting uses erosion

Why Non-Traditional Machining

Situations where traditional machining proves out to be unsatisfactory or even uneconomical
one uses this method. Such situations include:

1. Material of workpiece is either too hard, strong or tough.

2. Work piece being too flexible to resist the cutting forces or being too difficult to clamp.
3. Part shape is being too complex and having internal and external profiles.
4. Higher requirements for surface finish and tolerances.
5. Temperature rise and residual stresses being undesirable or unacceptable. (explain all
points in answer)
Ultrasonic Machining

Principle This machine works over the principle of using the high frequency (ultrasonic
frequency) mechanical vibration for gradual metal removal from the work piece.

Construction and Working:

This machine works on the principle of mechanical vibration. It uses the vibration frequency
being generated for the removal of metal from the work piece. Tool used in this case is having a
negative image of the final shape of the work piece desired. This negative image of the tool is
replicated over the work piece by means of mechanical vibration over it which causes gradual
metal removal.
Tool which is having negative image of the work piece is vibrated at lower amplitude of 0.013 to
0.08 mm and frequency of 20 kHz over an abrasive grit slurry over the surface of work piece.
Slurry also carries away the debries created over the working area.

Tool is aligned in a manner for maintaining a constant gap of 0.1 mm between the tool and
work piece surface.

Applications:

Best suited for hard and brittle materials which includes ceramics, carbides, glass, precious
stones and even hardened steels.

With abrasive particles, it can achieve tolerances of up to 0.0125mm or even better can be
achieved. Ra varies from 0.2 to 1.6 m.

Advantages and Limitations:

Pros:

1. precise machining of the brittle materials.

2. For production of tiny holes.
3. Doesnt produce electric, thermal, chemical damage because of its capacity of material
removal via mechanical means.

Cons:

1. Lower material removal rate (typically of the order of 0.8 cm3/min)

2. Rapid wearing of tool.
3. Limited machining area and depth.

Various parts being machined by USM:

Water Jet Machining

It is also known as hydrodynamic machining. It uses the property of erosion over

the workpiece for material removal. It works over the principle of micro erosion.
It works by forcing the large quantity of water from the fluid supply by means of a
pump into the accumulator which is used for the storage of high pressurized
water.

This high pressurized water by means of controls is controlled into the nozzle over
its flow rate. Based on the flow rate of the water pressure energy of water is
converted into velocity energy and hence we obtain a high velocity jet of water.
This high velocity jet of water is enough for creating erosion over the surface of
the metal or cutting down the sheet metals.

Extreme pressure being generated by contact of the high velocity of water

particles over a smaller area acts like a saw and cuts down a narrow groove into
the material.

Advantages and Limitations:

Pros:

1. Doesnt require any of the pre-drilled holes into the workpiece.

2. No heat generation.
 3. None of the workpiece deflection.
4. Minimum amount of burr generation.
5. Environmental friendly.

Cons:

1. It is limited for the material which are available with smaller cracks
naturally or the softer material.

Applications:

1. Mostly used for cutting lower strength materials which includes wood,
plastics, rubber, paper, leather, composites, etc.
2. Food packaging.
3. Good for materials which can not withstand higher temperatures which is
generated by other methods.

Examples of WJM
Abrasive Water Jet Machining

This method uses abrasive particles

instead of just a water jet as in case of
Water Jet machining. Description part
of this topic will include same as that of
Water Jet Machining with addition to
abrasive particles.

As with the presence of the abrasive

particles it increases the material
removal rate. Metallic materials can
also be easily cut. It is mostly being suitable for the heat sensitive materials.

Various parts manufactured by AWJM

Figure 1: Steel rack (75 mm thick) 2: Bullet Proof Glass Part

Abrasive Jet Machining

This method of machining uses abrasive particles jet and doesnt include any of
the fluid for its mixture. A high velocity jet of dry air which includes nitrogen or
carbon dioxide which is containing abrasive particles is aimed at the workpiece.

This high velocity jet is supplied by means of high pressure gas supply. Vibrator
given helps in proper mixing of the abrasive particles with the high velocity jet.
Foot control valve will control the input of high velocity jet to the nozzle. Quantity
of jet supplied to the nozzle will give required amount of the metal removal rate
from the work piece.

Material removal rate by this method is of the order of 25-125 mm/min.

Dimensional tolerances of the order of 2 - 5 m. Typical surface finish Ra values
varies from 0.3 to 2.3 m.

Applications:

1. It can cut traditionally hard to cut materials e.g. composites, ceramics and
glass.
2. It is good to machine materials which can not withstand higher
temperatures.

Limitations:

1. It is an expensive process.
2. Flarring of the final product can be produced over a larger extent.
 3. Quite not suitable for mass production of components because of the
requirement of higher maintenance.

Chemical Machining

Chemical machining, basically an etching process, is the oldest nontraditional

machining process.

Material is removed from a surface by chemical dissolution using chemical

reagents, or etchants, such as acids and alkaline solutions.

The workpiece is immersed in a bath containing an etchant. The area that are not
required to be etched are masked with cut and peel tapes, paints, or polymeric
materials.

In chemical milling, shallow cavities are produced on plates, sheets, forgings, and
extrusions for overall reduction of weight (e.g., in aerospace industry). Depths of
removal can be as much 12 mm.

Chemical blanking is used to produce features which penetrate through the

material via chemical dissolution. The metal that is to be blanked is thoroughly
cleaned with solvents, coated and the image of the part is imprinted, soaked in a
solvent that removes the coating, except in the protected areas, spray etched to
dissolve the unprotected areas and leave the finished part.
Typical applications

Chemical blanking: burr-free etching of printed-circuit boards (PCB), decorative

panels, thin sheet-metal stampings, and the production of complex or small
shapes.

Chemical milling: weight reduction of space launch vehicles.

Pros: low setup, maintenance, and tooling costs; small delicate parts can be
machined, suitable for low production run over intricate designs.

Cons: slow(0.025 0.1 mm/min); surface defects, chemicals can be extremely

dangerous to health.

Electrochemical machining

Process description:

In ECM, a dc voltage (10-25v) is applied across the gap between a pre-shaped

cathode tool and an anode workpiece. The workpiece is dissolved by an
electrochemical reaction to the shape of the tool.
The electrolyte flows at high speed (10-60 m/s) through the gap (0.1-0.6 mm) to
dissipate heat and wash away the dissolved metal.

When this spark crosses the dielectric strength of the electrolyte it will strike over
the material ultimately resulting in the removal of the material. This material
being removed will be flown away by means of the flowing electrolyte at the spot
of material removal.

Pros: high shape complexity possible, high MRR possible, high-strength materials,
mirror surface finish possible.

Cons: workpiece must be electrically conductive; very high tooling (dedicated) and
equipment costs; high power consumption.

Applications: complex cavities in high-strength materials, esp. in aerospace

industry for mass production of turbine blades.

Electrical Discharge Machining

EDM is a thermal erosion process whereby material is melted and vaporized from
an electrically conducive workpiece immersed in a liquid dielectric with a series of
spark discharges between the tool electrode and the workpiece created by a
power supply.

It is one of the most accurate and also affordable process. Its working is almost
same as that of the electrochemical discharge machining except there is no
electrolyte being used in machining.

The EDM system consists of a shaped tool or wire electrode, and the part. The
part is connected to a power supply to create a potential difference between the
workpiece and the tool.

When the potential difference is sufficiently high, a transient spark discharges

through the fluid, removing a very small amount of metal from the workpiece.

Dielectric fluid acts as an insulator until the potential is sufficiently high. It also
acts as a flushing medium and providing a cooling medium along with it.

Its MRR Range from 2 to 400 mm3/min. High rates produce rough finish, having a
molten and recast structure with poor surface integrity and low fatigue
properties.

Dimensional Tolerances

Function of the material being processed

Typically between 0.005 - 0.125 mm.

Surface Finish

Depends on current density and material being machined Ra varies from 0.05
12.5 m

New techniques use an oscillating electrode, providing very fine surface finishes.

Applications

Widely used in aerospace, moldmaking, and die casting to produce die cavities,
small deep holes, narrow slots, turbine blades and intricate shapes.

Cavities produced by EDM Stepped cavities

Limitations

A hard skin, or recast layer is produced which may be undesirable in some cases.

Beneath the recast layer is a heat affected zone which may be softer than parent
material.

Finishing cuts are needed at low MRR.

Produces slightly tapered holes, specially if blind holes.

Wire EDM

Its concept is almost same as that of EDM (explain EDM concept). In this case
instead of tool wire is used for machining purpose for cutting the workpiece. It is
also using the discharge sparks which acts like cutting teeth.

Various parts of Wire EDM

High Energy Beam Machining

1. Laser Beam Machining. (LBM)

2. Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
3. Focused Ion Beam Machining

Laser Beam Machining

Add energy to make electrons jump to higher energy orbit

Electron relaxes and moves to equilibrium at ground-state energy level

Emits a photon in this process (key laser component)

Two mirrors reflect the photons back and forth and excite more electrons.

One of the mirror is partially reflective which allows light to pass through by
creating a narrow laser beam.

Advantages:

More precise
Useful with a variety of materials: metals, composites, plastics, and
ceramics
Smooth, clean cuts
Faster process
 Decreased heat- affected zone.

MRR

Cutting speed can be as high as 4 m/min.

Typical material removal rate is 5 mm3/min.

Dimensional Tolerance

Typical ranges from 0.015 - 0.125 mm

Surface Finish

Ra varies between 0.4 6.3 m.

Process Variations

Laser beam machines can be used for cutting, surface hardening, welding, drilling,
blanking, engraving and trimming.
Types of lasers used: pulsed and CW CO2, Nd:YAG, Nd:glass, ruby and excimer.

High-pressure gas streams are used to enhance the process by aiding the
exothermic reaction process, to cool and blow away the vaporized or molten
material and slag.

Applications

Multiple holes in very thin and thick materials

Non-standard shaped holes and slots
Prototype parts
Trimming, scribing and engraving of hard materials
Small diameter lubrication holes

Limitations

Localized thermal stresses, heat affected zones, recast layer and thermal
distribution in thin parts.
Difficulty of material processing depends on how close materials boiling
and melting points are
Hole wall geometry can be irregular
The cutting of flammable materials is usually inert gas assisted
Electron Beam Machining

How it Works

A stream of electrons is started by a voltage differential at the cathode. The

concave shape of the cathode grid concentrates the stream through the anode.

The anode applies a potential field that accelerates the electrons.

The electron stream is then forced through a valve in the electron beam machine.

The beam is focused onto the surface of the work material, heating, melting, and
vaporizing the material.
Characteristics

Mechanics of material removal melting, vaporization

Medium vacuum
Tool beam of electrons moving at very high velocity
Maximum MRR = 10 mm3/min
Specific power consumption = 450 W/mm3/min
Critical parameters accelerating voltage, beam diameter, work speed,
melting temperature
Materials application all materials
Shape application drilling fine holes, cutting contours sheets, cutting
narrow slots
Limitations very high specific energy consumption, necessity of vacuum,
expensive machine.
Plasma Beam Machining

The electrically conductive work-piece is positively charged, and the

electrode is negatively charged. Relatively large cutting speeds can be
obtained: for example, 380 mm/min for a stainless steel plate 75 mm thick
at an arc current of 800 A.

Tolerances of 0.8 mm can be achieved in materials of thicknesses less than

25 mm, and tolerances of 3 mm are obtained for greater thicknesses.

The HAZ for plasma arc cutting varies between 0.7 and 5 mm in thickness
and the method is used primarily for ferrous and nonferrous metals.