Factors Affecting Women Entrepreneurship in Small and Cottage Industries in Nepal Opportunities and Constraints Jyoti Tuladhar SEPTEMBER 1996 % SS TION oYC: @ Re Sida intemational Labour Organization ‘Swedish International South Asia Multidisciplinary Advisory Team Development Cooperation AgencyTable of Contents . Page Foreword ¥v : List of Abbreviations vii Chapter 1: introduction 1 LA Setting the Context 1 12 Objectives of the Study 3 13. Methodology and Scope of the Study 3 14 Organization of the Report 3 Chapter 11 :Legal Barriers to Women Entrepreneurship 5 21 Conceptual Framework 3 2.2. Sacio-Cultural Norms governing male/female behaviour 7 2.2.1 Socialization Pattern 7 2.2.2 Gender Division of Labour a 2.23. Attitude io Outside Work 8 23, Impact of Socio-Celtural Norms on Entrepreneurial Behaviour a 23.2 Low Level of Confidence 9 25.2 Double Roles and Responsibilties 9 2.3.3 Soda! Atitudes towards Women 10 2.3.4 Low Value Aitached to Women’s Work 10 24 Lack of Education/Training System u 2AL Access to Development Training 2 24.2 Access to Education 2 25 Legal Barziess 13 Chapter It: Personality Traits Essential for Entrepreneurship 15 3.1 Personal Entrepreneurial Trnits 1532 33 Chapter IV 4 42 43 Chapter ¥ : 51 52 Motivational Factors 3.2.1 Situations! Motiontional Factors Business Behaviour BL Type of Ownership snd Range uf investment 332 Employment Range 2 Access to Supply-side Economic Opportunities Financial Constraints Marketing Problems 42.1 Marketing Related Provlems of Women Entrepreneur Institutions Providing Support to Micrcenterprse 43.1 Goverment Agencies 43.2 Donor/INGO Assisted Programmes £33 Lovai NGO Interventions Conclusions and Recommendations Conclusions Recommendations 5.24 To Improve Credit Paciities 522 To lmprove Marketing Cpportuanities 5.23 Te Facilitate Technolgy Transfer and Training 5.24 Poticy Level Intervention 5.25 To Enhance Women’s 5 if Page Selected List of Useful Addresses References AnnexureForeword The Project ‘This project for the promotion of entrepreneurship among women in small and cottage industries {RAS /92/MI2/SWC) is funded by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (ida) and executed by the South Asia Multidisciplinary Advisory Team of the Intemational Labour Organization, ILO-SAAT, based ia New Deihi Country Papers One of the key activities undertaken under this project has been to commission country studies to asseas the status — barriers and constraints, as welll as opporninities and support mechanisms — of wommenis entrepreneurship in each of the five participating countaies, via, Indis, Nepal, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Thailand. This paper is the second in this series and Is published by ILO-SAAT, The report has been authored by Dr, Jyoti Tuladhar in accordance with tome of reference provided. Nepai Paper ‘This report brings together a large amount of information on various entieprencurship and womenis development programmes which have bea formulated in Nepal. Tt algo assesses the extent and the quality of womens participation in these progcarruncs. The situation is updated by providing an assessment of the current position of women entrepreneurs in Nepal, as well as of the existing support programmes and mecbanisms. The paper looks at the socio-cultural, educarional and legal barriers to womenis entrepreneurship in Nepal, Tn addition, there is a valuable overview of the personality trails essential for successful entrepreneurship, with consideration given to distinctions between female and male entrepreneurs. The report also analyses supply-side eccnomie opportunitigs, such es ctedit and marketing support, for wernen to establlsh their own enterprises. This section includes useful profiles of most of the key agencies iavolved in promoting womenis entreprerwurship in Nepal. While presenting a comprehensive overview of the status of women entrepreneurs in Nepal, the report goas a stage further by providing policy-makers with vecormendations aimed at enhancing the economic empowerment of women throughout the country. Questions and Answers A document such as this may raise as many questions as it provides ansivers. This can be due to the paucity of well-researched published material, both in Nepal and elsewhere, on this important topic. Tr may also zesult from underlying biases — both formal and informal — which tend fo play down the significance of womens entreprenaueship in many countries. The Government of Nepaland key international agencies — such as United Nations Development Programme and other UN specialist agenctes like [LO itself — as well as mejor bilateral agencies (such as Sida), are giving more prominence to programmes of poverty alleviation and employment creation, with a focus on women, Although many of them promote income-generation and small enterprise development as a means of achieving their objectives, there 's a general lack of awareness of the significant factors which impact upon the enterprise development pracess, particularly in the case of women ontroprenetirs, Programme of Action Many pertinent questions aze posed about the efficacy of existing support strategies and programmes, This pazer should enable policy-makers and programme planners alike to have a greater awareness of Key issues. The report provides recommenciations which could usefully he incorporated into a Iprogramme of action for the development of women entrepreneurs in Nepal. The author also provides practical recommendations aimed at exploiting existing supply-side economic opportunities, apecifically in the fields of credit provision, marketing support, technology improvement, and effective policy level interventions, ‘An Ongoing Process ‘This study decurnents many of the general and specific support activities available for women entrepreneurs. The effectiveness, including the cost effectiveness and impact, of these progresmunes in addressing the ne2cs of women entrepreneurs in Nepal is an area worthy of further research. ‘Where women-specitic organisations and projects exist, their formal and informal cles, as well as their suppoct programmes and member activities, will require further documentation. It should be helpful to profile = cross-section of women entrepreneurs, including members of women-specific grours, partly to provide greater visibility for womenis entrepreneurship, and partly to provide role models for potential women entrepreneurs — particularly for young women entering the labour market for the first time, As the problems of munning a smell enterprise can be very different from thoce encoumiered at the startup stage, it would also be worthwhile to undertake studies into the factors which encourage or inhibit the growth of womenis enterprises in Nepal. Once available, this information should prove to be most useful for Government, donor organizations, NGOs, womenis support organizations, and indeed far the women entrepreneurs themselves, As the executing agency for this Project, ILO-SAAT is eager to receive comments, suggestions ‘or additional information relating to the theme of this paper. As well as being involved in orcjects such as this, TLO is the designated UN agency responsible for Employment issues, and it has a special focus on Issues relating to women workers, In addition, ILO has been working in the fields of entrepreneurship, small enterprise and informal sector development, for moe than 20 years. For ‘more information on any of these matters, please contact the ILO's South Asia Multidisciplinary Advisory Team, TLO-SAAT, based in New Delhi. Contact numbers and addresses arc provided in this document. Grray Fusnecaw Senior Small Enterprise and Manogement Development Specialist HG-SAATAcP ACB/N BVIP CCORDER CECI cEDA cer : sD cst usaIo WOR WEAN List of Abbreviations Association for Craft Producers Agriculture Development Bank of Nepal Basic Vocational Training Project Contre fo: Community Developmentand Research Canadian Centre for International Studies and Cooperation Centre for Economic Development and Administration Ceramies Projact Centre for Sel!-Fielp Development Cottage and Smail Industries Centre for Women and Development oveloping Women's Entrepreneurship in Tourisrn Federation of Business and Frofessional Women /Nepal Federation of Nepales: Chambers of Commerce and Industry Industrial Frterprise Development Centre International Executives Services Comps Institute of integrated Development Studies International Labour Organization International Non-Covernmental Organization Institutional Reform and the Informal Sector ‘Nepal Bank Lid. Non-Governmental Organization Personat Foterprenetrial Characteristics Production Credit for Rural omen Rastriya Banijye Bank ‘Small Businoss Promotion Project (new IEDP) Self-Reliant Development of the Poor by the Poor Training for Rural Employment Training fox Rutal Gainiui Activities ‘United Nations Development Programme ‘United Nations Development Bund for Women “United Mission to Nepal United States Agency for Intemational Development Womens Development Programme Women Entrepreneurs Ascociation of NepalCHAPTER | Introduction 1.1 Setting the Context Wom entrepreneurship, in a formalized sense, is a relatively new pheromenon in Nepel. Although certain ethnic communities in the county, especially the Newars and Tibeto-Burmen Mighland Groups such a3 che Sherpas, Gusungs, Thakalis are known to have a long tradition of women being involved in small business onterprises (CEDA, 1981) itis only within the last fen years that the concept of women enirepreneurship has progressively geined some acceptorice in the overall dominant majority within the Nepalese society. With the growing recognition shat women have ‘nique talents which could be harnessed ‘or development, and for creating employment oppoctunitics for others who are not suited to an entrepreneurial career, developing vvomen as entrepreneurs has become an important part of national devstopment planning: and strategies Gender equality and economic development go hand in hand. Since the early 1980s, the policy makers and planneis have become acuéely aware of the economic significance of wornen's productive activities arid the nature of their contiibution te income generation, It has been firmly established that women in Nepak are vitel and productive contributors to the natfonal economy Sut their access tokaowledge, skills, coscurces, opportunities and power still romain vather low (Ghteii Shalati, 1998) Although women corstitute a Itile over une half of Nepal's population (Annex: Tables 11-2), thoy ran lower then men in almost every soria! indicator in the country. Within the increasing tices of poverty in Nepal, women are ihe poorest of the poor, a rclatively more dep from among the poor (World Bank, 1391), ed segment oven, Forty-tive peswen! of women aged 1D and abeve are listed as economically active, while the corresponding fignre far men is 68% (Census, 1991), ‘The growth rate in the female labour force exceeded that of inales between 1981-1991, but they are still eondined to a few activities indicating their disadvantaged position in :eaping the benefits of diversification in many areas of employment {sce Annex: Tables [3-11 for specific details). Over the past fifteen years women’s participation in economic activities has also moved beyond agriculture into the local masket economy. In search for wage employment, women are moving into small business and self employment ventures thereby creating many fommai and informal opportunities for work. Women are increasingly migeating fo wrbsn araas for employment in a range of cottage industries, such as.carpet weaving, textiles and handicrafts. Some 82% of working women are self-employed and 12% are wage-employed, as cempared to 69% and 27% in the case of men. Moie than 4% of women are unpaid family werkere, the only catgory where women have oumumbered men. Less than 2% of the working women hoid che status 1of “employer”. Women’s participation in the informal sectors has incressed significantly in both urban and rural areas, Verding, petty trade, liquor making, and vegetable selling are some of the more common employment ventures undertaken by women (Census, 192), Fall-scele unemployment in Nepal is relatively low, but the extent of under-employment is markedly high. The proportion of household underemployed by net workdays is estimated at 46.4% for urban and 33.3% for rural areas, Under-employment rates for males and females are estimated at 41.8% and 51.1% respectively. For arben Nepal, this is estimated at 28.8% for males and 46.6% for females. An estimate of 0.2 million persons are entering the labour enarket every year. By 1996, 2.65 million additional jobs will have te be created to actieve full employment. ‘The vicious circle of backwardness and poverty can be eliminated by transforming the agrarian economy into a dynamic one through industrielization. The contribution of industry ta national income in Nepal is about 6% of GDP; besides organized industries in the country, there is a large number of microenierprises operating on a small coitege basis which contribute about 4% of GHP. ‘The major industrial strategies employed in Nepal aze both import substitution and export promotion. In these circumstances, one major way to achieve tha goal of indusétial development could be through establishment of small-scale enterprises. For this to happen, it is recognised that entrepreneurship development can be the key fo raising the prospects for increasing the share of small-scale ard cotiage industries in the nationsl income (Aryal, 1992). (Annex: Tebles 112-19) ‘Its against this backdrop of industrial development and women’s role and participation in the national economy that one must critically view she emerging needs of and scope for women entrepreneurial development The history of entrepreneurship development progremmes in Nepal is quite recent, While Nepal has been interested in the development of smoll-scale ond micro: enterprises since the late ‘70s, issues and questions zelating to lhe promotion of women entrepreneurs have only been raised more recenily (UNTDO, 1988). The number of women who come under the category of entrepreneurs in a formal sense is still negligible Tha representation is somewhat better in the informal sector with a higher percentage of women applying for loans or cottage industry enterprises, However, this does not necessarily mean that these women intend to enter the economy as entrepreneurs, They may simply remain self-employed and limit the scale of theic enterprise to meet the requirements of househeld consumption (Annex: Fables [1445). Therefore, some of the fundamental questions that need te be explored in connection with women and entrepreneurshin are: © What kinds of facioss restrain or obstruct women from entering the entreprencutial field in 2 fully-fledged manner? ‘Are women less entrepreneurial than men? Is their entrepreneurial talent different from that of men? Should they adopt the same skills that men have? Why are there not more capable women operating sinall enterprises? Should entrepreneurship development be promoted for women, and if so how? Would this require 2 womerrspecifi¢ approach and methodology, or is women entrepreneurship development a gredual dynamic growth that will come, following on from the increased empowerment of women?‘Thete is not an extensive body of work in the entrepreneurial research arena in Nepal and the topic of women entrepreneurs virtually seinains untouctied, with the exception of a few studies carried out within the let five years which have merely scratched the surface. The need for more substantiat research, especially an exploration into the gender perspectives of this issue cannot be over emphasized, eepecially in view of the fact that a fair degree of awareness has already been raised, particularly among the urban elite, about entrepreneurial ventures, challenges and scope in small and cottage industries in Nepal. 1.2 Objectives of the Study ‘The overall objective of the study, therefore, is to examine the gender issues involved in entrepreneurship development for women, and to examine the gender differences that inhibit cestrain and obstruct women from advancing in the fielé of entrepreneurship or availing of the ooporcunities which promote i ‘The factors affecting wornen entrepreneurship development are to be studied within three broad categories, as demarcated by the specific objectives below: (i) To examine and assess the socio-cultural ed ucattonal and legel barriers to women's entry, into enterprise, an well as performance and growth in entrepreneurship; {ii} To identify and examine personality traits vis is entrepreneurial functions; (ii) To examina and assess women’s access to economic opportunities ané formal inputs which promote entreprenewrship development; and (iv) To provide recommendations on how to promote and strengthen the potential for enkancing, women entrepzeneuship in Nepal. 1.3. Methodology and Scope of Work This study is based entirely on secondary sources. The basic methodology has been to review the celevant literature on small and micco enterprises, entreprenewship, education, waining anc credit, meet with the representatives of the concemed agencies and institutions for additional and new or updated information; expioce any other data sources available, and analyze the gender rélaied factors on the basis of information thus generated. ‘The present siudy ha no scope for primacy research or in-depth examination or assessment of any one particular iseue. Therefore, the analysis is more of an averview based on the existing work on women entrepreneurship in Nepal, but with an added analytical dimension on gender issues. Given the lime constiaints and the apecified scope of werk, this endeavour is intended 1o be neither exhaustive nor comprehensive, but « modest step in the direction of pinpointing the importance and need (or examining the opportunities and constraints facing wemen entrepreneurs through 2 gender perspective, 1.4 Organization of the Report The study is divided into five chapters. &) Chapter One sets the national context introduces the subject matter of investigation, ang specifies the methodology and scope of this work,i) Chapter Two includes a brief conceptual framework, and an analysis of the cocio-cultural- ‘educational and legel barriers to entrepreneurship for women, Gi] Chapter Three examines the personality traits of women vis-awis artrapreneuial functions, iv] Chapter Four is concerned with access to resources and other inputs critical ro the women P e entrepreneurship development process fv) Chapter Five presents a summary of findings, major observations and a set of recommendations on how to promote and strengthen the potential of women entrepreneucs in Nepal.CHAPTER II Barriers to Women Entrepreneurship in Nepal Finstwy, it is worthwhite to briefly outline the various schools of thought on what constitutes an entrepreneur as relevant to promoting women emerging in this field. Later an analysis will be undertaken, of the socio-cultural factors which eciitate or work against the making of a woman entrepreneur and we will examine her access to various educational and training resources, ae well as assess the legal corsteaints which impede her entry into entrepreneurship. 2.1 Conceptual Framework Theories on entrepreneurship development ase still evolving since the concept of entrepreneurship itself is of relatively recent origin, An entreprencur has ben defined in numerous ways 5 “someone who itmovates, and whose function is to carry cut new combinations called enterprises” (Schumpeter, 1934); or as “an individual who conceives the idea of business, designs the organization of the firm, accumulates capital, recruits tabour, establishes relations with suppliers, customers and the government and converts the conception into a functioning organization” (Hagen, WED, Characteristics and traits essential for eevcepreneurship 29 recognized by experts are as follows: Characteristics Teaits Self-confidence = Confidence — Independence — Optimism — Individuality Tack-result oriented — Need for achievement — Profit-oriented — Persistence — Perseverence — Detenmination — Hard work, drive, eneray — Initiative Risk taker — Risk-taking ability — Likes challenge= Leadership behaviour — Flexible (openness of mind) — Resourcetal — Knowledgeable = Versatile Workshop on Entrepreneurship, Honeialu, 1977, ‘This school of thought focussing on the individual entrapreneur's traits, motives, knowledge, skills, attitudes and sirategies implic:tly puts forward the theory of strategic choita - tat is, the entrepreneur is the most decisive factor in the success of his/her enterprise. The underlying assumption 8 tha: one can cevelop entrepreneurship by developing the characteristic traits and motives in individuals. An alternative set of assumptions is held by cther experts who are dissatisfied with the “trait and motivation” theory. They propo.indl the existence of “ervvironmental determinicen” which controis the success or failure of an enterprise. The “task environment” consists of factors that have a specific iopact on business activitias, such as supply of materials, labour, capital and government regulations, while the “general environment” consists of the economic, legal-political, socio-cultural, and educational aspects (Lamont, 1972; Vesper, 1980). ‘The present study puts forward a brode: conceplualization of factors affecting entzeprenetiship with particular reference to women, While the two prominent theories summarized atove could be augued for and against, the factors affecting women entrepreneurship in Nepal cannot be captured within a single paradigm. The socic-cultural milieu in which Nepalese women live is a complex conglomeration of various factors which affect every aspect of their lives and govem the personality” ‘aits, their education and training, the gender outlook and attitude of the entire society (including planners and policy makers), and their access to and conttol of all resources and ¢ritical inputs ‘Therefore, from an operational point of view, a broad gender-based concepinal framewor' is adopted in this study which incorporates an exploration into various aspecls — principally the socio-cultural, educational, and legal aspects — which to a large extent determine personality and mnotivetion traits. Gender disparities in terms of access lo supply-side economic opportunities we also investigated. It is contended thet working exclusively with an isolated set of these categories does not produce 2 conducive environment for the growth of entrepreneurship among women in Nepal, Hence, a modest attempt is made to study the fcilowing (a) Social and family values or aititudes conducive or non-conducive fo women’s role as entrepreneurs, (b) The education and training system that impacts upon entrepreneurship and whetiver it is gender neutral or not. (©) The legal framework of a country (eg. laws governing inheritance, property rights, contracts, access to assistance from facilitating institutions, ets) which creates difficulties for potential women entrepreneurs. (d) Predcminant personality traits and motivations of Nepalese women,(e) Access to ccitical inputs, such as capital, raw materials, and technology, and the role and performance of egencies providing supply-side support for promoting women entrepreneurship, 2.2 Socio-cultural Norms Governing Male/Female 8ehaviour Nepalese society (with the exception of certain ethnic communities of the Tibeto-Burman group) ' predominantly patrierchal, patrilineal and patrirlocal. Three fundamental feztures characterizing patsiacchy are the patrilineal inheritance system, controls over women’s sexuality and bodies, and restzictions over women’s mobility. Women ate given a subordinate position at all fevels: economic, control and power over body and movement, and power of family lineage Thus, at the most intrinsically basic level, women are reduced to a position of secondary importance. All forms of disceimination and inequity ensue from this. Thereiore, patriarchy as operationslized through the family system needs to be carefully analyzed, understood and addressed if gender differences in behaviour between men and wemen are to be clearly dictinguished. It is this basic patviacchal predominance which negatively affects women’s esteem, confidence and decision-making, ability in both dizect and indirect ways, If we examine a woman's life through the various phases of her life cycle, it becomes crystal clear how this societal structure and the concomitant value system has affected women’s psyche, attitudes and psychoiogical health, sight from conception to eld age 2.24 Socialization Pattern ‘The entire socialization pattern in the Napalese seciety is such that the young boys are prapared for the world of productive work and decision-making, while girls are tained to be effective housewives, mothers and service provigers. From a very early age itis instilled into girls’ minds that their duty lies in providing services to their family. Domestic chores, sibling care and assisting the mother in household responsibilities, prepare her for the world of care-aking of future generations. Self-denial, putting others before oneself, self-effacement, gentleness, sacrifice, soft-spokerness and other feminine qualities are encowaged in her upbringing. Decision-making, strength of expression, articulateness, opinion formation, thinking of one’s own needs and interests, future cereer planning, etc,, axe not qualities which are promoted to develop her in her socialization process. Furthermore, she is for the most part confined to an inside world. and rot penmitted to interact with the outside world of information, knowledge, aul accessing various resources ‘The cumulative psychological effect of this tind of socialization process becomes evicent later in life in her low level of confidence and inability to demand for her own tights. Chastity and the protection and preservation of female sexuality is highly valued in the socialization patterns in the mainstream Nepali culture. Chastity is # complex concept from which emerge various constraints ond restrictions which are placed on wornen in the socialization process — restricted mobility, need for social acceptability and prestige or “izzat”, need for male protection, high value attached to gentleness, submisciveness and conservative outlook, and lack of 7exeouragement for initiative and risk-taking. These values imbibed through years of socialization in the male and female psyche in the Nepalese society, constitute the strongest psycho-social barrier to the strengthening of women’s status. Furthermore, “the son preference and daughter neglect” syndrome has an extensive and deep- rooted physical and menial impact on the daughters who are discriminated against. It adversely affects their self-esteem and sodalizes them into putting themselves last on occasions such as when the distribution of food and other houschold resources takes place. This habit becomes so entrenched that, even. when opportunities are available, they may not be able to take advantage of them for themselves. 2.2.2 Gender Division of Labour Gender division of labour leading to geader stereotyping of jobs is a traditional feature of Nepalese society. Women’s working hours ter to be very long and sieenuous, fn the cacal setting, household chores such as cooking and weshing, fetching water and firewood, combined with agriculture-re‘ated activities, engage them for more than ten to twelve hous, In the urban setting, most working women face double responsibilities of household work as well as the professional demands of their jobs. A high level of stress and intitation has been expressed by many of these women who end up trying to be “super women”. Trying to cope with, and even excel, in both the inside and the outside worlds, often leads to psychological wauma, ‘With regard to Women’s Work and Responsibilities in the Home, women’s work burden seems: to have increased over the past fourteen years from 108 hours per day (CEDA, 1981) to the current average of 10.9 hours (SHTRII SHARTI, 1995), On the other hand, men’s input is 7.8 hours per day, which zemains 3.1 hous fewer than that of women. Thus the economic contribution of wornen in terms af hours of work is muck higher than that of men. In fact, women stil continue to contribute more time and income to the total househotd production, even if we do not ascribe @ value to women's wage income accrued from the “invisible labour” involved in houschold chores. ‘The 1981 study by CEDA on the Status of Women showed a strong relationship between women's level of input in the outside economy and decision-making processes within the households The recent updated study by SHTRI SHAKTI (1995) revealed a surprising downward trend it decision-making for women. Despite a total improvement in the household income as a result of developrnent interventions (auch as credit facilities and subsidy programmes, irrigation facilities, new technology, ete.) personal decision-making for women has decreased considerably. It may be that women are showing more disagicement with Ue choices and decisions made by men, thus making them more aware of their lower decision-making power. 2.23 Attitude to Outside Work Regarding the community’s attitudé to work outside the household, this tends to be viewed as degrading to the family status, Working women have fo bear with a double work burden which does not attribute any higher status to them. Thersfore, most wornen choose ta stay at home, unless there is a dire economic need or if there is no other bread-earmer in the family. Women working purcly for professional faifilment are very few among the urban elite, However, working women enjoy the advantage of having greater control over their own labour and some degree of social and spatial mobility 8Real needs at the subsistence level, allied io an increasing desize for commercial commodities, have brought about major changes in the economic activities of women, While these activities have resulted in augmenting household incerres, they do not lead to an automatic impcovement in women’s lives. There are many instances of cash being appropriated by men and wed in ways that are opposed to women’s inierest and well-being. This constitutes a social reality which must be given serious consideration in any endeavour to promote entrepreneurship for women (CWD, 1983). ‘Thus, many socio-cultural factors have confined women to traditionally prescribed and socially seceptable roles; and without male approval, women’s so-called decisions become non-functional. Putting aside the few cases of fortunate urban, lite women, the deep-rooted gender stereotyping in the patterns and role models resulting from the socialization process has consistently inhibited women from coming out of theit traditional cocoons. 2.3 Impact of Socio-cultural Norms on Entrepreneurial Sehaviour ‘The socio-culturai constraints are clearly visible as seen in a study conducted recently by Ranaéhat (1993) with bwo target groups — 18 potential women entrepreneurs who were trained in business creation courses but had not started their businesses, and 68 currently functioning women entrepreneurs from different parts of Nepal (such as Kathmanda, Lalttpuc, Bhaktapur, Nepalgan}, Pokhara. Syangja and Falpa). The study’s findings. as summarised helow, saem to corroborate the points highlighted above. 23.1 Low Level of Confidence One of the most cited problems among women entrepreneurs is thefr low level of confidence as demonstrated in the sample survey of the personal entrepreneurial charecteristic (PEC) self-rating questions achinistered during this study. A comparative study of entrepreneurial characteristics of men and wernen in developing counties ULC, 1987) also shows a high level of self-confidence in men, end a medium level of confidence among women. To measure the entrepreneurial qualities of the Nepalese women entrepreneurs the PEC Scale — a self-rating questionnaire developed by Meer and Company — was used In Ranabhat’s study (1985). The results show that Nepalese women entrepreneurs are more concemed about the high quality of work and efficiency, but they were found to be weak in self-confidence, persuasion and assertiveness in comparison 10 male entrepreneurs, Women entreprencurs think that being hard-working is a characteristic of a succzasful entrepreneur. Tk was found that the family also lacks confidance in women's capability, whether it is related to their mobility outside home or to mortgage as collateral to obtain loars from banks. Such lack ofconfidence in women's capabilities is evident, not only in the family circle, but also in the supporting agencies such as banks. Lack of femily conficence and the negative social perception towards women have hed a disabling impact on building up women’s confidence (Ranabhat, 1995). 23.2 Double Roles and Responsibilities Women’s primary role is traditionally perceived as and expected to be in the house, asa bousewite or a mother, and men are supposed te be involved in outside activities including income °generation. Pregnancy, child-bearing and rearing are purely female functions. Mothers are found to bbe more capable than fethers in understanding when a exying baby is hungry, wet or feels pain, The nurturing stills related to child-rearing also require more time and involvement in household activities. “These factors Limit women’s cesponsibilities and involvement in activities outsice of the household. Role conflict or balancing time between these different roles js found to be a problem for many aspiring women entreprenaurs, 23.3 Social Attitudes towards Women ‘Women are viewed as weak, passive, obedient or submissive, Furthermore, dominant religions belieft and traditions do not favour women being involved in outside activities. In some casas society considers tt a weakness in a man If his wife is working outside. In business, women have to deal with many people, and sometimes they have to travel away from their homes, Such things are not wel] accepted by society, and therefore constitute a major problem for women entrepreneurs, 23.4 Low Value Attached to Womten’s Work Another problem associated with social values, culture and practice ig the low value given to womer’s work, Whatever tasks. women perform, they are frequently not even considered as work, If it is work, then it is not seen as worthwtile work — it is only supplementary, parttime, ad hoc and frivolous work. These are the gencrel comments women entrepreneurs have to put up with, and what better boosters of entrepreneurship could there be for women entrepreneurs’ morale in undertaking entrepreneurial activities! Thus, these prevailing social values, culture and perception tend to work as a restraint on the growth of women entepreneurs in the Nepalese society. Other social inctors, such as marital status, age and family background, which support or hinder the creation and operation of business were also considered in this study. Among the entrepreneurs interviewed 70.6% were married, 25% unmarried and the remaining 41% were divorced/soparated or widows. These figures may indicate thet married women are potentially more entrepreneurial than others. But on the other hand, out of the other group of 18 none entrepreneurs, 83.3% were married women and had not started their businesses even after completing theic teaining progzemme in New Business Creation. Based on this comparative figure, one can infer that marital status alone ees not make eny considerable difference. Family support, on the other hand, was found to be more crucial to beseming at entrepreneur. ‘The majority of women entrepreneurs in Ranabhat’s study (70.5%) live in ¢ joint family, and 51.5% of the entrepreneurs have trade and industry as their family background. Tn another study by Hada and Suestha (£992), cut of the total women entrepreneurs interviewed, 71.43% belonged to joint family. ft cearly indicates and verifies the common belief that the joint family can be supportive to women who want to start theit own business, Furthermore, it was easier for women fo go into business if their family had business as the principal family occupation, for they would often be trained in and familiar with the business environment, 10In resporse to a question to non-entrepreneurs to identify the reason for not starting a business, 27.7% of the women said that they lacked capital for investment, and another 22% stated that their family did rot support them in starting up their businesses (Ranabhat, 1985). On the other hand, among the entrepreneusial group, 95% seid that family support was the crucial factor in becoming an entrepreneur. Thes, family support was found to be one of the influencing factors in business creation and operation for women entrepreneurs. 2.4 Lack at Education and Training Only one-fourth of the Nepalese women aged 6 years and over are literate, as compared to 54% literacy among the male population of the corresponding age-group. Even in urbar arens nearly half of the women cannot read and write. Nearly one-third of the literate women have never been 10 school while more than two-fifths of them are devoid of formal education beyend the primary level. Female participation in the education system declines as the level of schooling goes up, indicating « higher tendency of drop-cut or discontinuance among girls, The curricuium is also not in line swith the real fife situation of women and girls; as a result they do not feel empowered through education. The steady increace in overall total Hteracy rate from 14.3% in 1971, fo 22.5% in 1981, to 39.6% in 1991, shows notable growth and improvementin education. However, women have ranked very low in the educational profile throughout — 3.7% female va. 24.7% male in 1971; 11.5% female vs. 349% male in 1981; and 28.0% female vs. 54.5% male in 19%1 (Census Records, 1991), Furthermore, the proportion of girls decreases as the [evel of schooling goes up - down from 37% at the primary to 31% at the lower secondary and 29% at the secondary schools. This has prevented women from imaroving their access to successful occupations, career development, and higher level vocational and technical training. Perhaps due to whan concentration, women’s accoss is slightly better in the case of higher education. Female students account for 23% of the total, ranging from 49% in medicine ang 33% in humanities, to a low of 8% in agriculture. Likewise, the overall proportion of female tenchers is 19% varying from a peak of £3% in medicine to a low of 4% in engineering. Ik is important to mention here that there are a number of innovative programmes being implemented to increase and enhance equal access of women and girls to education, but the existing infrastructuce io otill inadequate to mest the special necds of wornen and gir's. The domestic work burden for girls is too great: they ere also subject to poor health and autrition, as well as and early maccioge; schools are often too far away, and there are very few economic opportunities open to women, ‘Therefore, there is a serious need te explore factors which could, encourage girls to attend school as welt as to introduce proactive and innovative measures (eg, flexibility in school timing, sensitization of teachers to the need of girs education, elimination of gender bins from the cumriculsitn, and the use of non-formal conduits as entry to formel education). ulaay ast #2 Development Training “tay vMition of soctal deprivation among women is not only a consequence of poverty, but a litectly connected to an unequal gender-based distribution of power and resources in the Ei nol | ommuniy. est cevopmens traning (eg, onlvestck management, ose. use o sey SES ec) has boon trgeted primarily towards men in the sural areas wheze they exe sergdevnt 8 he producers ard providers for their families, Some skills treining, such as sewing. seating sil 8e0vINg, has besa traditionally impacted to women, but the eeonemic value from this raining, js aati insignificant in relation to househaid subsistence, nists study shows that formel education fs nota prerequisite for becoming an entrepeencut. jwwrate men and women are fo be found as entreprenewss, However, education plays an Many swore Many (Hie im maging the business, Karas serese shows iat SOO% of women srpaaanislts have an education fevel below the School Teaving Certificate (SLO) or 13h grade Hoenn We pescenlage of totally literate women is only 44% These entceproneurs were located oigty #8 NEY eas and wore operating micra businesses. In the case of the geourp of non-trained ce aawis-so-one in the survey was literate, The reason for this was that they were all trained, ced wp pwoweale in the Haining progremme reqaized litemcy, tp ov ssudy by Elica and Shrestha (1992), the educatlon profile of women entrepreneurs reveal! OY “allowing: gag Anes 2 Filuction pavetonal_Level Number Percentage new 3 1420 pee 1 76.19 gyrate 1 475 sh 1 476 evs EC 0 099 ~ a 100.00 Fe Seve data shows that most of the women entrepreneurs (90%) had higher academic qualia 8CH 282 degree or a diploma, Most of the diplomas ware inthe skill oriented courses cach ax 8808 design, beauty care, fine arts, textile, hair dressing, textile designing, secterarial =& Ibis evident from this that women having the benef of specific training courses ate +© utilize their skills in the economic ventures. oe conversely argued, however that lack of education acts asa deterrent to sucessful entrap SHIP. [a country which suffers from severe iliteracy, such as Nepal, without widespread cess the basic comer-stone of emposverment, women's opportunities for becoming successful qrneps 5 Would De severely limitedProfile of Women Entrepreneurs Personal Age Mean 23.3% Ys Mamied 70.6% Education: below SLC 58.9% Joint Family 70.5% Motivation: Financially independent 42% Average Working Hours 8 hus a day Preferred Trainers: Mixed 88.4% (Men and Wornen) Business Investment size: below Rs, 25000 5% Self Finance 4% Use of Bank Leans 309% Loan from Informal Sectors 22% Business: Garments and hosiery 544% Psychographical ‘The main motivation to become an entreproncur is to be financially independent, In terms of their entrepreneurial qualities, they are more concerned about the high quelity of work and efficiency, but they are comparatively weak in self-confidence, persuasion and assertiveness. Source: Ranakinat, B. (1995) 2.3. Legal Barriers The Nepalese laws operate within the confines of the Joint family system, with patrlarchat fransmission of landed property and outdated concepts on the role of women. However, the legal position of women can be viewed on the basis of two broad areas of law, Le. public sector laws and family laws. On the public sector laws, iunportané measures have been taken to improve the status of women, eg legislation on minimum wages for industrial workers which states that “male and female workers shall be paid equal wages for equal work”. The Nepal Pectovies and Pactory Workers Act (1959) contains aumerous provisions aimed at improving conditions for factory warkers, such as maternity leave, child-care facilities, separate latrines, restricted hours of work ete. Unfortunately, such protective lagislation has not been enforced effectively. In relation to family law, the Sixth Amendment of the Civil Cede in 1976 greatly enhanced the cause of equal rights for women by amending faws governing martiage, divorce, property ngh’s, and inheritance. Laws in Nepal allow onty males to inherit property, and although widows do inherit the property of their husbands and enjoy the right to dispose of them subject to some 13restrictions, the property passes automatically to the male lineage after the widow's death. Following. on the Sixth Amendment, a daughter (after the age of 35 if she remains unmarried) gets an equal share with tha con in ancestral property. Apart from this, unlike the male who is provided much greater control of his ancestral property, the female In a simnilas situation is sill undex male control = whether it be father, brother or son. Similarly, while the husband is free to dispose if up to 55% of the joint family property without consultation, and with or without consent of his wife, the wife's potential share may be reduced as a recult of his financial misdeeds. Women’s sight to property depends on the social condition of marriage, ard it is here that we eo women’s legal status as being severely dependent on the norms governing proper marital behaviour. A. woman can also hve her own private property in the form of “daijo” and “pews”. “Tajo” or dowry consists of property given fo @ woman on the occasion of her marriage, oF in the capacity of @ bride, by relatives from her parents’ side, her mother's parents’ side, or by friends and neighbours, ‘This property will not be included in the ancestral property to be shared by the husband's family. Theoretically, the woman has control over her own "daijo”, “pewe” is any property that a woman ‘owns as a direct, legal gift from ber husband, father, or brothers, of that she has earned hersel/. She enjoys full ownership over her “pewa". However, these are the only two categories of property over which a woman may have full independent control. Women ave therefore denied a resource base which could have enabled them to exercise autonomy and independence with particular seference to enterprise creation. As a consequence their access to capital invvestment is almost non-existent, excep! through altemative channels. Thus, deprived of access to and control over resources — be it education, training, assets, ownership, prestige, political power, land, equipment, income and basic needs — wemen undoubiedly constitute the postest and the most disadvantaged group in the country. However, there ar many non-Hindu ethnic communities of Tibeto-Burman origin in Nepal, suchas the Newar, Gurung, Tamang, Sherpa, Limiby and Rei, who have divergent practices regarding, women’s property rights. The Sherpa jamily system, for instance, has separate Sut equal property shares for both sons and daugiters. Among the Tamengs, daughters also inherit family proverty. The Newars initially enjoyed a system of ensuring property rights for daughters too. Thus, the enforcement of Hindu assumptions about gender and property, as ceilected in jamily law, control te social and economic righis of women. Women’s rights in Nepal, both in family membership and in property, are organized around the core primary rights assigned to thele fathers or husbands. Not only are the women’s rights to property inherently fragile, but whatever rights she does have are limited by the prior and dominant interests of the men in her farnily, beth in the natal as well as affinal houschoids, In promoting entrepreneurship among women, their lack of capital and inability to famish collateral are directly linked to women being deprived of inheritance rights, Economically, women are riot independent entities, This severely limits thoir capacity in operating enterprises as self reliant, risk-taking and competitive entrepreneurs. 4CHAPTER Hil Personality Traits Essential for Entrepreneurship AS entrepreneurship development involves a process in which the interplay between the personal traits of the actor and the socio-economic situation of the environment is highly critical, thé individual traits and motivation levels of women entrepreneurs in Nepal desarve serious examination. The supportive social system, the docninant cultural values and the legal structure combine to provide the framework within which the female entvepreneur has to function (Guthier, 1992; Kael, 1993) In Nepal no comprehensive study has been carried out in respect of women entrepreneurs in terms of what factors actually drive them into businesses, However, four studies have been conducted bby the Small Business Promotion Project (SBP), and one undertaken by the Centre for Women and Development (CWD) for ILO/FNCCI, ell of which provide substantial information regarding the aspirations and motivations of Nepali women entrepreneurs, attitudes towards entrepreneurship ir Nepal, biographical and psychographical profiles of Nepali entrepreneurs, and recommendations for mechanisms fo strengtlen women’s enirepreneurial Gevelopmaent in Nepal, Based on theee exhaustive studies, an attempt will be made to assess women's personality taits and business behaviour, a2 well ag the problems faced during the initial stages of their businesses. From the study carried out by Hada and Shrestha (1992) on the biographical, business and psychographical profiles of Nepali wemen entreprencurs, a number of findings have emerged, (For this study 30 women entrepreneurs were identified and approached in Kathmandu valley, of which 2) participated in the survey.) 3.1 Personal Entrepreneurial Traits A set of Personal Enirepeencurial Characteristics (PECs) developed by Spencer and Mensfield ‘was used to prepare the profile of the entrepreneurial characteristics of women enlrepreneuss. The above table shews that the women entrepreneurs have higher scores on efficiency otientation, information seeking. commitment to work contract, persistence, and concern for high quaiity of work respectively, The women entrepreneurs were weale in taking initiative, seeing and acting on opportunities, persuasion, self-confidence, systematic planning, use of influencing strategy, assertiveness, and problem-solving, This finding confirms the conclusions made in a workshop on Women Entrepreneurship conducted by the Small Business Promotion Project (Nepal) and Approtech ‘Asie (Zhillppines) in 1990. The workshop concluded that women’s general weaknesses were lack of self-confidence, tuking initiative and pecblem-selving, 15Even though there is not enough comparative data on the personal trait differentials between menand women, a superficial comparison between the responses given by the women in this study and the responses of a group of predominantly male Nepali entrapreneurs, in a similar study by Bhawuk anc Udas (1991) shows that Nepali entrepreneurs are strongest in efficiency orientation, infocmation-secking, concer for high quality of work, commitment to work contract and persistence, while the weaknesses displayed were exacily the same as in the Hada and Shrestha study. Sample Menn Score of Personal Entrepreneurship Characteristi of the Women Entrepreneurs Characteristics Score Std, Dev. var Efficiency Orientation 19.80 240 576 Information Seeking 18.70 226 S13 Comunitment to work contract 18.45 218 475 Persistence 1850 25 631 Concern for high quality 28.15 340 n33 Frobiem solving 1740 373 13.94 Assertiveness 1728 3.48 12.09 Use of influencing strategy 16.85 347 1203 Systematic Planning 1655 2d 595 Self-confidence 16.35 3.20 9.05 Persuasion 16.30 230 eat Sees and Acts on opportunity 1620 3.04 926 Initiative 1555 278 18 Source: Had & Sheestha (1992) Characteristics Sample Mean Score NBC* Control Efficiency Orientation 20.25 91 Information Seeking 20.08 19.39 Concem for High Quality of Work 1973 19.26 Commitment to Work Conirect 18.28 78.53 Persistence 18.13 1851 Use of Influence Strategies 18.79 wat Problem-Solving 18.07 1738 Systematic Planning 167 3733 Initiative 16.79 1650 Assertiveness 16.88 1642 Self Confidence 16.46 16.22 Sees and Acts on Opportunities 1626 1857 Persuasion 15.97 1583 Source: Bhawuk, DPS, Biographical and Paychagraphionl Brojle of Nevall Entrepreneurs. A Stedy on Gutrepreneurskip be Nepal, SBPP, Kathmandu, 1991. *NUC = New Business Cretion 169.07. The questions that may be raised here is. do mer and women entrepreneurs in Nepal exhibit the same personality tas as shown in the wo studies? Do these traits have more fo do with the stage of entrepreneurial experience rather than the personal characteristics of the entrepreneurs? The samples not representative enough to answer these questions satisfactorily. Perhaps. itis the degree ot extent of each of these personal traits that varies between men and women, rather than the presence or absence of the traits themselves, Mere observations of the behaviour patterns of men ard women entrepreneurs in Nepal indicate how they differ in risk-taking, efficiency, and self-confidence, as well as in persuasion. But these observable differences have not been reflected in the studies mentioned above. Therefore, more substantive research is needed to arrive at the ue differentials. 3.2, Motivational Factors As regards the Motivational Factors that have driven tham into entrepreneurial activities, Hada and Shrestha’s study revealed that almost all the entrepreneurs were self-inspiced women, interested in using their skills and experiences. They either got full family cooperation or they managed ‘hair time to effectively carry out business and household activities simultaneously. ‘Thay sometimes expressed their featings about the discrimination and disfavour which they experienced as a woman engaged in business activities, Most of the women entreprensurs chose a particular business project which enabled them to use their siills and experience. They initially faced ‘general problems such a5 financial problems, marketing, and the problems related to banking and registration procedures, 3.2.1 Situational Motivational Factors According to Hada and Shrestha’ study, out of the total responses, 68.95% of problems were job-related dissatisfaction, of which matonty have said that intellectial frustration (20.5%), inadequate salary (15.4%) and partiality in the job (15.4%) were the main reasons for dissatisfaction, Economic compuision inspired 15.38%, a further 20.25% by political displacement, and another 10.25% by social displacement, ‘The remaining 6.12% of the responses related to partnership displacement. In 52.9% of the cases, responcents said thar their family unspized them to start she business. Likewise, the offee of financial support from the family also inspired 22.5% of the respondents to start business. ‘The remaining 17% were inspired by a partnership offer; 3.6% by the kelp offered by the previous employer, and 2.9% by entreprencurship training. 3.3 Business Behaviour Cenerally it is believed that most of the women entrepreneurs operate feminine type of businesses. For example, in [adia the highest percentage of women (35%} arc involved in garments. In Philippines the higher percentages are in the food-processing and handicrafts sectors which make up 60% and 30% respectively (Akhouri, 1990}, Nepal is not an exception to this. The survey results {Ranabhat, 1295) show that garments and hosiery make up 54% of wornen’s enterprises. This figure rises to 65.5%; if preparing woollen thread and carpet-weaving are taken into account, 7Most of the women enteepreneins were engaged and successful in fernirine types of businesses, such as dress material, beauty parlour, handicrafts, management and travel services, mostly owned ona proprietorship basis and initially at the cottage industry level (i.e. with investment up to five lakhs of rupees and employing less than 20 labourers}. Hada and Shuestha’s study also shows that dress material businesses in which women entrepreneurs were involved include boutiques, Dhaka clothes, hosiery. textiles, silk clothes ard. garments, The handicrafts sector included dolls, knat-crafts, and wood: crafts, Metal construction materials were for suspension bridges and metal window frames, and management and travel services includes services like advertising consultancy, secretarial management and travel agencies. Sixtysix peroont of the women entrepreneurs were in manufacturing businesses and 33.3% in service businesses, It has been seen elsewhere that the smaller the size of the business reached by a development project, the larger the portion of women business owners. This scems true in the cas¢ of Nepalese women entrepreneurs too. Findings in Ranabhat (1995) show that 51.5% of the businesses were started by investing below Rs, 25,000, Furthermore, 73%, of all the businesses were started by investing less than Rs. 100,000. ‘Those with a lacger investment in the range of Rs. 300/200 to 500,000 comprised only 44%, The size of urban women-run enterprises is comparatively bigger than those in rural markat centres. Ranabhat's research further shows that 47% of the women have financed their businesses by themselves. Only 30.9% of the women entrepreneurs have used bank loans, and 22% borrowed from the informal sectes. Tk-was learat duzing the interviews that, among those who have borrewed from the informal sector some have to pay up 036% in annual interest. The major problem faced during the business start-up phase was managing finance (33.3%). Also, 23.5% of women faced ditficulties in marketing their products. In terms of employment creation, 63% of the businesses employed below & persons, with an average of 2.5 persors in the complete sample. Sixty gercent of the women do not calcalete theiz salary in the business, but they take money from the business for thelr own use, Enmings made from business are spent in three ways - an the business itself. on the household, and for their personal matters 33.1 Type of Ownership and Range of investment According to Hada and Shuestha (1992), the inajocity of the women entrepreneurs’ businesses were under sole proprietorship (71.43%) and the remainder were partnerships or private limited cornpanies, Proptietarship and partnership type of businesses were mainly handicrafts, beauty parlours, textiles, garments, hosiety, dolls, secretarial management and boutiques. The privete limited company of business included metal construction materials, advertising ard travel enterprises. The initial investment range did not show much difference from one type of ownership to another. As seen from the above information, the range of the investment was from less than one to up to five takhs cf rupees. This type of investment patiem falls under the category of cattage- level business, 18332 Employment Rage ‘As many as 47.5% of the women’s businesses employ 3 to 10employees. If we relate ownership and investment range to employment we could say that women enteprereurs normally venture into cottage-level businesses, initially with a moderate size of investment and a low level of employment. In surnmary, it is clear from the studies mentioned above that svomen entrepreneurship development entails a dose interaction between individuals and the environment. Since the entrepreneurial qualities of the actors, the supportive social values and culture, and the econemic opportunities available in the community, are all crucial factors for entrepreneurial success, the Situation of women in this field needs to be closely scrutinized within these parameters. Despite many problems pertinent to women entcepreneurship development, women’s hard-working nature, dedicstion, commitment and honesty are positive atiributes which can be effectively tapped te promote more women as successful entrepreneurs. 19CHAPTER |V Access to Supply-side Economic Opportunities 4.1 Financial Constraints ACCORDING to the 1991 Population Census, only 1.2% of women aut of the total economically active women population are involved in industrial employment. Only a few of them (0.6%) are owners of industries, while arneng men, 2.9% are owners of industries (NRB, 1964/85). One of the main reasons for this sifuation must be the limited access to capital available to women. Lack of access to credit has been an important limitetion on women’s opportunities to start businesses and engage in eronomic activities, The size of loan desired by most women is usuelly too small for consideration by the formal banking sector, and inheritance laws means that wornea asually do not have collateral. Studies have repeatedly emphasized that one of the muin constraints faced by women is the lack of financial support for business creation and operation, Various women entrepreneurs’ workshops have shown that more than 60% of thelr problems relate to the Inaclequacy of capitel (CNTEO, 1988). The family hesitates to provide a mortgage as collateral to the banks, Even if they do, normally banks will ask for guarantees fram guardians, A corollary 10 this is that bankers have low confidenca in women’s capacity to cepay and they see risks in financing women-headed micro- businesses. Lack of knowledge in the banking processes, lengthy procedures and selection of competitive businesses, among other things, have created difficulties for women obtaining Loans from formal sectors or banks. Banks need to simplliy their procedures at the same time as women. need to develop their competency. In today’s context it would aot be appropriate to launch collaterai-free credit programmes as both the banks and the potential entzeprenenrs ave not yet ready for such programmes (Acharya, 1990). The tebies below show a deteriorating trend in the repayment of loans. However, in the Smail Farmers Development Programme the repayment percentage of ioans to women is higher than that to men, Similarly, the Grameen Bank has a 100% foan repayment rate, Loans based on project collateral can be one of the best alfematives in advancing loans to women entrepreneurs, Lack of commitment to pay back loans, and lack of loan advancement on the basis of pzoject needs, also contribute to fhe above mentioned situation. It is also to be noted thet the mortality of small industries is found to be very high (UNTDO, 1988) Ibis truc that there is a high visk facing entroprencurs at the initial stages of entemprise creation and such risks tend fo be borne by governments, In Nepal, banks beat all the risks of loan defaults 20in the case of industries being liquidated. A system suck as a Small Business Insuranes Scheme could be applicable in this situation. Dux to lack of capital many wemen entrepreneurs have been unable to expand their businesses. ‘There is abig question mark on how to selve the capital problem of women entreprencuss who have no celzzral, ‘The problem can be solved only i women can have the same proparty rights as enjoyad sy men. Married women have no rights te ancestral inheritance. They cannet claim any om their husbands before 15 years of macriage, and even then they must be af least 35 ge. This system of women’s property rights leaves them with no capital of their own. unmarried women are given less preference, even in the womervtelated programmes Although the rights of married women to their parents’ property may niot be lagalizec for somerime yet, they should be given rights to their husband's property. LOAN DISBURSED BY BANKS Total Loans ‘Loans to Women Qs. in Million! (Rs. in Million) % Teal Bank Loans 17,9998 Not Available Incarated Banking Programune/ Production Credit for Women 2.005 R 26 sail Farmers/Women Programme 1.854 126 68 Grameen Bank (to mid May 1994) a8 a8 100 Fase The progess ceporls of various benko preacnted (6 tha Nepal astriya Bank REPAYMENT RATE Yeu Small Fermers Women’s Prog, Integrated Small Famers Banking Prog 53.8 100.0 100.0 585 1000 625 62.6 100.0 649 55.9 100.0 758 a7 100.0 300 463 9 673 ws 558 568 we 59.8 468 67 eld 513 380 533 BOA 361 542 489 460 60.3 43.1 Saree: Various progress ceports 2Programmes schas the Lead Bank Scheme are projec-oriented in general and lending decisions are based on project viability rather than collateral. However, in practice, due to the general dificulty in enforeing financial disciplines, banks tend to seek collateral for larger loans. Only loans of limited aunount (Re, 3,000 to Rs, 39,000) may be granted under the group guarantee system. Since women own very litle property, itis difficult for them to obtain larger loans. In the case of her husband's property, a worran has ne Inheritance and disposal sighs. Banks also requise a parental guarantee of repayment if theic clients are unmarried females “This is necessary to safeguard a bank's loans, because if the girls get married they tend fo leave the natal household and it can be difficult to follow them up. Barks then risk losing their investment So far zelatively few unmarvied clients have disappeared, but itis an unresclved issue if gris in large ‘numbers are to become involved in enterprise activities based on bank loans. There is a definite dilemma here. It is this young generation of women who can be re-edueated and mobilized quickly to be able to accept new ideas for business ventures, but it is they who are most strictly controlled in terms of their social mobility, and it is they who ace the “proletariat” in the ceal sense, In brief, the inadequacy of capital/credit is the main hindrance in the development of businesses run by women entrepreneurs. Some of the other major obstacles experienced by women in eccessing credit in Nepal are reported! to be the following: (Due to the inefficiency of banks, entrepreneurs are forced to make several trips to the bank for a single task, Women have less time fo repeatedly ge fo the bank, Many women are hesitant te go to banks because of discrimination and unnecessary harassment by bankers, ii) Because ofleck of prope’ education, many women are notable to present bank documents and follow formalities. (ai) In Nepal, the idea cf women taking lonns is act perceived in a positive way. As people have seen others hecoming ruined after recsiving « loan from local money-lenders, they are afraid of taking loans from barks too. Theeefore, uneducated women are particularly hesitant to approach hanks for a loan, (iv) ue to the deminant social culture in Nepal, women are not confident enough to ran business based on loans taken from banks. () Men are deemed to hold the responsibility for ezrning money in Nepslese society. Therefore, many women do not take any initiative in this area, 4.2. Marketing Problems Businesses are run to achieve several marketing goals, such as increasing market share, maintenance of market share, etc. However, It should be remembered that the most important goal of an enterprise is fo earn profits for the owner. In order to earn profit, entrepreneurs have 10 produce goods and services and ultimétely sell them to consumers. Tf goods and services are not produced and sald on time, entreproneurs may face the following problems. © Excessive stock of goods; @ Blockage of a major portion of capital; @ Lack of cash to pay bills, salaries and wages, creating possible liquidation of the business; © Necessity to borrow money from fnancial institutions‘The above-mentioned problems are common in cottage and small industries. The main reason for such problems is usually the inefficient management of business functions, In most cases, this is because of the lack of ability of entrepreneurs to properly market their goods and servieas or to manage their finances. ‘To further complicate the marketing issue, the geo-historical fact that Nepal is a landlocked county With India in the east, west and south, and China in the north, cannot be overiooked, While ‘roth neighbouring countries are progressing industrially Nepal is still dependent on foreign counties for basic machinery, major raw materials arvd in some cases skilled labour requived for industry. Tn. addition, Nepalese industries have various problems in marketing theis goods end services. The industries {ocated in the Terai belt, mid-hills and mountain regions have their own types of problems in marketing, ard these can be categorized into internal and external proalams 8 follows fa) vrerwat Prosems: Some of the major internal marketing-related problems of cottage and scuall industries arise from: -— production of low quality goeds; — inability to compete with foreign goods; — inability to produce goods as per consumers’ wants; — inability to cupply goods to markets on time; — high credit sales; — lack of open show—roonss; — inadequate knowledge on market expansion: — poor marketing management; — excessive stacks of finished products, ete. fh) Exrrewat, PRosLEMS! The more serious external marketing—related problems of cottage and small industries are — insufficient industrial infrastructure: — transportation difficulties: — unrestricted import of foreign goods, —~ legal imoort of goods: — limited local anarkets — tow purchasing capacity of the majority of people, ett, 421 Marketing Related Problems of Women Entrepreneurs This chvious that women entrepreneuts are also affectod by Ue marketing problems of cottage and small industries as inentioned above, In addition to the problems that men face in marketing, ‘vormen hava other problems as welt, Social barriers, Inadequate eclucation, fasnily responsibilities, dependence on guardians, end the absence of govesnment protection for Women-run enterprises, are some of the prcbleens that directly or indirectly affect the marketing efforts of women entrepeensurs Moreover, they tend to be less aware and less competent #0 inferact continucusly with the’ ever- changing market sitvation 23Furthermore, most of the cottage and sitell entrepreneurs consider the place where their goods axe sold as the ‘market’ and the selling activity as ‘marketing’. This line of thinking is outdated and not practical in the present-day context, In today’s market, it is not feasible to think that just one type of product can be sold to everyone. There are people with varied naeds, choices, income levels, and of different sex. Therefore, every entrepreneur should know who the ultintate consumers are going to be, Further, entrepreneurs need to know their customers’ needs and wants, and to be able to provide goods and secvices accordingly. Entrepreneurs should also have necessary information about their customers’ capacity and willingness to pay for produces and services and fix their prices accordingly, Promotion is another activity that entrepreneurs should undertake. This is a business function involving the introduction of the products and services to the ultimate customers. As the outcome of all these activities, entrepreneurs will have to select and establish appropriate sales outlets that are most convenient for their customers. ‘The effective execution of the above-mentioned marketing functions will help in making the goods easily avaitable to customers. But the liability of entrepreneurs does not end with the teansfer of goods to customers. After the sale of goods, entrepreneurs need to get fesdback from the customers in the form of market research on the marketing functions related to product, price, prometion and place. ‘Thus, on the basis of the feedback received, entrepreneurs should continuously strive to improve their marketing activities for maximum customer satisfaction. In view of the above, entreprenetes need to wealize that they should nat concentrate just on the selling of goods and the profit therein, but remember that the success of the enterprise is dependent oon the extent to which it can meat the needs of the customers. Only if entrepconours can function for the convenience and satisfaction of customers can they achieve their business goals, Entrepreneurs are directed by customers, and not the other way round, Thus, markeiing does not begin and end with the sale of goods; rather itis a broad, complicated and continuous process that entrepreneurs must undertake for the optimal satisfaction of customers. Most of the problems of cottage-based and small-scale entreprenaurs could be sminimized if they could be made to realize the tole and importance of marketing in thei: business and provide customer-oriented goods and services, For the reasons indicated above, there should be a series of marketing-oriented initiatives doveloped to meat the needs of new and existing women entrepreneurs, These could include basic awareness sessions on the importance of marketing, the introduction to practical merketing techniques, and the promotion of a number of marketing support or group-based marketing activities, suck 26 the WEAN cooperative. 4,3. Institutions Providing Support 10 Microenterprises 43:1 Government Agencies According fo the Industrial Policy (1992), the government has decided to privatize a large number of public enterprises, Privatization has buen part of @ nes conscious policy to direct economic activities through the private sector. The industrial policy. however. dees aot explain how the private sector can achieve sclf-sustainability. Tt does net consider the need for developing entrepreneurship in general. o: adopting sectoral approaches such as women entrepreneurship development 24In the Eighth Five-Year Plan (1992-1997), it has been clearly stated that cooperative institutions will play an important role in the development of rural women, Agricultural, cottage and cural industry programmes, as well as cooperative consuumer stores and saving programmes, will be encouraged through cooperatives. Women’s participation will be increased through various cooperative trsining programmes. In order to improve the socio-economic status af women by increasing their participation in the industriel sector, support will be required to provide such facilities ap skills-oriented training, access to raw materials, industrial management training, and access to easy and subsidized cvadit. Besed on market feasibility studies and the utilization of locel skills, arangements will be made to establish and manage markets for cottage and rural industries. Such industries should he allocated. a space in she industrial estates. Women’s participation will be increased in the implementation and management of these cottage and smell industries. Training will be provided to enhance leadership, management, entrepreneurship and skill development, so as to increase women’s participation in industry, commerce and tourism sectors, and enhance the empowerment of women. Emphasis will be laid on extencing programmes such as Production Credit for Rural Women. (CRW) and Small Farmers’ Development Programmes (SED?) in order to improve the economic condition of eural women. Some womenspecific projects which have had a positive impact so far are the Frocuction Credit for Rural Women (PCRW), and Women Development Programme /Sinall Farmers Development Progeamene (CWD Evaluation Stadies, 1989 and 1983), Two other entrepreneurship development programmes which have gained noteworthy success, though limited in scope, are the DWET project — Developing Women’s Entrepreneurship in Tourism (Tripartite Evaluation Mission, 19%), anc Women’s Development Project on Sericulture Development (See Annex: Tables [V:1-3) ‘Apart from these women-specific programmes, some women have bean seen to benefit from various gender-neutral training programmes conducted by different Government organizations Projects worth mentioning include Training for Rural Geinful Activities (TRUGA) and the Training for Rural Employment (TRE) project in Nepal which is an offshoot of TRUGA. The TRE is « mathodology which builds apon the following: to provide a vehicle to identify and implement training for the poor in non-farm skills; to use employment-related training for skills development to assist people in self-directed income-generation activities; and to engage in employment promotion in rural areas, TRE has been in operation since 1993 and is funded by UNDP via the Ministry of Industry. The Ceramics Promotion Project (CPP] and the Basic Vocational Training Project (BYTP} are also worthy of mention, Women have been trained in such skills as knitting, tailocing, carpet weaving, wool spinning, otc. Recently, training programmes in non-traditional skills such at electronics, press compositing printing, mechanical repairs, ete. have been attracting women, especially imuckan areas. There have also been training programmes which aim to increase the leadership and management capability of women. One example of this is the Women Entrepreneurship Development Programme of the Small Business Promotion Project (SBPP}, which, judging by the number of applicants, is gaining much popularity. With the objective of poverty alleviation, in the last decade His Majesty's Government has provided the facility of loans without collateral to women through the commercial banks and the Agriculture Development Rant of Nepal (ADB/N), under the Small Farmers Development Project 25and the Integrated Banking Programmes. The Integrated Banking Progranunes were launched by Nepal Bank Lid. (NBL) and Rastriya Banijya Bark (RB8). The Small Facme:s Development Project is implemented by ADB/N. Production Credit Programme for Women is ron jointly by the Ministry of Local Development and the Integrated Banking Programme. In addition to these, the Women Development Programme is implermentad under the Small Farmers’ Development Project. Recently, the Micro Credit Programmes (funded by the Asian Development Bank) have also been executed in the eastern and western parts of Nepal. By July 1999, all of the abovementioned programmes were being Implemented on a regional basis: the Small Farmers’ programme for women in 50 districts in 115 locations; the Integrated Banking Programme in more than 328 village development committees, and the Production Credit Programyne for women in more than 64 village develosment committees. The Cerman Bank of ‘Nepal is providing credit to women through its 32 branches. In most of these programmes, there ate provisions for credit up to Re. 20,000 per person. However, in most of the cases, the credit disbursed is Jess than Rs, 10,000 per person. All of these credit programmes are collateral-froc programmes. The credit limits of the Small Farmers’ Development Programme and the Production Credit Frogramme for Women are minimal and not enough to start up enterprises. ‘The number of women participating in the Small Farmers’ Development Programmes and the Froduction Credit Programme ior Women is increasing, In principal, the credit programmes of the Small Formers’ Development Programme are collateral free but, according to the 1991 study of the Nepal Rashire Bank, more than 93% of credits disbursed by the programme were with collateral. This has cesulted in less perticipation of women then men in the programme. AS of mid-july 1999, the total number of women pacticipating in the Small Farmers’ Development Programme was 15,173. A total loan of Re, 126 million was disbursed to women under the programme ‘The average ammount of loan disbursed per woman under the programme was Rs. 8302 As of midJuly 1993, the total number of loan recipients under the Production Credit for Rural Women was 15,231. A total of Rs. 7.6 million loan was disbursed under the programme, “Thus, the average loan amount of each participant of the programme was Re, 3,874. Similanly from 1982 to 1993, the Cottage and Small Industries (CSD programme was also providing credits to small entrepreneurs under the loan scheme of the World Bank, The programme was launched in 27 distcicts, Among the enterprises supported under the programme, 20% were can by women. There were loans of up to Rs. 40,000, and project collateral was required for a loan amount of between Rs. 10,600 and Rs. 40,000, Later banks started to demand collateral alsa for loans amounting to Rs. 40,000. Besides the banks and other financial institutions, there are also a number of nor-govemmental ongenizations which provide credit, Some of these organizations provide indivicwal ctedit directly to beneficiaries whereas others provide credit to savings and credit groups formed among the beneficiaries. As the funds of these savings groups are minimal, the lean smounts disbursed by these groups are not encugh to start even of small of micro-enterprises. There are many difficulties for women in receiving loans from these credit programmes. The total Joan disbursement of cormmercial banks and ADB/N is Ks, 180 million, and of this the total loans sanctioned for wornen is minimum. There are zo statistics on loan disbursements to women 26under the banks’ :egular credit programmes. Cut of the (otal loans of Re, 1.8 billion disbursed under special credit programmes, only 13% was disbursed to women beneficiaries. Out of a total loan amount of Rs. 44.9 milion reraived from IFAD in 1989, oniy 31% has been disbursed till now. Banks are less interested in handling such credit programmes. Even though the programme is coming toa close, the loan amount has not yet been fully disbursed. Another reason for this is that the programme is implemented only in rural areas arc women there are neither confident noe motivated. about running their oven enterprises, ‘Thus, ne doubt some initiatives have been Introduced fo assist women entrepreneurs but these are a mere deop in the ocean. Besides, most such activities are foreign-funded, which affects the overall prospects for the sustainabillty of the programmes. An additional problem is that women- specific programmes cannot succeed without the coordination and stuppact of concemed fine agencies. Most development planners and policy-makers do not integrate women into the development process, and they feel their duty is done by making separate policy statements on women. These policy statements are however, not followed up with appropriate programmes and strategies. The sectoral policies and programmes of she National Development Plans do nat mention women; itis, therefore, no surprise that industrial policies, plans and programmes also do not consider women’s problems. However, the establistunent by His Majesty’s Government (Nepal) of a new Ministry of Wemen and Sociai Welfare is a positive step which should provide further impetus for women’s development programmes ix Nepal. 43.2 DonorfiNGO Assisted Programmes USA(D-assisted Grameen-styie NGO banks and savings essoclations provide capital for women enlzepreneurs. Tn addition, the Gramesn-style banking programmes focus on building the confidence of thai members. Frequent contact provides opportunities to reinforce health, sanitation and other development messages. USAID supplements these credit activities with business training and consuitancy services by established Nepali producers and marketing experts. Other donor agencies which are providing support for developing women entrepreneurship are ILO, UNDP, UNIFEM, Asian Development Bank and the Swiss Development Cooperation. Among the international NGOs which are supporting micro-credit projects for women, CECI, The Asia Foundation, Plan International and UMN (United Migsion of Nepal) are carrying out major empowerment-fornssed programmes. Credit programmes for uraan women have only recently been started within the Micro-Credit Project for Women. A US # 260 million credit project of the Asian Development Bank is underway, “with its programmes for urban as wellas rural wornen. In the urban areas, the project has implemented its first phase in Nepalguni, Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Pokhara and Dunue. In its second phase, it will include Bhaktapue and Dhankuta districts. Under this project, a loan amount of up to Rs. 250,000 ‘s provided for women starting small businesses. “This project ites alse arranged to provide loans though local non-governmental organizatiors. 4.3.3 Local NGO Interventions Among a large number of local NGOs who are committed to the enhancement of women’s status in Nepal, those particularly celaied to women entrepreneurship programmes are WEAN. 27ACP, Nirchan, CSD, CCODER, IIDS, JWDC and FEPWN. A brief description is provided of several NGOs in order to demonstrate the types of activities that ate currently underway for developing enkeprenewsship among women. 28 (a) Women ENTREPRENEURS’ AsSOGATION GF NEPAL (WEAN) “The Women Entrepreneurs’ Association of Nepal (WEAN) was formed in 1987 by a group of women entrepreneurs to network among themselves and to assist other women entrepreneurs through programmes designed for start-up as well as existing businesses, WEAN, the NGO, has spawned the WEAN Cooperative, a marketing outle: which handles the products of its members, It has a total of 105 members, many of whem are involved in handicraét production, as well as food processing and other agro-based prochucts. WEAN’s loan programme involves two diferent approaches. In the first they operate a small revolving furd for micro-enterprises (in the amount of 395,000 provided through the UNDP /ILO DWET Project). No collateval is requized and the typical client is the owner of a small hotel or restaufant. To date, forty women have been assisted. The second approach involves a 4-wack training programme, after which time the women must submit a business plan. Upon seviewing the business plan, WEAN may recommend the woman entrepreneur to the ADL/N which provides the loan guaranteed by [LO funds, Plans ace underway to become an affiliate of Women's World Banking which is based in New York. However, as WWE will only be providing the loan guarantee fand, other loan funds must be obtained prior to the implementation of this programme. Under WEAN’s agreement with IRIS, it is'aiso to provice business consulting services to women entrepreneurs, The sxscutive director can provide basic consulting services to women in the ares of marketing and accounting. Consulting in technical areas can also ‘be provided and in such cases consultants will be hired. WEAN can also mount a product exhibition to bring together women producers and potential buyecs Some of WEAN's major achievements are: () Helping establish Dhaka Weaves (P} Ltd., 2 new industry; (i) Organizing 9 diferent iraining programmes under the Entrepreneurship Development Training Programme (DTP), funded by USAID; ii) Conducting Micro Enterprise Creation (MEC) and Micro Enterprise Assistance (WEA) training at grassrocis level under the ILO/UNDP DWET Project (Developing Worren’s Entrepreneurship in Tourism); and Gv) Establishing WRAN Cooperative, its marketing unit, (b) Nieves Nirdhan sas founded in 1993, and it now has eight branches in three distviets. The mandate Of this NGO is te provide financial services to poor rural wornen using a methodology based directly on the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh. After groups are formed, training is provided, and needs assessments are performed. After an initial training perind the Group Recognition Test is given and members must show thet they understand all the rules of participation before they arc allowed to become membersco) Initial loans provided te women are for Rs. §,000 ($ 100). Second loans are Rs.10,000 ($200) and third leans can go up to Rs, 59,000 (1,000). To date twenty women have recetved. third loans. Of the loans that have been disbursed, approvimately 50% have been for wading activities. Another 49% have been for livestock, especially goats and buffalo, but only 1% have been for productive activitica, Many more would be interested in productive activities if they had the appropriate skills and if they had a market for their products. Nirdhan‘s branches have recently been formed inte cooperatives which have as their primary role at present the wholesele purchase of raw materials for members. They will also serve as merkeling coops for products produced by members and as a venicle through which technical support con be provided. All members of the branch are cooperative mambers There are a number of areas where the chaie of Nircihan sees need for development, such asin the need for aditionel staff tmining, particularly in financial management and basic organizational skills; skills taining in non-traditional activities for women (Le. something other than textiles) as there is already too much competition in the textle industry fom India); a need for support to the cooperatives that have not yet become strong: donors Providing guarantee funds to banks in order to leverage more money for on-lending to liens. AssociaTION 708 CRarT Frooucess (ACP) Registered in 1984, the ACP provides design, marketing, management and skills training, for low-income crafts people, primarily women, They work with 624 producers and have a staff of 6t persons. The ACP’s major objective is to bring women into the workforce. Their view is thet by taking on some of the risks of business they enable the poor to participate more easily in income-generating activities ACP deals with both individuals ard groups of producers, seme of whom work on a piece-rate basis at their homes, and some of whom work on an homty basis in-house. ‘The average daily rate peid to crafts people #s Rs. 52 ($1). Rural producer groups have their ‘own agents who represent them with the ACP. ACP has recnuited workers, bat more recently has found that meny women have come to them for work, In some cases NGOs working in the eural areas have put producer groups in contact with the ACP. ‘The ACP has initiated excellent benefits for its employees, Including a producers’ savings programme whereby some money is deducted from a waman’s earrings and deposited in a joint savings account; a producers’ welfare fundl 2 producers’ bonus equal to one month's earnings: an ACP-wide pienic; a fair price shop; a retirement fund; producer counselling, services; @ cafetetia; an education allowance for gicl children; informal education programmes, and work incentives based on menthly earnings ‘ACP has established itself as a viable commercial enterprise and Is able to completely fund is operations through revenues, although it dees use donor funds for specific projects. ‘Cucrently it has a grant from the Ford Foundation to procure computers which will allow it to computerize producer profiles 2930 {d) Centre 10 Seue-Hete Devetormenr (CSD) te) CSD is a non-profit NGO established in August 2991, CSD is implementing four projects, namely the Community Self-help Development project in fumla district the Community Developmant Programme in Kalikot district; the Environmental Awareness Action Research Project in Dang and Salyan districts, and the Self-help Banking Prograrame in Sepiari, Giraha and Udayapur districts. Services include organizing and conducting training programmes fo¢ NGOs as well as individuals. in September, 1993 CSD launched the Self-help Banking Programme (SBP) in several Tarai districts to provide basic credit and savings services. The programme wes initially funded with a loan of USS 30,000 from Grameen Trust for Bangladesh at two percent interest Additional cheap loan funds averaging six percent have been provided by Himalayan Bank Lid. Fund details are as follows: Grameen Trust of Bangladesh, Rs 28 ml (USS 50,000) Hirnalayan Bank Led. Rs, 26 mi (US$ 52,000) Rs, S.1 ml (US$ 102,000) CSD plans to borrow an additional Rs, 10 ml or (US$ 200,000 from Grameen Trust of Bangladesh to expand their operations within its eight districts. They also receive grant assistance from Churia Forestry Development Project, GTZ/Nepal, and CECI. Like Nirdhan, the C5D’s SBP is a near adaptation of the Grameen Bank of Bangladesh. Loans provided Uuough the SBP ars smaller than those provided by Nirdhan however. Credit is provided on joint liability of peer group members, without the need for collateral. Although the SBP was not originally established with the needs of women as its goal, SBP row works exclusively with women Cenmre ror ComMunrty DevetorMenr AND Rusearce (CCODER) CCODER was established as an NGO in 1990, It has implemented a model for participatory community development in the distriels of Gorkha, Lamjung, and Nuwakot. The project has three main emphases: education, organization and socio-economic development. This NGO like many others has mobilized savings groups. CCODER has helped the savings groups o become village banks, of which there are now 7 with @ combined savings of over Re. 500,00. Each bank is comprised of around 12 smaller groups, each of which includes around $0 villagers. Inttal loans provicled by the bank are between Rs. 1,000 end 5,000. The loans provided to the individuals are guaranteed, by the smaller group. The vision of CCODER is that these banks will one day be part of 4 system of barks ard thal each will be sustainable. An important service provided by CCODER has been to promote group enterprises. These have consisted of the following activities to date: fruit processing, medicinal herbs, tourism and dairying, Three dairy cooperatives have been set up to provide collection and processing, of milk. Members of the ccoperatives are shareholders who share the dividends ono @ 40-40-20 basis — 40% goes to individual shareholders, 40% to the savings groups. and 20% is reinvested in the cooperaive. JANAKPUR Women’s DeveLorMent Cenme (WDC) TWDC was initiated some six years ago through the efforts of an American woman, Claire Burkett, who brought together some of the women of the villages around Jenakpur and had them put their traditional wall designs on paper. [n 1990 the women held their first exhibition at the American Libzary in Kaihmandu, Then in 1991 with gremus from UNIFEM and Save the Children Japan the women began receiving training in a number of different areas, ine!uding printing, ceramics, sewing and weaving, At an carly stage, funding from UNDP was channelled through the Lion’s Club in Janakpur as the WDC was not yet an. NGO. This arrangement proved to be unsatisfactory as much of the money that was designated for the Contre never reached the women, The Lion's Club also sat up arbitrary rules and regulations for the women 10 follow and ultimately

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  De la Everand

  The Outsider: A Novel

  Stephen King

  Evaluare: 4 din 5 stele

  4/5 (1839)
• Brooklyn: A Novel

  

  De la Everand

  Brooklyn: A Novel

  Colm Toibin

  Evaluare: 3.5 din 5 stele

  3.5/5 (1937)
• The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  

  De la Everand

  The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  Viet Thanh Nguyen

  Evaluare: 4.5 din 5 stele

  4.5/5 (121)
• The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  

  De la Everand

  The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  M.L. Stedman

  Evaluare: 4.5 din 5 stele

  4.5/5 (789)
• The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  

  De la Everand

  The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  Garth Stein

  Evaluare: 4 din 5 stele

  4/5 (4200)
• Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  

  De la Everand

  Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  Jennifer Egan

  Evaluare: 3.5 din 5 stele

  3.5/5 (792)
• The Woman in Cabin 10

  

  De la Everand

  The Woman in Cabin 10

  Ruth Ware

  Evaluare: 3.5 din 5 stele

  3.5/5 (2322)
• The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  

  De la Everand

  The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  Stephen Chbosky

  Evaluare: 4.5 din 5 stele

  4.5/5 (2104)
• Wolf Hall: A Novel

  

  De la Everand

  Wolf Hall: A Novel

  Hilary Mantel

  Evaluare: 4 din 5 stele

  4/5 (3811)
• A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  

  De la Everand

  A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  Fredrik Backman

  Evaluare: 4.5 din 5 stele

  4.5/5 (4610)
• Little Women

  

  De la Everand

  Little Women

  Louisa May Alcott

  Evaluare: 4 din 5 stele

  4/5 (104)
• Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  

  De la Everand

  Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  Jesmyn Ward

  Evaluare: 4 din 5 stele

  4/5 (1103)
• A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  

  De la Everand

  A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  Betty Smith

  Evaluare: 4.5 din 5 stele

  4.5/5 (1929)
• Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  

  De la Everand

  Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  Carmen Maria Machado

  Evaluare: 4 din 5 stele

  4/5 (821)
• The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  

  De la Everand

  The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  John le Carré

  Evaluare: 3.5 din 5 stele

  3.5/5 (104)